MEMORY AND DISPLAY SYATEM

COMPUTER MEMORY:
Computer memory Computer memory device that is used to store data or programs
(sequences of instructions) on a temporary or permanent basis for use in an electronic digital
computer.
Computers represent information in binary code, written as sequences of 0s and 1s. Each
binary digit or ‘bit’ may be stored by any physical system that can be in either of two stable
states, to represent 0 and 1. Such a system is called bistable. This could be an on-off switch,
an
electrical capacitor that can store or lose a charge, a magnet with its polarity up or down, or a
surface that can have a pit or not.
Memory devices are digital system that store data either temporarily or for a long term.
Digital
computers to hard disk have built in memory devices that can store data of user or
manufacturers. The data either be in the form of control programs or programs that boot the
system. Hence, to store such huge amount of data the memory devices must have enormous
capacity. The challenge is to build memory devices that have large capacity but cost effective.
The memory devices must be capable of storing both permanent data and instantaneous data.
In order to achieve greater density of data storage and faster access to information, more
components are deliberately packed onto a single chip. The size of transistors has decreased
from 130 nm in the year 2000 to 32 nm at present. Silicon- based semiconductor devices
become less stable below 22 nm reducing their reliability to store and read individual bits of
information. Reduction in size of transistor below certain level increases power consumption
and results in unwanted heat generation.
Phase change memory (PCM), and Organic/polymer memory devices have shown the
potential
to be the new data storage technologies. Among them organic/polymer memory devices have
evinced more interest due to their advantageous properties. The advantages of organic and
polymer electronic memory devices are:

 They can be processed easily.

 Structure of the molecule used can be designed through chemical synthesis

 Device structure is very simple.

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 Dimension of the device can be decreased (miniaturized)

 Cost of production is less.

 Power consumption during operation is low.

 They exhibit multiple state properties.

 3D stacking capability

 Data storage capacity can increased to very large value.

BESIC CONCEPT OF ELECTRONIC MEMORY:

An electronic memory device is a form of semiconductor storage which is fast in response and
compact in size, and can be read and written when coupled with a central processing unit .
For a material to show memory effect, the main essential requirements are:
 The individual memory cells, must possess at least two stable states. In silicon- based
electronic memory devices used today, data are stored based on the amount of charge
stored in the memory cells. Memory cells exhibit two charge states which are coded as
"O" and "1".
 These states must be stable for a period appropriate for the data storage.
 They can be switched between two states by an external stimulus. This is called as the
writing process.

The states can be distinguished by applying a further external signal. This called as the reading
process. New organic/polymeric materials exhibit two electrical stable states known as
electrical bi-stability. They shift from one state (ON) to other state (OFF) when an
external electric field is applied. In these devices, information is stored and retrieved by
encoding these two states. Therefore, these chemical materials store information in the form of
change in their properties under applied electric field.
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HISTORY OF ORGANIC/ POLYMER ELECTRONIC MEMORY DEVICE:

1. During 1968-70, bistable electrical conductivity and resistivity phenomenon was
observed in Pb/poly-divinyl benzene, tetracene, phthalocyanines and polystyrene
polymer materials. All these materials showed bistable switching and memory
switching effects. But, the performance was not satisfactory for practical applications.

2. During same period, controlled polymer chain ordering and disordering with respect
to electric field was discovered in polymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene, poly-ethyl-
methacrylate and poly-butyl-methacrylate polymer films.

3. In 1980s, two stable ferroelectric polarization states was discovered in polymers. Thin
films of ferroelectric polymer materials can be repeatedly switched between two stable,
and are capable of exhibiting non-volatile memory effects. But they required very high
operating voltage of 30 V.

4. In 1995, ferroelectric polymer films as thin as 1 nm were fabricated. These required

just 1 V to switch between two states. Since, then Polymer ferro-electric random access
memory (FeRAM) was developed as a promising memory technology.

5. In 2001, an organic field- effect transistors (OFETs) memory device was demonstrated
using a sexithiophene oligomer as the conductor and a ferroelectric organic polymer
material as gate insulator.

6. 2003, a WORM type memory device was developed consisting of a thin film p-i-n
silicon diode and a mixture of two conductive polymers, poly (ethylene dioxythiophene
and poly (styrene sulfonic acid).

7. During same time, bistable electrical switching and memory effect was discovered in
involving charge transfer (CT) complexes with an electron donor and an electron
acceptor.

8. Cu, Gold, Carbon Nano Tube were used as electron acceptors. 8-hydroxyquinoline
(8H@), tetrathiafulvalene (TTF), polyaniline (PANI), poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT),
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were used as electron donors. These were used in several polymer electronic memory
devices, including flash memory, WORM memory and DRAM.

9. In 2004, ultrathin film organic materials were discovered with multilevel conductivity
states. Poly [2-methoxy-5-(2-ethyl-hexyloxy). 1, 4-phenylene vinylene polymer
showed one low- and three high-conducting states. All four accessible states have
associated memory effects for data-storage applications. In order to achieve ultrahigh
density memory devices, organic materials with multilevel stable states are highly
desirable.

10. In 2005, multilevel conductance switching films with a continuum of conductance

states was reported in ITO/MEH-PPV/Al device with poly[2-methoxy-5-(2-ethyl-
hexyloxy). 1, 4-phenylene vinylene] (MEH-PPV) films.

11. Devices demonstrating multi stability where more than two conducting states can be
programmed into a single switching element will dramatically increase the amount of
data stored per area or volume. Further progress in the development of multilevel
organic polymer memory has been made in recent years.

12. The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (IRS) has identified
polymer memory as an emerging memory technology since the year 2005.

Memory devices receive and record digital information. They are core components of
computers and electronic systems. Electrical memory devices can be classified into two
categories based on their need of power: When power is off, volatile memory loses the stored
data, while data in non-volatile memory retains. Non-volatile memory devices can be further
classified into four types such as
Classification of electronic memory devices
1. Transistor type electronic memory device
2. Capacitor type electronic memory device
3. Resistor type electronic memory device
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4. Charge transfer type electronic memory device

1. Transistor type electronic memory device:
In order to store data in a memory device it must have minimum two distinct electronic states.
These states are assigned as 0 and 1 or OFF and ON respectively. It contains a fine electronic
circuit, including a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor transistor and capacitor. In this
electronic circuit 0 and 1 corresponds to the discharges and charged states of the Capacitor
respectively. Inorganic transistors are widely used in conventional semiconductor memory.
Organic (including polymer) transistors are also of great potential for memory applications.
Inorganic transistors are widely used in conventional semiconductor memory. Organic
(including polymer) transistors are also of great potential for memory applications.
2. Capacitor type electronic memory device
Organic and polymeric ferroelectric materials can be used in capacitor- type electronic memory
device. Capacitors have two parallel plate electrodes and charges are stored in these electrodes
under an applied electric field. Bistable states of capacitor is based on the amount of charge
stored in the cell. Data can be stored in these devices based on different charge stored in the
cell. Charges stored in the cell maintain electric polarization that can be switched between two
stable states by an external electric field.
3. Resistor type electronic memory device
It does not require a specific cell structure (e.g. FET) or to be integrated with the CMOS
(complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) technology. This type of memory device uses
switchable resistive response to an applied voltage (electric field). Electrical bi-stability arises
in these materials due to different electrical resistivity which are assigned ON and OFF
states. Electrical bi-stability usually arises from changes in the intrinsic properties of materials,
such as charge transfer, phase change, conformation change and reduction–oxidation (redox)
reaction, in response to an applied voltage or electric field.
4. Charge transfer type electronic memory Device
This type of electronic device is based on the charge transfer effects of a charge transfer
complex. A charge transfer (CT) complex is defined as an electron donor–acceptor (D–A)
complex, characterized by an electronic transition to an excited state in which a partial transfer
of charge occurs from the donor moiety to the acceptor moiety. The conductivity of a CT
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complex is dependent on the ionic binding (not all cases) between the D–A components. In CT
complex a partial transfer of charges occurs from donor part to the acceptor part. This results
in difference in conductivity. CT complexes exhibit bistable states due to difference in
conductivity. This behaviour used to design molecular electronic devices. The formation of a
conductive CT complex can be employed to design molecular electronic devices. Many organic
CT systems, including organometallic complexes, carbon allotrope (fullerene, carbon
nanotubes and graphene)-based polymer complexes, gold nanoparticle–polymer. complexes,
and single polymers with intra-molecular D–A structures have been explored for memory
applications.
Classification of electronic memory

The basic goal of a memory device is to provide a means for storing and accessing binary
digital data sequences of “1’s” and “0’s”, as one of the core functions (primary storage) of
modern computers. According to the storage type of the device, electronic memory can be
divided into two primary categories: 1. Volatile and
2. Non-volatile memory.
NOTE: Volatile memory eventually loses the stored information unless it is provided with a
constant power supply or refreshed periodically with a pulse. The most widely used form of
primary storage today is volatile memory.
Volatile memory
1.RAM (Random Access Memory): It is a volatile memory. Volatile memory Stores in
formation based on the power supply. If the power supply fails/ interrupted/stopped, all the data
& information on this memory will be lost. RAM is used for booting up orstart the computer.
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It temporarily stores programs/data which has to be executed by the processor. RAM requires
the stored information to be periodically read and re-written, or refreshed, otherwise the data
will be lost.
(a) D RAM (Dynamic random access memory): It is a type of volatile random access
memory that stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. It uses
capacitors stores the data as a charge on the capacitors. Since real-world capacitors have
charge-leaking tendencies, the stored data eventually fade unless the device is refreshed
periodically. Because of this periodical refresh requirement, it is a volatile and dynamic
memory. This memory is slower than S RAM.

(b) S RAM (Static random access memory):

It is another type of volatile memory. It uses transistors and the circuits of this memory are
capable of retaining their state as long as the power is applied. This memory consists of the
number of flip flops with each flip flop storing 1 bit. It has less access time and hence, it is
faster. S RAM is faster and more reliable than the more common D RAM. Due to its high cost,
S RAM is often used only as a memory cache.
Non-volatile memory
1. ROM (Read Only Memory) is factory programmable only; data is physically
encoded in the circuit and cannot be programmed after fabrication. It is a non-volatile memory.
Non-volatile memory stores information even when there is a power supply failed/
interrupted/ stopped. ROM is used to store information that is used to operate the system. As
its name refers to readonly memory, we can only read the programs and data that is stored on
it.It contains some electronic fuses that can be programmed for a piece of specific information.
The information stored in the ROM in binary format. It is also known as permanent memory.

ROM is of four types:

MROM (masked read only memory): Hard-wired devices with a pre-programmed collection
of data or instructions were the first ROMs. Masked ROMs are a type of low-cost ROM that
works in this way.
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PROM (programmable read only memory): This read-only memory is modifiable once by the
user. The user purchases a blank PROM and uses a PROM program to put the required contents
into the PROM. Its content can’t be erased once written.

EPROM (erasable programmable read only memory): It is an extension to PROM where you
can erase the content of ROM by exposing it to Ultraviolet rays for nearly 40 minutes.

WORM (write-once read-many): It is a data storage technology that allows data to be written
to a storage medium a single time and prevents the data from being erased or modified. Storage
media that support WORM storage are purposely non-rewritable to prevent anyone from
intentionally or accidently erasing or modifying the data after it is initially stored. Because of
this feature, government agencies and enterprises have long used WORM devices for archival
purposes. A WORM memory device can be used to store archival standards, databases and
other massive data where information has to be reliably preserved for a long period of time.
Conventional CD-Rs, DVDRs or programmable read- only-memory (PROM) devices are
example of WORM memory.

Hybrid memory allows data to be read and re-written at any time.

EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read only memory): Here the written contents
can be erased electrically. You can delete and reprogramme EEPROM up to 10,000 times.
Erasing and programming take very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -10 ms (milliseconds). Any area
in an EEPROM can be wiped and programmed selectively. Flash memory, also known as flash
storage, is a type of non-volatile memory that erases data in units called blocks and rewrites
data at the byte level.
Flash memory is widely used for storage and data transfer in consumerdevices, enterprise
systems and industrial applications. Due to its non-volatility, no power is needed to maintain
the information stored in flash memory.
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Types of organic memory materials

There are three classes of materials which can exhibit bistable states and are used in organic
memory devices.

They are: 1) Organic molecules.

2) Polymeric materials.
3) Organic- inorganic hybrid materials.
1. Organic molecules: There are different category of organic molecules which show bistable
or multi stable states when external field is applied. When a threshold voltage is applied they
undergo a transition from the OFF state to the ON state, or from the ON state to the OFF state.
Few of them are mentioned here.
Acene derivatives: These are the polycyclic aromatic compounds consisting of linearly fused
benzene rings. These are the very first discovered organic memory devices because of their
high charge carrier mobility.
Ex: acenes are pentacene, perfluoropentacene, naphthalene, anthracene, tetracene. The most
important member of the acene family is pentacene. It is a linearly-fused aromatic compound
with five benzene rings. It can be obtained in crystal and thin film form. Both forms exhibits a
very good hole mobility and hence it behaves as a p-type semiconductor.

When all the hydrogen atoms of pentacene are replaced by fluorine atoms the resulting
molecules is perfluoropentacene. Strongly electron withdrawing nature of fluorine atoms
converts this molecule in to n-type semiconductor.
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Pentacene and Perfluoropentacene, both have similar structure and similar crystal packing but
former behaves as p-type semiconductor and latter behaves as an n-type semiconductor.
Therefore, these molecules together exhibit charge-transfer processes that are useful for
memory applications.

2.Polymeric molecule: There are five classes of polymers which exhibit memory effect and
are used in electronic memory devices.
(a) Functional polyimides (PIs): These are one of the most commonly used polymeric

materials for organic electrical memory applications. They have high thermal stability and

mechanical strength and can be easily processed from solution. In functional PIs,

phthalimide acts as the electron acceptor, and triphenylamine acts as an electron donor to

form a Donor-Acceptor structure. They exhibit two stable charge states under applied

electric field. These states arise due to transfer of electrons from donor to acceptor. This

bi-stability is used to store data in memory device.

(b) Non conjugated polymer with pendent: Non conjugated polymers with
pendent electroactive donors and acceptors are another kind of polymer materials which
exhibits electronic memory effect. D-A random copolymer containing pendent electron
donation TPA (triphenyl amine) and electron accepting 1,3,4-oxadiazole units were used for
memory device application. Used in SRAM and DRAM

(c) Conjugated Polymers

Conjugated polymers are rich in pi electrons and they can be made to show charge states
by incorporating electron acceptor groups in their back bone. This induced charge transfer
channel determines volatility of the memory device. D-A type conjugated polymers are
used to fabricate different types of memory device, such as volatile DRAM and SRAM
devices, and non-volatile WORM and Flash devices.

(d)Polymers with fullerenes/graphene and metal complexes

Fullerenes, graphene and their derivatives have good optoelectronic properties. The polymer
containing carbazole group is combined with fullerene serves as the electron donor and C60
serves as the electron acceptor species. The fabricated ITO/Polymer-C60/Al device exhibited
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non-volatile rewritable memory behaviour.

Transition-metal complexes exhibits reversible redox properties. When these are introduced
into polymer backbones, the can improve the stability of conductive states. Ferrocene (Fe) is
the commonly used metal complex. It exhibits non-volatile memory when introduced in to
polymer.

3. Organic-inorganic hybrid materials :

Organic-inorganic hybrid materials are composed of organic layers containing inorganic
materials. There are two types such as
(a)Organic-carbon allotrope hybrid materials:
Polymers containing electron donors, such as thiophene, fluorene, carbazole and aniline
derivatives can be combined with Fullerenes to obtain a charge transfer hybrid material with
donor-acceptor ability and electrical bistable states Fullerenes exhibit high electron-
withdrawing ability, and can capture up to six electrons. They are used in WORM memory
effect devices.
(b)Organic-inorganic nano composites:
These are the hybrid electronic memory devices in which organic polymer with appropriate
functional group is clubbed with metal nanoparticles, quantum dots and metal oxide
nanoparticles. An example is a composite of 8-hydroxyquinoline containing polymer with gold
nanoparticle sandwiched between two electrodes. Bistable electronic transition states are
observed when an electric field is applied due to charge transfer between the Au nanoparticles
and 8-hydroxy quinoline.

DISPLAY SYSTEMS
Display: Display is an output device used to present visual information.
Display System: ‘ A system through which information is conveyed to people through visual
Means’.
Photoactive and electroactive materials:
Organic semiconductors used in electronic and optoelectronic devices are called as electro
active and photoactive materials. Photoactive and electroactive organic materials are the
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semiconductors composed of π electron systems.

Photoactive and electroactive material absorb and emit light in the UV to IR region. Display
system (OLED) consisting of photoactive and electroactive material absorb light and allows an
electron to jump from Donor (HOMO) to an Acceptor (LUMO). This phenomenon generate
and transport charge carriers.
Organic materials used in optoelectronic devices are referred to as photo and electro active
organic materials. They are also called as organic semiconductors. When these materials are

used in devices, they exhibit opto-electronic phenomena as:

a) Absorption and emission of light radiation in the wavelength region from ultraviolet to

near infrared.

b) Photo generation of charge carriers.

c) Transport of charge carriers.

d) Injection of charge carriers from the electrode.

e) Exhibit excellent nonlinear optical properties

Optoelectronics: Optoelectronics is the communication between optics and electronics which

includes the study, design and manufacture of a hardware device that converts electrical energy
into light and light into energy through semiconductors.
Optoelectronic devices: A hardware device that converts electrical energy into light and light
into energy through semiconductors. These are primarily transducers i.e. they can convert one
energy form to another. They can also detect light and transform light signals to electrical
signals for processing by a computer.

Nanomaterials for optoelectronic device (Silicon Nanocrystals) Nano materials with electro-
optical properties can help in size reduction of future opto-electronic devices. Graphene,
fullerenes, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), are carbon based materials which show good electrical,
electronic and optical properties.
Any substance in which at least one dimension is less than 100nm is called nanomaterials. The
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properties of nanomaterials are different from bulk materials due to:

1. Quantum Confinement effect
2. Increased surface area to volume ratio
The improved electronic properties yielded for nanostructured silicon in comparison to its bulk,
which led the use of Silicon Nanocrystals in electronics and optoelectronics fields.
Properties of silicon nanocrystals for optoelectronics
a) Silicon nanocrystal has wider bandgap energy due to quantum confinement.
b) SiNCs shows higher light emission property(Photoluminescence)
c) SiNCs exhibit quantum yield of more than 60%.
d) Si-NCs exhibit tuneable electronic structure.
Applications
1. SiNCs are used in neuromorphic computing and down-shifting in photovoltaics
2. SiNCs are used in the construction of novel solar cells, photodetectors and optoelectronic
synaptic device.

Organic materials for Optoelectronic devices [Light absorbing materials –

Polythiophenes] (P3HT)
Polythiophenes are an important class of conjugated polymers, environmentally and thermally
stable material. Chemical structure of P3HT Poly (3-hexylthiophene) is a polymer with
chemical formula (C10H14S) n. It is a polythiophene with a short alkyl group on each repeat
unit. Highly ordered (P3HT) are composed of closely packed, p–p stacked (p distance of 0.33
nm) fully extended chains which are oriented perpendicular to the substrate
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Properties
1. P3HT is a semiconducting polymer with high stability and exhibits conductivity due to holes
therefore considered as p-type semiconductor.
2. Poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT) have great capability as light-absorbing materials in organic

electronic devices.
3.P3HT has a crystalline structure and good charge-transport properties required for
Optoelectronics.
4. P3HT has a direct-allowed optical transition with a fundamental energy gap of 2.14eV.
5.Fundamental band gap of P3HT is 490 nm visible region, corresponding to π -π*transition,
giving electron-hole pair.
6. P3HT indicate that an increase in the conductivity is associated with an increase in the degree
of crystallinity.

Applications
1. P3HT-ITO forms a p-n junction permit the charge carriers to move in opposite direction
and hence, used in photovoltaic devices.
2. It can be used as a positive electrode in lithium batteries.
3. Used in the construction of organic solar cells.
4. Manufacture of smart windows.
5. Used in the fabrication new types of memory devices

Light emitting material-Poly[9-vinylcarbazole](PVK)]

Poly-N-vinylcarbazole (PVK) is one of the highly processable polymers as hole conducting
material and therefore used as an efficient hole transport material to prepare highly efficient
and stable planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells.
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Applications
1. PV has been commonly use in OLEDs, light harvesting applications, photo refractive
polymer composites and memory devices
2. Used in the fabrication of light-emitting diodes and laser printers.
3. Used in the fabrication of organic solar cells when combined with TIO on glass substrate.
4. Used in the fabrication of solar cells when combined with Perovskite materials.
5. PVK-perovskite junction is used in light-emitting diodes with enhanced efficiency an
Liquid crystals
The study of liquid crystals began in 1888 when an Austrian botanist named Friedrich Reinitzer
observed that a material known as cholesteryl benzoate had two distinct melting points. In his
experiments, Reinitzer increased the temperature of a solid sample and watched the crystal
change into a hazy liquid. As he increased the temperature further, the material changed again
into a clear, transparent liquid. Liquid crystal (LC) is an intermediate state between crystal and
liquid showing the properties of both. For example, liquid crystal may flow like a liquid but its
molecules may have a specific crystal-like orientation. A long, rigid, highly anisotropic
structure seems to be the main criterion for liquid crystalline behaviour ; to obtain this structure
many liquid crystalline materials are based on benzene ring.

Classification of liquid crystals

The liquid crystals are classified in two major types 1. Thermotropic
2. Lyotropic.
1. Thermotropic liquid crystals
The class of compounds that exhibit liquid crystalline behaviour on variation of temperature
alone are referred to as thermotropic liquid crystals. The temperature range at which some
liquid crystals are stable are given below:
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Cholesteryl benzoate 145.5 to 178.5 ℃

p-azoxyphenetole 137 to 167 ℃
p-azoxyanisole 116 to 135 ℃
Anisaldazine 165 to 180 ℃

Thermotropic liquid crystals may be further classified as

a) Nematic liquid crystals
b) Chiral nematic liquid crystals
c) Smectic liquid crystals
a) Nematic liquid crystals:Nematic (Greek word nematos means thread like)

liquid crystals are formed by compounds that are optically inactive. The molecules have
elongated shape and are approximately parallel to one another. In this phase the molecules
maintain a preferred orientational direction but positional order is completely absent and thecan
diffuse throughout the sample. An example of a nematic liquid crystal is para-azoxyanisole
(PAA) which exhibits liquid crystalline behaviour in the temperature range of 118°C to 135°C.

b) Chiral nematic phase(Twisted): Chiral nematic or twisted nematic liquid crystals (TNLC),
are formed from optically active compounds having chiral centres. In chiral nematic phase, the
molecules arrange themselves so as to form a helical structure. The twisted pattern repeats itself
throughout the liquid crystal phase. The most striking feature of cholesteric mesophase is its
strong optical activity and selective light reflection, which are attributed to the twisted
structure. The twist present in chiral nematic liquid crystals make them to exhibit spectacular
optical properties. Cholesteryl benzoate, cholesteryl myristate and cholesteryl format are
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some examples of compounds which exhibit chiral nematic phase.

c) Smectic mesophase: Substances that form smectic phases are soap-like (in Greek, smectos
means soap). In fact, the soft substance that is left at the bottom of a soap dish is a kind of
smectic liquid crystal phase. In smectic mesophase, there is a small amount of orientational
order and also a small amount of positional order. The molecules are arranged in regularly
spaced layers (positional order). Within the layer they tend to point along the director
(orientational order).
2. Lyotropic Liquid Crystals
These are usually obtained by mixing the compound in a solvent and increasing the
concentration of compound till liquid crystal phase is observed. Such liquid crystals are called
lyotropic liquid crystals. The formation of lyotropic mesophases is dependent on the
concentration of either the component or the solvent.
The orientational behaviour of lyotropic crystals is a function of concentration and solvent.
These molecules are amphiphilic in nature and having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends
in their molecules. The hydrophilic end is attracted towards water, whereas the hydrophobic
end is water repellent and attracted towards non-polar solvents. At low concentrations, these
molecules are randomly oriented but as the concentration increases, the molecules start
arranging themselves.
Examples: (i) soap (soap - water mixture) molecules, phospholipids which are biologically
important molecules where each cell membrane owes its structure to the liquid crystalline
nature of the phospholipid - water mixture. Cell membranes and cell walls are examples of lyotropic
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liquid crystals. Soaps and detergents form lyotropic crystals when they combine with water.

Properties of liquid crystals

1. They exhibit optical anisotropy which is defined as the difference between refractive index
parallel to the director and refractive index perpendicular to the director. These two properties
are important for the electro-optic effects in liquid crystals.

2. The intermolecular forces are rather weak and can be perturbed by an applied electric field.
3. Because the molecules are polar, they interact with an electric field, which causes them to
change their orientation slightly.

4. Liquid Crystal can flow like a liquid, due to loss of positional order.

5. Liquid crystal is optically birefringent, due to its orientation order.

6. Liquid crystals, like all other kinds of matter, exhibits thermal expansion. (Thermal
Imaging).

Applications of liquid crystals display

The electro-optic effect of liquid crystals controls brightness /darkness of the light emerging
from its elements and this is used in information display. Information is passed on to the user,
using liquid crystals which control the brightness/darkness of the parts of a display. Liquid
crystal display are available in many sizes and can be used to display numeric, alphanumeric
and graphic images. Numeric display has seven segments (also called pixels) whereas alphabets
are displayed using fourteen segments.
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ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (OLED’s)

Principle and working of the OLED: OLED devices consists of two electrodes, an anode
and a cathode and organic layers are placed between two electrodes. Multiple organic layers
are used, in which each layer plays an intrinsic role. When a voltage is applied to an OLED
device through anode and cathode, charge carriers are injected from the electrodes to the
organic layers. Anode injects holes (positive charges) and cathode injects electrons (negative
charges) to the system. The holes and electrons are transported to an emission site and
recombined. Organic materials in the emission site are excited by recombination of holes and
electrons. When the exited organic material return to its ground state, then emission occurs.

Properties of OLED

Some of the key properties of Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) include:

1. Thinness and flexibility: OLEDs are very thin and flexible, which makes them suitable for
use in curved or flexible displays.

2. High contrast: OLEDs have a high contrast ratio, which means that they can produce deep
blacks and bright whites, resulting in images with vivid and rich colours.

3. Fast response time: OLEDs have a fast response time, which means that they can switch
on and off quickly, resulting in smooth and seamless motion in video content.

4. Wide viewing angle: OLEDs have a wide viewing angle, which means that the image
quality is maintained even when viewed from different angles.

5. Energy efficiency: OLEDs are energy efficient, as they do not require a backlight like
traditional LCD displays, resulting in lower power consumption.

6. Self-emissive: OLEDs are self-emissive, which means that they do not require a separate
light source, resulting in a thinner display.

7. Long lifespan: OLEDs have a long lifespan, as they do not contain a backlight that can
degrade over time, resulting in a longer-lasting display.

Applications

Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) have a wide range of applications due to their
unique properties, including high contrast, energy efficiency, thinness, and flexibility.

Here are some of the applications of OLED

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1. Televisions and displays: OLED displays are used in televisions, monitors,

smartphones, and other electronic devices.
2. Lighting: OLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications,
including automotive lighting, street lighting, and architectural lighting.
3. Wearable devices: The thin and flexible nature of OLEDs makes them suitable for use
in wearable devices, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers.
4. Automotive: OLEDs can be used in automotive applications, such as dashboard displays,
interior lighting, and taillights.
5. Medical: OLEDs can be used in medical applications, such as in surgical lighting and
medical imaging. They offer bright and highly accurate lighting options that can help
improve medical procedures and diagnosis.

QUANTUM LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (QD-LEDS):

Principle of working of the QD-LEDS

The structure of QD-LED is similar to the fundamental design of OLED. But, the difference is
that the light emitting is from the QDs, such as cadmium selenide (CdSe) nanocrystals. A QD-
LED device consists of two electrodes, an anode and a cathode and a QD layer placed between
two electrodes. When a voltage is applied to a QD-LED device through anode and cathode,
charge carriers are injected from the electrodes to the QD layer. Anode injects holes (positive
charges) and cathode injects electrons (negative charges) to the system. The holes and electrons
are transported to an emission site and recombined. QD material in the emission site is excited
by recombination of holes and electrons. When the exited QD returns to its ground state,
emitting photons. In QD- LED, for better recombination efficiency, a single layer of QDs in
colloidal form as an emissive layer

Properties of QD-LED

1. Accurate and vibrant colours: These are capable of producing highly accurate and vibrant
colours due to their use of quantum dots, which emit light of a specific colour when they are
excited by a light source or an electrical current.

2. Energy-efficient: These are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD displays because
they do not require as much backlighting.
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3. High contrast: These displays have high contrast ratios, which means that the difference
between the darkest and brightest areas of the display is greater, resulting in more detailed and
lifelike images.

4. Long life span: These have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD displays because they
do not suffer from the same issues of backlight burnout or colour fading over time.

5. Fast response times: These have fast response times, which means that they can display
fastmoving images without motion blur or ghosting.

6. Flexibility: These can be made on flexible substrates, which allows for the creation of
flexible displays that can be bent or curved.

Applications of QD-LED

1.Televisions and displays: These displays are commonly used in televisions, monitors,
smartphones, and other electronic devices. They offer superior image quality and color
accuracy compared to traditional LCD displays.

2. Lighting: These can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications, including
automotive lighting, street lighting, and architectural lighting. They offer energy-efficient and
highly customizable lighting options.

3. Medical imaging: These can be used in medical imaging applications, such as in MRI
machines, to produce high-resolution and accurate images

4.Virtual and augmented reality: These displays are suitable for use in virtual and
augmented reality applications due to their ability to produce vibrant and accurate colours,
which can enhance the immersive experience.

5. Advertising displays: These displays can be used in advertising displays, such as digital
billboards and signage, to produce high-quality and eye-catching visuals.

Light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC) Light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) are

simple electroluminescent devices comprising an emissive material containing mobile ions
sandwiched between two electrodes. The operating mechanism of the LEC involves both ionic
and electronic transport, distinguishing it from its more well-known companion, the organic
light-emitting diode (OLED). These are usually composed of two metal electrodes connected
by (e.g. sandwiching) an organic semiconductor containing mobile ions. Aside from the mobile
ions, their structure is very similar to that of an organic light-emitting diode (OLED)
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There are two distinct types of LECs, those based on inorganic transition metal complexes
(iTMC) or light emitting polymers (LEP). iTMC devices are often more efficient than their
LEP based counterparts due to the emission mechanism being phosphorescent rather than
fluorescent.

Properties:

LECs are flexible, stretchable, low-cost devices such as illuminated tags, smart packaging,
flexible signage, and wearable illumination. LECs are easy-to-fabricate. Have
simplearchitecture and can use air-stable metals (e.g. Al. Ag and Au) as the cathodes. Light-
emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) are the simplest and least expensive thin-film lighting
devices available to date. They consist of a single active layer. They are used, for example, as
electroluminescent inks and stickers.

Applications:

These are used in lighting applications, flexible and wearable displays, gas detection sensors,
energy harvesting applications and biomedical applications