UNDERSTANDING

THE LEARNER
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Understanding
the Learner

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Contents

1 Human Development 7
1.1 Concept and Branches of Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.1 Basic Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2 Applied Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Importance of Study of Psychology by Classroom Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Meaning of Growth and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Differences between growth and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Importance of growth and development for the teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Principles of Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.1 Development is a continuous process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.2 Development follows a pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.3 Development proceeds from general to specific responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.4 Development involves change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.5 Development is a product of interaction of the heredity and environment. . . . 12
1.6.6 Principle of uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.7 The Principle of Interaction of Maturation and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6.8 Development is often predictable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7 Factors Influencing Growth and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.8 Developmental Stages and Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.9 Development during Early Childhood, Late Childhood and Adolescence . . . . . . . . 15
1.9.1 Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Early Childhood: (Age 0-5 Years) . . . . . 15
1.9.2 Developmental Tasks of Middle Childhood (Age 6-12 Years) . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9.3 Developmental Tasks of Adolescence (Age 12-18 Years) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9.4 Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood (Age 19-29 Years) . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9.5 Developmental Tasks of Middle Adulthood (Age 30-60 Years) . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.9.6 Developmental Tasks of Later Maturity (Age 60 & +) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.10 Characteristics, Factors Influencing and Educational Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.10.1 Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.10.2 Psycho-motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.10.3 Intellectual Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.10.4 Language Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.10.5 Social and Emotional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.10.6 Moral and Value Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 Management of Issues 23
2.1 Factors Affecting Adolescent development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.1 Generation gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.2 Emotional Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.3 Career Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.4 Treating the Adolescents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.5 Physical Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.6 Good Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.7 Socialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3
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2.1.8 Proper Teaching Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.2 Issues and Concerns during Adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 Physical Growth concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Emotional Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Mental Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6 Socio-cultural diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.7 Specific Problems and Worries of Adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.8 Day Dreaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.9 What is cognitive development? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.10 Need and Importance of Adolescence Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.11 Types of cognitive growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.11.1 A child in early adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.11.2 A child in middle adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.11.3 A child in late adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.12 Life Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.12.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.12.2 Major Life Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.12.3 Course of Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.13 Role of Schools for the Balanced Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.13.1 Schools and Mental Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.13.2 Schools and Health Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.13.3 Schools and Drug Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.13.4 Schools and Obesity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.13.5 School Safety and Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.13.6 School Social Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.13.7 Civic Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.13.8 Academic Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3 Individual Differences in Learners 35

3.1 Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2 Psycho-Motor skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 Aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4.1 Sensory Aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4.2 Mechanical Aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4.3 Artistic Aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4.4 Professional Aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5 Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5.1 Theoretical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5.2 Economic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5.3 Aesthetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5.4 Political and Religious . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5.5 Social . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.6 Learning styles and Cognitive Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6.1 Learning styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6.2 Visual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6.3 Verbal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6.4 Logical/Mathematical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.6.5 Scrambled List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.6.6 Musical/Auditory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.7 Self concept and Self esteem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.7.1 What is Self-Concept ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.7.2 What is Self-Esteem ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.7.3 Difference between Self-Concept and Self-Esteem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
CONTENTS 5

3.8 Social-Emotional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.8.1 Social-Emotionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.9 Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.9.1 Interest of learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.9.2 Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.9.3 Pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.10 Study Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.10.1 Habits of Highly Effective Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4 Differences in Learners 55
4.0.1 Difference between Inter-Individual and Intra-individual differences . . . . . . . 55
4.0.2 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.1 Tools and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2 Psychological Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.2 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.3 Achievement and ability tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.4 Personality tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.5 Characteristics of Psychological Test: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3 Observation Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3.1 Observation schedule as assessment tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3.2 Types of Observation schedule: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3.3 Characteristics of Observation schedule: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3.4 Definite Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.3.5 The Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.3.6 The Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4 Inventories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4.1 Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4.2 Characteristics of inventories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.5 Checklists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.5.1 Characteristics of Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.5.2 Uses of Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.5.3 Limitations of Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.6 Anecdotal Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.6.1 Steps Involved In Preparation of Anecdotal Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.7 Cumulative Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.7.1 Characteristics of Cumulative Record: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.7.2 Uses of Cumulative Record: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.7.3 Limitations of Cumulative Record: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.8 Sociometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.8.1 Concept of Sociogram and sociomatrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.8.2 Applications to the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.8.3 Sociometric assessment techniques/ Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.9 Interview Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.10 Achievement and Diagnostic Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.10.1 Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.10.2 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.10.3 Types of standardised tests: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.10.4 Characteristics of a good Achievement test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.10.5 Characteristics of Achievement Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.10.6 Practical uses of achievement tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.10.7 Functions of Achievement Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.10.8 Standardized Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.11 General Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6 CONTENTS

4.12 Remedial Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

4.13 Guidance and Counseling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.14 Whole School Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.15 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

5 Previous Years’ Question Papers 71

5.1 Nov-Dec 2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.2 Nov-Dec 2018 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.3 Nov-Dec 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Chapter 1

Nature of Human Development and

Educational Implications

1.1 Concept and Branches of Psychology

1.1.1 Basic Psychology
It is aimed at contributing to knowledge of behavior. College, universities, laboratories and depart-
ments are the main employment settings of the Basic Psychology.

Basic psychology has the following subfields :

1. Developmental psychology 5. Experimental psychology

2. Social psychology 6. Psychometrics

3. Physiological psychology 7. Cognitive psychology

4. Abnormal psychology 8. Personality psychology

Developmental Psychology

It studies the human development, physical, emotional, social, moral emotional and personality de-
velopment across the lifespan. Developmental psychology primarily focused on the child development.
But today devotes a great deal of research to adolescence, adult and old age group.

Social Psychology

It deals with interpersonal behavior and the role of social forces in governing behavior. It primarily fo-
cuses on attitude formation, attitude change, prejudice, leadership, conformity, attraction, aggression,
intimate relationships and behavior in groups.

Physiological Psychology

It examines the influence of genetic factors on behavior. It also deals with the brain, nervous system,
endocrine system and bodily chemicals like the neurotransmitters in the regulation of behavior.

Abnormal Psychology

It is also known as psychopathology. It studies the models, causes, classification, diagnosis and the
treatment of individuals with psychological disorders.

7
8 CHAPTER 1. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Experimental Psychology

Experimental psychologists restrict themselves chiefly to laboratory research on basic psychological

processes, including perception, learning memory, thinking, motivation and emotions.

Psychometrics

It is concerned with the measurements of behavior and capacities usually through the development of
psychological tests. Psychometrics is involved with the design of tests to assess personality, intelligence,
and a wide range of abilities. It is also involved with the development of new techniques for statistical
analysis.

Cognitive psychology

Focuses on higher mental processes such as memory, thinking, reasoning, information processing,
language, problem solving, decision making, creativity and artificial intelligence.

Personality psychology

It describes and explains the individual consistency in behavior which represents their personality.
The area of interest is also concerned with the factors that determine personality and personality
assessment.

1.1.2 Applied Psychology

Applied psychology uses the various fields of basic psychology to improve the quality of life of the
human being in various fields like school, industry, hospital, consultancy and community.

Applied psychology has the following subfields :

1. Clinical psychology 4. Educational psychology 7. Forensic psychology

2. Counselling psychology 5. Health psychology 8. Sports & Exercise psychology

3. Organizational psychology 6. Environmental psychology 9. Psychology of woman

Clinical psychology

It deals with the evaluation, diagnosis and treatment of individual psychological disorders. Principal
activities include interviewing the client, psychological testing, and providing group or individual
psychotherapy. NIMHANS, Bangalore, Central Institute of Psychiatry, Ranchi provide the training
in clinical psychology.

Counselling Psychology

It usually works with somewhat different clients, providing assistance to people struggling with every-
day problem of moderate severity. Thus, they often engage in family, marital and career counselling.

Organizational Psychology

It is an outgrowth of industrial psychology and also known as organizational behaviour. It tries to

study and solve the different organizational problems exist in the school, hospitals, university, military,
companies etc. Here it tries to solve the problems of leadership, group conflicts, conflicts, different
levels of organization, organization culture, organization development etc.
1.2. IMPORTANCE OF STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY BY CLASSROOM TEACHERS 9

Educational Psychology
Educational psychology is mainly devoted to an understanding of the different aspects of the teaching-
learning process. It is concerned with the application of the principles, techniques and methods of
psychology to the teaching-learning process.

Health Psychology
Health psychology is the field that studies the role of the psychological factors in the promotion of
health and the prevention of illness. It has the interest in relationship between stress and illness. It
describes the interaction of biological, psychological and social factors. This model is known as Bio
psychosocial model.

Environmental Psychology
Environmental psychologists work in school, industrial and governmental settings. They design work
environment and study the effects of crowding, noise and air pollution on behaviour.

Forensic Psychology
Forensic psychology applied psychology to the legal system. They include jury deliberation process and
the best ways to select jurors. Some forensic psychologists train police to handle domestic disputes,
negotiation, negotiate with hostage takers.

Sports and Exercise Psychology

This field applied psychology to athletic activities and exercise It considers the role of motivation, the
social aspects of sports and physiological impact of training on muscle development.

Women Psychology
It discusses the psychological factors relating to women’s behaviour and development. It tries to
explain various issues like discrimination against women, structural differences between men and
women, and the effect of hormones on behaviour, causes of violence against women and so on.

1.2 Importance of Study of Psychology by Classroom Teachers

Teacher is like a philosopher who guides his student. He is responsible to be aware about growth
and development of the students. It is educational psychology which enables the teacher to use various
techniques.

The importance of educational psychology for teachers has the following points :

1. Educational Psychology helps teacher to know that how learning takes place.

2. It enables a teacher that how learning process should be initiated, how to motivate, how to
memorize or learn.

3. It helps teachers to guide the students in right direction in order to canalized student’s abilities
in right direction.

4. It informs a teacher, about the nature of the learners and his potentialities.

5. It helps a teacher to develop a student personality because the whole educational process is for
student’s personality development.

6. It helps a teacher to adjust his methodologies of learning to the nature / demand of the learner.
10 CHAPTER 1. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

7. It enables a teacher to know the problems of individual differences and treat every student on
his / her merit.

8. It helps a teacher that how to solve the learning problems of a student.

9. It helps a teacher that how to evaluate a student that whether the purpose of teaching & learning
has been achieved.

1.3 Meaning of Growth and Development

Let us first understand the meaning of these two important terminologies. ’Growth’ and ’De-
velopment’ are often used as synonymous terms. But, in fact, growth is different from development.
Growth means an increase in size, height, weight, length etc. which can be measured.

Development, on the other hand, implies change in shape, form or structure resulting in improved
working or in functioning. Improved functioning implies certain qualitative changes leading to matu-
rity. Growth and Development are the important characteristics of a living organism.

Development involves a series of progressive, orderly and meaningful changes leading to the goals
of maturity. Normally Growth contributes to Development. In reality though ‘Growth and Develop-
ment’ are different, but they are inseparable. Generally process of Growth and Development goes on
simultaneously.

1.4 Differences between growth and development

The term growth is used in purely physical sense. It generally refers to an increase in size,
length, height and weight. Changes in the quantitative aspects come into the domain of growth.

Development implies overall changes in shape, form or structure resulting in improved working or
functioning. It indicates the changes in the quality or character rather than in quantitative aspects.

Growth is one of the parts of developmental process. In a strict sense, development in its quanti-
tative aspect is termed as growth. Development is a wider and comprehensive term. It refers to
overall changes in the individual.

Growth describes the changes which take place in particular aspects of the body and behaviour of
an organism. Development describes the changes in the organism as a whole and does not list the
changes in parts.

Growth does not continue throughout life. It stops when maturity has been attained. Develop-
ment is a continuous process. It goes from womb to tomb. It does not end with the attainment of
maturity, the changes however small they may be, continue throughout the life span of an individual.

The changes produced by growth are the subject of measurement. They may be quantified. De-
velopment implies improvement in functioning and behaviour and hence brings qualitative changes
which are difficult to be measured directly.

1.5 Importance of growth and development for the teachers

Let us first understand the meaning of these two important terminologies. ‘Growth’ and ‘De-
velopment’ are often used as synonymous terms. But, in fact, growth is different from development.
Growth means an increase in size, height, weight, length etc. which can be measured. Development,
on the other hand, implies change in shape, form or structure resulting in improved working or in
1.6. PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT 11

functioning.

Improved functioning implies certain qualitative changes leading to maturity. Growth and Devel-
opment are the important characteristics of a living organism. Development involves a series of
progressive, orderly and meaningful changes leading to the goals of maturity. Normally Growth con-
tributes to Development.

In reality though ‘Growth and Development’ are different, but they are inseparable. Generally process
of Growth and Development goes on simultaneously.

1.6 Principles of Development

1.6.1 Development is a continuous process
First, development is a continuous process. Development does not stop at any time. It continues
from the moment of conception until the individual reaches maturity. It takes place at a slow or a
rapid rate but at a regular pace rather than by leaps and bounds.

You may be surprised to know that the physical manifestations of certain features may appear to
be sudden; the process of development is continuous. For example, speech does not come over-night.
It has gradually developed from the cries and other sounds made by the baby at birth.

The fact that development is continuous emphasises the point that each stage of development has
its foundations built upon a preceding stage and has a definite influence on the succeeding stage of
development.

There may be a break in the continuity of growth due to illness, starvation or malnutrition or other
environmental factors or some abnormal conditions in the child’s life.

According to Growth and Development, the life of an individual can be divided into the following
major developmental periods :

1. Pre-natal period (from conception to birth) 5. Late childhood (6 years to 12-13 years)
2. Neo-natal period (birth to 10-14 days)
6. Adolescence (from 12-13 years to 18-19 years)
3. Babyhood (2 weeks to 2 years)
4. Early childhood (2 years to 6 years) 7. Adulthood (from 18-19 years and onwards)

1.6.2 Development follows a pattern

Secondly, development occurs in orderly manner and follows a certain sequences. In nature we
find that every species or organism follows a pattern of development. The same is the case with hu-
man beings. Development occurs in orderly manner and follows a certain sequence which, in general
is the same for most children. Each stage of development leads to the next. For instance, all children
first learn to sit up without support before they stand. Similarly, they learn to draw a circle before
attempting to draw a square.

The rate and speed of development may vary in individual cases, but the sequence of the pattern
is the same. A child from a disadvantaged home and a child from an affluent home, both follow the
same pattern of development, although the latter may develop at a faster rate due to the facilities
available at home.

One of the sequential patterns of development relate to the two directions in which development
12 CHAPTER 1. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

proceeds. Firstly, development proceeds from the upper portions of the body toward the lower por-
tions. This is referred to as “head to toe” sequence. This means that improvements in the structure
and function in a child’s body come first in the head region, then in the trunk and last in the leg
region. This growth pattern helps to explain why children sit before they can stand and crawl before
they can walk.

Secondly, development proceeds from the centre line of the body outward towards the distance or
peripheral parts referred to as “near to far” sequence. Hence, in a foetus, the head and the trunk are
fairly well developed before the rudimentary limb buds appear, gradually the arm buds lengthen and
then develop into hands and fingers. This growth pattern explains, for instance, why children in the
early years are more adept at controlling larger muscles than the whole limbs. They are unable to
control finer muscles that are required for the manipulation of tiny objects with fingers.

1.6.3 Development proceeds from general to specific responses

Thirdly, it makes from a generalized to localized behaviour. In studying the development pattern
of children, it is observed that general activity always precedes specific activity. The early responses
of the baby are very general in nature which is gradually replaced with specific ones.

The earliest emotional responses of the new born are generally diffused excitement and this slowly
gives way to specific emotional patterns of anger, joy, fear, etc. Babies wave their arms in general,
random movements before they are capable of such specific responses as reaching for an object held
before them. Similarly, in early stages of language development the child may use a particular word
for any type of animal/ eatable. Gradually, as his / her vocabulary increases, he/she will learn to use
correct specific words. Thus, uncoordinated movements/ responses are gradually replaced by specific
ones.

1.6.4 Development involves change

Development involves a progressive series of changes. The human being is never static. From
the moment of conception to the time of death, the person is undergoing changes. Nature shapes
development most clearly through genetic programming that may determine whole sequences of later
development.

It refers to a progressive series of orderly coherent changes. Growth on the other hand refers to
quantitative changes increasing in size and structure. Development implies both quantitative and
qualitative changes.

1.6.5 Development is a product of interaction of the heredity and environment.

Child at any stage of his growth and development is a joint product of both heredity and en-
vironment. But it is not possible to indicate exactly in what proportion heredity and environment
contribute to the development of an individual.

The two work hand in hand from the very conceptions. The environment bears upon the new or-
ganism from the beginning. Among, the environmental factors like nutrition, climate, the conditions
in the home, the type of social organisation in which individual move and live, the roles they have to
play and other.

1.6.6 Principle of uniqueness

Development is individualized process. Although the pattern of development is similar for all
children, they follow the pattern at their own rate. These individual differences arise because each
child is controlled by a unique combination of hereditary endowment and environmental factors. Every
child follows a developmental timetable that is characteristically unique for each child. All children
1.7. FACTORS INFLUENCING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 13

therefore do not reach the same point of development at the same age.

Individual differences are caused by the both hereditary and environmental conditions. The child’s
physical development, for example, depends partly on the hereditary potential and partly on the en-
vironmental factors such as diet, general health, climate etc.

Development is also affected by the genetic factors. A child should be provided with opportunities for
experiences and learning. These include :

1. A stimulating environment where the child can explore. The environment must include materials
which arouse curiosity and facilitate learning and

2. Encouragement and guidance from parents and teachers.

Each child is a unique individual. No two children can be expected to behave or develop in an identical
manner although they are of the same age. For example, in the same class, a child who comes from a
deprived environment cannot be expected to do as well in studies as a child of the same ability whose
parents put high value on education and encourage the child to study.

1.6.7 The Principle of Interaction of Maturation and Learning

Another important principle of development is that it occurs as a result of both maturation
and learning. Maturation refers to changes in a developed organism due to the unfolding ripening of
abilities, characteristics, traits and potentialities present at birth. Learning denotes the changes in
behaviour due to training and or experiences.

Maturation is the inner growth process unaffected by training. Another factor that causes growth
is ‘learning’. Learning implies exercise and experience on the part of an individual. Learning may re-
sult from practice, which in due course of time may bring about a change in the individual’s behaviour.

Maturation and learning are closely related and one influences the other. This means that traits
potentially present will not develop to their maximum without effort or learning. Thus, learning have
a great influence on growth and development, maturation provides the raw material for learning and
determines to a large extent the more general patterns of the individual’s behaviour.

1.6.8 Development is often predictable

Development psychologists have observed that each developmental phase has certain common
traits and characteristics. We have seen that the rate of development for each child is fairly constant.
The consequence is that it is possible for us to predict at an early age the range within which the
mature development of the child is likely to fall.

But all types of development, particularly mental development, cannot be predicted with the same
degree of accuracy. It is more easily predictable for children whose mental development falls within
the normal range rather than for those whose mental development shows marked deviation from the
average.

1.7 Factors Influencing Growth and Development

The following are a list of factors which influence human growth and development :

1. Heredity : Heredity and genes certainly play an important role in the transmission of physical
and social characteristics from parents to off-springs. Different characteristics of growth and
development like intelligence, aptitudes, body structure, height, weight, colour of hair and eyes
are highly influenced by heredity.
14 CHAPTER 1. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

2. Sex : Sex is a very important factor which influences human growth and development. There
is lot of difference in growth and development between girls and boys. Physical growth of girls
in teens is faster than boys. Overall, the body structure and growth of girls are different from
boys.

3. Socioeconomic : Socioeconomic factors definitely have some affect. It has been seen that the
children from different socioeconomic levels vary in average body size at all ages. The upper
level families being always more advanced. The most important reasons behind this are better
nutrition, better facilities, regular meals, sleep, and exercise.

Family size also influences growth rate as in big families with limited income sometimes have
children that do not get the proper nutrition and hence the growth is affected.

4. Nutritional : Growth is directly related with nutrition. The human body requires an adequate
supply of calories for its normal growth and this need of requirements vary with the phase of
development.

As per studies, malnutrition is referred as a large-scale problem in many developing countries.

They are more likely to be underweight, much shorter than average and of low height for age,
known as stunting. If the children are malnourished, this slows their growth process.

There are nine different amino acids which are necessary for growth and absence of any one
will give rise to stunted growth. Other factors like zinc, Iodine, calcium, phosphorus and vita-
mins are also essential for proper growth and deficiency of anyone can affect the normal growth
and development of the body.

5. Hormones : There are a large number of endocrine glands present inside our body. These
glands secrete one or more hormones directly into the bloodstream. These hormones are capable
of raising or lowering the activity level of the body or some organs of the body.

Hormones are considered to be a growth supporting substance. These hormones play an impor-
tant role in regulating the process of growth and development.

6. Pollution : According to studies, air pollution not only affects the respiratory organs but also
have harmful effects on human growth. Indoor pollution or the pollution from housing conditions
can result in ill health which can negatively impact human growth and development.

For example, lead exposure from deteriorated lead-based paint in older housing can be very
harmful. Lead is very harmful for children as it simply gets immersed into the growing bodies
of children and obstructs with the normal development of brain and other organs and systems.

7. Race : Racial factors also influence height, weight, colour, features, and body constitution of
a human being. The body growth and development differences show a relationship with varied
cultural groups.

For example, a child of black race will be black, their height, their hair and eye colour, fa-
cial structure are all governed by the same race.

8. Familial Influence : Families have the most profound impact in nurturing a child and deter-
mining the ways in which they develop psychologically and socially. Whether they are raised by
their parents, grandparents or foster care, they need basic love, care and courtesy to develop as
healthy functional individuals.

The most positive growth is seen when families invest time, energy and love in the develop-
ment of the child through activities, such as reading to them, playing with them and having
1.8. DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES AND TASKS 15

deep meaningful conversations. Families that abuse or neglect children would affect their pos-
itive development. These children may end up as individuals who have poor social skills and
difficulty bonding with other people as adults.

Helicopter parenting also has negative effects as they render children dependent on the par-
ent’s even as young adults and unable to deal with difficulties in life on their own.

9. Geographical Influences : Where you live also has a great influence on how your children turn
out to be. The schools they attend, the neighbourhood they live in, the opportunities offered by
the community and their peer circles are some of the social factors affecting a child’s development.

Living in an enriching community that has parks, libraries and community centres for group
activities and sports all play a role in developing the child’s skills, talents, and behaviour. Un-
interesting communities can push some children to not go outside often but play video games at
home instead. Even the weather of a place influences children in the form of bodily rhythms,
allergies and other health conditions.

1.8 Developmental Stages and Tasks

The term developmental task was introduced by Robert Havighurst in 1950’s.

R.H.Havighurst (1953) has stated: ”a development task is a task which arise at or about a cer-
tain period in the life of the individual, successful achievement of which leads to his happiness and to
success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness and difficulty with later task.”

Characteristics of Developmental Task :

1. Developmental tasks are based on the aspirations and need of the society.

2. Every society or culture has certain norms.

3. Every society expects its members to follow these norms. These norms are in terms of certain
essential skills. Mastery over these skills leads to happiness and failure leads to unhappiness.

4. Some tasks are same for everyone, regardless of where he lives as they are about human biology.
Example: learning to crawl and walk.

5. Some tasks are different in different societies. Example: tasks of getting occupation in some
cultures at very young stage.

6. The tasks in different age levels depend up on the person and the society he lives in.

Havinghurst has identified six major age periods :

1. Infancy and Early childhood (0-5 years) 4. Early adulthood (19-29 years)

2. Middle childhood (6-12 years) 5. Middle age (30-60 years)

3. Adolescence (13-18 years) 6. Later maturity (61 years and above)

1.9 Development during Early Childhood, Late Childhood and Ado-

lescence
1.9.1 Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Early Childhood: (Age 0-5 Years)
1. Learning to walk.
16 CHAPTER 1. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

2. Learning to take solid foods

3. Learning to talk

4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes

5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty

6. Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality.

7. Getting ready to read

1.9.2 Developmental Tasks of Middle Childhood (Age 6-12 Years)

1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.

2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism

3. Learning to get along with age-mates

4. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role

5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating

6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.

7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values

8. Achieving personal independence

9. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions

1.9.3 Developmental Tasks of Adolescence (Age 12-18 Years)

1. Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes

2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role

3. Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively

4. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults

5. Preparing for marriage and family life preparing for an economic career

6. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing an ideology

7. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior

1.9.4 Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood (Age 19-29 Years)

1. Selecting a mate 6. Managing a home

2. Achieving a masculine/feminine social role
7. Getting started in an occupation
3. Learning to live with a marriage partner
8. Taking on civic responsibility
4. Starting a family
5. Rearing children 9. Finding a congenial social group
1.10. CHARACTERISTICS, FACTORS INFLUENCING AND EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS17

1.9.5 Developmental Tasks of Middle Adulthood (Age 30-60 Years)

1. Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
2. Establishing and maintaining an economic standard of living
3. Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
4. Developing adult leisure-time activities
5. Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
6. Accepting and adjusting to the physiologic changes or middle age
7. Adjusting to aging parents.

1.9.6 Developmental Tasks of Later Maturity (Age 60 & +)

1. Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health
2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
3. Adjusting to death of a spouse
4. Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age group
5. Meeting social and civil obligations
6. Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangement

1.10 Characteristics, Factors Influencing and Educational Implica-

tions
1.10.1 Physical Development
Influences on Physical Development
While there is a natural progression when it comes to physical development, the pace of that
progression can be influenced both positively and negatively by environmental and experiential factors.
These factors include :

1. Prenatal care : Lack of prenatal care or prenatal exposure to harmful substances, such as
drugs and alcohol, can negatively influence development.
2. Pre-maturity : Children born before the 38th week of development and children having low
birth weight may experience respiration difficulties, vision problems, and feeding and digestive
problems.
3. Heredity : Genes influence development, but equally important are the children’s experiences.
4. Basic needs : Failure to meet basic needs such as safety, love, housing, and food due to socioe-
conomic factors or neglect can negatively influence brain development, which in turn impacts
physical development.
5. Culture : Some cultures may not value reaching developmental milestones as quickly as others;
some may not value the independence that supports physical development.
6. Temperament and learning styles : There are many types of learners. Some children learn
through physical, hands-on activities, while others may observe and keep to themselves.
7. Developmental delays, disabilities or health concerns : It’s important to keep in mind
that being diagnosed with a disability does not alter children’s innate desires to move.
18 CHAPTER 1. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1.10.2 Psycho-motor Development

Psycho-motor development refers to the origination of movement in conscious mental activity.
It is important to understand if a child is developing properly as it is an indicator of health, care and
future development. And it is stage specific.

Factors influencing Psychomotor Development are :

1. Genetics 3. Environmental factors

2. Early Illness (or Prematurity) 4. Amount of Practice

1.10.3 Intellectual Development

Intellectual development is all about learning. It is about how individuals organise their minds,
ideas and thoughts to make sense of the world they live in. Here is some of the many ways that
individuals learn. Trial and error, copying, exploring, repeating, questioning, doing, experimenting,
talking, experiencing, looking, role play, listening, playing. Children learn through the other areas of
development. Such as physical, emotional & social development.

The two main areas of intellectual development are:

1. Language development : helps us to organise thoughts and make sense of the world around us
2. Cognitive development : is about how we use our minds and organises thinking to understand
the world around us.
Intellectual development can be influenced by :

1. Illness 6. Lack of stimulation

2. Absence from school 7. Insecurity

3. Impaired eyesight 8. Poor concentration

4. Impaired hearing 9. Lack of confidence

5. Lack of verbal communication 10. Lack of meeting other people

1.10.4 Language Development

”Language” refers to all forms of communication. This includes auditory language, such as
speaking and listening, as well as written language, which involves writing and reading. Language
can also include body language like facial expressions and other non-verbal movements that express
meaning.

As young children are forming their own grasp on language, there are several factors that might
influence development. Children between the ages of two and five are especially vulnerable to these
influences, so it’s important for parents and caregivers to be aware of them.

These factors include :

1. Health and physical development : Illness can affect hearing which, in turn, will cause
problems with understanding spoken language or other auditory cues. Hearing problems can, in
turn, effect speech development. Children who are ill also lack enthusiasm to speak and com-
municate non-verbally. This can hinder development of language and communication.

In addition to illness, physical development can influence language. Vocal cords and speech
related facial muscles must be developed in order for a child to orally communicate effectively.
Fine motor skills are also necessary to write or draw letters and symbols.
1.10. CHARACTERISTICS, FACTORS INFLUENCING AND EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS19

2. Environment : It’s important that developing children be immersed in a language rich envi-
ronment. Children who are spoken to and read to are more likely to want to speak and learn to
read. Social environment can be a hindrance to language development when there is a lack of
example on which children can base their understanding of language and all that it entails.

3. Cognitive ability : It’s been suggested that there’s a correlation between intelligence and
early speech. Children who pick up on the language early show an increased level of cognitive
development. They tend to develop early use of proper sentence structure and strong vocabulary.
It should be noted, however, that children who are slow to develop language skills are not
necessarily slow cognitively, as there may be other factors at play.

4. Gender : Oddly enough, gender has been known to play a role in a child’s language development.
Around the age of two, girls tend to start developing language at a faster rate than boys. They
begin to communicate more fluently, and understanding of the spoken language develops quicker.
This is sometimes attributed to children’s relationships or closeness to their parents.

5. Number of siblings : Some doctors and scientists suggest that children who come from one-
child homes tend to have a stronger grasp on the understanding and use of language. This is
because there is no competition for the attention of parents or caregivers, and adults tend to
communicate with single children in a more fluent manner, thereby setting a better example.
Others argue, however, that the opposite is true. More siblings can mean more opportunities
for language use, which can result in quicker and stronger language development.

6. Motivation : If a child has no desire to communicate or understand the world around her or
him, there will be a lack of language development. Until he sees the value and need for use of
the language, development may be slow.

7. Bilingualism : Children who begin the process of learning a second language early in life may
develop their first language at a slower rate than expected. Learning of two languages at once can
cause confusion in children who are not yet of school age. This confusion may cause frustration
that affects motivation. Most specialists recommend that second language learning not begin
until a child officially begins school (around the age of five or six)

1.10.5 Social and Emotional Development

Children grow and develop rapidly in their first five years across the four main areas of devel-
opment.

These areas are motor (physical), communication and language, cognitive, and social and emotional.
Social and emotional development means how children start to understand who they are, what they
are feeling and what to expect when interacting with others. It is the development of being able to :

1. Form and sustain positive relationships.

2. Experience, manage and express emotions.

3. Explore and engage with the environment.

Positive social and emotional development is important. This development influences a child’s self-
confidence, empathy, the ability to develop meaningful and lasting friendships and partnerships, and a
sense of importance and value to those around him/her. Children’s social and emotional development
also influences all other areas of development.

Parents and caregivers play the biggest role in social/emotional development because they offer the
most consistent relationships for their child. Consistent experiences with family members, teachers
and other adult’s help children learn about relationships and explore emotions in predictable interac-
tions.
20 CHAPTER 1. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

To nurture your child’s social and emotional development, it is important that you engage in quality
interactions like these on a daily basis, depending on the age of your child :
1. Be affectionate and nurturing: hold, comfort, talk and sing with your baby, toddler and child.
2. Help your baby experience joy in “give-and-take” relationships by playing games like “peek-a-
boo.”
3. Provide your toddler with responsive care, letting them practice new skills while still providing
hands-on help.
4. Support your child’s developing skills; help him/her, but don’t do everything for your child, even
if it takes longer or is messy.
5. Teach social and emotional skills, such as taking turns, listening and resolving conflict.

1.10.6 Moral and Value Development

Moral development is the process throughout which children develop proper attitudes and behaviours
toward other people in society, based on social and cultural norms, rules, and laws.

Kohlberg extended Piaget’s theory and proposed that moral development is a continuous process
that occurs throughout lifespan. He used Piaget’s story telling technique to tell people stories involv-
ing moral dilemmas. He based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children.

A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also interviewed to
determine reasoning behind their judgements of each scenario.

According to Kohlberg, there are 3 levels of moral Reasoning. They are,

1. Pre-Conventional morality 2. Conventional morality 3. Post-Conventional morality

How to Teach Moral Values to Children

1. Teaching morality to kids is not very easy, especially because moral values are a very deep
concept. Your kids won’t get their importance immediately unless it is explained carefully.
2. To help you teach your kids moral values, here are some tips to guide you:
(a) Explain to your kids why morals are very important to learn.
(b) Explain how each action they make can affect others and themselves.
For example, if your child tends to bully their peers, you can say “If you keep bullying your
friends, they won’t play with you anymore.”
3. Give your child some examples on how they can determine what the actions they can do in
a certain scenario. For example, you can ask them what they will do if they see their friends
bullied.
4. If there are bad consequences, there are also good consequences if your kids follow the right
thing. Let them know this!
5. As a parent, show through your words and actions that you follow your teachings as well. You
should also be kind to your child so they will act the same way.
6. When your child has questions, don’t hesitate to answer them because they can get confused
with some terms.
7. Get your child involved with activities that stimulate moral development.
1.10. CHARACTERISTICS, FACTORS INFLUENCING AND EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS21

Moral Development Activities

1. There are several activities which can help your kids develop their moral values. Games, for
instance, can teach kids teamwork, equality and sportsmanship.

2. Hide-n-seek, tag, and shooting can help children understand how rules and regulations work, as
well as sportsmanship. Children will also learn, through these group-oriented games, that rules
are there for a reason and will help them avoid punishment.

3. For toddlers, playing games like tic-tac-toe can show them that you are not always the one in
charge.

4. The game will also teach how they are in charge of their actions and decisions. There will also
be times that they won’t be told what to do.

5. Sports are a great way to introduce sportsmanship and teamwork. Children will learn that they
need to give in to a greater cause in order for the team to win. Not every kid can hog the
limelight.
22 CHAPTER 1. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

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Chapter 2

Management of Issues and Concerns of

Adolescent Students

2.1 Factors Affecting Adolescent development

The following are the important factors affecting period of adolescence :

1. Generation gap 5. Good Literature

2. Emotional Instability
6. Socialisation
3. Career Consciousness
4. Treating the Adolescents 7. Proper Teaching Methods

2.1.1 Generation gap

1. It is the adolescent who happens to be the most affected because of generation gap. The
adolescent lives in the peerage company, representing a changing society, a society in a state of
flux. Those are the changes which the established society of the adults cannot accord recognition;
it would, rather, be protesting against the emergence of such a society.

2. The adolescent is still not matured enough to have developed his own personality to assert his
views or attitudes. The society of the adults has ever been ignoring the ideas and the views
of the adolescents, entailing a constant struggle between an established society and the society
labouring to be emerged.

3. And, the adolescent is the worst prey of this struggle. He or she will ever have to remain in
a state of tension to have his or her own way in regard to the fashion of dress, the hair-style,
the ways of talking and in behaving according to his or her own beliefs and convictions. The
generation gap is apparently perceivable in the clash between the adolescents and the established
society of the adults.

2.1.2 Emotional Instability

1. The period of adolescence is a period of difficulty also because of emotional instability. As, during
the period one moves fast towards the climax ofdevelopment—physical, mental and emotional,
one has to traverse through a period of fast changes also.

2. Fast physical changes, and fast growing mental abilities and self-consciousness, make one more
jittery because of the difficulties in adjustment to so many changes, and because of consciousness
to new problems, to new responsibilities which the adult generation wants him to shoulder, while
at the same time, he or she is not considered matured enough to be entrusted with the same.

23
24 CHAPTER 2. MANAGEMENT OF ISSUES

3. Because of excess of sex and some other hormones, the restraint over the flow and bursting of
emotions, becomes very difficult.

4. The adolescent gets angry very easily; grows jittery because of physical changes, especially
because of menstruation or ejaculation. Now, the boy or girl is cognitively very much developed;
he or she can better understand his or her situations, is more conscious of problems ahead, and,
is matured enough to think of his or her career also.

5. All this makes the adolescent prone to anxiety. In spite of the fact that the adolescence is a
period of development in all fields, emotionally, he or she suffers the short-comings of being
unstable, rash, and sometimes reckless.

2.1.3 Career Consciousness

1. During the latter years of adolescence, as one proceeds towards adulthood, one starts feeling
concern about one’s career. The selection of courses and subjects is made with the targeted
career in mind. The adolescent attains the adult level of cognitive development before he or she
is actually adult.

2. Because of this development, an adolescent understands where lie the best chances for his bright
career; and how he needs to prepare himself for such a career.

3. In some cases, the adolescent may not have attained that level of career- consciousness, and, the
fact makes the parents jittery; they go on goading their children for working hard and regularly
for the desired career.

4. The situation may cause tension for the adolescent. But a state of short-timed, unemployment
does not leave a traumatic impression, it may make one apprehensive. Those who have to leave
the school early because of economic pressure, or other reason in the family, would naturally be
distressed if they fail to get a job.

2.1.4 Treating the Adolescents

1. A very sensible and sensitive handling of the adolescent is required.

2. A rough handling, blind to the developmental nature of adolescence, and to the needs of the
adolescent, may spoil this most creative period of the life of a person.

3. Here, are given some suggestions as to what ought to be done in regard to an adolescent so
that this period may actually prove to be a channel to lead a child through, to the stage of a
wholesome adulthood.

2.1.5 Physical Activities

1. There is spurt in physical growth.

2. The adolescent would naturally be inclined to join a lot many physical activities.

3. Depending upon the family environment and the peerage, he or she may join some gym, sports
club, or may like to play a game that is offered to him or her.

4. Games and physical activities should be in adequate variety looking to the age, physique and
gender of the children.

5. If a congenial environment in this respect is not provided to the adolescent, it will cause a life
long loss-physical, and indirectly mental and emotional also.

6. Sublimating Emotions
2.1. FACTORS AFFECTING ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT 25

7. Adolescence is the period when emotions of happiness, of grief, of anxiety and frustration, of
anger and love, have great force.

8. They are strong enough to do or undo. If the energy released by these emotions, is properly
utilised constructively, the life will develop as desired, and if the emotions are let loose with no
reins over them in an environment with no constructive programs at all, they will prove to be
forces which can undo life.

9. Music, drawing and painting; collecting rarities, reciting and composing poems or stories or
expressing oneself in one or the other literary or artistic form, are the activities that an adolescent
would like to be indulged into.

10. These activities would provide a sublimating channel for the forceful emotions of the adolescents.

2.1.6 Good Literature

1. Interest in reading rapidly grows during adolescence.

2. This interest should be further inculcated by the adults of the family, and teachers of the school.

3. If during this period, one does not develop interest in reading, it would hinder one’s scholastic
progress.

4. Only such students can grow into eminent scholars who are voracious readers.

5. But equally important is the fact that the children should read only the good books, with
contents which can instill wholesome and useful ideas and feelings into their fast growing and
highly impressionable minds.

2.1.7 Socialization
1. According to Piaget, the years when one reaches to the apex level of cognitive development, are
the years of adolescence; in achieving this stage, socialisation has its very important contribution
to make.

2. Hence, it is for the parents and teachers to see that the growing child gets a very suitable
social milieu where he can indulge himself into a variety of activities offering occasions for rich
interactions.

3. The cognitive and moral development has very positive correlation with the social milieu of an
individual.

4. Adolescence is the period when one moves into a continuously widening circle of companions.

5. The impact of teachers, and, of some other adults that the adolescent comes in contact with,
also happens to be very important.

6. But the greatest impact happens to be that of the peer-group. In some matters, the adolescent
even may not listen to his parents neglecting his peers; the parents need not lose temper but
should persuade their child to see the reason if peers’ effect is for a wrong choice.

2.1.8 Proper Teaching Methods

1. The adolescent happens to be very creative, very active so the creative approach would suit him
in the process of teaching-learning—a lot of activities should be introduced as means to learning
and development.

2. This is the period of life where the child grows argumentative; he achieves adult level of devel-
opment in reasoning, hence the approach and methods should be such which boost the natural
process of cognitive development.
26 CHAPTER 2. MANAGEMENT OF ISSUES

3. Instead of spoon-feeding the students with ready-made answers, they should be actively involved
in the development of the lesson through Heuristic method, that is, question-answer method.

4. Problems should be presented before the students to make them think; think seriously, think
deeply to find out answers to the problems.

5. The teaching method should be such which gives maximum occasions for interactions; and
which organises these interactions into very useful repertoires of experiences to fall back upon
for learning new items.

6. Project-method is also a very suitable method for adolescent students. It would provide adequate
occasions for creativity where the best learning, through doing, will take place and the students
will be amply interacting to one another.

2.2 Issues and Concerns during Adolescence

1. Physical growth and development 4. Environment in school

2. Mental development 5. Miscellaneous factors

3. Emotional development 6. Specific problems and worries of Adolescence

2.3 Physical Growth concerns

1. Abnormal physical development (like facial expression, fatness, shortness, tallness, thinness etc.)
which results in inferiority complex.

2. Lack of normal physical strength. 4. Problems resulting from physical handicap.

3. Problem relating to Gait and Voice. 5. Problems relating to sex.

2.4 Emotional Issues

1. Excessive involvement in Fantasy. 8. Lack of tolerance.

2. Rapid changes in moods. 9. Relating to Environment in School

3. Excessive Depression or enthusiasm. 10. Change of class or section.

4. Excessive sensitiveness. 11. Methodology of Teaching – Learning.

5. Lack of appreciation of others feelings. 12. Nature of Curriculum.

6. Lack of Decision making ability. 13. Nature of Discipline.

7. Lack of humour. 14. Availability of co-curricular activities.

2.5 Mental Issues

1. Problems relating to development of intelligence.

2. Problems relating to learning of subjects.

3. Problems relating to competition in evaluation.

4. Problems relating to independent thinking.

5. Problems relating to participation in Debates, discussions, etc.

2.6. SOCIO-CULTURAL DIVERSITY 27

2.6 Socio-cultural diversity

1. Caste factor 2. Regional factor 3. Language factor 4. Religious factor

2.7 Specific Problems and Worries of Adolescence

1. Becoming independent. 7. Adolescence & crime

2. Age of ideals. 8. Smoking, Use of Drugs, Alcohol, etc.

3. Rapid physical growth & development 9. Myths & Misconception

4. Emotions & adolescence 10. Lack of maturity

5. Health & adolescence 11. Sense of insecurity

6. Self assertion 12. Day dreaming

2.8 Day Dreaming

Day-dreaming is normal at this stage but when it grows to excessive it may be injurious as far as
development of personality is concerned. The teacher should note that the adolescents are active and
busy in their studies and other aspects of school life. The children indulging in excessive day-dreaming
should be encouraged to be constructive and creative. Here the child begins to think :

1. On specific topic or concerns

2. On making career decisions

3. On their emerging role in adult society

4. About more global concepts such as History, Justice, Politics, Patriotism.

2.9 What is cognitive development?

Cognitive development means the growth of a child’s ability to think and reason. This growth happens
differently from ages 6 to 12, and from ages 12 to 18. Ages 12 to 18 is called adolescence. Kids and
teens in this age group do more complex thinking. This type of thinking is also known as formal
logical operations. This includes the ability to :

1. Do abstract thinking. This means thinking about possibilities.

2. Reason from known principles. This means forming own new ideas or questions.

3. Consider many points of view. This means to compare or debate ideas or opinions.

4. Think about the process of thinking. This means being aware of the act of thought processes.

2.10 Need and Importance of Adolescence Education

1. Each child moves ahead at their own rate in their ability to think in more complex ways.

2. Each child develops their own view of the world.

3. Some children may be able to use logical operations in schoolwork long before they can use them
for personal problems.
28 CHAPTER 2. MANAGEMENT OF ISSUES

4. When emotional issues come up, they can cause problems with a child’s ability to think in
complex ways.

5. The ability to consider possibilities and facts may affect decision-making. This can happen in
either positive or negative ways.

2.11 Types of cognitive growth

2.11.1 A child in early adolescence
1. Uses more complex thinking focused on personal decision-making in school and at home

2. Begins to show use of formal logical operations in schoolwork

3. Begins to question authority and society’s standards

4. Begins to form and speak his or her own thoughts and views on many topics. You may hear your
child talk about which sports or groups he or she prefers, what kinds of personal appearance is
attractive, and what parental rules should be changed.

2.11.2 A child in middle adolescence

1. Has some experience in using more complex thinking processes

2. Expands thinking to include more philosophical and futuristic concerns

3. Often questions more extensively

4. Often analyzes more extensively

5. Thinks about and begins to form his or her own code of ethics
( For example, What do I think is right? )

6. Thinks about different possibilities and begins to develop own identity

( For example, Who am I? )

7. Thinks about and begins to systematically consider possible future goals

( For example, What do I want? )

8. Thinks about and begins to make his or her own plans

9. Begins to think long-term

10. Uses systematic thinking and begins to influence relationships with others.

2.11.3 A child in late adolescence

1. Uses complex thinking to focus on less self-centered concepts and personal decision-making

2. Has increased thoughts about more global concepts, such as justice, history, politics, and patri-
otism

3. Often develops idealistic views on specific topics or concerns

4. May debate and develop intolerance of opposing views

5. Begins to focus thinking on making career decisions

6. Begins to focus thinking on their emerging role in adult society

2.12. LIFE SKILLS 29

2.12 Life Skills

2.12.1 Objective
The main objective of life skill education is to enable the learner to develop a concept of oneself as
a person of worth and dignity. Life skill education is a basic learning need for all individuals. Various
skills like leadership, responsibility, communication, intellectual capacity, self esteem, Interpersonal
skill etc. extends its maximum level, if it is practicing effectively. We need to create life skill education
as the cornerstone of various youth programmers and an integral part of our formal education process.

2.12.2 Major Life Skills

1. Decision making : The process of assessing an issue by considering all possible/available
options and the effects those different decisions might have on them.
2. Problem solving : Having made the decisions about each of the options, choosing the one
which suits the best, following it through even in the face impediments and going through the
process again till a positive outcome of the problem is achieved.
3. Creative thinking : It is the ability to look beyond our direct experience and address issues. It
contributes to both decision making and problem solving by enabling us to explore the available
alternatives and various consequences of our actions or non-action. It helps us to look beyond
our direct experience, and even if no problem is identified, or no decision is to be made, creative
thinking can help us to respond adaptively and with flexibility to the situations of our daily
lives.
4. Critical thinking : It is an ability to analyze information and experiences in an objective
manner. Critical thinking can contribute to health by helping us to recognize and assess the
factors that influence attitudes and behavior, such as values, peer pressure, and the media.
5. Effective communication : Effective communication means that we are able to express our-
selves, both verbally and non-verbally, in ways that are appropriate to our cultures and situa-
tions. This means being able to express opinions, desires, needs and fears. And it also means
being able to ask for advice and help in a time of need.
6. Interpersonal relationships : Interpersonal relationship skills help us to relate in positive
ways with the people we interact with. This means being able to make and keep friendly
relationships, which can be of great importance to our mental and social well-being. It also
includes keeping good relations with family members, which are an important source of social
support.
7. Self-awareness : Self awareness includes our recognition of ourselves, our character, our
strengths and weaknesses, desires and dislikes. Developing self-awareness can help us to rec-
ognize when we are stressed or feel under pressure. It is also often a prerequisite for effective
communication and interpersonal relations, as well as for developing empathy for others.
8. Empathy : Empathy is the ability to imagine what life is like for another person, even in a
situation that we may not be familiar with. Empathy can help us to understand and accept
others who may be very different from ourselves, which can improve social interactions.
9. Coping with emotions : Coping with emotions involves recognizing emotions in ourselves and
others, being aware of how emotions influence behavior, and being able to respond to emotions
appropriately. Intense emotions, like anger or sorrow can have negative effects on our health if
we do not react appropriately.
10. Coping with stress : Coping with stress is recognizing the sources of stress in our lives,
recognizing how this affects us, and acting in ways that help to control our levels of stress. This
may mean that we take action to reduce the sources of stress, for example, by making changes
to our physical environment or lifestyle.
30 CHAPTER 2. MANAGEMENT OF ISSUES

2.12.3 Course of Action

Life skill education is a value added program which aims to provide students with strategies to
makehealthy choices that contribute to a meaningful life. It helps adolescents to understand their self
and to assess their skills, abilities and areas of development. It also helps adolescents to get along
with other people and adjust with their environment and making responsible decision.

In life skills education, children are actively involved in a dynamic teaching and learning process.
The methods used to facilitate this active involvement include working in small groups and pairs,
brainstorming, role play, games and debates.

A life skills lesson may start with a teacher exploring with the students what their ideas or knowledge
is about a particular situation in which a life skill can be used. The children may be asked to discuss
the issues raised in more detail in small groups or with a partner. They may then engage in short role
play scenarios, or take part in activities that allow them to practice the skills in different situations
as actual practice of skills is a vital component of life skills education. Finally, the teacher will assign
homework to encourage the children to further discuss and practice the skills with their families and
friends

2.13 Role of Schools for the Balanced Personality

Adolescents spend a large proportion of their day in school or pursuing school-related activities.
While the primary purpose of school is the academic development of students, its effects on adoles-
cents are far broader, also encompassing their physical and mental health, safety, civic engagement,
and social development.

Further, its effects on all these outcomes are produced through a variety of activities including formal
pedagogy, after school programs, caretaking activities (e.g., feeding, providing a safe environment) as
well as the informal social environment created by students and staff on a daily basis.

A brief look at schools affecting multiple aspects of adolescent development :

1. Schools and Mental Health 5. School Safety and Violence

2. Schools and Health Care 6. School Social Support

3. Schools and Drug Use 7. Civic Engagement

4. Schools and Obesity 8. Academic Quality

2.13.1 Schools and Mental Health

1. School environments can affect the mental health of students through the academic and social
stresses experienced by students. In addition, schools are places where mental health problems
can be identified for possible treatment.
2. School activity can be a source of stress for many students.
3. According to estimates from 2001/02, 35 percent of 11-year-old girls and 39 percent of 11-year
old boys in the U.S. felt pressured by schoolwork, while 44 percent of 13-year-old girls and boys
reported feeling that way.

2.13.2 Schools and Health Care

Schools have direct contact with 56 million students for at least 6 hours a day during the most
critical years of their social, physical, and intellectual development. School health programs can re-
duce the prevalence of health risk behaviors among youth and have a positive effect on academic
2.13. ROLE OF SCHOOLS FOR THE BALANCED PERSONALITY 31

performance.Each school day provides students the opportunity to learn the importance of behaviors
and skills needed to engage in a healthy lifestyle.

Health Risk Behaviors Often Begin in Adolescence

Many adolescents engage in behaviors and experiences that place them at risk, sometimes without re-
alizing it. Preventable health risk behaviors are often established during adolescence and can continue
into adulthood, contributing to several of the leading causes of death, disability, and social problems
including :

1. Sexual behaviors that can result in HIV infection, other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs),
and pregnancy

2. Behaviors that can contribute to unintentional injury and violence

3. Behaviors that can contribute to substance use

These risk behaviors can result in serious health outcomes such as early sexual initiation, substance
use, and violence, which can adversely affect adolescents and young adults.

The Role of Schools in Adolescent Health

Youth should be taught early about HIV and STD prevention with information they can under-
stand and use. This includes education about health risks and skills to help delay sex and prevent
HIV and STDs. Improving the health of youth requires working through education agencies to reach
adolescents in schools. Schools can impact the health and academic performance of students by :

1. Foster the delivery of quality sexual health education

2. Increase youth access to sexual health services

3. Establish healthy, safe and supportive school environments

4. Implement effective policies and programs to prevent HIV, STDs and pregnancy

Role Of WHO

School health services are part of the whole school approach that is promoted by WHO through
the Global School Health Initiative launched in 1995. The initiative supports countries to implement
the four pillars for Health Promoting Schools :

1. Health promoting school policies. 3. Skills-based health education.

2. Safe and healthy learning environment. 4. School-based health and nutrition services.

Recent guidance from WHO and other UN partners - the Global accelerated action for the health of
adolescents (AA-HA!): guidance to support country implementation - gave a new impetus to school
health by recommending that “every school should be a health promoting school”.

2.13.3 Schools and Drug Use

1. There are many different possible causes of teen drug use. Many are reacting to peer pressure
and believe that turning to drugs and alcohol is how to become popular in high school. Some
use drugs to self-medicate from painful feelings.

2. Some teens even turn to “study aid” drugs like Adderall or Ritalin, because they believe these
substances will boost their academic performance. High school is often the first time that kids
encounter illicit substances, and their curiosity often gets the better of them.
32 CHAPTER 2. MANAGEMENT OF ISSUES

3. While tobacco, alcohol and drug use have all declined to some extent among high school students
in recent years, these activities still represent major threats to student health. The school
environment can have impacts on adolescent drug use through peer influence and through school
policies designed to discourage drug use and drug sales.

4. Anti-smoking programs may need to preferentially target middle schools with high rates of
cigarette smoking. Students who receive sub-optimal parenting may benefit from increased
support to deter them from early initiation of smoking and alcohol use, especially in high-risk
schools.

2.13.4 Schools and Obesity

1. The prevalence of obesity has increased worldwide in all segments of the population due to
increased industrialization, urbanization, mechanization, and associated changes in diet and
lifestyles. Change in diet habit of consuming more high energy fast foods and shifting to seden-
tary lifestyle has affected children and also increased the risk of chronic diseases among adoles-
cents.

2. Obesity has association with increased risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and cancer in later
life. Therefore, its control and prevention is one of the major concerns for all developing nations.

3. Obesity was found to be significantly associated with high intake of junk foods, binge eating,
high calorie intake , lower physical activity , and prolonged TV watching.

4. Obesity is considered to be a global epidemic, has spread its major roots in our children and
adolescents. Overweight children have double chances to become obese adult than normal chil-
dren. Adolescence is characterized by an exceptionally rapid rate of growth and is often variable
in individuals due to its dependence on genetic hormonal and nutritional factors.

5. School authorities can easily screen obesity as well as under nutrition as a part of health checkups.
It can give alarming signals in early stage that can easily be conveyed to the parents, so that
preventive strategies could be implied at the household and school level simultaneously and
synergistically.

6. School authorities can arrange some activities such as group discussion on nutrition and balanced
diet, regular sports with involvement of all students from time to time, and knowledge will be
imparted to home to limit television viewing, restrict the intake of energy dense foods and soft
drinks. School libraries can display standard charts of weight and height, waist-to-hip ratio etc.,
in order to make our future generations aware about their fitness.

2.13.5 School Safety and Violence

A safe environment is a prerequisite for effective learning, so much so that the country’s major
education reform initiative, No Child Left Behind, requires school systems to have programs in place
to reduce levels of violence as part of its larger plan to improve academic performance. Students who
fear violence in school are more likely to skip school.

Unsafe environments can also have direct effects on the health of students. Students in dangerous
school environments are more likely to get into fights, to be injured, and to experience emotional
stress.In addition, one analysis of data from four national surveys found involvement with school vi-
olence, either as a perpetrator or victim, was the most important risk factor for a student carrying a
weapon to school.

Adolescents who are involved in bullying (a common form of violence in schools) either as a per-
petrator or victim, are more likely to suffer from depressive symptoms such as loneliness and difficulty
making friends, and more likely to face psycho-social adjustment issues. Involvement in bullying as a
2.13. ROLE OF SCHOOLS FOR THE BALANCED PERSONALITY 33

bully or victim is also associated with poorer health outcomes, while being a bully is associated with
more frequent alcohol use.

School Violence :

1. Being Unsafe at School 3. Hate of Speech

2. Prone to Bullying 4. Involvement in Gang Activity

2.13.6 School Social Support

1. The support of peers and teachers at school can have important consequences for student well
being. Adolescents who feel that there are people who care about them at school and feel
connected to the school are more likely to be academically motivated and less likely to engage
in a variety of negative behaviors including drug use, violence and sexual activity.

2. Support from teachers can be expressed in many ways including caring, having rules that are
perceived as clear and fair, and allowing for age appropriate autonomy in decision-making. A
positive relationship with a teacher may motivate a student to learn, participate more in class,
or engage in other behavior related to academic achievement.In addition, teacher support may
help students psychologically.

3. One study of middle school students found students who perceived increasing teacher support
during the transition to middle school reported increases in self-esteem and decreases in depres-
sive symptoms, while those who perceived decreasing teacher support experienced the opposite.

2.13.7 Civic Engagement

1. Teens who are civically engaged are less likely to use drugs or become pregnant. High school
students’ participation in community programs is associated with positive outcomes for many
educational measures such as school attendance, grade point average, self-esteem, and academic
motivation.

2. Civic engagement during adolescence is associated with an increased likelihood of voting and
volunteering in the future, as well as a stronger work ethic as an adult. Volunteering among
high school students has been on the rise in recent years, as has been voting among young adults
ages 18 - 24.

3. Schools can influence students to become civically informed and engaged through a variety
of mechanisms including participation in school government, community service requirements,
school-based service organizations and, of course, through teaching in the classroom.

2.13.8 Academic Quality

1. Equitable access to high-quality schools is important for student achievement. However, the
increasing attention placed on adolescent mental health promotion suggests that school contex-
tual factors and school achievement may also play an important role for students’ psychological
well-being.

2. Beyond a variety of individual, familial, peer, and school characteristics that have previously
been associated with academic outcomes, aspects of behavioral peer culture are associated with
individual achievement while components of both relational and behavioral peer culture are
related to school engagement.

3. While schools are called on to shape many aspects of students’ lives, their core focus is clearly
the development of academic knowledge and skills. With the help of many Programmes, our
nation’s major education initiative of the last five years, has made challenging demands on public
34 CHAPTER 2. MANAGEMENT OF ISSUES

schools to improve the academic performance of all students while narrowing performance gaps
across groups, providing additional resources and demanding greater accountability.

4. The relationship between indicators of a school’s teaching and learning environment and student
academic achievement has been widely established (Kutsyuruba et al. 2015). For instance, high
teacher expectations on students (Brault et al. 2014), perceived support from teachers (Ahmed et
al. 2010) as well as a safe and orderly school environment (Gaskins et al. 2012) have been linked
with higher levels of student achievement. By contrast, high teacher turnover may undermine
student performance at a school (Ronfeldt et al. 2013).
Chapter 3

Individual Differences in Learners

3.1 Individual Differences

We, in spite of belonging to a common species known as human beings, have our own individuality
which contributes towards the variation and differences found in us. It is these differences that are
entitled as ’individual differences’ in the languages of sociology and psychology.

The differences among individuals, that distinguish or separate them from one another and make
one as an unique individual in oneself, may be termed as individual differences. The psychology of
individual differences is concerned with the systematic study of intelligence and abilities associated
with personality of learner, learning styles and needs and interests of learner. Individual differences
stand for ’those differences which in their totality, distinguish one individual from another.

3.2 Psycho-Motor skills

Psychomotor tasks involve physical skills. Psychomotor learning requires the use of muscular move-
ment. Psychomotor tasks are skills that teach new muscular movements. There are different categories
of psychomotor skills. The following are some of those categories.

Psychomotor Skill is related to some skill acquisition. Some students differ in this area also. Some
students easily learn operating a machine and some may not. A wise teacher should diagnose students’
psychomotor skills abilities and encourage them in proper desirable direction

3.3 Intelligence

3.4 Aptitude
Language learning aptitude refers to the ”prediction of how well, relative to other individuals,
an individual can learn a foreign language in a given amount of time and under given conditions”.

As with many measures of aptitude, language learning aptitude is thought to be relatively stable
once a person matures. Many people show a remarkable learning aptitude for learning their lan-
guage. Language aptitude is one of the important factors that determined L2 later learners’ ultimate
achievement, but it has less effect on L2 early learners.

3.4.1 Sensory Aptitude

1. These are related to sensory capacities and abilities of children.

2. It includes sense of hearing, sight, smell, taste, and touch.

35
36 CHAPTER 3. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

3. In this category children can direct themselves and become in those areas of life where these can
applied perfectly.

3.4.2 Mechanical Aptitude

1. Some persons have a specific mind for the tasks related to use of mechanical abilities and it
demonstrates the ability of their mechanical aptitude.

2. In other case a person may be good at repairing vehicles, engines, machines etc.

3. Ability to use sophisticated machines and innovations in instrumentation.

3.4.3 Artistic Aptitude

1. It is related to the expression of all artistic abilities.

2. It has an aesthetic sense: It is the sense of what is beautiful. It is primarily a personal sense,
but may be enhanced by other’s input or awareness.

3. There are many categories of artistic aptitude: Musical, Dance, Graphic art, Photography,
Poetry, acting, debate, writing, designing etc.

3.4.4 Professional Aptitude

1. It is related to profession and occupation.

2. It predicts future success of the person.

3. It includes: Clerical, Legal, Teaching, Pilot, Navigation, Banking, Military etc.

3.5 Personality
3.5.1 Theoretical
What is this thing we call personality ? Consider the following definitions, what do they have
in common ?

”Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that
determine his characteristics behavior and thought” (Allport, 1961, p. 28).

”The characteristics or blend of characteristics that make a person unique” (Weinberg & Gould, 1999).

Both definitions emphasize the uniqueness of the individual and consequently adopt an idiographic
view. The idiographic view assumes that each person has a unique psychological structure and that
some traits are possessed by only one person; and that there are times when it is impossible to compare
one person with others. It tends to use case studies for information gathering.

The nomothetic view, on the other hand, emphasizes comparability among individuals. This view-
point sees traits as having the same psychological meaning in everyone. This approach tends to use
self-report personality questions, factor analysis, etc. People differ in their positions along a continuum
in the same set of traits.

We must also consider the influence and interaction of nature (biology, genetics, etc.) and nurture (the
environment, upbringing) with respect to personality development.Trait theories of personality imply
personality is biologically based, whereas state theories such as Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning
Theory emphasize the role of nurture and environmental influence.
3.5. PERSONALITY 37

3.5.2 Economic
This paper explores the power of personality traits both as predictors and as causes of academic
and economic success, health, and criminal activity. Measured personality is interpreted as a construct
derived from an economic model of preferences, constraints, and information. Evidence is reviewed
about the ”situational specificity” of personality traits and preferences.

An extreme version of the situationist view claims that there are no stable personality traits or
preference parameters that persons carry across different situations. Those who hold this view claim
that personality psychology has little relevance for economics. The biological and evolutionary origins
of personality traits are explored.

Personality measurement systems and relationships among the measures used by psychologists are
examined. The predictive power of personality measures is compared with the predictive power of
measures of cognition captured by IQ and achievement tests. For many outcomes, personality measures
are just as predictive as cognitive measures, even after controlling for family background and cognition.

Moreover, standard measures of cognition are heavily influenced by personality traits and incentives.
Measured personality traits are positively correlated over the life cycle. However, they are not fixed
and can be altered by experience and investment.

Intervention studies, along with studies in biology and neuro-science, establish a causal basis for
the observed effect of personality traits on economic and social outcomes. Personality traits are more
malleable over the life cycle compared to cognition, which becomes highly rank stable around age 10.
Interventions that change personality are promising avenues for addressing poverty and disadvantage.

3.5.3 Aesthetic
There is a stable relationship between the Openness/Intellect domain of personality and aes-
thetic engagement. However, neither of these are simple constructs and while the relationship exists,
process based evidence explaining the relationship is still lacking. This research sought to clarify
the relationship by evaluating the influence of the Openness and Intellect aspects on several different
aesthetic emotions.

Two studies looked at the between- and within-person differences in arousal and the emotions of
interest, pleasure and confusion in response to visual art. The results suggest that Openness, as
opposed to Intellect, was predictive of greater arousal, interest and pleasure, while both aspects ex-
plained less confusion. Differences in Openness were associated with within person emotion appraisal
contingencies, particularly greater novelty-interest and novelty-pleasure relationships. Those higher
in Openness were particularly influenced by novelty in artworks.

For pleasure this relationship suggested a different qualitative structure of appraisals. The appraisal of
novelty is part of the experience of pleasure for those high in Openness, but not those low in Openness.
This research supports the utility of studying Openness and Intellect as separate aspects of the broad
domain and clarifies the relationship between Openness and aesthetic states in terms of within-person
appraisal processes.

3.5.4 Political and Religious

Individual differences in personality, religiosity, and political dispositions often are explained
in conjunction with one another. Though the religious and political may share common themes of
meaning-making, group identity, and societal organization, personality also influences these orienta-
tions.

Specifically, the Big Five traits (openness, conscientiousness, extra-version, agreeableness, emotional
38 CHAPTER 3. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

stability) and authoritarianism demonstrate consistent relationships with religious/ political beliefs
and behaviors. Personality is often thought of as the first mover to develop with an individual before
exposure to the other two domains, leading to a conceptual influence model of: personality → reli-
giosity → politics.

Using longitudinal studies and genetically informed samples, however, some scholars suggest that
these dispositions influence one another and could develop concurrently within individuals. Examin-
ing the measured boundaries and relationships between the three domains suggests these dispositions
comprise an individual’s person-hood, and the varied expression of traits, beliefs, and behaviors are
somewhat dependent on culture and context.

3.5.5 Social
The twelve most important characteristics of the Social Personality are as follows :

1. The Social Personality is accurate and detailed in describing events. For example, he says things
like “Joe Jones said. . . ” or “The Star newspaper reported. . . ” and, wherever possible, he says
where the information came from, especially when talking about things that are important. He
may use a generality such as “they” or “people,” but he does not do this often when talking
about something or giving an opinion about something that could cause worry.

2. The Social Personality wants to pass on good news to others and is unwilling to pass on bad
news.He may not even bother to pass on criticism when it doesn’t matter.He is more interested
in making another person feel liked or wanted than making him feel not liked by others. He tries
to make people feel more confident and think better about others.

3. A Social Personality passes on communication without much change. If he does remove anything,
he tries to remove just the things that could cause another person harm.He does not like to hurt
people’s feelings, so he sometimes makes errors in holding back bad news or orders that might
do so.

4. Treatments that are given to help the Social Personality, especially when they are mild, work
very well on him.While Anti-Social Personalities sometimes promise to change and stop doing
bad things, they do not. Only the Social Personality can change or improve easily.It is often
enough to point out to a Social Personality that he is doing things that are not okay. Just by
doing this, the Social Personality will completely change what he is doing for the better.Criminal
laws and violent punishment are not needed to regulate (control) Social Personalities.

5. The friends and people who work with a Social Personality are usually healthy, happy and
feeling good about the future. A truly Social Personality quite often produces improvement in
the health or finances of someone he is working and living with. At the very least, he does not
make his friends get ill or feel less confident and he does not reduce their morale—their emotions
of feeling good and willing to get on with whatever they are doing.When the Social Personality
gets ill, he heals or recovers as expected and he does get well when given treatment.

6. The Social Personality usually selects the correct targets that need to be fixed.He fixes the tire
that is flat rather than attack the windscreen with a hammer. When handling machinery, he
can therefore repair things and make them work.

7. Projects or actions begun are usually completed by the Social Personality.

8. The Social Personality feels bad about the things he has done wrong and doesn’t find it easy to
admit to them. He takes responsibility for his errors.

9. The Social Personality supports groups that help others and protests or tries to stop destructive
groups.
3.6. LEARNING STYLES AND COGNITIVE PREFERENCES 39

10. Destructive actions are protested by the Social Personality. He assists constructive or helpful
actions.

11. The Social Personality helps others and works to stop or prevent actions that harm other people.

12. The Social Personality believes that property belongs to someone. He does not approve of it
being stolen or wrongly used and tries to prevent that from happening.

3.6 Learning styles and Cognitive Preferences

3.6.1 Learning styles
1. Visual

2. Verbal

3. Logical/Mathematical

4. Social Solitary

5. Musical/Auditory

3.6.2 Visual
Are you one of those people who closes your eyes to envision the exact location of where you
left your car keys? Do you bring up mental imagery when you’re trying to remember what you did
last Tuesday afternoon? Do you remember the cover of every book you’ve ever read? Do you have
a photographic or near-photographic memory? Perhaps you are one of those people with the visual
learning style.

What is Visual Learning Style?

Visual Learning is one of the three different learning styles popularized by Neil D. Fleming in
his VAK model of learning. The visual learning style means that people need to see information to
learn it, and this ”seeing” takes many forms from spatial awareness, photographic memory, color/tone,
brightness/contrast, and other visual information.

Naturally, a classroom is a very good place for a visual learner to learn. Teachers use overheads,
the chalkboard, pictures, graphs, maps, and many other visual items to entice a visual learner into
knowledge.

Strengths of Visual Learners

Visual learners typically do well in a modern classroom setting. After all, there are just so
many visuals in classrooms — whiteboards, handouts, photos, and so on. These students have many
strengths that can boost their performances in school.

Here are just a few of the strengths of this learning type:

1. Instinctively follows directions

2. Easily visualizes objects

3. Has a great sense of balance and alignment

4. Is an excellent organizer

5. Has a strong sense of color, and is very color-oriented

40 CHAPTER 3. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

6. Can see the passage from a page in a book in his or her mind

7. Notices minute similarities and differences between objects and people easily

8. Can envision imagery easily

Visual Learning Strategies for Students

If you are a visual learner, you may find these things helpful when sitting in class or studying
for a test. Visual learners need things in front of them to help solidify them in their brains, so don’t
try to go it alone when listening to lectures or studying for your next midterm. Be sure to integrate
these tips into your study routine :

1. Color-code your notes, vocabulary words, and textbook

2. Be sure to read the diagrams, maps, and other visuals that go along with text to help you
remember it

3. Make to-do lists in an agenda

4. Study in solitude. You need to see things to remember them and often, any noise will distract
you.

5. Take notes during lectures to capitalize on your learning style

6. Sit near the front so you’re better able to see everything

7. Use outlines and concept maps to organize your notes

Visual Learning Strategies for Teachers

Students with the visual learning style make up about 65 percent of your class. These students
are the ones traditional classrooms are designed to teach. They will pay attention to your overhead
slides, whiteboard, Smartboard, PowerPoint presentations, handouts, graphs, and charts.

They will usually take good notes and will appear to be paying attention during class. If you use
a lot of verbal directions without visual cues, visual learners may get confused, as they prefer to have
something in writing to refer to.

Try these strategies for reaching those students with the visual learning type:

1. Supplement verbal lectures with a handout, diagram, or other visuals

2. Incorporate color into your presentations, the classroom, and handouts

3. Give written instructions and expectations

4. Vary your reading in class with solitary reading time so visual learners will take in the information
better.

5. Vary your instructional methods (lectures, group work, solitary work, pairs, circles) and assign-
ments so every learner is challenged

6. Show your students how to complete a task instead of just telling your students how to complete
a task.

7. Show students how to make great vocabulary flashcards

8. Use video and still images to enhance your presentations

9. Provide written feedback on assignments

3.6. LEARNING STYLES AND COGNITIVE PREFERENCES 41

3.6.3 Verbal
The Verbal (Linguistic) Learning Style

The verbal style involves both the written and spoken word. If you use this style, you find it
easy to express yourself, both in writing and verbally. You love reading and writing. You like playing
on the meaning or sound of words, such as in tongue twisters, rhymes, limericks and the like.

You know the meaning of many words, and regularly make an effort to find the meaning of new
words. You use these words, as well as phrases you have picked up recently, when talking to others.

Common pursuits and phrases

Pursuits that use the verbal style include public speaking, debating, politics, writing and jour-
nalism.

You may tend to use phrases like these:

1. Tell me word for word

2. Let’s talk later.

3. The word you’re looking for is

4. I hear you but I’m not sure I agree.

5. Let me spell it out for you.

6. In other words

Learning and techniques

1. If you are a verbal learner, try the techniques that involve speaking and writing. Find ways
to incorporate more speaking and writing in techniques. For example, talk yourself through
procedures in the simulator, or use recordings of your content for repetition.

2. Make the most of the word-based techniques such as assertions and scripting. Use rhyme and
rhythm in your assertions where you can, and be sure to read important ones aloud. Set some
key points to a familiar song, jingle or theme.

3. Mnemonics are your friends for recalling lists of information. Acronym mnemonics use words,
focusing on the first letter of the word to make up another word or memorable sequence. You
can also make up phrases using the items you want to memorize.

4. Scripting is also powerful for you. You don’t just have to write them down. Record your scripts
using a tape or digital audio recorder (such as an MP3 player), and use it later for reviews.

5. When you read content aloud, make it dramatic and varied. Instead of using a monotone voice
to go over a procedure, turn it into a lively and energetic speech worthy of the theatre. Not only
does this help your recall, you get to practice your dramatic presence!

6. Try working with others and using role-playing to learn verbal exchanges such as negotiations,
sales or radio calls.
42 CHAPTER 3. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

3.6.4 Logical/Mathematical
Logical/Mathematical Learning Style:
The logical-mathematical learning style is one of eight types of learning styles, or intelligences,
defined in developmental psychologist Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences.

Logical mathematical learning style refers to your ability to reason, solve problems, and learn us-
ing numbers, abstract visual information, and analysis of cause and effect relationships.

Logical-mathematical learners are typically methodical and think in logical or linear order. They
may be adept at solving math problems in their heads and are drawn to logic puzzles and games.

Characteristics of the Logical-Mathematical Learning Style

People with logical-mathematical learning styles use reasoning and logical sequencing to absorb
information. Their strengths are in math, logic, seeing patterns, and problem-solving. They like to
work with numbers, find logical methods to answer questions, classify, and categorize. They are com-
fortable working with the abstract.

They enjoy school activities such as math, computer science, technology, drafting, design, chem-
istry, and other ”hard sciences.” Logical-mathematical learners prefer logical order in instruction and
often work best in structured, organized environments. They have strong visual analysis, memory,
and problem-solving skills.

Natural tinkerers and builders, they enjoy bringing mathematical and conceptual ideas into reality
via hands-on projects such as computer-assisted design, creating electronic devices, using computer
applications, or programming computers.

People with the logical-mathematical learning style often seek out rules and procedures and may
be less assured when those don’t exist. They may not be tolerant when others don’t follow logi-
cal sequences, rules, or procedures. They may need to work on seeing the big picture and systems
thinking.

How Logical-Mathematical Learners Learn Best

People with logical-mathematical learning styles learn best when they’re taught using visual
materials, computers, statistical and analytical programs, and hands-on projects. They prefer struc-
tured, goal-oriented activities that are based on math reasoning and logic rather than less structured,
creative activities with inexact learning goals.

Logical-mathematical learners would find a statistical study more appealing than analyzing litera-
ture or keeping a journal.2 They may also enjoy creating graphs, charts, timelines, and categorizing
collections.

As part of a group project, the mathematical logical learner may want to contribute by making
an agenda or list, setting numerical goals, ranking brainstorming ideas, putting steps into a sequence,
keeping track of the progress of the group, and constructing data reports. They often also enjoy
troubleshooting problems using logic, analysis, and math.

Career Options for Logical-Mathematical Learners

The mathematically and logically talented student may be drawn to careers such as computer
programmer, computer technician, systems analysis, network analysis, database designer, and engi-
neering (electronic, mechanical, or chemical).
3.6. LEARNING STYLES AND COGNITIVE PREFERENCES 43

Professions that deal with numbers will appeal too such as an accountant, auditor, financial and
investment consultant, bookkeeper, mathematician, and statistician. They may also enjoy drafting,
architecture, physics, astronomy, and other areas of science. In medical and allied professions, they
may be drawn to medical technology, pharmacy, and medical specialties.

3.6.5 Scrambled List

Arrange types of cognitive growth consecutively
1. Begins to show use of formal logical operations in schoolwork

2. Begins to question authority and society’s standards

3. Expands thinking to include more philosophical and futuristic concerns

4. Thinks about and begins to form his or her own code of ethics

5. Uses systematic thinking and begins to influence relationships with others

6. Uses complex thinking to focus on less self-centered concepts and personal decision-making

7. Begins to focus thinking on their emerging role in adult society

3.6.6 Musical/Auditory
The musical learning style, also known as the aural (auditory-musical-rhythmic), is one of eight
types of intelligence defined in Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences. Musical learn-
ing style refers to a person’s ability to understand and process sound, rhythm, patterns in sound,
relationships between sounds, and ability to process rhymes and other auditory information.

Characteristics
Musically learning styled people enjoy school activities such as music performance and appreci-
ation, band, choir, orchestra, and writing poetry or songs. The musically talented person enjoys being
surrounded by music and can appreciate many different types of music and sounds.

They may be avid collectors of music, join a band or choir, or enjoy playing one or more instru-
ments. They may often be found humming or drumming out beats with their hands. Many are also
creative in other areas as well.

Learning Strategies
People with musical learning styles learn best when taught using spoken instruction and auditory me-
dia. They focus on using spoken content in their association and visualization. Musical learning style
students have good auditory memory and may respond well to jingles and rhymes to help memorize
information they may otherwise struggle to remember. Teachers or students may want to create a rap
that covers the material to help them remember it.

Students with strong aural learning styles would benefit from recording lectures in class. It provides
a basis for understanding and helps the individual better visualization the content. These individ-
uals would benefit by creating mnemonics or acrostics to make the most of rhythm and rhyme, to
help them best recall the information. Teachers may want to include music and instruments from the
time period being covered in a history class or lessons on geography, social sciences, and other cultures.

Students may find that they like to have background music while studying or working on projects.
They enjoy musical games. They may want to add music to presentations. They can enjoy performing
in musicals, through singing or playing an instrument, or through composing or selecting the music
to be included.
44 CHAPTER 3. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

Career Choices
Musically talented students may be interested in careers such as working in video, social media, radio,
television, and live performance. They may sing or play music professionally solo or in a group or
orchestra. They can teach music, band, choir, or orchestra at the kindergarten through grade 12 or
postsecondary levels or at music camps. They may do private tutoring in music, voice, or instruments.

Musical learning styled people may also prefer working in music retail stores, composing music, song-
writing, music ministry in churches or community choirs, music reviewer, piano tuner, and work as a
recording engineer.

Medical and allied professions that make use of these skills include audiologist, speech language pathol-
ogist or technician, music therapist, and recreation therapist

3.7 Self concept and Self esteem

Self-concept and self-esteem are two psychological concepts referring to an individual’s view of
oneself. Both concepts have been absorbed into our modern daily lives with a slight difference from
how researchers conceptualize them. The ideas revolving around self-esteem especially have been
widely applied to many societal institutions, from kindergarten to the corporate world. Self-concept
is a lesser known idea but is still widely applied by therapists and counselors.

Though similar in that they are subjective perceptions of the self, these two concepts are very different.
Self-concept is a more encompassing self-perception than self-esteem. They have different components
and different manifestations in a mentally healthy individual. More about these two psychological
constructs and their differences are discussed further in the following sections.

3.7.1 What is Self-Concept ?

In a nutshell, self-concept is an individual’s overall knowledge or perception of who he or she is;
the ultimate answer to the question, “Who am I?” The earliest known consideration of the idea of a
self is that of philosopher Rene Descartes who related existence to personal perception.

Another prominent thinker on the idea of self is Sigmund Freud who proposed the term ego as some-
thing that regulates the other aspects of a personality. Freud’s ideas have so influenced personality
psychology that many theorists who came after him still equate the ego with the self. In the late
20th century though came the most well-known theory, the self-concept theory of personality of Carl
Rogers. Rogers proposed that the self-concept is made of three components, the self-image, the ideal
self and the self-worth which is more commonly known as self-esteem.

Self-concept develops throughout the lifespan of an individual and is influenced by many factors.
Most theorists agree though on two main ones, biological factors and environmental factors which in-
clude social interaction. According to Carl Rogers, a person with a healthy self-concept has foremost
a congruent self-image and ideal self. This congruence allows for a healthy self-worth, which in turn
results to a fully-functioning individual that strives for self-actualization.

3.7.2 What is Self-Esteem ?

Self-esteem, at its simplest definition, refers to an individual’s perception of his or her own worth or
value. This is simplified further outside of the scientific community as just being how much one likes
oneself. The earliest known conceptualization is that of William James who even had a formula for
self-esteem, which is the ratio of an individual’s successes to that of his or her expectations; the higher
the success or the lower the expectations, the higher the self-esteem.
3.8. SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 45

The concept has later come under heavy influence from the humanistic school of personality, led
by Carl Rogers and others. Today’s most famous conceptualization of self-esteem came about in the
late 20th century. Abraham Maslow, a contemporary of Carl Rogers in the humanistic school of per-
sonality, proposed that self-esteem is a need that every person has and must eventually satisfy.

Society has taken this particular concept of self-esteem as a need and incorporated this to almost
every institution of society, making sure that every individual develops a high self-esteem as early in
a person’s life as possible. Also in the late 20th century was Nathaniel Branden, who theorized that
self-esteem is composed of self-efficacy and self-respect. Self-efficacy is the confidence in one’s abilities
while self-respect is the belief that one is deserving of happiness, achievement, and love.

Similar to self-concept, self-esteem is influenced by biological and environmental factors including

social interaction. However, self-esteem is also influenced by self-concept itself, along with the compo-
nents of self-concept, namely self-image and ideal self. With a healthy self-esteem, an individual mainly
has confidence, a positive outlook and a realistic valuation of his or her strengths and weaknesses.

3.7.3 Difference between Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

Characteristics Self-Concept Self-Esteem

An individual’s overall perception
An individual’s overall perception
of his or her own worth. Usually the
Definition of oneself. The answer to the question
answer to the question ”How much
”Who am I?”
do I like myself?”
First explored by Rene Descartes and
First explored by William James and
History later heavily influenced by the ideas
later influenced by humanistic ideas.
of Sigmund Freud.
Self-Concept theory of Personality by
Leading Theory Hierarchy of Needs by Abraham Maslow.
Carl Rogers.
Successes and expectations
Self-image, ideal self and self esteem.
Components (W. James) ; Self-efficacy and self-respect
(C. Rogers)
(N. Branden)
Biological and Environmental factors
Influencing Biological and Environmental factors
including social interaction; Self-image
Factors including social interaction.
and ideal self (C. Rogers)
Congruent self-image and ideal self,
Healthy Confidence, positive Outlook and realistic
leading to healthy self esteem and
Characterization valuation of strengths and weaknesses.
striving for self actualization.
Differentiated from self-image,
Differential Differentiated from self regard,
self-esteem, self-efficacy and
Terms self-efficacy and self concept.
self-awareness

3.8 Social-Emotional Development

Social emotional development represents a specific domain of child development. It is a gradual,
integrative process through which children acquire the capacity to understand, experience, express,
and manage emotions and to develop meaningful relationships with others.[1] As such, social emotional
development encompasses a large range of skills and constructs, including, but not limited to: self-
awareness, joint attention, play, theory of mind (or understanding others’ perspectives), self-esteem,
emotion regulation, friendships, and identity development.

Social emotional development sets a foundation for children to engage in other developmental tasks.
For example, in order to complete a difficult school assignment, a child may need the ability to manage
their sense of frustration and seek out help from a peer. To maintain a romantic relationship after a
46 CHAPTER 3. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

fight, a teen may need to be able to articulate their feelings and take the perspective of their partner to
successfully resolve the conflict. However, it is also interrelated with and dependent on other develop-
mental domains. For example, language delays or deficits have been associated with social-emotional
disturbances.

Many mental health disorders, including major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, borderline per-
sonality disorder, substance use disorders, and eating disorders, can be conceptualized through the lens
of social emotional development, most prominently emotion regulation.[3] Many of the core symptoms
of autism spectrum disorder reflect abnormalities in social emotional developmental areas, including
joint attention[4] and theory of mind

3.8.1 Social-Emotionals
1. Physical health

2. Culture and child rearing practices

3. Disposition/temperament

4. Ordinal position

5. Social opportunities

6. Gender/Sex role

Physical health

The purpose of this study was to assess physical activity levels during high school physical
education lessons. The data were considered in relation to recommended levels of physical activity
to ascertain whether or not physical education can be effective in helping young people meet health-
related goals. Sixty-two boys and 60 girls (aged 11–14 years) wore heart rate telemeters during physical
education lessons. Percentages of lesson time spent in moderate-and-vigorous (MVPA) and vigorous
intensity physical activity (VPA) were recorded for each student.

Students engaged in MVPA and VPA for 34.3 ± 21.8 and 8.3 ± 11.1% of lesson time, respectively.
This equated to 17.5 ± 12.9 (MVPA) and 3.9 ± 5.3 (VPA) min. Boys participated in MVPA for 39.4
± 19.1% of lesson time compared to the girls (29.1 ± 23.4%; P ¡ 0.01). High-ability students were more
active than the average- and low-ability students. Students participated in most MVPA during team
games (43.2 ± 19.5%; P ¡ 0.01), while the least MVPA was observed during movement activities (22.2
± 20.0%). Physical education may make a more significant contribution to young people’s regular
physical activity participation if lessons are planned and delivered with MVPA goals in mind.

Social opportunities

What is Social opportunity?

In social sciences, the term ”social opportunity” is generally used to refer to the idea that people
have different opportunities based on their social networks and the overall environment in which they
live. So, if I talked about my social opportunities, I would be talking about the ways in which who I
know and where I live can affect what opportunities I might have.

So, for example, a social scientist might ask about the way that social opportunities affect educa-
tion. They might focus on the whole context of schools and ask whether/how much schools can help
kids when everyone they know is uneducated and doesn’t value education.
3.8. SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 47

What are the opportunities of social media?

5 opportunities around social networks:

1. Recommendation

2. Reputation Management.

3. Marketing, off course, is all about deep knowledge of the audience.

4. Problem Solving. Sites like Google Answers are working on providing better answers to questions.

5. Data Mining/Research. A main attribute of social networks is how much data people provide
to them.

Gender/Sex role

A gender role, also known as a sex role,[1] is a social role encompassing a range of behaviors
and attitudes that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based
on their biological or perceived sex.[2][3] Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of mas-
culinity and femininity,[2] although there are exceptions and variations. The specifics regarding these
gendered expectations may vary substantially among cultures, while other characteristics may be com-
mon throughout a range of cultures. There is ongoing debate as to what extent gender roles and their
variations are biologically determined, and to what extent they are socially constructed.

Various groups, most notably the feminist movements, have led efforts to change aspects of pre-
vailing gender roles that they believe are oppressive or inaccurate.

The term gender role was first used by John Money and colleagues in 1954, during the course of
his study of intersex individuals, to describe the manners in which these individuals expressed their
status as a male or female in a situation where no clear biological assignment existed

Culture and child rearing practices

Objective: The aim of the present study was to assess the relationship between a childhood history
of abuse that a parent may have experienced and the cultural beliefs/factors that an individual may
subscribe to with current parenting behaviors and attitudes. It was hypothesized that cultural factors
would be more predictive of parenting behaviors and attitudes than ethnicity as a demographic label.

Method: Using a survey design, 150 parents of Hispanic, African American and European American
descent participated. Participants completed the Conflict Tactics Scale, a Familism Scale, a Machismo
Scale, a Valuing Children Scale, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, and assigned seriousness rat-
ings to vignettes depicting child maltreatment.

Results: A history of childhood abuse was found to be predictive of the use of both physical and
verbal punishment by mothers, but not for fathers. Cultural factors/beliefs were predictive of fa-
thers’ parenting behaviors, but not mothers’. Ethnicity, as a demographic variable, continued to be a
significant predictor of parenting behaviors and attitudes for all parents, controlling for cultural factors.

Discussion: The present study adds to our understanding of diverse parenting styles, of defini-
tions of child abuse and neglect, and of ethnicity. The findings indicate that ethnicity is a complex
factor, one demanding further examination with regard to its components.
48 CHAPTER 3. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

Oridinal position
What is an ordinal position ?
An ordinal number refers to a number that indicates the position or order of things or objects, such as
first, second, third, fourth, and so on. Ordinal numbers attribute to a position or place of an object’s
standing. They are written as first, second, third, or in numerals, as 1st, 2nd, and 3rd, etc.

What are family positions?

A native English speaker would more likely describe what you call ”position” where you are ”third in
the family” as being third eldest. This means that you have two older siblings.

Oridinal position
In linguistics, ordinal numerals or ordinal number words are words representing position or rank
in a sequential order; the order may be of size, importance, chronology, and so on (e.g., ”third”,
”tertiary”). They differ from cardinal numerals, which represent quantity (e.g., ”three”) and other
types of numerals. In traditional grammar, all numerals, including ordinal numerals, are grouped into
a separate part of speech (Latin: nomen numerale, hence, ”noun numeral” in older English grammar
books); however, in modern interpretations of English grammar, ordinal numerals are usually con-
flated with adjectives.

Ordinal numbers may be written in English with numerals and letter suffixes: 1st, 2nd or 2d, 3rd
or 3d, 4th, 11th, 21st, 101st, 477th, etc., with the suffix acting as an ordinal indicator. Written dates
often omit the suffix, although it is nevertheless pronounced. For example: 5 November 1605 (pro-
nounced ”the fifth of November ... ”); November 5, 1605, (”November Fifth ...”). When written out
in full with ”of”, however, the suffix is retained: the 5th of November. In other languages, different
ordinal indicators are used to write ordinal numbers.

In American Sign Language, the ordinal numbers first through ninth are formed with handshapes
similar to those for the corresponding cardinal numbers with the addition of a small twist of the wrist.

Disposition/temperament
Growing up in a progressive household my parents taught me to always understand the difference
between temperament and disposition. As I’ve developed as a person and as a runner this distinction
has allowed me to grow and accept who I am and what I want to be. It’s an interesting comparison
and one that deserves a deeper dive.

Temperament is, simply, the way we are when we come out. And often, it is said, that if you come
out looking around and seeing the gloomy side of life you’ll end up, 84 years or so later, going into
the ground with a gloomy view of life. It’s simple, I know, but true nonetheless, just ask my Uncle
Kenny.

The Anthroposophists, who founded Waldorf Education and have created a thriving educational in-
dustry based on temperament, identify four essential temperaments that are part of human experience
and are, for better or worse, the way we’re wired. To make understanding these a bit more simple for
people such as myself, there is, of course, a story refined over the years and designed to exemplify the
ideal:

The Choleric, the Melancholic, the Sanguine, and the Phlegmatic are walking along one day when
they encounter a large brick wall, about 12 feet high, in their path. The Choleric, quickly and without
hesitation, proceeds to bash the wall mercilessly and without restraint in an attempt to forge through
to the other side. The Melancholic, sighs, shakes his head, sits on the ground, and proceeds to sob,
forlorn over the fact that his journey has been thwarted and resigned to a life on this side of the wall.
3.9. INTEREST 49

The Sanguine, upon seeing the wall, says, simply, “Well, things are pretty good here on this side of the
wall, it’s green, the flowers are growing and there’s food. Let’s have a picnic.” And the Phlegmatic,
he pauses, a bit longer than most, reflects, and methodically, through a measured process of trial an
error, works to find a way through, over, around, and under the wall.

In this context, you can probably identify with one (or more) of these temperaments and, with a
little soul-searching and perhaps an over-a-beer chat with a spouse/significant other, can nod your
head knowingly in your understanding of who you are and who you are not. Regardless, don’t worry,
there’s still hope.

As ultrarunners, what do you think? Which temperament is best suited for the journey around
the San Juans on the second weekend in July or a trip along the Wasatch Front in September? I
suppose a case could be made, in one way or another, for all four, but, in the end, that doesn’t matter
much because that’s just our wiring.

3.9 Interest
Individual differences point out the reality of traits that distinguish individuals. For example,
The Encyclopedia of Social Psychology (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007) defines individual differences in
terms of enduring psychological characteristics.

Individual differences are the more-or-less enduring psychological characteristics that distinguish one
person from another and thus help to define each person’s individuality. Among the most important
kinds of individual differences are intelligence, personality traits, and values. The study of individual
differences is called differential or trait psychology and is more commonly the concern of personality
psychologists than social psychologists. Individual differences are neither a fiction nor a nuisance; they
are enduring psychological features that contribute to the shaping of behavior and to each individual’s
sense of self. Both social and applied psychology can benefit by taking these enduring dispositions
into account.

The Sage Glossary of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (Sullivan, 2009) has a definition of indi-
vidual differences that is particularly geared to learning.

How individuals differ in traits such as skills, aptitudes, and abilities to learn and perform. Learners
may vary in their personalities, motivations, and attributions for their successes and failures when
learning—all of which may affect how and why they learn. Additionally, they differ in their prefer-
ences for learning and their willingness to learn. Some traits may be more adaptive, whereas others
are stable and less malleable, or resistant to change, especially as an individual matures to adulthood.

Examples of stable traits are gender, culture, and race. Even education and age are considered
as stable traits. Traits that may be more malleable, or adaptive, could include effort and attributions
of success and failure, among others. Individual differences may be considered in making the learning
environment educationally appropriate, interesting, and relevant.

A theme that typifies most definitions of individual differences is that individual differences vary across
people and thus distinguish individuals from one another. As the second definition demonstrates, in-
dividual differences are sometimes malleable. As I discuss later, personality traits are considered less
malleable than learning styles. Nevertheless, both are examples of differences that vary across people
and distinguish individuals from one another.

It is also important to note that when scoring individual difference variables such as personality
traits and learning styles, the scores can be averaged for a group of people. For example, one could
calculate the Introversion of a sample of engineers. One might want to do this to ascertain the char-
50 CHAPTER 3. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

acteristics of a “typical” engineer, while recognizing that individual engineers will differ in respect to
these characteristics.

3.9.1 Interest of learning

Books
Interest is a powerful motivational process that energizes learning, guides academic and career
trajectories, and is essential to academic success. Interest is both a psychological state of attention
and affect toward a particular object or topic, and an enduring predisposition to reengage over time.
Integrating these two definitions, the four-phase model of interest development guides interventions
that promote interest and capitalize on existing interests. Four interest-enhancing interventions seem
useful: attention-getting settings, contexts evoking prior individual interest, problem-based learning,
and enhancing utility value. Promoting interest can contribute to a more engaged, motivated, learning
experience for students.

Dresses
The purpose of this research was to provide a critical review of key research areas within the
social psychology of dress.
The review addresses published research in two broad areas:

1. dress as a stimulus and its influence on

(a) attributions by others,

(b) attributions about self, and
(c) on one’s behavior

2. relationships between dress, the body, and the self.

We identify theoretical approaches used in conducting research in these areas, provide an abbreviated
background of research in these areas highlighting key findings, and identify future research directions
and possibilities.
The subject matter presented features developing topics within the social psychology of dress and
is useful for undergraduate students who want an overview of the content area. It is also useful for
graduate students

• who want to learn about the major scholars in these key areas of inquiry who have moved the
field forward, or

• who are looking for ideas for their own thesis or dissertation research.

• Finally, information in this paper is useful for professors who research or teach the social psy-
chology of dress

3.9.2 Courses
Interest is a powerful motivational process that energizes learning, guides academic and career
trajectories, and is essential to academic success. Interest is both a psychological state of attention
and affect toward a particular object or topic, and an enduring predisposition to reengage over time.
Integrating these two definitions, the four-phase model of interest development guides

interventions that promote interest and capitalize on existing interests

Four interest-enhancing interventions seem useful: attention-getting settings, contexts evoking prior
individual interest, problem-based learning, and enhancing utility value. Promoting interest can con-
tribute to a more engaged, motivated, learning experience for students.
3.10. STUDY HABITS 51

3.9.3 Pictures
Images in Education
The use of images in teaching and learning has benefits to support student comprehension,
retention, and application. For example we relate the use of images to spatial intelligence, student
motivation to learn, and conditions of instruction, which are established models and theories in edu-
cation.

Educational Models, Theories and Research

Multiple Intelligence: The theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there are a number of
distinct forms of intelligence that each individual possesses in varying degrees.

Gardner proposes eight primary forms: naturalistic, linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spa-
tial, body-kinesthetic,intrapersonal and interpersonal. A number of others also suggest an additional
one: technological.

Students who are Spatial intelligence (”picture smart” or visual smart) have the ability, or prefer-
ence, to think in pictures. Spatial intelligence people create and use mental images; enjoy art, such as
drawings, and sculpture); use maps, charts, and diagrams; and often remember with pictures.

One implication of Gardner’s theory is that learning/teaching should incorporate the intelligences
of each person. For example, if an individual has strong spatial intelligence, then spatial activities
and learning opportunities should be used

3.10 Study Habits

3.10.1 Habits of Highly Effective Students
The key to becoming an effective student is learning how to study smarter, not harder. This
becomes more and more true as you advance in your education. An hour or two of studying a day is
usually sufficient to make it through high school with satisfactory grades, but when college arrives,
there aren’t enough hours in the day to get all your studying in if you don’t know how to study smarter.

While some students are able to breeze through school with minimal effort, this is the exception.
The vast majority of successful students achieve their success by developing and applying effective
study habits. The following are the top 10 study habits employed by highly successful students. So if
you want to become a successful student, don’t get discouraged, don’t give up, just work to develop
each of the study habits below and you’ll see your grades go up, your knowledge increase, and your
ability to learn and assimilate information improve.

1. Don’t attempt to cram all your studying into one session.

Ever find yourself up late at night expending more energy trying to keep your eyelids open
than you are studying? If so, it’s time for a change. Successful students typically space their
work out over shorter periods of time and rarely try to cram all of their studying into just one or
two sessions. If you want to become a successful student then you need to learn to be consistent
in your studies and to have regular, yet shorter, study periods.

2. Plan when you’re going to study.

Successful students schedule specific times throughout the week when they are going to study
52 CHAPTER 3. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

and then they stick with their schedule. Students who study sporadically and whimsically typi-
cally do not perform as well as students who have a set study schedule. Even if you’re all caught
up with your studies, creating a weekly routine, where you set aside a period of time a few days
a week, to review your courses will ensure you develop habits that will enable you to succeed in
your education long term.
3. Study at the same time.

Not only is it important that you plan when you’re going to study, it’s important you cre-
ate a consistent, daily study routine. When you study at the same time each day and each week,
you’re studying will become a regular part of your life. You’ll be mentally and emotionally more
prepared for each study session and each study session will become more productive. If you have
to change your schedule from time to time due to unexpected events, that’s okay, but get back
on your routine as soon as the event has passed.
4. Each study time should have a specific goal.

Simply studying without direction is not effective. You need to know exactly what you need to
accomplish during each study session. Before you start studying, set a study session goal that
supports your overall academic goal (i.e. memorize 30 vocabulary words in order to ace the
vocabulary section on an upcoming Spanish test.)
5. Take short break

What to do Instead: Take regular, short study breaks. Set an alarm for every 20-30 minutes
and have your child take a short 5-10 minute break. Shorter study breaks will give your child
just enough time to breathe, stretch and re-focus before he or she gets back to the homework
6. Ask for help

By the time the average student reaches college, they have generally had over twelve years
of experience in school. That’s probably in the range of 15,000 hours in school, not counting
time spent on homework. And that’s well past the 10,000 hours normally required to become
an expert on something. So you’d think that a college student should be an expert on going
to school, studying, taking tests, and so forth. Unfortunately, that’s often not the case. Many
students arrive at college completely unprepared for the rigor of the college experience. Despite
all the hours they have logged, they haven’t ever developed solid study skills. This blog will pro-
vide some tips on how students can overcome this skill deficit and become successful at studying.

The first thing you’ll want to do is go to class. This might seem very obvious, but unfor-
tunately it’s not. By mid-semester, many courses, especially lower level ones, can witness a
30-40% drop in attendance. That means that on any given day, only 60-70% of students show
up for class. Going to class is the single most important thing you, as a student, can do. It gives
you a better grasp of the expectations of the professor, a basis on which to begin the process of
reviewing the material, and can give you hints as to what to expect on the exams.
7. Review class notes

Why good notes matter?

In-class benefits
Taking good notes in class is an important part of academic success in college. Actively taking
notes during class can help you focus and better understand main concepts. Good note-taking will
improve your active listening, comprehension of material, and retention. It will help you better
remember what you hear and see.
3.10. STUDY HABITS 53

Post-class benefits
After class, good notes are crucial for reviewing and studying class material so that you better
understand it and can prepare appropriately for exams. Efficient and concise notes can save you time,
energy, and confusion that often results from trying to make sense of disorganized, overwhelming,
insufficient, or wordy notes. Good notes can provide a great resource for creating outlines and studying.

How to take good notes in class

There’s a lot going on during class, so you may not be able to capture every main concept
perfectly, and that’s okay. Part of good note-taking may include going back to your notes after class
(ideally within a day or two) to check for clarity and fill in any missing pieces. In fact, doing so can
help you better organize your thoughts and to determine what’s most important. With that in mind,
it’s important to have good source material.

Preparing to take good notes in class

The first step to taking good notes in class is to come to class prepared. Here are some steps you can
take to improve your note-taking before class even begins:

(i) Preview your text or reading assignments prior to lecture. Previewing allows you to identify
main ideas and concepts that will most likely be discussed during the lecture.

(ii) Look at your course syllabus so that you know the topic/focus of the class and what’s going to
be important to focus on.

(iii) Briefly review notes from previous class sessions to help you situate the new ideas you’ll learn
in this class.

(iv) Keep organized to help you find information more easily later. Title your page with the class
name and date. Keep separate notebook sections or notebooks for each class and keep all notes
for each class together in one space, in chronological order.
54 CHAPTER 3. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

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Chapter 4

Assessment of Individual and Intra

Individual Differences in Learners

4.0.1 Difference between Inter-Individual and Intra-individual differences

Inter- individual differences are generally termed as individual differences. Inter-individual dif-
ferences are differences that are observed between people, whereas intra-individual differences are
differences that are observed within the same person when they are assessed at different times or in
different situations.

An easy way to remember this is that intra-individual differences occur within the same person.
Good examples of inter-individual differences are gender, age, ethnic background, anxiety levels or
attachment style. Attention or effort is good examples of intra-individual differences.

4.0.2 Assessment
Assessment is a systematic process of gathering information about what a student knows, is able
to do, and is learning to do. Assessment information provides the foundation for decision making and
planning for instruction and learning. Assessment is an integral part of instruction that enhances,
empowers, and celebrates student learning.

Using a variety of assessment techniques, teachers gather information about what students know
and are able to do, and provide positive, supportive feedback to students. They also use this infor-
mation to diagnose individual needs and to improve their instructional programs, which in turn helps
students learn more effectively. In the classroom, teachers are the primary assessors of students.

Teachers design assessment tools with two broad purposes: to collect information that will inform
classroom instruction, and to monitor students’ progress towards achieving year-end learning out-
comes. Teachers also assist students in developing self-monitoring and self-assessment skills and
strategies. To do this effectively, teachers must ensure that students are involved in setting learn-
ing goals, developing action plans, and using assessment processes to monitor their achievement of
goals. Learners can be assessed either by tools and techniques or by general approaches.

4.1 Tools and Techniques

The different tools and techniques used in classroom assessment are as follows.

1. Psychological tests 4. Checklists 7. Sociometry

2. Observation schedule 5. Anecdotal records 8. Interview techniques

3. Inventories 6. Cumulative records 9. Achievement test

55
56 CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

4.2 Psychological Tests

4.2.1 Definition
Psychological tests are written, visual, or verbal evaluations administered to assess the cognitive and
emotional functioning of children. It judges the levels of attributes of the learner.

4.2.2 Purpose
Psychological tests are used to assess a variety of mental abilities and attributes, including
achievement and ability, personality, and neurological functioning. For children, academic achieve-
ment, ability, and intelligence tests may be used as tools in school placement, in determining the
presence of a learning disability or a developmental delay, in identifying giftedness, or in tracking
intellectual development. Intelligence testing may also be used with teens and young adults to deter-
mine vocational ability (e.g., in career counselling)

Personality tests are administered for a wide variety of reasons, from diagnosing psychopathology
(e.g., personality disorder, depressive disorder) to screening job candidates. They may be used in an
educational setting to determine personality strengths and weaknesses.

4.2.3 Achievement and ability tests

Achievement and ability tests are designed to measure the level of a child’s intellectual func-
tioning and cognitive ability. Most achievement and ability tests are standardized. Achievement and
ability tests follow a uniform testing protocol, or procedure (i.e., test instructions, test conditions, and
scoring procedures) and their scores can be interpreted in relation to established norms. Common
achievement and ability tests include the Wechsler intelligence scale for children (WISC-III) and the
Stanford-Binet intelligence scales for adults.

4.2.4 Personality tests

Personality tests and inventories evaluate the thoughts, emotions, attitudes, and behavioural
traits that comprise personality. The results of these tests can help determine a child’s personality
strengths and weaknesses, and may identify certain disturbances in personality, or psychopathology.

Another type of personality test is the projective personality assessment. A projective test asks a
child to interpret some ambiguous stimuli, such as a series of inkblots. The child’s responses provide
insight into his or her thought processes and personality traits. For example, the Holtzman Ink blot
Test (HIT) uses a series of inkblots that the test subject is asked to identify. Another projective
assessment, the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), asks the child to tell a story about a series of
pictures.

Some consider projective tests to be less reliable than objective personality tests. If the examiner
is not well-trained in psychometric evaluation, subjective interpretations may affect the evaluation of
these tests.

4.2.5 Characteristics of Psychological Test:

1. Validity: It refers to extent to which the test measures what it intends to measure. For
example, when an intelligent test is developed to assess the level of intelligence, it should assess
the intelligence of the person, not other factors.
Validity explains us whether the test fulfils the objective of its development. There are many
methods to assess validity of a test.

2. Reliability: Test consistency; the ability to yield the same result under a variety of different
circumstances. When the test is administered on the same sample for more than once with a
4.3. OBSERVATION SCHEDULES 57

reasonable gap of time, a reliable test will yield same scores. It means the test is trustworthy.
There are many methods of testing reliability of a test.
3. Objectivity: Free of personal biasness in terms of scoring, interpretation of scoring, and in
administration. The test should be free from subjective—judgement regarding the ability, skill,
knowledge, trait or potentiality to be measured and evaluated.
4. Standardization: In terms of time, place, material employed in a test, atmosphere, and in
overall instructions, It would be standardized.
5. Norms: Appropriate and accurate norms must be present in a quality test. Like age, grade,
percentile rank, etc. Norms refer to the average performance of a representative sample on a
given test. It gives a picture of average standard of a particular sample in a particular aspect.
Norms are the standard scores, developed by the person who develops test. The future users of
the test can compare their scores with norms to know the level of their sample.
6. Simplicity: Administering, scoring of test should be simple and can be done in an available
resources and experts.
7. Practicability: The test must be practicable in- time required for completion, the length,
number of items or questions, scoring, etc. The test should not be too lengthy and difficult to
answer as well as scoring.
8. Economy: It should be administered in short time for the ease of those persons which are
involved in administering the test.
9. Interesting: Test should be interesting for the examinee that he or she does not feel boredom
in attempting the questions.

4.3 Observation Schedules

4.3.1 Observation schedule as assessment tool
Observation schedule was given by Waxman and Pardon. It focuses on behaviours of individual
students. Classroom observation is another form of on-going assessment. Most teachers can ”read”
their students; observing when they are bored, frustrated, excited, motivated, etc. As a teacher picks
up these cues, she or he can adjust the instruction accordingly. Observation is watching or regarding
with purpose in order to see or learn something.

Observation allows teachers to learn about children by carefully watching them, listening to them,
and studying their work. Authentic assessment is focused on collecting observations in the child’s
naturalenvironment.

4.3.2 Types of Observation schedule:

1. Participant and non-participant
2. Controlled and uncontrolled
3. Structured and Unstructured

4.3.3 Characteristics of Observation schedule:

1. Observation is a Systematic Method
2. Observation is Specific
3. Observation is Objective
4. Observation is Quantitative
58 CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

4.3.4 Definite Aim

The record of observation is made immediately
Observation is Verifiable

4.3.5 The Advantages

Classroom-based observations ”are responsive to the child’s needs,” When observing children
”in the moment,” teachers can adjust learning activities to help children reach a particular standard.
What’s more, when teachers tell students how they’re progressing, they show children that what
they’re learning in the classroom is important. ”It validates all their progress.”

Well-crafted observational assessment tools can also help teacher’s combat bias, ”a barrier to al-
lowing children to show us what they can do.” Teachers may have a great learning activity, but if
the language is obscure or if it contains terms that some children are not familiar with, then the task
simply is not effective.

Teachers must also ”be more thoughtful about their own prejudices”—about their pet peeves and
the stereotypes they might hold. When performance criteria are written down, teachers can set pre-
conceptions aside and look objectively at the behaviours. ”When giving a presentation, if a child is
looking at the audience and speaking clearly, the teacher can mark him high in that standard without
letting personal biases interfere.”

4.3.6 The Limitations

”There are some things kids know that you can observe; some things kids know that you can’t observe,”
”There are some things kids don’t know that you can observe, and there are some things kids don’t
know that can’t be observed.”

4.4 Inventories
4.4.1 Meaning
A concept inventory is a test to assess students’ conceptual understanding in a subject area.
It consists of multiple-choice questions in which several items are used to evaluate understanding for
each concept.

A key feature is that the items evaluate not simply whether a student gets an answer correct or
incorrect, but the nature or quality of the student understands. Each incorrect response option for an
item reflects a different type of understanding of the concept.

A concept inventory is a criterion-referenced test designed to help determine whether a student has
an accurate working knowledge of a specific set of concepts. In general, item difficulty values ranging
between 30% and 70% are best able to provide information about student understanding.
Inventories involves survey or questionnaire

4.4.2 Characteristics of inventories

Questions will be direct.
There will be no specific correct answers.

4.5 Checklists
A checklist is a simple device consisting of a prepared list of items which are thought by the
teacher to be relevant to the classroom issue. A checklist is a selected list of words, phrases, or sen-
4.6. ANECDOTAL RECORDS 59

tences following which a student records a check ( ) to denote the presence or absence of whatever
being observed.

When we want to assess whether some traits are present or absent in the behaviour of an individual,
we can use check list method. This consists of a number of statements on various traits of personality.
The statement which applies to the individuals is checked. Thus responses to the checklist items are
a matter of ‘fact’, not of ‘judgment’.

4.5.1 Characteristics of Checklist

1. Checklist is used for evaluation of self and others.

2. It is used as an instrument of observation.

3. It involves questions and its answers.

4. It involves signs by the respondent.

5. It involves the characteristics about a particular subject to be evaluated

4.5.2 Uses of Checklist

1. It is useful for survey and research.

2. The amount of characteristics or traits of subjects can be known.

3. It is helpful to give the appropriate guideline to the subjects.

4. To know the developmental direction of the specific behaviour pattern check list is used.

5. It is useful for self-evaluation and other’s evaluation.

4.5.3 Limitations of Checklist

As only sign is used in checklist therefore no other options are found. It is subjective and biased.
It is difficult to evaluate the personality of student or adjustment capacity through checklist

4.6 Anecdotal Records

A fundamental purpose of assessment is to communicate what the child knows and is able to
do. Teacher-generated, anecdotal records provide an insider’s perspective of the child’s educational
experience. This perspective is vital to communication with the child and the child’s family about
academic progress.

Anecdotal records also facilitate assessment conversations as educational professionals describe their
observations of student learning and consider ways to develop appropriate strategies to build on
strengths and address academic needs. The more focused the observational records, the more helpful
they can be in making daily decisions about instructional approaches.

Anecdotal Records are collections of narratives involving first-hand observations of interesting, illumi-
nating incidents in children’s literacy development. Anecdotal records are reports about the teacher
informal observations about students. It will help the teacher to collect details regarding student’s
behaviours at different situations. It will be a good tool to bring positive behavioural patterns through
daily observation and correction.

It involves the following information :

Social interactions and literacy exchanges that teacher have observed Children’s everyday routines,
60 CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

such as what they choose to do in centre workshops; a particular writing topic in a journal or on a
sheet of paper during independent writing time; the book they choose during independent reading
time; and when they spend time with blocks, sand, painting, or other forms of creative expression,
Children’s learning styles, Recurring patterns in children’s ways of understanding, Changes in chil-
dren’s behaviours., Milestones in children’s development.

4.6.1 Steps Involved In Preparation of Anecdotal Records

1. Observing children in instructional settings: Formal and information is the starting point in the
preparation of anecdotal records.

2. Maintaining a standards-based focus: Follow some criteria’s as standards at the time of obser-
vation.

3. Making anecdotal records: Writing quality anecdotal records is facilitated by keeping in mind
the following considerations: Write observable data, use significant abbreviations, write records
in the past tense.

4. Managing anecdotal records: Once the records are coded for strengths, needs, or information,
simply list an abbreviated summary of the strengths and the needs in the space provided below
the records. Separating the records into strengths and needs allows the Page 6teacher to sum-
marize what patterns are being exhibited by the student. The summary also helps clarify and
generate appropriate instructional recommendations.

5. Analysis of anecdotal records: Anecdotal records assessment is informed by comparing the stan-
dards to the child’s performance. The standards also inform the selection of strategies and
activities for instructional recommendations. Periodically, analyse the compiled records for each
student. The time between analyses may vary according to your own academic calendar.

4.7 Cumulative Records

The cumulative record card is a valuable technique prepared by teachers in the school for the
purpose of collection of data about the students as a result of which the teachers and guidance work-
ers become able to offer required guidance service to the students for their prosperity and development.

As a most useful and essential technique of data collection, the cumulative record can be described as
a “method for recording, filling and using information essential to the guidance of students those who
are in the school. There are certain definitions which are given below to make clear the meaning of
cumulative record card.”

Bonney and Hampleman:

“Cumulative records consist of all data about an individual pupil which a school considers
important enough to collect and record, usually in some organised way, for safe keeping
from year to year.”

Arthur Jones:

“Cumulative record is defined as “a permanent record of a student which is kept up- to-
date by school, it is his educational history with information about his school achievement,
attendance, health, test scores and similar pertinent data.”

Ben Morris:

“A record card is only a tool and unless a system of records can impress the majority of
teachers as a sensible and useful device which it is within their powers of use, it is likely
to be waste of public time and money to install it.”
4.7. CUMULATIVE RECORDS 61

4.7.1 Characteristics of Cumulative Record:

1. The cumulative record is a useful and permanent record which includes various information
about the student.

2. It is an up-to-date record which is maintained by teachers including the latest information’s

about student.

3. It is a complete record which includes student’s educational progress covering students past
achievement and present educational standard.

4. It is a comprehensive record as it embodies all the information’s about the students such as
attendance, health, test, co-curricular activities, psychological data and educational data etc.

5. It can be called as continuous record as it includes data about the student even starting from
kindergarten level to the end of school education.

6. It invites data about the students which should be valid, authentic, reliable, objective, usable
and pertinent in nature.

7. A separate file is maintained in case of confidential information collected about the students.

8. The needed information may be given but not the card itself if in certain cases any information
is required by concerned guidance personnel or well-wishers of student for the purpose of his
development.

9. The pages of cumulative record are not open for all and it is confidential. But in certain specific
cases it may be disclosed.

10. It is transferable from one school to another with students.

4.7.2 Uses of Cumulative Record:

1. It is useful for guidance worker and counsellor as it provides a comprehensive, objective picture
about the student including his strength and weaknesses.

2. It is useful for guidance counsellor to help pupil in educational achievement, vocational choice
and personal progress so far adjustment is concerned.

3. It is useful for headmaster/principal to ascertain the pupil’s performances in different subjects

and his limitations.

4. It is useful for parents to provide special privileges to make up the deficiencies what lie in case
of his child.

5. It is useful for teachers to know the students and his progress and weaknesses at a glance.

6. It does not give chance for overlapping of data collected by different teachers about the students.

7. It is useful in making case study about the students.

8. It is useful for the students for the vocational purposes.

4.7.3 Limitations of Cumulative Record:

1. The entire data is of little use if they are not collected properly objectively and accurately.

2. The purpose of Cumulative Record is not served if it is not maintained secretly and confidentially.

3. Sometimes the information’s and its interpretations of Cumulative Record become confusing as
the information’s are collected by different teachers.
62 CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

4. The Cumulative Record needs much money to come to light which is not possible in the part of
school to spend on this head.
5. The maintenance of Cumulative Record is a hard some job like clerical works in the part of
teachers.
6. It is a lengthy process which needs much time to be worked out.

4.8 Sociometry
4.8.1 Concept of Sociogram and sociomatrix
Sociometry is a theoretical and methodological approach which seeks to analyse relations be-
tween individuals in small group situations. Sociometry is a form of network analysis. Moreno intro-
duced the idea of a sociogram, which is a diagram representing the relationships between individuals.

When members of a group are asked to choose others in the group based on specific criteria, ev-
eryone in the group can make choices and describe why the choices were made. From these choices
a description emerges of the networks inside the group. A drawing, like a map, of those networks is
called a sociogram. The data for the sociogram may also be displayed as a table or matrix of each
person’s choices. Such a table is called a sociomatrix.

One of Moreno’s innovations in sociometry was the development of the sociogram, a systematic
method for graphically representing individuals as points/nodes and the relationships between them
as lines/arcs. Moreno, who wrote extensively of his thinking, applications and findings, also founded
a journal entitled Sociometry.

A Sociogram is an important tool for teachers. The sociogram is the chart used to actually ap-
ply sociometry in the classroom. It charts the interrelationships within a group. Its purpose is to
discover group structures and the relation of any one person to the group as a whole. Its value to the
teacher is in its potentiality for developing greater understanding of group behaviour so that he may
operate more wisely in group management and curriculum.

This shows the positive nature of sociometry and the use of it is important for understanding the
relationships within classrooms. Once this relationship is understood by the teacher, group work can
be better facilitated for greater learning to occur.

When working with students who tend to socially withdraw or isolate themselves, a sociometric ac-
tivity can be conducted with the class to determine the peer(s) who would most like to interact with
the targeted students.

These results can then be used when assigning groups and arranging seating.
1. Stars: When several children ”positively” nominate the same person the many arrows all lead
to that person thus emphasizing their ”starness”. They are the center or ”hub of attraction.” We
call them ”stars.” In the case of a ”negative nomination,” we might want to note the individual
with several arrows as a ”negative Star”.
2. Isolates: Children who have not been ”positively” nominated by anyone in the group are usually
defined as ”isolates”.
3. Multiple choice: Individuals who choose each other are known to have made a mutual choice.
4. One-way choice: refers to individuals who choose someone but the choice is not reciprocated.
5. Cliques: are groups of three or more people within a larger group who all choose each other
(mutual choice).
4.8. SOCIOMETRY 63

The use of sociometry has since expanded into other fields such as psychology, sociology, anthropology,
and is now being used for education and classroom purposes. The use of sociometry in the classroom
is to find the best relationships between students and to see how children see themselves within the
social construct of education.

4.8.2 Applications to the Classroom

”Every teacher knows that the group of children with which he works is more that an
aggregation of individuals. He knows that the group has form and structure; that there
are patterns of sub-groups, cliques, and friendships. Some individuals are more accepted
by the group then others. Some are more rejected. These factors play an important role in
determining how the group will react to learning situations and to various types of group
management employed by the teacher”.

This quote is a very nice summary of the necessity of sociometry in the classroom. It also highlights
what sociometrists are trying to accomplish by studying groups in social settings. They are trying to
see how people get along in groups and what this means in the context of learning and developing
within the classroom.

For group work, sociometry can be a powerful tool for reducing conflict and improving communi-
cation because it allows the group to see itself objectively and to analyse its own dynamics. It is also
a powerful tool for assessing dynamics and development in groups devoted to therapy or training.

4.8.3 Sociometric assessment techniques/ Methods

There are a variety of what can be referred to as classic sociometric assessment techniques de-
rived from the work of the 1930s, including peer nomination, peer rankings, and sociometric rankings.
In the peer nomination technique, children in a social group or school classroom anonymously identify
social preferences for their classmates.

For example, children may be asked to provide a list of the three classmates with whom they would
most like to play and the three with whom they would least like to play. Another peer nomination
technique is to provide a list of the names of the children in a classroom along with social acceptance
items (e.g., “Who do you like to play with?” “Who is most likely to be alone during recess?” “Who
gets into trouble the most?”). The children are asked to identify perhaps one to three classmates who
they perceive best fit the item description.

An alternative peer nomination method for early readers is to use photographs with an adult reading
the items aloud in either an individual or classroom setting while the children provide a nomination
for a child, perhaps by assigning a smiling or frowning face to the photograph that applies. Another
variation of the peer nomination method is the class play. In this procedure children cast their peers
in positive and negative roles in an imaginary play.

The class play has the potential advantage of being more acceptable in school settings because the
positive and negative role assignments may be perceived as a more discreet method for identifying
children’s social standing. For each of the methods described, the nominations may be summed for
each child and the results are used to identify those children who are perceived as most socially positive
or negative by their peers.

Two other sociometric techniques can be described as peer ratings and sociometric rankings. Peer
ratings are conducted by providing a list of children’s names in the social roup or classroom along
with a rating for social acceptance items such as “The most fun to lay with,”The least fun to play
with,” and “Has the most friends.”
64 CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

The rating methods that re used may vary, typically ranging from three- to five-point Like-type
responses (e.g., gree, Neutral, and Disagree). In contrast to peer nominations and ratings, sociometric
rankings are completed by an adult, most often the classroom teacher who has had the opportunity to
observe the children in multiple social settings such as the classroom, Page 10playground, and cafete-
ria. In this method, teachers rank the children on social dimensions similar to those provided by peers.

Each of these sociometric assessment methods has strengths and limitations. Researchers have found
that each method appears to be valid for identifying children’s social standing. Peer ratings and adult
rankings appear to provide the most reliable or stable measurements and, as such, may be more useful
than the peer nomination method.

A major issue that arises with each of these methods is the concept of social validity, which refers
to the acceptance, usefulness, and potential harm of an assessment procedure. The applications of
sociometric assessment methods have resulted in controversy and ethical concerns regarding their use.
These concerns center on the use of negative peer nominations and the possibility that children will
compare responses which may result in negative social and emotional consequences for children who
are not positively perceived by their peers.

These concerns contributed to the decline in the acceptance and use of sociometric assessment meth-
ods, particularly in school settings. However, researchers have found no strong evidence that negative
consequences occur for either the children who are rating or those being rated; therefore, sociometric
assessment continues to be used as a research tool for understanding children’s social relationships.

4.9 Interview Techniques

Interview methods are used to gather information about a child’s social skill strengths and
weaknesses, and to aid in the identification of specific skill deficits for intervention. Interviews can be
used separately with children, parents or parent surrogates, and teachers, or conjointly with multiple
sources.

Interviews can be structured, with a focus on the identification and treatment of specific social skills,
or interviews can be less structured, with a greater focus on feelings and perceptions about a child’s
social skills. As with rating scales, interview data can be viewed as summary recall information which
should be validated with direct observation.

The assessment methods described often are combined in a comprehensive social skills assessment
that may include rating scales, observations, and interviews. Using multiple methods of assessment is
considered best practice because the use of more than one assessment method increases the likelihood
that the behaviours which are targeted for classification or intervention are valid, and that specific
social skills strengths and deficits are clearly defined. It is also important to use multiple assessment
methods to monitor a child’s progress and to assess the effectiveness of an intervention.

4.10 Achievement and Diagnostic Tests

Achievement Tests

4.10.1 Meaning
An achievement test has a great significance in all types of instructional progresses of the indi-
vidual. A classroom teacher depends upon the achievements tests for measuring the progress of his
students in his are taken on their performance in the achievement tests. It is, therefore, necessary
that the teachers should be well-versed with the meaning and the characteristics of achievement tests.
4.10. ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS 65

4.10.2 Definition
“The type of ability tests that describe a person has learned to do is called an achievement
test.” - Thorndike and Hagen (1969)

“A systematic procedure for determining the amount a student has learned through in-
struction.” -Gronlund(1997)

4.10.3 Types of standardised tests:

1. Aptitude test

2. Attitude test

3. Intelligence test

4. Interest test

5. Personality test

4.10.4 Characteristics of a good Achievement test

Groulund and Linn (1990) -
1. A good achievement test is tried out and selected on the basis of its difficulty level and discrim-
inating power.

2. It should have a description of measured behaviour

3. It should be divided into different knowledge and skills according to behaviours to be measured.

4. It should contain a sufficient number of test items for each measured behaviour

5. Its instructions in regard to its administering and scoring are so clear that they become stan-
dardized for different users.

6. It is accompanied by norm which is developed at various levels and on various age groups.

7. It provides equivalent and comparable forms of the test. • It carries with it a test manual for
its administering and scoring.

4.10.5 Characteristics of Achievement Tests

Reliability
The degree of accuracy with which an exam, test measures, what it seeks to measure a given
variable.

A good test reliability means that the test taker will obtain the same test score over repeated testing
as long as no other extraneous factors have affected the score.

A good instrument will produce consistent scores. An instrument’s reliability is estimated using a
correlation coefficient of one type (or) another.

Validity
Validity is the quality of a test which measures what measures what it is supposed to measure.

It is the degree to which evidence, common sense, (or) theory supports any interpretations (or) con-
clusions about a student based on his/her test performance.
66 CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

A Test is Valid when

1. Produce consistent scores over time.

2. Measures what it intends to measures.

3. Can be objectively scored

4. Has representative norms

EASE IN ADMINISTRATIVE
A test is good only when the conditions of answering are simple (scientific & logical). Its instrument
should be simple and clear.

COST
A good test should be in expensive, not only from the view point of money but also from the view
point of time & effort taken in the construction of a test. Fortunately there is no direct relationship
between cost & quality.

TIME
Generally the time given to students is always in short supply however the students too do not accept
very long tests. Therefore a test should neither be very long nor very short.

ACCEPTABILITY
A good test should be acceptable to student to whom its being given without regard to any specific
situation that is the question given in the test should be neither very difficult nor very easy.

OBJECTIVITY
A test is objective when the scorer’s personal judgment doesn’t affect the scoring.

EQUILIBRIUM
Achievement of the correct proportion among questions allotted to each of the objectives and teaching
content.

SPECIFICITY
The items in a test should be specificity to the objectives.

PRECISE & CLEAR

Item should be precise, clear so that the students can answer well and score marks.

4.10.6 Practical uses of achievement tests

1. Tests help to evaluate the extent to which the objectives of education are being achieved

2. Tests help to classify school objectives

3. Tests discover the type of learning experiences that will achieve these objectives with the best
possible results

4. To evaluate, revise and improve the curriculum in the light of these results. • To discover
backward children who need help and to plan for remedial instruction for such students. • To
select talented pupils for special classes and courses.
4.10. ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS 67

5. To decide proper classification of students.

6. To get a better understanding of the needs and abilities of pupils.

7. To select students for the award of special merits or scholarships • To group pupils in a class so
that students are put in such a way that individual difference are as slight as possible.

4.10.7 Functions of Achievement Tests

1. Provides basics for promotion to next grade.

2. Find out where each student stands in various academic areas.

3. Motivate the students before a new assignments has taken up.

4. Expose pupils difficulties which the teacher can help them to solve

Achievement tests are of two types

1. Standardised tests

2. Teacher made tests

4.10.8 Standardized Tests

Standardization means uniformity of procedure in scoring, administering & interpreting the results.

”Standardization test is one in which the procedure, apparatus, & scoring have been fixed so that
precisely the same test can be given at different times & places” -(LEE J CRONBACH).

Standardization tool is one for which norms have been established. A standardization test is pre-
pared after several trials of a test to a large number of students.

Characteristics of Standardized Tests

1. Content is Standardized : Item – selection done by component judges.

2. Administration is Standardized : direction , time limits

3. Scoring has been Standardized : rules of rules, scoring key are prepared.

4. Interpretation has been Standardized : Norms are provided.

Teacher-Made Tests

Teacher made tests are classroom tests and are developed by the teachers.
These tests assess students learning every period of time or after a particular unit of study.
Types of teacher-made tests:

1. Written - essay type, short answer type, objective type.

2. Oral.

3. Practical.
68 CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

Features of Teacher-Made Tests

1. Assess degree of students’ progress with reference to classroom activities.

2. Help the teacher to assess individual pupil’s strengths and weakness and needs.

3. Motivate the students.

4. Simple to use.

5. Provide feedback for teachers as to assess the effectiveness of teaching methods.

Limitations of Teacher-Made Tests

1. Tests are ambiguous and unclear.

2. Tests are either too short or too lengthy.

3. Tests do not cover the entire content.

4. Tests serve limited purpose.

5. Tests are usually hurriedly conducted.

4.11 General Approaches

A learner can be assessed either using general approaches or using tools and techniques
There are three major types of general approaches. They are :

1. Whole school approach 2. Remedial measures 3. Guidance and counselling

4.12 Remedial Instruction

Remedial measure helps in bridging the learner’s present and expected learning outcome. Reme-
dial programs are designed to close the gap between what a student knows and what he’s expected to
know. In many cases, students are removed from their regular classroom and taught in another setting.

In general, teachers provide remedial support for students with learning difficulties in one or all of the
basic subjects as necessary. Remedial teaching aims at helping pupils to build a good foundation for
subject learning and self-learning. It evaluates the performances of pupils and the progress of learning.

4.13 Guidance and Counseling

Guidance is crucial in every aspect of your life. When it comes to education, it is even more
important as the educational institute are not capable of imparting quality and complete knowledge.
Hence, for the overall development of every student to allow them to perform and achieve the best,
counselling is significant.

Often it is considered that guidance and counselling is a requirement for those who have a career
or goal in life. The reality is, counselling involves interaction of a mentor with the student, which is
a requirement for each of them. From the beginning of a student’s school life till the achievement of
their goal, interaction or right counselling is important for them.
4.14. WHOLE SCHOOL APPROACH 69

Importance of Counselling:
Counselling helps a student open up before their mentor and communicate whatever they want
to without any hesitation. On the other hand, a mentor when interacts with their student understand
them better. Understanding a student helps a mentor impart knowledge and guide in the right way
specific to individual student.

Focus: Regular counselling sessions help build trust among the students. They feel comfortable and
secure that they are into safe hands and can seek guidance anytime. Further, this helps the students
to focus on their studies and career better. Productive interaction with the students brings a sense of
direction and clarity in them. Also, during the time of tension, they are able to focus more on gaining
solutions

4.14 Whole School Approach

1. Engages students, teachers, parents and community members in the education process.

2. Together, the school community establishes a sustainable vision (i.e. a school/community vision).

3. Goals are set and integrated across school processes, curriculum content and learning.

4. The school community carries out school/community projects to achieve the goals while at the
same time students learn the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that fall in line with the
curriculum.

5. Addresses the environment not just from a natural perspective, but also from social and cultural
perspectives

6. provides a way of contextualising and internalising the principles of sustainability into a way of
life

7. irons out double standards making the school a more authentic and valid teaching /learning
environment

8. provides opportunities for interaction with the community

9. empowers individuals with the responsibility and the means to bring about change

4.15 Summary
• Inter-individual differences are differences that are observed between people, whereas intra-
individual differences are differences that are observed within the same person

• Psychological tests are written, visual, or verbal evaluations administered to assess the cognitive
and emotional functioning of children. It judges the levels of attributes of the learner.

• Psychological tests are used to assess a variety of mental abilities and attributes, including
achievement and ability, personality, and neurological functioning.

• Achievement and ability tests are designed to measure the level of a child’s intellectual function-
ing and cognitive ability.

• Common achievement and ability tests include the Wechsler intelligence scale for children and
the Stanford-Binet intelligence scales for adults.

• Personality tests and inventories evaluate the thoughts, emotions, attitudes, and behavioural
traits that comprise personality.
70 CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

• Characteristics of personality tests are validity, reliability, objectivity, norms, simplicity, practi-
cability, economy, interesting.

• Observation schedule was given by Waxman and Pardon. It focuses on behaviours of individual
students.

• Types of observation schedule are participant and non-participant, controlled and non-controlled,
structured and unstructured

• Observation is systematic, specific, objective, definite aim, quantitative, records are made im-
mediately.

• A concept inventory is a test to assess students’ conceptual understanding in a subject area.

Responses to the checklist items are a matter of ‘fact’, not of ‘judgment’.

• Anecdotal records provide an insider’s perspective of the child’s educational experience.

• Anecdotal Records are collections of narratives involving first-hand observations of interesting,

illuminating incidents in children’s literacy development.

• Anecdotal records assessment is informed by comparing the standards to the child’s performance.

• The cumulative record is a valuable technique prepared by teachers in the school for the pur-
pose of collection of data about the students as a result of which the teachers and guidance
workers become able to offer required guidance service to the students for their prosperity and
development.

• Cumulative record is a comprehensive record as it embodies all the information’s about the
students such as attendance, health, test, co-curricular activities, psychological data and educa-
tional data etc.

• The sociogram is the chart used to actually apply sociometry in the classroom.

• Stars- Several children ”positively” nominate the same person

• Isolates- Children who have not been ”positively” nominated by anyone in the group.

• Multiple choice- Individuals who choose each other are known to have made a mutual choice.

• One-way choice refers to individuals who choose someone but the choice is not reciprocated.

• Cliques are groups of three or more people within a larger group who all choose each other.

• Interview methods are used to gather information about a child’s social skill strengths and
weaknesses, and to aid in the identification of specific skill deficits for intervention.

• Two types of achievement tests are standardised test and teacher made test.

• Whole school approach engages students, teachers, parents and community members in the
education process.

• Remedial measure helps in bridging the learner’s present and expected learning outcome.

• Counselling helps a student open up before their mentor and communicate whatever they want
to without any hesitation.
Chapter 5

Previous Years’ Question Papers

5.1 Nov-Dec 2017

1. (a) What is Psychology? Discuss any three branches of Psychology. 6
(b) Why is study of Psychology important for classroom teachers? 4

OR

2. (a) Discuss different stages of development? 5

(b) What are developmental tasks? Discuss. 5
3. (a) Explain different factors which affect adolescent development. 5
(b) Outline the significance of life-skill education for adolescents. 5

OR

4. (a) Explain the need and importance of adolescent education. 6

(b) As a head of the school how would you work towards developing balanced personality among
your students? 4
5. (a) Discuss the importance of studying individual differences by teachers? 3
(b) What are psycho-motor skills? How do you develop them in your students? 7

OR

6. (a) What is intelligence? Discuss the different kinds of intelligence tests? 6

(b) Define Aptitude. How does the knowledge of student’s aptitude helps a teacher? 4
7. (a) What are the psychological tests? Discuss the use of psychology tests in the classroom
contexts 5
(b) What are the Qualities of standardised psychological tests? 5

OR

8. (a) What is an observational schedule? When do you see them? Elaborate. 5

(b) What is a checklist? Why do we need them in school education? Elaborate. 5
9. Write short notes on any two of the following : (2 × 5 = 10)
(a) Physical characteristics of adolescence stages
(b) Assessment of interest among learners
(c) Difference between growth and development
(d) A model anecdotal records

71
72 CHAPTER 5. PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTION PAPERS

5.2 Nov-Dec 2018

1. (a) Explain the difference between growth and development. 5
(b) Explain the principles of development. 5

OR

2. (a) Discuss the role of heridity and enviroment in determing individual difference in develop-
ment. 7
(b) Discuss the characterstics and early childhood. 3

3. (a) Explain physical and health concern and adoloscents. 4

(b) Discuss in brief various life skills to be developed among the adoloscence. 6

OR

4. (a) Elaborate different emotional issues which can impede adoloscence development. 6
(b) Discuss Identity V/S role confusion issues among adoloscents. 4

5. (a) Every clasroom is heterogenous in nature. Discuss this in the light of personality. 5
(b) Discuss the different learning style of learners. 5

OR

6. (a) How teachers can develop self-concept and self-esteem among the students? 5
(b) Learner differ in their socio emotional development.Elaborate. 5

7. (a) What is Sociometry? Explain the procedure of using sociometric technique in school. 5
(b) Discuss the meaning, nature and importance of anecdotal records. 5

OR

8. (a) Explain differnt types of interview. Discuss its use in the school context. 4
(b) Compare and constrast achievement test with diagnostic test. 6

9. Write short notes on any two of the following : (2 × 5 = 10)

(a) Language development during early childhood.

(b) Importance of understanding individual differences among learners
(c) Developing study habits among learners
(d) Meaning and importance of remedial instructions
5.3. NOV-DEC 2019 73

5.3 Nov-Dec 2019

1. (a) Explain the concepts and branches of psychology. 5
(b) Why it is important to study psychology by classroom teachers? 5

2. (a) What are developmental tasks? Why should teachers know that? 5
(b) Discuss the characteristics of social development of late childhood. Explain the educational
implications. 5

3. (a) Discuss the characteristics of adolescence and explain the consequence of adverse life expe-
riences in adolescence. 6
(b) What are the techniques for developing life skills? 4

4. (a) Discuss the role of schools in developing balanced personality of students. 5

(b) Explore the need and importance of adolescence education. 5

5. (a) What is aptitude ?Why should we measure it? 5

(b) What is intelligence? How it is assessed? 5

6. (a) What are the challenges for the teacher to teach a children with varying intelligence? 5
(b) Why is understanding personality important for a teacher? 5

7. (a) What are psychological tests?What are the criteria for selecting a good test? 5
(b) Observation is both a tool and a technique. 5

8. (a) What are the characteristics and uses of an achievement tests? 5

(b) What is an inventory? How do you develop and use an inventory? 5

9. Write short notes on any two of the following : (2 × 5 = 10)

(a) Educational implications of emotional development

(b) Decision making skills
(c) Consequences of high self esteem
(d) Check lists