Chapter One

RISK AND RELATED CONCEPTS

1.1 Introduction

Due to imperfect knowledge about the future, our activities are likely to result in outcomes,
which are different from our expectations. These deviations are not desirable. Risk is undesirable
outcome that exists due to imperfect foresight about the future. The future is always uncertain
and no one can be perfect about the future.

The more knowledgeable the person is, the more certain it will be concerning the future events.
However, the disappointing phenomenon is that perfect foresight about the future is something
impossible. Thus, risk becomes facts that always remain side by side with human being
activities.
1.2 Definition of Risk

There is no one universal and comprehensive definition of risk that exists so far. It is defined in
different forms by several authors with some differences in the wordings used. The essence,
however, is very similar. Some of the definitions are shown below:
- Risk is a condition in which there is a possibility of an adverse deviation from a desired
from a desired outcome that is expected or hoped for.
- Risk is the objectified uncertainty as to the occurrence of an undesired event.
- Risk is the possibility of an unfavorable deviation from expectations; it is the possibility
that something we do not want to happen will happen or something that we want to
happen will fail to do so.
- Risk is the variation in the outcomes that could occur over a specified period in a given
situation.
- Risk is the dispersion of actual from expected results.

From the above mentioned and other definitions of risk, we can infer that risk is undesired
outcome or it is the possibility of loss. The important point is there should be more than one
outcome for the risk to happen, i.e. there will be no risk if there is only one outcome. This is
because it is certain that only one outcome will take place. The absence of risk in this case

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implies that the future is perfectly predictable. Variations in the possible outcomes, then, lead to
the existence of risk; and the greater the variability, the greater the risk will be.

1.3 RISK VS UNCERTAINTY

Many textbooks use the terms risk and uncertainty interchangeably. However, the distinction
between the two must be noted. The “risk versus uncertainty” debate is long-running and far
from resolved at present. Although the two are closely related, quite many authors make a
distinction between the two terms. Uncertainty refers to the doubt as to the occurrence of a
certain desired outcome. It is more of subjective belief. Subjective in a sense that, it is based on
the knowledge and attitudes of the person viewing the situation and as the result, different
subjective uncertainties are possible for different individual under identical circumstances of the
external world.

Knight defined “risk” as a measurable uncertainty that can be determined by objective analysis
based on prior experience and “uncertainty” as unmeasurable uncertainty that is of a more
subjective nature because it is without precedent. Risk is dealt with every day by weighing
probabilities and surveying options, but uncertainty can be debilitating, even paralyzing, because
so much is new and unknown. The practical difference between the two categories, risk and
uncertainty, is that in the risk the distribution of the outcome in a group of instances is known
either through calculation a priori or from statistics of past experience; while in the case of
uncertainty this is not true, the reason being in general that it is impossible to form a group of
instances, because the situation dealt with is in a high degree unique.

Prefer has noted the difference between risk and uncertainty as “Risk is a combination of hazards
and is measured by probability; uncertainty is measured by the degree of belief. Risk is a state of
the world; uncertainty is a state of the mind.”

In general, many authors indicated that risk is objective phenomenon that can be measured
mathematically or statistically. It is independent of the individual’s belief. Whereas, uncertainty
is subjective that cannot be measured objectively. Of course, risk and uncertainty may have some
relationship. Uncertainty results from the imperfection of knowledge of mankind of predicting
the future. The higher the lack of knowledge about the future the higher the uncertainty. But, it is

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debatable to say that higher uncertainty leads to higher risk. The presence and absence of
uncertain does not necessarily mean the presence and absence of risk respectively. The following
four situations underscore the difference between risk and uncertainty:

1. Both risk and uncertainty are present

eg. a person may be exposed to risk of disability and may experience uncertainty
2. Both risk and uncertainty are absent
eg. Sailors at present know that the earth is not flat.
There is no possibility of falling off the edge of the earth.
3. Risk is present and uncertainty absent
eg. the possibility of loss due to interruption of operation by fire. There may be no
uncertainty because of failure to recognize the existence of such risk, understatement
of the situation or because of preoccupation with other problems.
4. Risk absent but uncertainty present
eg. An hour ago, a man heard that a plane departing from the airport crashed. The man
knows that his wife was scheduled to fly from the airport earlier today, but he does
not know whether she was on the plane crashed. Here there is no risk as risk refers to
future outcomes. However, there is uncertainty since it relates to past, present and
future situations.

Hence, from the discussions above it is clear that risk is primarily objective while uncertainty
relates to the subjective sate of mind. Moreover, there may not be any necessary relationship
between risk and uncertainty Risk exists whether or not a person is aware of it. It is a state of the
world. Uncertainty, however, exists only with awareness; it is a state of mind. For example, the
risk of cancer from cigarette smoking existed the moment cigarettes are produced. However, the
uncertainty did not arise until the relationship between cigarette smoking and cancer is
established through scientific and empirical research.
Generally, it is possible to conclude that although there is relationship between risk and
uncertainty, they are different practically.

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1.4 RISK VS PROBABILITY

It is necessary to distinguish carefully between risk and probability. Probability refers to the
long-run chance of occurrence, or relative frequency of some event. Risk, as differentiated from
probability, is a concept in relative variation. We are referring here particularly to objective risk.

The probability associated with a certain outcome is the relative likelihood that outcome will
occur. And probability varies between 0 and 1. If the probability is 0, that outcome will not
occur, if the probability is 1, that outcome will occur.

Probabilities are generally assigned to events that are expected to happen in the future. There
may be a number of possible events that will take place under given set of conditions; and these
events may occur in equal or different chance of occurrence. The weights given to each possible
event may depend on prior knowledge, past experience, statistical or mathematical estimation of
relevant data or psychological belief. Thus, to each possible event is assigned a corresponding
probability of occurrence that leads to probability distribution. This means that probability
relates to a single possible event.

Risk on the other hand refers to the variation in the possible outcomes. This means that risk
depends on the entire probability distribution. It indicates the concept of variability. Therefore,
the concepts of risk and probability are two different things.

The following example illustrates the distinction between risk and probability. Suppose the
occurrence of a particular event is to be considered. One extreme is that this event is certainly to
take place. Thus, the probability that this event will take place is 1. There is certainty as to the
occurrence of this event with prefect foresight in this regard. Accordingly, there is no risk. The
other extreme is that the event will not take place at all. Hence, the probability of occurrence is
zero. Here, too, there is certainty and therefore, there is nor risk. In between these two extremes
there could be several occurrences of the events with the corresponding probabilities of
occurrence. It is therefore; risk and probability are different but related concepts.

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1.5 DISTINCTION OF RISK, PERIL AND HAZARD
The concept of risk has already been defined above. Two concepts, peril and hazard must be
distinguished from risk. Although, the three concepts have one common feature in transmitting
bad taste or feeling, they are differentiated as follows:

Peril: - refers to the specific cause of a loss. For example, fire, windstorm, theft, explosion, flood
etc. therefore, the source or cause of a loss is called a peril.

Hazard: - refers to the condition that may create or increase the chance of a loss arising from a
given peril. Hazard affects the magnitude and frequency of a loss. The more hazardous
conditions are, the higher the chance of loss. There are three categories of hazards:

1. Physical Hazard: - This is associated with the physical properties of the item exposed to risk.
Examples of physical hazard include the following:
- type of construction material such as wood, bricks, etc
- Location of property such as near to fuel station, near to flood area, near to earthquake
area, etc.
- Occupancy of building such as dry cleaning, chemicals, supermarket etc.
- Working condition such as machines for personal accidents.
- etc.
2. Moral Hazard: - This originates from evil tendencies in the character of the insured person. It
is associated with human nature, qualities, reputation, attitude, etc. examples include the
following:
- dishonesty, fraudulent intention, exaggeration of claims, etc …

3. Morale Hazard: - This originates from acts of carelessness leading to the occurrence of a loss.
It occurs due to lack of concern for events. Examples are:
- poor housekeeping in stores
- Cigarette smoking around petrol stations.
- etc.

In some situations, however, it is difficult to distinguish between a peril and a hazard. For
example, a fire in general may be regarded as a peril concerning the loss of physical property. It
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may also be regarded as a hazard concerning auto collisions created by the confusion in the
vicinity of the fire (around the fire).
1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF RISK
Risk can be classified in several ways according to the cause, their economic effect, or some
other dimensions. The following summarizes the different ways of classifying risks.

1. Financial Vs Non-financial risks

This way of classification is self explanatory. Financial risks result in losses that can be
expressed in financial terms. Non-financial risk does not have financial implication. For
example, loss of cars (property) is a financial risk, and death of relatives is a non-financial risk.

2. Static Vs Dynamic risks

Dynamic risks originate from changes in the overall economy which are associated with such as
human wants, improvements in technology and organization (price changes, consumer taste
changes, income distribution, political changes, etc.). They are less predictable and hence beyond
the control of risk managers some times.

Static risks, on the other hand, refer to those losses that can take place even though there were no
changes in the overall economy. They are losses arising from causes other than changes in the
overall economy. Unlike dynamic risks, they are predictable and could be controlled to some
extent by taking loss prevention measures.

3. Fundamental Vs Particular risks

Fundamental risks are essentially group risks; the conditions, which cause them, have no relation
to any particular individual. Most fundamental risks are economic, political or social.

Particular risks are those due to particular and specific conditions, which obtain in particular
cases. They affect each individual separately. They are usually personal in cause, almost always
personal in their application. Because they are so largely personal in their nature, the individual
has certain degree of control over their causes.

Thus, fundamental risks affect the entire society or a large group of the population. They are
usually beyond the control of individuals. Therefore, the responsibility for controlling these risks
is left for the society itself. Examples include: unemployment, famine, flood, inflation, war, etc.

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Particular risks are the responsibility of individuals. They can be controlled by purchasing
insurance policies and other risk handling tools. Examples include: property losses, death,
disability, etc.

4. Objective Vs Subjective risks

Some authors classify risk in to objective and subjective. These two types of risk are also
mentioned as measurable and Non-measurable risk.

Objective risk has been defined as “the variation that exists in nature and is the same for all
persons facing the same situation”. it is the state of nature (world). However, each individual’s
estimate of the objective risk varies due to a number of factors. Thus, the estimate of the
objective risk which depends on the person’s psychological belief is the subjective risk. The
problem, however, is that it is difficult to obtain the true objective risk in most business situation.

The characteristics of objective risk are that it is measurable. In other words, it can be quantified
using statistical or mathematical techniques.

5. Pure Vs Speculative risks

The distinction between pure and speculative risks rest primarily on profit/loss structure of the
underlying situation in which the event occurs. Pure risks refer to the situation in which only a
loss or no loss would occur. There are only two distinct outcomes: loss or no loss. They are
always undesirable and hence people take steps to avoid such risks. Most pure risks are
insurable. Pure risks are further classified in to three categories: personal risk, property risk, and
liability risk.

i. Property risk
This refers to losses associated with ownership of property such as destruction of property by
fire. Ownership of property puts a person or a firm to property exposure, i.e. the property will be
exposed to a wide range of perils.

ii. Personal risk

This refers to the possibility of loss to a person such as death, disability, loss of earning power,
etc. There are losses to a firm regarding its employees and their families. Personal risks may
arise due to accidents while off duty, industrial accident, occupational disease, retirement,

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sickness, etc. Generally, financial losses caused by the death, poor health, retirement, or
unemployment of people are considered as personal losses. Either the workers and their families
or their employers may suffer such losses.

iii. Liability risk

The term liability is used in various ways in our present language. In general usage, the term has
become synonymous with “responsibility” and involves the concept of penalty when a
responsibility may not have been met. A person may be generally obligated to another, because
of moral or other reasons, to do or not to do something; the law, however, does not recognize
moral responsibility alone as legally enforceable. One would be legally obliged to pay for the
damage he/she inficted upon other persons or their property.

Speculative risks, on the other hand, provide favorable or unfavorable consequences. The
situation is characterized by a possibility of either a loss or a gain. People are more adverse to
pure risks as compared to speculative risks. In speculative risk situation, people may deliberately
create the risk when they realize that the favorable outcome is so promising. Speculative risks are
generally uninsurable. For example, expansion of plant, introduction of new product to the
market, lottery, and gambling.

Both pure and speculative risks commonly exist at the same time. For instance, accidental
damage to a building (pure risk) and rise or fall in property values caused by general economic
conditions (speculative risk). Risk managers are concerned with most but not all pure risks. For
the detail refer unit 2.

1.7 RISKS RELATED TO BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

Most risks in business environment are speculative in nature. The finance literature considers
five types of risks that business organizations face in the course of their normal operation:
business risk, financial risk, interest rate risk, purchasing power risk, and market risk.

1. Business Risk: - This the risk associated with the physical operation of the firm. Variations in
the level of sales, costs, profits, are likely to occur due to a number of factors inherent in the
economic environment. Business risk is independent of the company’s financial structure.

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2. Financial Risk: - This is associated with debt financing. Borrowing results in the payment of
periodic interest charge and the payment of the principal upon maturity. There is a risk of default
by the company if operations are not profitable. Other financial risks include: bankruptcy, stock
price decline, insolvency, etc. Bond holders are less exposed to financial risk than common stock
holders because they have a priority claim against the assets of an insolvent firm.

3. Interest Rate Risk: - This is a risk resulting from changes in interest rates. Changes in interest
rates affect the price of financial securities such as the price of bonds, stock, etc---

4. Purchasing power Risk: - This risk arises under inflationary situations (general price rise of
goods and services) leading to a decline in the purchasing power of the asset held. Financial
assets lose purchasing power if increased inflationary tendencies prevail in the economy.
5. Market Risk: - Market risk is related to stock market. It refers to stock price variability caused
by market forces. It is the result of investor’s reactions to real or psychological expectations. The
market in many cases, is also affected by such events like presidential election, trade balances,
wars, new inventories, etc. market risk is also called systematic or non diversifiable risk. All
investors are subject to this risk. It is the result of the workings of the economy; and cannot be
eliminated through portfolio diversification.
1.8 BURDEN OF RISK ON SOCIETY

The presence of risk results in certain undesirable social and economic effects. Risk entails three
major burdens on society:

i. The size of an emergency fund must be increased.

ii. Society is deprived of certain goods and services.
iii. Worry and fear are present.

i. Larger Emergency Fund

It is prudent to set aside funds for emergency purposes. However, in the absence of insurance,
individuals and business firms must increase the size of their emergency funds in order to pay for
unexpected losses. For example, assume you have purchased a Br. 300,000 home and want to
have money for repairs if the home is damaged from fire, hail, windstorm, or some other peril.
Without insurance, you would have to save some big lump-sum annually to build up an adequate
fund within a relatively short period of time. Even then, an early loss could occur, and your

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emergency fund would be insufficient to pay the loss. If you are a middle-income wage earner,
you would find such saving difficult. In any event, the higher the amount that must be saved, the
more consumption spending must be reduced, which results in a lower standard of living.

ii. Loss of Certain Goods and Services

A second burden of risk is that society is deprived of certain goods and services. For example,
because of the risk of a liability lawsuit, many corporations have discontinued manufacturing
certain products. Numerous examples can be given. Some 250 companies in the world used to
manufacture childhood vaccines; today, only a few firms manufacture vaccines, due in part to the
threat of liability suits. Other firms have discontinued the manufacture of certain products,
including single-engine airplanes, asbestos products, football helmets, silicon-gel breast
implants, and certain birth control devices.

iii. Worry and fear

A final burden of risk is that worry and fear are present. Numerous examples can illustrate the

mental unrest and fear caused by risk. A college student who needs a grade of C in a course in

order to graduate may enter the final examination room with a feeling of apprehension and fear.

Parents may be fearful if a teenage son or daughter departs on a skiing trip during a blinding

snowstorm since the risk of being killed on an icy road is present. Some passengers in a

commercial jet may become extremely nervous and fearful if the jet encounters severe

turbulence during the flight.

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