Color Diagrams in PDF

Principles of
Electronic
Materials and
Devices
Second Edition

S. O. Kasap

© 2002 McGraw-Hill

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 L shell with
two subshells

Nucleus

1s
K 2s
L 2p

1s22s22p2 or [He]2s22p2

Fig. 1.1: The shell model of the atom in which the electrons are
confined to live within certain shells and in subshells within shells.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Stable orbit has radius ro

+e
v
ro

­e

Fig. 1.2: The planetary model of the hydrogen atom in which the
negatively charged electron orbits the positively charged nucleus.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 ro r=¥
Molecule

+ +
Separated atoms

Potential Energy, -H

Repulsion
Attraction

FA = Attractive force ER = Repulsive PE

FN = Net force E = Net PE
Force

ro
0 0 r
Interatomic separation, r ro
Eo
Repulsion

Attraction
FR = Repulsive force
EA = Attractive PE

(a) Force vs r (b) Potential energy vs r

Fig. 1.3: (a) Force vs interatomic separation and (b) Potential energy vs
interatomic separation.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 H-atom H-atom
Electron shell

1I 1I

Covalent bond

H-H Molecule
2 1

2 1

1 2
Fig. 1.4: Formation of a covalent bond between two H atoms leads
to the H2 molecule. Electrons spend majority of their time between
the two nuclei which results in a net attraction between the electrons
and the two nuclei which is the origin of the covalent bond .
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Covalent bond

H H H H

+ L shell + covalent
bonds
K shell
H H H H

(a) (b)

109.5°

H
H

H
H
(c)

Fig. 1.5: (a) Covalent bonding in methane, CH4, involves four

hydrogen atoms sharing electrons with one carbon atom. Each
covalent bond has two shared electrons. The four bonds are
identical and repel each other. (b) Schematic sketch of CH4 on
paper. (c) In three dimensions, due to symmetry, the bonds are
directed towards the corners of a tetrahedron.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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Fig. 1.6: The diamond crystal is a covalently bonded network of carbon
atoms. Each carbon atom is bonded covalently to four neighbors
forming a regular three dimensional pattern of atoms which constitutes
the diamond crystal.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Positive metal Free valence
ion cores electrons forming an
electron gas

Fig. 1.7: In metallic bonding the valence electrons from the metal
atoms form a "cloud of electrons" which fills the space between
the metal ions and "glues" the ions together through the coulombic
attraction between the electron gas and positive metal ions.
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 Cl
Na
3s 3s 3p

Closed K and L shells Closed K and L shells

(a)

Cl­ Cl­

Na+ Na+
.) .) 3p
3s

r ro

(b) (c)

Fig. 1.8: The formation of an ionic bond between Na and Cl atoms

in NaCl. The attraction is due to coulombic forces.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Na+ Cl­ Na+ Cl­ Na+ Cl­

Cl­ Na+ Cl­ Na+ Cl­ Na+

Na+ Cl­ Na+ Cl­ Na+ Cl­

Cl­ Na+ Cl­ Na+ Cl­ Na+

Na+ Cl­ Na+ Cl­ Na+ Cl­

Cl­ Na+ Cl­ Na+ Cl­ Na+

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.9: (a) A schematic illustration of a cross section from solid

NaCl. NaCl solid is made of Cl and Na+ ions arranged alternatingly
so that the oppositely charged ions are closest to each other and
attract each other. There are also repulsive forces between the like-
ions. In equilibrium the net force acting on any ion is zero. (b) Solid
NaCl.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Potential energy E(r), eV/(ion-pair)

6
­ r=¥ +
Cl Na

0.28 nm 1.5 eV
0 Separation, r
Cohesive energy

r=¥
Cl Na

­6
­6.3
­ +
Cl Na

ro = 0.28 nm

Fig. 1.10: Sketch of the potential energy per ion-pair in solid NaCl.
Zero energy corresponds to neutral Na and Cl atoms infinitely
separated.
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 Cl
H
) *

) *¢
= >

?

Fig. 1.11: (a) A permanently polarized molecule is called a an electric

dipole moment. (b)Dipoles can attract or repel each other depending
on their relative orientations. ?Suitably oriented dipoles attract each
other to form van der Waals bonds.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 H
O

H
(a) (b)

Fig. 1.12: The origin of van der Waals bonding between water
molecules. (a) The H2O molecule is polar and has a net permanent
dipole moment. (b) Attractions between the various dipole moments
in water gives rise to van der Waals bonding.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Time averaged electron (negative charge)
distribution
Closed L Shell

Ne

Instantaneous electron (negative charge)

Ionic core distribution fluctuates about the nucleus.
(Nucleus + K-shell)

A B
van der Waals force

Synchronized fluctuations
of the electrons

Fig. 1.13: Induced dipole-induced dipole interaction and the resulting

van der Waals force.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Solid
FN
Y µ dFN/dr

Attractive
F A F
Lo + dL
dFN
0 r

Repulsive
dr
ro
dFN dFN

=
>

Fig. 1.14: (a) Applied forces F strech the solid elastically from Lo to
d L . The force is divided amongst chains of atoms that make the
solid. Each chain carriers a force d FN. (b) In equilibrium, the
applied force is balanced by the net force d FN between the atoms
as a result of their increased separation.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Square Container

Area ) =
Face *

LO Face )

LN
Gas atoms =

Fig.1.15: The gas molecules in the container are in random motion.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 TRANSLATIONAL MOTION ROTATIONAL MOTION
Ix= 0

vx x
vz z
Iz

y
Iy

vy y axis out of paper

Fig. 1.16: Possible translational and rotational motions of a diatomic

molecule. Vibrational motions are neglected.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 (a)

(b)

Fig. 1.17 (a) The ball-and-spring model of solids in which the

springs represent the interatomic bonds. Each ball (atom) is linked
to its neighbors by springs. Atomic vibrations in a solid involve 3
dimensions. (b) An atom vibrating about its equilibrium position
stretches and compresses its springs to the neighbors and has both
kinetic and potential energy.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Energy
U(r) = PE

ro Interatomic separation, r
0

rav
Uo A¢ C¢
B¢ T2
B A C T1 KE
Umin = ­Uo
Umin

Fig. 1.18: The potential energy PE curve has a minimum when the
atoms in the solid attain the interatomic separation at r = ro. Due to
thermal energy, the atoms will be vibrating and will have vibrational
kinetic energy. At T = T1, the atoms will be vibrating in such a way
that the bond will be stretched and compressed by an amount
corresponding to the KE of the atoms. A pair of atoms will be
vibrating between B and C. Their average separation will be at A
and greater than ro.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 State A

State B, KE = 0,
E = UB

State A

State C, KE = 0,
E = UC

Fig. 1.19: Vibrations of atoms in the solid. We consider, for simplicity

a pair of atoms. Total energy is E = PE + KE and this is constant for
a pair of vibrating atoms executing simple harmonic motion. At B and
C, KE is zero (atoms are stationary and about to reverse direction of
oscillation) and PE is maximum.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Effusing gas atoms Velocity selector
Hot oven Collimating slits L
S1 G Detector
S2
Hole
M M

Rotating disks

Fig. 1.20: Schematic diagram of a Stern type experiment for determining

the distribution of molecular speeds.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 2.5
v*

Relative number of molecules

v av

per unit velocity (s/km)

2 vrms
298 K (25 °C)
1.5 v*
v av
vrms
1 1000 K (727 °C)

0.5

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Speed (m/s)

Fig. 1.21: Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of molecular speeds in

nitrogen gas at two temperatures. The ordinate is dN/(Ndv),the
fractional number of molecules per unit speed interval in (km/s)-1
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Number of atoms per unit energy, nE
Average KE at T1.

T1
Average KE at T2
T2 > T1

EA Energy, E

Fig. 1.22: Energy distribution of gas molecules at two different

temperatures. The number of molecules that have energies greater
than EA is the shaded area. This area depends strongly on the
temperature as exp( EA/kT).
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 SOLID
GAS

V
M v
m
Gas Atom

Fig. 1.23: Solid in equilibrium in air. During collisions between the

gas and solid atoms, kinetic energy is exchanged.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Equilibrium Compression Extension ,N
m ,N = 0

Compression
,N < 0
m

,N> 0
Extension
m

Fig.1.24: Fluctuations of a mass attached to a spring due to random

bombardment by air molecules
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 A B
A B

v=0V v = ­3 mV
Voltage, LJ
A B

Time
v = +5 mV

Fig.1.25: Random motion of conduction electrons in a conductor results

in electrical noise.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Current

Electron
LJ
Flow

4 + Time

Electron
Flow

Current

Fig.1.26: Charging and discharging of a capacitor by a conductor due

to the random thermal motions of the conduction electrons.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 U(X) = PE = mgh Unstable (Activated State)
Metastable

Stable
U
A*
E A*
A U
A
,U A
U
B
B

X
XA XA* XB
System Coordinate, X = Position of Center of Mass

Fig. 1.27: Tilting a filing cabinet from state A to its edge in state A*
requires an energy EA. After reaching A*, the cabinet
spontaneously drops to the stable position B. PE of state B is lower
than A and therefore state B is more stable than A.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 A A* B

U = PE(x)
UA*
A*
EA

UA= UB A B
X
Displacement

Fig. 1.28: Diffusion of an interstitial impurity atom in a crystal from

one void to a neighboring void. The impurity atom at position A
must posses an energy EA to push the host atoms away and move
into the neighboring void at B.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 O'
After N jumps

a
X
O
θ = 90° y

θ = 180° θ = 0° x

θ = 270°

Fig. 1.29: An impurity atom has four site choices for diffusion to
a neighboring interstitial vacancy. After N jumps, the impurity
atom would have been displaced from the original position at O.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 (a) FCC Unit Cell

24 =

= =

(b) (c)

Fig. 1.30: (a) The crystal structure of copper is Face Centered Cubic
(FCC). The atoms are positioned at well defined sites arranged periodically
and there is a long range order in the crystal. (b) An FCC unit cell with
closed packed spheres. (c) Reduced sphere representation of the FCC unit
cell. Examples: Ag, Al, Au, Ca, Cu, C-Fe (>912 C), Ni, Pd, Pt, Rh
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 a

a b
Examples: Alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb), Cr,
Mo, W, Mn, α-Fe (< 912°C), β-Ti (> 882°C).

Fig. 1.31: Body centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure. (a) A BCC
unit cell with closely packed hard spheres representing the Fe
atoms. (b) A reduced-sphere unit cell.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Layer B

Layer A
Layer B
Layer A
Layer A Layer A
(a) (b)

=
(c) (d)
Examples: Be, Mg, =-Ti ( < 882°C ), Cr, Co, Zn, Zr, Cd

Fig. 1.32: The Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) Crystal Structure.

(a) The Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) Structure. A collection of
many Zn atoms. Color difference distinguishes layers (stacks).
(b) The stacking sequence of closely packed layers is ABAB
(c) A unit cell with reduced spheres (d) The smallest unit cell with
reduced spheres.
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 +

=
=

Fig. 1.33: The diamond unit cell is cubic. The cell has eight atoms.
Grey Sn (= Sn) and the elemental semiconductors Ge and Si have
this crystal structure.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 S

=
Zn

=
=

Fig. 1.34: The Zinc blende (ZnS) cubic crystal structure. Many
important compound crystals have the zinc blende structure.
Examples: AlAs, GaAs, GaP, GaSb, InAs, InP, InSb, ZnS, ZnTe.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Ratio of radii = 1 Ratio of radii = 0.75

25¢

1¢ 1¢

Nearest neighbors = 6 Nearest neighbors = 4

25¢

1¢ Unit cell

A two-dimensional crystal of pennies and quarters

Fig. 1.35: Packing of coins on a table top to build a two dimensional

crystal.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 ­
Cl
+
Na

Fig. 1.36: A possible reduced sphere unit cell for the NaCl (rock salt)
crystal. An alternative unit cell may have Na+ and Cl interchanged.
Examples: AgCl, CaO, CsF, LiF, LiCl, NaF, NaCl, KF, KCl, MgO
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 ­
Cl
+
Cs

Fig. 1.37: A possible reduced sphere unit cell for the CsCl crystal.
An alternative unit cell may have Cs+ and Cl interchanged.
Examples: CsCl, CsBr, CsI, TlCl, TlBr, TlI.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 1/ th of an atom
8

4 Half of an atom

= 24

4 =

Fig. 1.38: The FCC unit cell. The atomic radius is 4 and the lattice
parameter is =
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 z
Unit Cell Geometry z
c Unit cell

zo P [121]
c > = c
O b y xo yo y
C a
a a
b x b
x
(a) A parallelepiped is chosen to describe geometry of (b) Identification of a direction in a crystal
a unit cell. We line the x, y and z axes with the edges of
the parallelepiped taking lower-left rear corner as the
origin

[001]
[111]

[010] ­a
[010] ­y y
a
[110] x
[100] [110]
[111] [111]
[111]
[111]
(c) Directions in cubic crystal system

[111]

[111] [111] [111] Family of <111> directions

Fig. 1.39
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 z
z intercept at ¥
b
Miller Indices (hkl ) :
1 1 1 (210)
c 1 1 ¥
x intercept at a/2 2

y
a
x Unit cell y intercept at b

(a) Identification of a plane in a crystal

z z (010) (010)
(010) (010)
(010)
y
y
x x
(001) (110)

(100)
z
z (111)
(110) (111)

y
­y
y x
x
­z
(b) Various planes in the cubic lattice

Fig. 1.40: Labelling of crystal planes and typical examples in the

cubic lattice
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 z
FCC Unit cell (012)

y = ­a
z = 1/2a
a y
O¢

x
(a) (012) plane

aÖ 2
a

a a A = a2Ö 2
A = a2

(b) (100) plane (c) (110) plane

Fig. 1.41: The (012) plane and planar concentrations in an FCC crystal.
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 Covalently bonded layer

Cubic crystal Layers bonded by van der Waals

bonding
Covalently bonded Covalently bonded
network of atoms layer

Hexagonal unit cell

(a) Diamond unit cell (b) Graphite

The FCC unit cell of the Buckminsterfullerene (C60) molecule (the

Buckminsterfullerene crystal. Each "buckyball" molecule)
lattice point has a C60 molecule

(c) Buckminsterfullerene

Fig. 1.42: The three allotropes of carbon.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 (a) Perfect crystal without (b) An energetic atom at the surface breaks
vacancies bonds and jumps on to a new adjoining position
on the surface. This leaves behind a vacancy.

(c) An atom in the bulk diffuses

(d) Atomic diffusions cause the vacancy to
to fill the vacancy thereby
diffuse into the bulk.
displacing the vacancy towards
the bulk.

Fig. 1.43: Generation of a vacancy by the diffusion of an atom to the

surface and the subsequent diffusion of the vacancy into the bulk.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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(a) A vacancy in the crystal. (b) A substitutional impurity in the crystal. The
impurity atom is larger than the host atom.

(c) A substitutional impurity in (d) An interstitial impurity in the crystal. It

the crystal. The impurity atom occupies an empty space between host atoms.
is smaller than the host atom.

Fig. 1.44: Point defects in the crystal structure. The regions around
the point defect become distorted; the lattice becomes strained.
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 Schottky defect

Frenkel defect

(a) Schottky and Frenkel defects in an ionic crystal.

Substitutional impurity.
Doubly charged

(b) Two possible imperfections caused by ionized

substitutional impurity atoms in an ionic crystal.

Fig. 1.45: Point defects in ionic crystals

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 Edge dislocation line
(a) Dislocation is a line defect. The dislocation shown runs into the paper.

Compression
Tension

(b) Around the dislocation there is a strain field as the atomic bonds have
been compressed above and stretched below the islocation line

Fig. 1.46: Dislocation in a crystal is a line defect which is accompanied

by lattice distortion and hence a lattice strain around it.
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 )
+
,

Dislocation line

(a) A screw dislocation in a crystal.

Dislocation ) *
line

Atoms in the Atoms in the

lower portion. upper portion.

, +
(b) The screw dislocation in (a) as viewed from above.

Fig. 1.47: A screw dislocation involves shearing one portion of a perfect

crystal with respect to another portion on one side of a line (AB).
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 Dislocation line

Fig. 1.48: A mixed dislocation.

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 New molecule

Fig. 1.49: Screw dislocation aids Growth spiral on the surface of a

crystal growth because the newly polypropylene crystal due to screw
arriving atom can attach to two or dislocation aided crystal growth.
(SOURCE: Photo by Phillip Geil, Courtesy of
three atoms instead of one atom and Case Western Reserve University.)
thereby form more bonds.
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 Nuclei Crystallite

Liquid

(a) (b)

Grain
Grain boundary

(c)

Fig. 1.50: Solidification of a polycrystalline solid from the melt.

(a) Nucleation. (b) Growth. (c) The solidified polycrystalline solid.
For simplicity, cubes represent atoms.
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 Foreign impurity
Self-interstitial type atom
Void, vacancy
Strained bond

Grain boundary
Broken bond (dangling
bond)

Fig. 1.51: The grain boundaries have broken bonds, voids, vacancies,
strained bonds and "interstitial" type atoms. The structure of the grain
boundary is disordered and the atoms in the grain boundaries have higher
energies than those within the grains.
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 H2O
Reconstructed Absorbed
Dangling bond surface Oxygen
H H2
O
Surface
Surface atoms

Bulk crystal

Fig. 1.52: At the surface of a hypothetical two dimensional crystal, the

atoms cannot fulfill their bonding requirements and therefore have
broken, or dangling, bonds. Some of the surface atoms bond with each
other; the surface becomes reconstructed. The surface can have
physisorbed and chemisorbed atoms.
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 Edge
Step
Atom on
Hole
surface Crevice

Corner
Screw
dislocation

Fig. 1.53: Typically a crystal surface has many types of imperfections

such as steps, ledges, kinks, crevices, holes and dislocations.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 (a) Stoichiometric ZnO crystal with equal number of
anions and cations and no free electrons.

O2­
Zn2+
"Free" (or mobile)
electron within the
crystal.

(b) Non-Stoichiometric ZnO crystal with excess Zn in

interstitial sites as Zn2+ cations.

Fig. 1.54: Stoichiometry and nonstoichiometry and the resulting

defect structure.
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 Pull shaft

Inert gas in Rotation

Seed
(a) Quartz Growing Crystal
container Crystal Si
Quartz Ingot
crucible
Molten RF induction
Si coil to heat
Graphite graphite
susceptor susceptor

Inert gas out

(100)
Flat
Plane
Single crystal Si ingot (about 2 m)
Cut wafer
(b)
Ground edge or flat [100]
Direction

Fig. 1.55: (a) The schematic illustration of the growth of a single crystal
Si ingot by the Czochralski technique. (b) The crystallographic
orientation of the silicon ingot is marked by grounding a flat. The ingot
can be as long as 2 m. Wafers are cut using a rotating annular diamond
saw. Typical wafer thickness is 0.6-0.7mm
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 Silicon (or Arsenic) atom
Oxygen (or Selenium) atom

(a) A crystalline solid reminiscent to (b) An amorphous solid reminiscent

crystalline SiO2.(Density = 2.6 g cm-3) to vitreous silica (SiO2) cooled from
the melt (Density = 2.2 g cm-3 )

Fig. 1.56: Crystalline and amorphous structures illustrated schematically

in two dimensions.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Inert gas pressure

Quartz tube

Molten alloy
Heater coil

Jet of molten metal

Melt spinning invloves squirting a jet

Ribbon of of molten metal onto a rotating cool
glassy metal metal drum. The molten jet is
instantly solidified into a glassy metal
ribbon which is a few microns in
Rotating cooled thickness. The process produces
metal drum roughly one to two kilometers of
ribbon per minute.

|SOURCE: Photo courtesy of the Estate of

Fritz Goro.

Fig. 1.57: It is possible to rapidly quench a molten metallic alloy and

thereby bypass crystallization and form a glassy metal commonly called a
metallic glass. The process is called melt spinning.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Dangling
bond

(a) Two dimensional schematic (b) Two dimensional schematic

representation of a silicon crystal representation of the structure of amorphous
silicon. The structure has voids and dangling
bonds and there is no long range order.

H
H
(c) Two dimensional schematic representation
H
H of the structure of hydrogenated amorphous
silicon. The number of hydrogen atoms shown
is exaggerated.
H
H

Fig. 1.58: Silicon can be grown as a semiconductor crystal or as an

amorphous semiconductor film. Each line represents an electron in a
bond. A full covalent bond has two lines and a broken bond has one line.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Heated substrate Deposition
chamber
a-Si film
Evaporated Si atoms Electron beam
guided by a
magnetic field
VACUUM
Silicon for
deposition
Electron gun

Crucible

VACUUM
PUMP

Fig. 1.59: Amorphous silicon, a-Si, can be prepared by an electron

beam evaporation of silicon. Silicon has a high melting temperature
so that an energetic electron beam is used to melt the crystal in the
crucible locally and thereby vaporize Si atoms. Si atoms condense
on a substrate placed above the crucible to form a film of a-Si.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Electrode
Heated substrate
a-Si:H film

Plasma
Silane
gas CVD Chamber
Electrode
(SiH4)
Vacuum

RF Power
Vacuum Generator
Pump

Fig. 1.60: Hydrogenated amorphous silicon, a-Si:H, is generally

prepared by the decomposition of silane molecules in a radio
frequency (RF) plasma discharge. Si and H atoms condense on
a substrate to form a film of a-Si:H.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
 (a) Disordered Substitutional (b) Ordered Substitutional Solid
Solid Solution. Example: Cu-Ni Solution. Example: Cu-Zn alloy
alloys ({100} planes) of composition 50%Cu-50%Zn.
({110} planes).

(c) Interstitial Solid Solution.

Example: Small number of C
atoms in FCC Fe (austenite).
({100} planes)

Fig. 1.61: Solid solutions can be disordered substitutional, ordered

substitutional and interstitial substitutional. There is only one phase
within the alloy which has the same composition, structure and
properties everywhere.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
 Pure Cu 80%Cu-20%Ni
1500 Liquid

1400 Solid

TEMPERATURE (°C)
Liquid Formation of first solid
1300
L20
1200 1195 °C
Heterogeneous mixture
L0 1130 °C S20 of liquid and solid.
1100
1083 °C S0
1000 Solid
Crystal grains
Time
(a)

1500 L100
LIQUID S100
TEMPERATURE (°C)

1400
I D US
U ID
1300 L I Q SOL
L20 + S
U ID IDU
1200 Q L
LI SO
1100 S20
L0 SOLID
S0
1000
0 20 40 60 80 100
Ni Content (wt.%)
Pure Cu Pure Ni
(b)

Fig. 1.62: Solidification of an isomorphous alloy such as Cu-Ni.

(a) Typical cooling curves. (b) The phase diagram marking the
regions of existence for the phases.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
 LIQUID
L(20%Ni) Liquid

S
1300 L

DU
0

UI
Q
LI

TEMPERATURE (°C)
S
DU
S(36%Ni)

LI
SO
L(20%Ni) 1200 L
1 S
1
L X
2
S
L 2
S(28%Ni) 3
S
3 SOLID
L(13%Ni) (=-PHASE)
1100

S
S(20%Ni) 4

1000
0 20 40 60
wt.% Ni
Pure Cu C0

Fig. 1.63: Cooling of a 80%Cu-20%Ni alloy from the melt to the

solid state.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Last solidification
(S3) Ni defficient

First
solidification
(S1) Ni rich
Grain boundary

Fig. 1.64: Segregation in a grain due to rapid cooling (non-

equilibrium cooling)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
 Temperature
LIQUID
1412°C CL
TB C L'
B LIQ
TB' UID
B' US
L+S

SOL
IDU
S
SOLID

CB CB' C0 Impurity content

Fig. 1.65: The phase diagram of Si with impurities near the low
concentration region.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
 0-)6

Impurity concentration
Melt
Direction of travel
Zone refined region

C0 Impure C0
B A
Solid
CB'
Purified CB
region x

(a) Heat is applied locally starting at one (c) The impurity concentration profile in the
end. The impurity concentration in the re- refrozen solid after one pass.
frozen solid at B is CB < C0. The impurity
concentration in the melt is CL' > C0.

Impurity concentration
C0

C0 Impure
B' A'
Solid
Zone refined region
C0
(b) As the torch travels towards the 106 x
right, the refrozen solid at B' has CB'
where CB < CB' < C0. The impurity (d) Typical impurity concentration profile
after many passes.
concentration in the melt is now even
greater than CL'

Fig. 1.66: The principle of zone refining

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 S
Brine

VU
Brine
TEMPERATURE

L
Salt

SO
Brine Brine + Salt

X1 Xs X3 Wt.% Salt

Fig. 1.67: We can only dissolve so much salt in brine (solution of

salt in water). Eventually we reach the solubility limit at Xs which
depends on the temperature. If we add more salt then the excess
salt does not dissolve and coexists with the brine. Past Xs we
have two phases, brine (solution) and salt (solid).
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
 400
L
L
A
M LIQUID
300
= N LIQ
O UI
L
Temperature (oC)

DU

SOL
S S B
=+ L IDU

IDU
LIQU
= L+>

S
= 200 C SOLIDUS E SOLIDUS D SOLIDUS
P 19.2% 183°C 61.9% 97.5%
>
Q Q'
VUS

SOLVUS
= 100 a+b
SOL

>

R' R R''

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Pure Pb Composition in wt.% Sn Pure Sn

Fig. 1.68: The equilibrium phase diagram of the Pb-Sn alloy. The
microstructures on the left show the observations at various points
during the cooling of a 90%Pb-10%Sn from the melt along the dashed
line (the overall alloy composition remains constant at 10 %Sn)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
 400
L (61.9%Sn)
L L L
A
L IQ LIQUID
300
UI

SOL
Temperature (oC)
α DU L (61.9%Sn)
S

IDU
M US B
Eutectic
L α α+L U ID
N L I Q

S
200 C O E L+β D SOLIDUS
Eutectic
L (61.9%Sn) P
183°C
F
61.9% β
α (19%Sn)

SOLVUS
V US
Eutectic
100 SOL α+β α (light)
Primary α
Eutectic and β (dark)
Q G
0
Pb 20 40 60 80 Sn
Composition in wt.% Sn
T Cooling of a 60%Pb- Cooling of 38.1%Pb-
T
40%Sn alloy 61.9%Sn alloy
L
L+α L
M
235°C N O L+β+α L + Eutectic solid (β+α)
P
183°C β+α 183 °C
E F
Q Eutectic solid (β+α)
t G
t

Fig. 1.69: The alloy with the eutectic composition cools like a pure
element exhibiting a single solidification temperature at 183°C. The
solid has the special eutectic structure. The alloy with the
composition 60%Pb-40%Sn when solidified is a mixture of primary α
and eutectic solid.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
 Lattice Crystal

Basis

=
90°
=
Unit cell Unit cell
= > ?

Basis placement in unit cell

(0,0)
@
O
(1/2,1/2)

Fig. 1.70: (a) A simple square lattice. The unit cell is a square with a
side=. (b) Basis has two atoms. (c) Crystal = Lattice + Basis. The
unit cell is a simple square with two atoms. (d) Placement of basis
atoms in the crystal unit cell.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
 UNIT CELL GEOMETRY

CUBIC SYSTEM
= = > = ?a = b = g = 90°

Many metals, Al, Cu, Fe, Pb. Many ceramics and

semiconductors, NaCl, CsCl, LiF, Si, GaAs
Simple cubic Body centered Face centered
cubic cubic
TETRAGONAL SYSTEM
= = > ¹ ? a = b = g = 90°
Simple Body centered
In, Sn, Barium Titanate, TiO2 tetragonal tetragonal

ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM
= ¹ > ¹ ? a = b = g = 90°

S, U, Pl, Ga (<30°C), Iodine, Cementite

(Fe3C), Sodium Sulfate

Simple Body centered Base centered Face centered

orthorhombic orthorhombic orthorhombic orthorhombic

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM RHOMBOHEDRAL SYSTEM

= = > ¹ ? a = b = 90° ; g = 120° = = > = ? a = b = g ¹ 90°

Cadmium, Magnesium, Zinc, Arsenic, Boron, Bismuth, Antimony, Mercury

Graphite (<­39°C)
Hexagonal
Rhombohedral

MONOCLINIC SYSTEM TRICLINIC SYSTEM

= ¹ > ¹ ?a = b = 90° ; g ¹ 90° =¹>¹?a ¹ b ¹ g ¹ 90°

a-Selenium, Phosphorus Potassium dicromate

Lithium Sulfate
Tin Fluoride Simple Base centered Triclinic
monoclinic monoclinic

Fig. 1.71: The seven crystal systems (unit cell geometries) and fourteen
Bravais lattices.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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