Historical development of pest and pesticides

Humans have always dealt with pests—organisms like insects, weeds,

fungi, and rodents—that harm crops, food storage, or human health. To
combat these pests, various methods and materials have been used over
time, eventually leading to the development of modern synthetic
pesticides.

Ancient Times (Before 1000 CE)

Early Pest Control Methods:

Agricultural Practices: Early civilizations relied on simple cultural

practices like crop rotation, intercropping, and manual removal of pests
(e.g., pulling weeds or shaking insects from plants).

Natural Pesticides: Early societies used natural substances like ash,

sulfur, lime, and plant extracts to deter pests. For example, the Sumerians
(2500 BCE) used sulfur compounds to kill insects.

Biological Control: The ancient Chinese (around 300 BCE) introduced

predatory ants into citrus orchards to control pests like beetles and
caterpillars.

Middle Ages to Renaissance (1000–1600)

Expanded Use of Minerals and Plants:

During this time, farmers across Europe began using more mineral-based
solutions, such as lead arsenate and mercury compounds, to fight pests in
agricultural settings.

Herbal remedies and extracts, like hellebore and pyrethrum (from

chrysanthemum flowers), were common in Europe and Asia as
insecticides.

17th to 19th Century

Botanical Pesticides:

The 17th century saw the increased use of botanical insecticides, derived
from plants like tobacco (which contains nicotine) and pyrethrum (from
chrysanthemum flowers).

In the 1800s, rotenone, derived from the roots of certain plants, was used
as a pesticide against insects and fish.

Chemical Compounds:
Arsenic compounds became widely used in the 19 th century to control
pests, especially in orchards and vineyards. Lead arsenate was
extensively applied to control pests in apple orchards.

Development of Synthetic Pesticides

Paris Green (copper(II) acetoarsenite), a highly toxic substance, was

developed and used to control insects like the Colorado potato beetle. It
was widely used despite its toxicity to humans and the environment.

Early 20th Century (1900–1940)

Industrial Chemical:

This period is notable for the use of more arsenical insecticides, which
were commonly applied in fruit orchards and agriculture.

Sulfur and Copper Compounds:

Sulfur, still a common fungicide, and copper-based compounds like

Bordeaux mixture (a mixture of copper sulfate and lime) were widely used
to combat fungal diseases in vineyards.

Post-World War II Era (1940–1960)

Discovery of Synthetic Organic Pesticides:

DDT (Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane) was synthesized in 1874, but its

insecticidal properties were discovered by Swiss chemist Paul Müller in
1939. DDT was widely used during World War II to control malaria and
typhus by killing mosquitoes and lice.

Rise of Other Synthetic Pesticides:

Other synthetic pesticides, like organochlorines (e.g., aldrin, dieldrin) and

organophosphates (e.g., malathion, parathion), were developed during the
1950s and 1960s.

Modern Developments (1980–Present)

Development of Safer, More Targeted Pesticides:

Modern pesticides have evolved to be more targeted and less harmful to

non-target organisms. Classes of pesticides like neonicotinoids,
pyrethroids, and biopesticides (derived from natural materials) are now
common.

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs):

The development of genetically modified crops that are resistant to pests
(e.g., Bt corn, which produces a natural insecticidal toxin) has reduced the
need for chemical pesticides in some regions.

Pesticides can be classified in several ways based on different criteria,

such as the type of target pests, chemical composition, mode of action,
and origin.

1.Classification by Target Pest

1.Insecticides:

Pesticides used to control insects.

Example: DDT, pyrethroids, organophosphates.

2. Herbicides:

Pesticides designed to kill or inhibit the growth of unwanted plants

(weeds).

Example: Glyphosate, atrazine

3.Fungicides:

Chemicals used to prevent or eliminate fungal infections that can damage

crops and plants.

Example: Mancozeb, copper-based fungicides, azoxystrobin.

4.Bactericides:

Agents that kill or inhibit bacteria harmful to plants.

Example: Streptomycin, copper hydroxide.

2.Classification by Chemical Composition

Organic Pesticides:

These are carbon-based compounds, which can be synthetic or naturally

derived.

Organochlorines:

Persistent, effective insecticides, now largely banned due to

environmental harm.

Example: DDT, aldrin, dieldrin.

Organophosphates:
Widely used and toxic to insects by inhibiting enzyme activity.

Example: Malathion, parathion.

Carbamates:

Similar to organophosphates but less persistent.

Example: Carbaryl, aldicarb.

Pyrethroids:

Synthetic versions of natural pyrethrins from chrysanthemums, less toxic

to mammals.

Example: Permethrin, deltamethrin.

Inorganic Pesticides:

Do not contain carbon and often consist of metal-based chemicals.

Example: Sulfur, copper sulfate, zinc phosphide, borates.

Natural (Biopesticides): Derived from natural sources like plants,

bacteria, and other organisms.

Microbial Pesticides:

Derived from microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses.

Example: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a bacteria-based insecticide.

3.Classification by Mode of Action

Systemic Pesticides:

These pesticides are absorbed by the plant or animal and are translocated
within its tissues. They target pests feeding on the treated organism.

Example: Imidacloprid, glyphosate.

Contact Pesticides:

These kill pests when they come into direct contact with the pesticide.
They are not absorbed by the plant or pest and must physically touch the
pest to be effective.

Example: Permethrin, copper sulfate.

Stomach Poisons: These pesticides are ingested by pests (usually

insects or rodents) and kill them by poisoning their digestive system

Example: Sodium fluoroacetate (rodenticide), boric acid.

4.Classification by Application Timing

Pre-emergent Pesticides:

Applied before the target pest (typically weeds) emerges, often used in
weed management.

Example: Pendimethalin (herbicide).

Post-emergent Pesticides:

Applied after the pest has emerged or started to grow.

Example: Glyphosate (herbicide used to kill actively growing weeds).

Pre-harvest:

Pesticides applied to crops before harvest to control pests or diseases.

Example: Fungicides for rust or mildew.

Post-harvest:

Applied to protect harvested crops from pests or deterioration.

Example: Phosphine gas (fumigant for grain storage).

5.Classification by Origin

Chemical Pesticides:

Synthetic Chemicals: Man-made chemicals designed specifically to target

and kill pests.

Example: Chlorpyrifos (organophosphate insecticide), trifluralin

(herbicide).

Plant-Incorporated Protectants (PIPs):

Genetically modified plants that produce their own pesticidal substances.

Example: Bt corn.