. .

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O 00 0

Si h ouse
Houghton Mifflin English

. .
Sixth Course

~ \.\~

Houghton M~ffIin Company • Boston

Atlanta Dallas Geneva, Illinois
Lawrenceville, New Jersey Palo Alto Toronto
 Authors
Ann Cole Brown Former Lecturer in English composition and literature at
Northern’~~inçpr~u~iunity College in Alexandria, Virginia

Jeffrey Nilson Former teacher of English at the Wixon Middle School,

South Dennis, Massachusetts, and independent computer software designer

Fran Weber Shaw Assistant Professor of English and Coordinator of the

Writing Center at the University of Connecticut, Stamford

Richard A. Weldon Vice Principal, Associate Dean of Studies, and teacher

of English at the Christian Brothers High School in Sacramento, California

Editorial Advisers
Edwin Newman Veteran broadcast journalist, author, and chairman of the
Usage Panel of the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language

Robert Cotton Vice Principal, Curriculum Director, and former chairman

of the English Department at Servite High School in Anaheim, California

Consultant
Nancy C. Miltett Professor of Language Arts Education at Wichita State
University, Kansas, and co-author of Houghton Miff/in English, K-8

Special Contributors
Ernestine Sewell, University of Texas at Arlington
Luella M. Wolff, Washburn University, Topeka, Kansas

Acknowledgments
The Publisher gratefully acknowledges the cooperation of the National
Council of Teachers of English for making available student writing from the
Council’s Achievement Awards in Writing Program.

lAcknowledgments continue on page 678.1

Copyright 1986, 1984 by Houghton Mifflin Company
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by
any information storage or retrieval system, except as may be expressly permitted by
the 1976 Copyright Act or in writing by the Publisher. Requests for permission should be
addressed in writing to: Permissions, Houghton Mifflin Company, One Beacon Street,
Boston, Massachusetts 02108.
Printed in U.S.A.
ISBN: 0-395-38552-0

BCDEFGHIJ-RM-g43210 89876
Contents

The s La age: A Brief History

PartOne a , sage,and c s 1

Unit 1 Grammar 2
1.1 Parts of Speech 3
1.2 Sentence Structure 34
1.3 Phrases and Clauses 46

Unit 2 Usage 86
2.1 The Scope of Usage 87
2.2 Correct Use of Verbs 90
2.3 Subject-Verb Agreement 108
2.4 Correct Use of Pronouns 118
2.5 Correct Use of Modifiers 134
2.6 Usage Notes 141

Unit 3 Mechanics 170

3.1 Capitalization 171
3.2 Punctuation 177
3.3 Using Italics and Numbers
in Writing 201
3.4 Preparing Your Manuscript 207

III
Part Two o os~ 216

Unit 4 Prewriting 218

4.1 Finding Ideas for Writing 219
4.2 Developing Your Ideas 227
4.3 Focusing Ideas 232

Unit 5 Writing Paragraphs 242

5.1 Developing Paragraphs 243
5.2 Organizing Paragraphs 254
5.3 Combining Methods
of Organization 267

Unit 6 Revising 276

6.1 Revising: Coherence and Clarity 277
6.2 Revising: Combining Sentences 283
6.3 Revising Sentences for Variety 290
6.4 Revising Sentences
for Parallel Structure 294
6.5 Revising Sentences
for Conciseness 298
6.6 Revising for Emphasis 306
6.7 Revising and Proofreading 310

Unit 7 Three Modes of Writing 320

7.1 Considering Your Purpose
and Audience 321
7.2 Expository Writing 324
7.3 Descriptive Writing 332
7.4 Narrative Writing 340
Unit 8 Persuasive Writing 356
8.1 Selecting a Topic 357
8.2 Using Facts 362
8.3 Using Other Types of Evidence 367
8.4 Organizing and Writing
an Argument 373
8.5 Revising Your Argument 384

Unit 9 Writing an Essay 400

9.1 Selecting and Limiting a Topic 401
9.2 Determining Your Audience,
Tone, and Style 405
9.3 Planning Your Essay 413
9.4 Writing Your First Draft 418
9.5 Revising and Finishing Your Essay 425

Unit 10 Writing About Literature 436

10.1 The Nature of the Literary Essay 437
10.2 Preparing to Write a Literary Essay 440
10.3 Taking Notes 445
10.4 Organizing Your Ideas 449
10.5 Writing the First Draft 454
10.6 Revising and Finishing Your Essay 462
10.7 Writing an Explication of a Poem 464

Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper 478

11.1 Planning Your Research Paper 479
11.2 Doing the Research 485
11.3 Taking Notes 493
11.4 Organizing Your Information 501
11.5 Drafting and Documenting
Your Paper 508
11.6 Revising and Finishing Your Paper 515
 Unit 12 Technical Writing 542
12.1 The Nature of Technical Writing 543
12.2 Writing About a Mechanism 549
12.3 Writing About a Process 555
12.4 Writing a Technical Report 562

Unit 13 Writing Business Letters 586

13.1 Standard Business Letters 587
13.2 Applying for a Job 596
13.3 Expressing an Opinion 601

Part Three late Skils 612

Unit 14 Spelling Skills 614

14.1 How to Study Spelling Words 614
14.2 Spelling Rules 614
14.3 Spelling Patterns 619
14.4 Pronunciation and Spelling 620
14.5 Other Spelling Aids 621
14.6 Frequently Misspelled Words 623

Unit 15 Vocabulary Skills 624

15.1 How to Learn New Words 624
15.2 Using Context to Get Meaning 624
15.3 Getting Meanings from Word Parts 625
15.4 Word Origins 628
15.5 How to Choose the Best Word 630
15.6 Using the Dictionary 631
 Unit 16 Public Speaking Skills 634
16.1 Uses of Public Speaking Skills 634
16.2 Planning Your Speech 636
16.3 Organizing Your Speech 640
16.4 Preparing and Delivering
Your Speech 649

Unit 17 Test-Taking Skills 654

17.1 Verbal Skills 654
17.2 Standard Written English 662

Index 666
Acknowledgments 678
Checklist for Revision 680

VII
The English Language
A Brief History

hen the English language got its start about fifteen hundred
years ago, it was spoken only by a few Germanic tribes
living in England. Today, more than three hundred million people,
or about one eighth of the world’s population, speak English. But
the English that we speak is a very different language from the
English spoken fifteen hundred years ago. In fact, a speaker of
modern English would be unable to understand a speaker of the
earliest form of English. The changes that have taken place in the
language as well as its status as an important world language are
both the result of major cultural and social developments.

•9t~~t~ ~4’ fr~in phi 1-~ rI°~ ~~“~im

~e~te- ~ lyp~t~e fcetn ieaji~

b0~~ l~ocen llpins ~ (ciji.. (on~mf~1I~

~t lne~ ~ofele- ~uiv~uni in

1te~ 5ertr puni SLUl~4I’ ~PO 1I1OTJ ~C~O11

~sa’ine1,e~ ç~~e- c~~h~tc twn~aI ~ liea~

~ bp7~on ~~a.ro l,e~ice~
L,yjIna7l llIlUlc so,, ~ i~tto ttien4~

Beowuif, an epic poem written in Old English about a Scandinavian hero, is

considered to be the first great work of English literature. Like almost all Old
English poetry, it uses a pattern of alliteration instead of rhvnie.

VIII
 nce f ngs
Today, English is the leading international language. More
people may speak Chinese than English, but Chinese does not have
the significance of English in international political, business, and
cultural affairs. Nearly three hundred million people speak English
as their native language, and more than one hundred fifty million
others use it as a second language.
Most of the native speakers of English live in the United
States, Canada, Great Britain, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, and
South Africa. Large numbers of people in India, Pakistan, and
Bangladesh speak English almost as much as their native language.
In addition, millions of business people, scientists, and government
officials around the world use English in their work.
English is one of the six official languages of the United
Nations and is an important language in international diplomacy. It
is also widely used by scientists throughout the world to
communicate the results of their research to colleagues in other
nations.

Car cescsofE lish

Certain basic characteristics distinguish English from other
languages. Among the more noteworthy are (1) the importance of
word order, (2) the simplicity of inflections, (3) the difficulty of its
spelling, and (4) its large vocabulary.
English relies primarily on the order of words in a sentence to
indicate grammatical relationships. We can often recognize the
function of a word by its position in a sentence. For example, in the
sentence John hit the ball, we know that ball is the object and that it
follows the verb. We cannot change the order of the words without
changing the meaning of the sentence, as, for example, in the
sentence The ball hit John. For this reason, word order in English is
more regular and less flexible than in languages that indicate the
function of a word by varying its form. These variable forms of a
word are called inflections.
Inflections are used to indicate case, number, gender, voice,
mood, and tense. In German, for example, the definite article is

Ix
 declined to indicate the case of the noun that it modifies. Johann
schlagte den Ball is the German translation of John hit the ball. The
article den is in the accusative (objective) case, thus indicating that
ball is the direct object of the verb. As a result, the meaning would
be the same if we wrote Den Ball schlagte Johann.
In English, only nouns, pronouns, and verbs are inflected, and
most of those words have only a few inflections. For example, the
verb ride has only five forms (ride, rides, rode, riding, ridden),
while the corresponding German verb reiten has sixteen forms.
In English, unlike many other European languages, adjectives
are uninflected. For example, the adjective tall is always spelled the
same way no matter what noun it is modifying. In Spanish,
however, the word for tall can be spelled alto, alta, altos, or altos,
depending on the number and gender of the noun that it modifies.
An important characteristic of English is its flexibility of
function for some words. For example, many words can be used as
both nouns and verbs. We can “issue a plan” or “plan an issue”;
‘‘ruin a visit’’ or “visit a ruin”; and “clock the race” or “race the
clock.” Similarly, some words can be used as both nouns and
adjectives. For example, on the side of a mountain we might see a
mountain goat.
In such languages as Spanish and Italian, spelling is closely
related to pronunciation. In English, however, spelling is difficult
because there is not a one-to-one correspondence between the sounds
of the language and their written forms. The same sound can be
spelled various ways (leaf, graph, laugh), and the same combination
of letters can represent a variety of sounds (rough, through,
though).
With more than six hundred thousand words, English has the
largest vocabulary of any language. Many of these words are
technical terms used only by scientists or other specialists.
Nevertheless, few languages can rival English in the richness of its
vocabulary. The size of the vocabulary stems largely from the fact
that, through most of its history, English has borrowed words freely
from many other languages. English is also freer than most
languages in its creation of new words by combining or modifying
existing words.
 igi f n us
Along with most of the languages spoken in Europe and
western Asia, English belongs to the Indo-European family of
languages. Linguists believe that all of these languages developed
from Proto-Indo-European, a tongue spoken by nomadic groups in
Europe more than five thousand years ago. No written records of
Proto-Indo-European exist, but linguists have reconstructed the
language by comparing all the languages that developed from it.
Over the centuries, Proto-Indo-European evolved into different
dialects as its speakers resettled throughout parts of Europe. In
northwestern Europe the dialect that was spoken formed the
Germanic group of Indo-European languages. Scholars divide this
group into East Germanic, North Germanic, and West Germanic.
All the East Germanic languages are extinct. North Germanic
includes Icelandic, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish. English is
classified as West Germanic, along with German and Dutch.

e velop e o d gis
The history of the English language itself begins with the
Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. These three groups lived near one
another in what is now northern Germany and southern Denmark
and spoke closely related dialects of West Germanic. After the
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes invaded England in the AD.4005, their
isolation from other Germanic speakers caused their language to
become different from other varieties of West Germanic. We refer to
this language as Old English or Anglo-Saxon.
The people who lived in England before the invasion of the
Germanic tribes spoke a Celtic language. The Angles, Saxons, and
Jutes drove these original inhabitants into Wales and established such
complete domination over England that almost no words of Celtic
origin dating from this period are found in English.
During the 600s and 700s, the Anglo-Saxon people were
converted to Christianity. This event had great significance for Old
English, because religious scribes, who knew Latin, began to use

XI
the Roman alphabet to write Old English. Thanks to these scribes,
we have a wealth of written records in Old English. Because we
know what sounds the letters of the Roman alphabet represented in
Latin, we can also be fairly certain of how Old English was
pronounced.
As time went on, Old English developed regional dialects of its
own. The four main dialects—West Saxon, Kentish, Mercian, and
Northumbrian—differed mostly in pronunciation. By the 900s,
Wessex, the area south of the Thames between Cornwall and Kent
where West Saxon was spoken, had become the political and cultural
center of England. Thus, West Saxon became the dominant dialect
and something of a standard national language. In fact, England
became the first nation in Europe to have such a standard language
for literature and official documents.
Most of the documents in Old English that have come down to
us are written in West Saxon. These writings include a rich variety
of literature as well as legal documents and inscriptions. The
literature consists mostly of poetry and various forms of religious
writing, including sermons and meditations.
The development of Old English was also influenced by
invasions of Scandinavians during the 800s and again around 1000.
A number of Scandinavian words were taken into the language,
including most of the English words that begin with sk, such as sky
and skirt. In addition, some English pronouns were replaced by
Scandinavian pronouns, including the forerunners of they, them,
and their.

C ara ers cs I E s
In many ways Old English was more similar to Modern
German than to Modern English. Like German, Old English had
inflectional endings to show grammatical relationships of nouns and
adjectives. Even the definite article was highly inflected; it had
twelve different forms, depending on the case, gender, and number
of the noun it was used with. Because of this system of inflections,
word order in Old English was somewhat freer than in Modern
English.

XI,
 Also, as in German, nouns were of the masculine, feminine, or
neuter gender, which determined the form of accompanying articles,
adjectives, and pronouns. This gender had nothing to do with the
actual gender of what the noun stood for. Thus, joy (dream) was
masculine, shoulder (eaxl) was feminine, and woman (wit) was
neuter.
The fact that Old English is essentially a foreign language for
speakers of Modern English is clearly shown by the following lines
from the masterpiece of Old English literature, the epic poem
Beowuif:
Nis ji~t feor heonon
milgemearces ~ se mere stande~.
ofer~m hongia~ hrinde bearwas,
wudu wyrtum f~st, w~ter oferhe1ma~.

Notice that Old English used two letters not found in Modern
English, } (called thorn) and ~S (called edh). Both letters represent
the sound th as in the word thorn. In Modern English, the passage
above reads:
It is not far hence
measured by miles that the mere stands;
over it hang frost-covered groves;
a wood made fast with roots, overshadows the water.

Despite the differences between Old English and Modern

English, many of our most common words come directly from Old
English. From the passage above, you can recognize stand, over,
and water. Other examples include being, father, house, life,
mother, summer, and write.

se f e us
The conquest of England by the Normans from northwestern
France in 1066 brought great changes to English culture and to the
English language. The Normans were of Scandinavian ancestry, but
they had adopted the French language and culture after conquering
Normandy in the 800s. By 1100 Norman French had become the
language of the dominant classes in England, and Old English as a

XIII
 standard language disappeared. English, in the form of its various
dialects, became the language of peasants and workers and was for
the most part an unwritten language.
The Normans ruled both England and Normandy in
northwestern France until 1204, when France recaptured Normandy.
With no territory on the continent, the Normans began to consider
England their home and gradually started to use English rather than
French. In the process, however, they introduced thousands of
French words into the English vocabulary. This influx of French
terms was especially great in certain categories, such as law and
government (court, judge, justice, parliament, council, tax, royal,
prince, city, mayor, money), military matters (battle, siege, armor,
fortress, assault), and cooking (sauce, boil, fry, roast).
This borrowing of French words also helped open the door to a
similar borrowing of words from other languages, especially Latin.
French is a Romance language, which means that it developed from
Latin. Furthermore, because Latin was the language of scholarship
at the time, scholars naturally introduced many Latin words into
English, including educate, index, and library.
During this period other important changes were taking place
in English that had little to do with the influence of French. For the
most part, these changes were continuations of trends that had begun
during the last part of the Old English period. For example, English
became a much less inflected language. Old English nouns had had
inflections that consisted of final unstressed vowels. In Middle
English, vowels in unstressed syllables began to be pronounced
alike, and the significance of the inflections disappeared.
Similarly, grammatical gender also disappeared from English
during this period. The gender of nouns could no longer be
distinguished once inflections disappeared, and one definite article,
the, replaced the masculine Se, feminine seo, and neuter thaet of Old
English. Thus, English speakers began to consider only actual
gender in the use of pronouns. Males were referred to as he, females
were referred to as she, and anything inanimate was referred to
as it.
When English re-emerged as the official language of England,
there were five main dialects: Northern, Southern, East Midland,
West Midland, and Kentish. Since London had become the capital,
its dialect—East Midland—became the standard, just as the speech

xiv
of the political center of Anglo Saxon England—Wessex—had
served as the standard dialect of Old English. East Midland became
the prestigious dialect of Middle English because it was spoken not
only at the royal court but also at the leading universities, Oxford
and Cambridge.
The status of London English was further enhanced by the fact
that it was the language i.n which the great Middle English author
Geoffrey Chaucer wrote. The following passage from Chaucer’s The
Canterbury Tales, written in the late 1300s, shows that the language
had taken a form that we can recognize as English:
A Knyght ther was, and that a worthy man,
That fro the tyme that he first bigan
To riden out, he loved chivalrie,
Trouthe and honor, fredom and curteisie.
Notice that the vocabulary is similar to Modern English, although
the spelling is considerably different. This spelling reflects
differences in pronunciation between Middle English and Modern
English. The spelling in Middle English followed pronunciation
closely. For example, all consonants were pronounced, including the
k and the gh in Knyght. In addition, a final e was pronounced like
the a in the Modern English word sofa.

Te e e e f ode ngs
The transition from Middle English to Modern English took
place during the period from 1350 to about 1550. The two forms of
the language are distinguished primarily by major changes in the
pronunciation of the long vowels that occurred during this period.
Linguists refer to these changes collectively as the Great Vowel
Shift. It was during this period, for example, that a, e, and i came
to be pronounced as they are in the Modern English words late,
meet, and ride, respectively. In Middle English these letters were
pronounced much as we would pronounce ah, ay, and ee.
We can also trace the origin of the difficult spelling system of
Modern English to this period. In 1476 William Caxton set up a
press at Westminster and introduced printing into England. This
event took place in the midst of the Great Vowel Shift, and Caxton

xv
 chose to keep the spelling used by Middle English scribes rather
than a spelling that followed the pronunciation of his day. Because
Caxton’s publications set the standard for spelling that later printers
would follow, Modern English continued to resemble Middle
English in its spelling even as it underwent great changes in
pronunciation.

- 1 I i)21ILhhIi.I.IIlIl.JIl~IIII Ii IJ 1,1

At the right is a sample page from Chapter One of The Game and Playe of
Chess, printed by William Caxton in 1480. Caxton’s printer’s mark, or
signature (lower left), consisted of a monogram of the date 1474 and his
initial.s

xvi
 Caxton also unconsciously introduced at least one foreign
element into English spelling. Caxton had spent much of his life in
Holland and perhaps tended to confuse English spelling and Dutch
spelling. He also hired Dutch printers because they were highly
skilled. In any case, he and the Dutch printers introduced the Dutch
form gh into words such as ghost and ghoul, which had formerly
been spelled gost and goul.
Caxton’s publications also marked the final establishment of
the London dialect as the standard for literary works. Until this time,
literature had continued to appear in each of the five major dialects
of English. After Caxton, however, works of literature almost
without exception were published in the standard language.
The vocabulary of English continued to expand dramatically
during the 1400s and l500s. The spread of the Renaissance to
England in the 1 500s brought a new interest in the works of Latin
and Greek writers. Borrowing freely from Latin and Greek,
Renaissance scholars introduced a multitude of new words into
English. The language purists of the time were outraged at the
introduction of what they called “inkhorn terms” words such as
capacity, celebrate, fertile, native, and confidence. But the
borrowing from Latin and Greek, as well as from French and
Italian, continued undiminished.
One result of all this borrowing was to give English a
remarkable abundance of synonyms from a variety of sources.
Consider, for example, kingly, which came from Old English, and
regal and royal, both of which came from Latin by way of French.
Some pairs of synonyms represent Latin words that came into
English twice—once through French and again directly from Latin.
Such pairs include count and compute, frail and fragile, and sever
and separate.
In some cases, borrowing gave English two sets of words
relating to the same objects. For example, cow, calf, and pig are all
from Old English; but beef, veal, and pork are all from French.
Similarly, the names of all the external parts of the body except face
are Old English words, but many of the adjectives used to refer to
those parts are of Latin origin. Examples include mouth and oral,
ear and aural, and eye and ocular.

xvii
 e ajoit ofE Uis
The beauty and power of the language in the works of William
Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and other writers of the late
1500s and 1600s lent new prestige to the English language. The
writers of this period considered the language alive and changing,
and they experimented freely with vocabulary and sentence
structure. Shakespeare himself borrowed words from other languages
and apparently was the first writer to use such words as dislocate,
obscene, and premeditated. Shakespeare also coined such phrases as
fair play and a foregone conclusion.
The freedom that had characterized English in the 1500s and
1600s offended the scholars of the 1700s, who placed a high value
on logic and order. Thus, they set about to impose rules and
regularity on English but met with only qualified success.
Although Caxton had set the pattern for English spelling,
considerable variation in spelling existed well into the 1600s. For
example, the word guest was variously spelled gest, geste, gueste,
ghest, and ghestse. Thus, there was concern over spelling, or
orthography (literally, “right writing”), as it was called at the time.
The first English dictionaries, which began to appear during the
l600s, listed and defined only what were considered difficult words.
The publication of Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of the English
Language in 1755 was a landmark in the development of English.
Johnson’s dictionary established a standard correct spelling for each
of its forty thousand entries. It also made abundant use of quotations
from writers to illustrate the meaning and proper use of words.
The grammarians of the 1 700s had a high regard for Latin,
which they considered superior to English. They therefore based
their grammars of English on Latin. These grammarians believed
that English should be reduced to a system of rules. In fact, they
originated most of the grammatical rules that we still apply today,
such as those that ban the use of double negatives, regulate the use
of shall and will, and prohibit the use of prepositions at the end of
sentences.
These grammarians exerted considerable influence on the
language because of the prestige of their position in society, but
later linguists have questioned some of their judgments about the
language. For example, the rule against double negatives was based

xv’,’
on an analogy to mathematics and ignored the frequent use of double
negatives in other languages as well as in the writings of many
earlier masters of English, including Chaucer and Shakespeare.
Nevertheless, the ideas of these grammarians became the rules that
have governed English usage for more than two hundred years.

2
DICTIONARY

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

0’ ..~. - IF, WORDS ~rO ,kdoc.d frons hnir OR IC I NA LS,

ILLUSTRATED in thom DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIO~S

F XA .‘IPLES from tho hoft ~VRITERS

A H ISTO RY of the LANG UA G~.

AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Dr SAMUEL JOHNSON, AOl

I. TWO VOL U M ES

V 0 L. I.

0,~*” n’.~’ ‘....,

0~~~~.W
~ — O*t..

LONDON
P,jo,d by SV Sty.,,.,.
I., J. md F. Kr...on , T. ond T. Lonoomr.; C. H, ,-,onsd L. H,w
N M.~m,.. mR.mndJ.Do~’tm~n.
MDCCL V.

Samuel Johnson’s achievements as a critic, writer and lexicographer earned

him a place of honor in English literature. The sample on the right is the title
page of Volume I of Johnson’s dictionary, published in 1755.

xix
 e ead En 1s
For the first thousand years of its history, the English language
remained confined to a very small area of the world. In 1500 fewer
than five million people spoke English, and all of them lived in the
British Isles. In the 1500s, however, the British began a period of
exploration and expansion that eventually carried the English
language to North America, Africa, Asia, and Australia.
By 1700 the number of English speakers had reached nearly
ten million, many of whom lived in North America. Although
English speakers in America never lost contact with England, a
variety of influences shaped American English into a distinct variety
of the language.
As Great Britain became the leading world power in the 1800s,
British colonists introduced English into Australia, India, and many
parts of Africa. Local peoples and conditions also led to the
development of distinct varieties of English in each of these areas.
The native languages of these regions have also contributed to the
vocabulary of English. From Australia came kangaroo and
boomerang, and from India came bungalow and verandah.
The status of English as a world language received another
boost with the emergence of the United States as a world power
after World War II. The success of the American economic system
has made English the language of international business. This
economic power, coupled with the development of television and
other means of mass communication, has brought American
culture—and thus American English—to nearly every part of the
world. Indeed, some countries have even felt the need to set up
official policies to “protect” their own languages from the influence
of English.

e re
Because language is dynamic and living, English inevitably
continues to change. Today we see that technology is constantly
contributing new terms to our vocabulary from videodisc and byte
to feedback and word processing. In addition, the continuing
immigration of Spanish speakers from Latin America is adding to
the stock of Spanish words in the vocabulary of American English.

xx
 As for the future, we cannot predict the ways in which English
will change. Nevertheless, we can be certain that it will continue to
change along with economics, technology, and other aspects of
culture. The English language has always demonstrated a capacity to
assimilate the many influences that bear on it. This dynamic capacity
keeps English the flexible, and thus powerful, tool for communication
that it is.

The advent of the computer and word-processing equipment has changed the
way English language is stored and retrieved. A writer can create a draft, re
vise it, and save it for future reference with minimal r~ping.

xxi
 SI S

ssgnmen I
In your school or local library, locate a copy of Chaucer’s The
Canterbury Tales printed in Middle English. Select a passage of
approximately ten lines and list all the words that are spelled
differently from the corresponding words in Modern English.
Describe any patterns that you find in the spelling of the Middle
English words on your list and try to formulate a rule for one such
pattern. Test the rule by trying to find other examples of it in a
second passage.

Assgn e
Make a list of ten words that you have encountered for the first time
in your recent reading. Check the origin of each word in your
dictionary. For any word that has Greek or Latin origins, give
another familiar English word that has the same Greek or Latin root.
For any word that is derived from Middle English, tell whether it
comes from Old English or some other Germanic language.

Assgn e t3
Using library resources, find a list of the most frequently used words
in the English language. Trace the origins of the fifteen most
frequently occurring nouns. Indicate which of the fifteen nouns have
Middle English, Old English, and classical origins. Describe any
patterns that you find in the nature of the words themselves, such as
a group of words indicating family relationships or a group of words
indicating physical surroundings.

Asso nme t4
Prepare a short report on Samuel Johnson’s influence on the spelling
and grammar of Modern English. In your report explain why
Johnson wanted to standardize the spelling and usage of English and
discuss what degree of success he had. Cite some examples of
current spellings and usage rules to support your case.

xxii
Assign ent 5
A number of British scientists and inventors have given their
surnames to the English language to identify the items or processes
with which they were chiefly associated. Use library resources to
determine the contributions of John Bowler, James Watt, Joseph
Lister, and Henry Bessemer. Prepare a list of other famous
individuals whose names have been assimilated into the language.

Assignment 6
Make a list of American English words that are commonly
associated with a general class of objects, such as automobiles or
clothing. Using encyclopedias, dictionaries, and other resources in
your school or local library, determine the corresponding British
term. For example, you might note the use of the terms hood and
bonnet to describe the enclosure that covers an automobile engine.

ssgnment 7
The legal profession contains many words that are derived from
British and classical sources. Use a dictionary to trace the origins of
such words as bail~fJ, barrister, litigation, writ, sequester, and jury.
To this list add five other legal terms that you are familiar with and
trace their origins. For any word that comes from Latin or Greek
origins, name another familiar English word that is based on the
same root word. For example, for the word verdict, you might point
out the English words veracity and dictum as being also derived
from the same Latin sources.

Assignment 8
Over the years there have been a number of movements to
standardize the English language in spelling, pronunciation, and
vocabulary. To date, no such attempt has been successful. Discuss
whether such standardization, assuming that it is possible, would be
a desirable or undesirable characteristic of the language. Give
examples of the benefits that might be gained and the drawbacks that
might be felt because of such standardization.

XXIII
 art
One
Ad~~JIAL/A1A~ I

JI’ 1/11 4

Unit I Grammar 2
Unit 2 Usage 86
Unit 3 echanics 170
 The units in Part One present a system of rules and
guidelines that describe English grammar, usage, and
mechanics. By applying the information presented in these
units, you will be able to express your thoughts in sentences
that are clear and precise. In the units on grammar and usage,
for example, you will learn how to choose words correctly.
You may refer to the unit on mechanics to check how to
punctuate your sentences or how to prepare a final
manuscript of your writing.
As you study the rules and guidelines presented in Part
One, you will learn to express your thoughts in writing that is
correct, interesting, and effective. You will have control of the
language, which will be an advantage now and in your future
work.
Unit I

~4’A~IJL~ LI

Expressing an idea on paper is one of the most essential

tasks facing you as a writer. One effective way of expressing an
idea is through analogy—that is, by comparing the idea to a
process or an object that is familiar to the reader. However, to
make the analogy clear to the reader, you need to understand
parts of speech, sentence structure, and phrases and clauses.

For Analysis Both Paragraph A and Paragraph B develop

analogies. Read them, asking yourself which paragraph makes
the analogy clearer. On your paper, answer the questions that
follow the two paragraphs.
PARAGRAPH A
(1) Most people have long-range goals, such as entering a
certain career. (2) Working toward a long-range goal requires
many organizing skills. (3) The Egyptians used organizing skills
to build the pyramids four thousand years ago. (4) To attain a
long-range goal, you need to plan and prepare. (5) The engi
neers who designed the pyramids planned how many levels
each pyramid would have. (6) The building of the pyramids
required the cooperation of thousands of people. (7) The attain
ment of long-range goals involves the cooperation of different
people, such as employers, guidance counselors, teachers, par
ents, and friends. (8) Another requirement is the ability to
develop short-range goals. (9) The Egyptians developed thou
sands of intermediate tasks and techniques that made possible
the construction of the pyramids. (10) By following these steps,
you will build a foundation for your aspirations. (11) The pyra
mids themselves are solid.
PARAGRAPH B
(1) Most people have long-range goals, such as entering a
certain career. (2) Working toward a long-range goal requires
many of the organizing skills that the Egyptians developed to
build the pyramids four thousand years ago. (3) To attain a
long-range goal, you need to plan and prepare, just as the
engineers who designed the pyramids planned how many lev
els each pyramid would have. (4) As the building of the pyra
mids required the cooperation of thousands of people, so does
the attainment of a long-range goal involve the cooperation of
different people, such as employers, guidance counselors,
teachers, parents, and friends. (5) Another requirement is the
ability to develop short-range goals, which the Egyptians did
by developing thousands of intermediate tasks and techniques
that made possible the construction of the pyramids. (6) By
following these steps, you will build a foundation for your
aspirations that is as solid as the pyramids.
1. What analogy is developed in the two paragraphs?
2. Which two sentences from Paragraph A have been combined to
form Sentence 3 of Paragraph B? Why have they been com
bined?
3. Which two sentences from Paragraph A have been combined to
form Sentence 4 of Paragraph B? Why have they been com
bined?
4. In which paragraph is the analogy more clearly developed?
Why?

One way to make an analogy clear to the reader is to use

subordinate clauses. Most of the sentences in Paragraph B
contain subordinate clauses that emphasize the similarities
between building a pyramid and achieving long-range goals. In
this unit you will study subordinate clauses and the other major
aspects of grammar.

t e
The eight parts of speech are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjec
tives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interj ections.

3
Unit I Grammar

Nouns

A noun names a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.

PERSONS operator contestant Louisa May Alcott
PLACES kitchen valley Wyoming
THINGS freighter aardvark oxygen
IDEAS obsession realism quality

Dates and days of the week are also classified as nouns.

A.D. 1100 Tuesday November 29, 1984

Common and Proper Nouns

A common noun names a class of people, places, things, or
ideas. Do not capitalize a common noun unless it begins a sentence.
A proper noun gives the name or title of a particular person, place,
thing, or idea, and it always begins with a capital letter.
COMMON NOUN A speedway is a race track for automobiles.
PROPER NOUN The Indianapolis Speedway is the site of the
Indianapolis 500.

Compound Nouns
A compound noun consists of two or more words used
together to form a single noun. There are four kinds of compound
nouns. One kind is formed by joining two or more words: football. A
second kind consists of words joined by hyphens: city-state. A third
kind consists of two words that are often used together: sugar beet.
The fourth kind is a proper noun that consists of more than one word:
Missouri River.

Collective Nouns
A collective noun refers to a group of people, places, things,
or ideas.
A swarm of bees buzzed around us!
Phyllis has an accumulation of compositions that show her progress
as a writer.

4
 1.la
Nouns

Concrete and Abstract Nouns

Concrete nouns refer to material things, to people, or to
places. Some concrete nouns name things that you can perceive with
your senses: traffic, seasoning, barking. Other concrete nouns name
things that can be measured or perceived only with the aid of
technical devices. Although you cannot see an atom, atom is a
concrete noun because it names a material substance. In the follow
ing sentences, the nouns in boldface type are concrete.
In polo the players ride on horseback and hit a ball with a long-
handled mallet.
You can tell that that is Denise’s car because of the noise that it
makes.
Penicillin, which was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1929, is
actually a mold that combats disease-carrying germs. [Even though
you cannot see, hear, smell, taste, or feel germs, they have a
definite material existence.]

Abstract nouns name ideas, qualities, emotions, or attitudes.

Many critics consider the conflict between integrity and power to be
the theme of Macbeth.
Disappointment was visible on the faces of the players, but the
crowd, moved by the intensity of the team’s effort, applauded loudly.
Galileo defended the freedom to pursue the truth.

Exercise 1 Kinds of Nouns On your paper, rewrite each of

the following sentences, replacing each blank with a noun. Use the
kind of noun noted in parentheses. Underline the nouns that you use.
SAMPLE A 1 (collective) of people with whom Janet works
plans to take a l (common) together at i
(proper; compound) this summer.
ANSWER A ~p of people with whom Janet works plans to
take a vacation together at Yellowstone National Park
this summer.
1. With 1 (abstract), Paulette and i (proper) watched the i
(collective) of puppies playing in the old barn.
2. When Frank rounded third base and slid into L (compound), the
L (collective) cheered with 1 (abstract).

5
Unit I Grammar

3. Did you see that _1_ (concrete) fly over the _1_ (common) when we
were on our way to _L. (proper)?
4. A surge of .._L (abstract) swept over me when _1_ (proper) gave me
a _L (common) by _1_ (proper), my favorite author.
5. Monique noticed many _1_ (concrete) along the side of the _L
(common) as she drove through _i_ (proper; compound).
6. A large _L (collective) of cattle plodded across the _L (common)
while the ranchers, shouting with 2_ (abstract), urged them on.
7. In the .2_. (compound), Jessica and _L (proper) practiced on the
trampoline, Ted went down the slide, and Roberta exercised on the
_i_ (common).
8. Because _L. (abstract) has intrigued me for some time, I will write a
_L.. (common) about it after I have read several 2_ (concrete) on
the subject.
9. When Paul saw the _L (collective) of letters in the _L_ (concrete),
he smiled with _L (abstract).
10. We ate at _i_ (proper) last evening and had _i_ (compound) for
dinner; then we bought a _i_ (common) of fresh fruit at the market.

Using Nouns Effectively

In writing, you usually need to use both concrete nouns and
abstract nouns. Abstract nouns are necessary in most forms of
writing. However, if you link them with details and examples that
include concrete nouns, your writing will be clearer and more
interesting.
Read the following paragraph from Quite Early One Morning
by the Welsh writer Dylan Thomas. Notice how Thomas relies on
concrete nouns to express his impressions and ideas. The concrete
nouns are in italic type.
I was born in a large Welsh town at the beginning of the Great
War—an ugly, lovely town (or so it was and is to me), crawling,
sprawling by a long and splendid curving shore where truant boys
and sandfield boys and old men from nowhere, beachcombed, idled
and paddled, watched the dock-bound ships or the ships steaming
away into wonder and India, magic and China, countries bright with
oranges and loud with lions; threw stones into the sea for the
barking outcast dogs; made castles and forts and harbors and race
tracks in the sand; and on Saturday summer afternoons listened to

6
 1.lb
Pronouns

the brass band, watched the Punch and Judy, or hung about on the
fringes of the crowd to hear the fierce religious speakers who shout
ed at the sea, as though it were wicked and wrong to roll in and out
like that, white-horsed and full of fishes.
Dylan Thomas, Quite Early One Morning

Dylan Thomas relies on concrete nouns to evoke certain

feelings about childhood. India, China, oranges, and lions convey a
sense of adventure and discovery. Castles, forts, harbors, and race
tracks create a sense of the boys’ imaginative play when they were
young. Note that Thomas does not completely avoid abstract nouns;
wonder and magic are both abstract.
In your own writing, use concrete nouns to make ideas and
impressions more vivid and interesting.

Assignment Using Nouns Effectively On your paper,

write the abstract nouns in each sentence of the following paragraph.
Then, without altering the main idea, rewrite the paragraph so that it
contains a greater number of concrete nouns. In your revision you
may keep the abstract nouns that you consider necessary for clarity.
(1) The city is a study in contrasts. (2) At first, when you
walk through it, you get a sense of power and permanence, but look
more closely, and behind that permanence are signs of frailty.
(3) From the top of one of the skyscrapers, the city seems to be a
lesson in order. (4) Descend to street level, and that order turns to
confusion. (5) Stand in the middle of the business section at noon,
and you get a feeling of unity with others. (6) In the same section
at midnight, you can feel the isolation. (7) In some places you see
beauty; in others you see drabness. (8) A city exists in time, and it
is always moving, always changing.

b Pronouns

A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun. A pronoun

identifies persons, places, things, or ideas without renaming them.
The noun that a pronoun replaces is the antecedent of that pronoun.

7
 Unit I Grammar
~ .~ ~ ‘~i~
There are seven kinds of pronouns: personal, demonstrative, reflex
ive, intensive, interrogative, relative, and indefinite.

Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns require different forms to express person,
number, and gender. Person refers to the relationship between the
speaker or writer (first person), the individual or thing spoken to
(second person), and the individual or thing spoken about (third
person). The number of a personal pronoun indicates whether the
antecedent is singular or plural. The gender of a personal pronoun
indicates whether the antecedent is masculine, feminine, or neuter.
Tricia and Annette will not soon forget Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll
House, for it was a relevant play to them. [It replaces A Doll House,
and them replaces Tricia and Annette.]
Tourists who went to Wisconsin last weekend were disappointed
because they could not go snowmobiling. [They replaces tourists.]
Possessive Pronouns. Possessive pronouns are personal pro
nouns that show ownership or belonging.
The packages have arrived at the warehouse, and we can pick up
ours at any time. [Ours replaces packages.]
Is Georgina stifi looking for golf clubs? I think that the clubs in the
corner of the basement are hers. [Hers refers to Georgina.]

The following chart shows the personal pronouns; the posses

sive pronouns are in parentheses.
SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON I, me (my, mine) we, us (our, ours)
SECOND PERSON you (your, yours) you (your, yours)
THIRD PERSON he, him (his) they, them (their, theirs)
she, her (her, hers)
it (its)

Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns specify the individual or the group
that is being referred to. The demonstrative pronouns are this, that,
these, and those.

B
 1.lb

Pronouns

This is a more interesting collection of photographs than that.

These are the clippers that I used to trim the hedge; those are too
rusty to use.

Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns indicate that people or things perform
actions to, for, or on behalf of themselves. To form a’ reflexive
pronoun, add the suffix -self or -selves to the personal pronoun.
FIRST PERSON myself, ourselves
SECOND PERSON yourself, yourselves
THIRD PERSON himself, herself, itself, oneself, themselves
Pablo wrote himself notes so that he wouldn’t forget his chores.
We set the alarm so that the oven will turn itself on at four o’clock.

Intensive Pronouns
Intensive pronouns are the same words as the reflexive
pronouns, but they draw special attention to a person or a thing
mentioned in the sentence. Intensive pronouns usually come immedi
ately after the nouns or pronouns that they intensify.
We drove around the grounds of the estate but could not visit the’
mansion itself, which was locked. [The pronoun itself draws special
attention to the word mansion.]
Following the play, the playwright herself appeared for a bow. [The
pronoun, herself, draws special attention to the word playwright.]
Be sure to give the message to Mrs. Burns herself. [Herself draws
special attention to Mrs. Burns.]

Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns introduce questions. The most fre
quently used interrogative pronouns are who, whom, which, what,
and whose.
Who will call the rest of the club members about the meeting
tomorrow evening?
We can get tickets for two games next week. Which would you like
to attend?
Whose is this glove that I just found in our closet?

9
Unit 1 Grammar

Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns introduce adjective clauses (pages 59—60),
which modify nouns and pronouns. The relative pronouns are who,
whom, whose, which, and that.
On the way to their son’s wedding, the Scotts had a flat tire, which
they had to repair, and they were late for the ceremony. [Flat tire is
the antecedent of which.]
The symphony that we will hear this evening was composed by
Gustav Mahler. [Symphony is the antecedent of that.]
Vincent Van Gogh, whose paintings are now valuable, sold only one
painting during his lifetime. [Vincent Van Gogh is the antecedent of
whose.]

Indefinite Pronouns -

Indefinite pronouns refer to people, places, or things in

general. Often you can use these pronouns without antecedents. The
following list contains commonly used indefinite pronouns:

all either most other

another enough much others
any everybody neither plenty
anybody everyone nobody several
anyone everything none some
anything few no one somebody
both many nothing someone
each more one something
Cassie’s ability as a diver certainly surprised everyone!
When we went bowling last Saturday, there was practically no one
else at the bowling alley.
Are all of the members of the cast planning to attend the opening
night party backstage?

E ercise 2 Pronouns On your paper, write the following

sentences, replacing the blanks with suitable pronouns. Use the kind
of pronoun indicated in parentheses. Underline the pronouns that
you use.

10
 1.lb

Pronouns

SAMPLE Larry, 2_ (relative) is always so critical of others

for being late, was late _L (intensive) for the start
of the game.
ANSWER Larry, who is always so critical of others for being
late, was late himself for the start of the game.
1. _L (indefinite) went to the church bazaar _L (relative) Barbara and
I helped to organize.
2. With 2_ (interrogative) will he speak at the meetings that _L
(personal) is attending?
3. _L (personal) are looking forward to staying with you during vaca
tion, _L_ (relative) begins next week.
4. Is the bicycle _L (relative) is on the front sidewalk _L (possessive)?
5. _L (indefinite) turned their heads and watched in amazement as the
celebrities 2_ (intensive) marched out the door.
6. 2_ (personal) sent in the form after the deadline, 2_ (relative) was
well over a week ago.
7. _1_ (interrogative) did you do when you found 2_ (reflexive) with
out a ride home after work?
8. It was truly encouraging when the school principal _L_ (intensive)
offered to work at the class car wash, 2_ (relative)2_ (personal)
had planned to make money for the prom.
9. Mr. Warren’s car, _L (relative) had not been running well lately,
disturbed L (indefinite) with its loud noise as it entered the parking
lot.
10. Of the work options 1 (relative) the counselor described, Vanessa
prefers 2. (demonstrative) in which she can gain computer experi
ence.

Assignment Using Pronouns in Writing The following

paragraph needs pronouns in order to make it read more smoothly
and less repetitiously. On your paper, rewrite the entire paragraph,
replacing nouns with pronouns where suitable. Use any of the kinds
of pronouns studied in this section. Underline the pronouns in your
rewritten paragraph.
Orson Welles has been an influential figure in both American
radio and American motion pictures. Although Welles is known
better as an actor and as a motion-picture director, Welles first
established Welles in the public eye through radio broadcasting. In

11
Unit I Grammar

1938, Welles produced a broadcast that described a fictional invasion

of New Jersey by creatures from Mars. The broadcast by Welles was
so realistic that scores of alarmed listeners phoned the local authori
ties of the listeners. After the sensation of the radio broadcast,
Welles went to Hollywood to write, direct, and act in films of
Welles’s own. Welles made several films, including Citizen Kane.
Citizen Kane was an immediate critical success. The next films by
Welles, The Magnificent Ambersons and Journey into Fear, failed at
the box office when the films were released, although critics admired
both The Magnificent Ambersons and Journey into Fear. Since that
time, Welles has acted in many films, but Welles has written and
directed few. The Lady from Shanghai, The Trial, and Falstaff
are the most notable of the later films that Welles directed. In spite
of Welles’s relatively few films, Welles has had an important and
enduring impact on American films.

c Verbs
A verb is a word that expresses an action or a state of being.
There are three kinds of verbs: action verbs, linking verbs, and
auxiliary verbs.

Action Verbs
An action verb describes the behavior or action of someone or
something. Action verbs may express physical actions or mental
activities.
The fire truck raced toward the scene of the fire. [Raced refers to a
physical action.]
A glacier crawls forward at a pace of only a few inches a year.
[Crawls refers to a physical action.]
Philip memorizes names and dates easily because he concentrates so
well. [Memorizes and concentrates refer to mental activities.]
The archeologist believed that the site contained some very interest
ing artifacts. [Believed refers to a mental activity.]

12
 1.lc
Verbs

Linking Verbs
A linking verb connects a noun or a pronoun with a word or
words that identify or describe the noun or pronoun. Many linking
verbs are verbs of being, which you form from the word be.
Will Rogers was an American humorist of the 1920s and 1930s. [The
word humorist identifies Will Rogers.]
The Wilkinsons were anxious about encountering heavy traffic on
the way to the airport. [The word anxious describes the Wilkinsons.]

There are several linking verbs in addition to be:

appear grow seem stay
become look smell taste
feel remain sound
The students standing on the corner grew impatient as they waited
for the bus. [Grew links the descriptive word impatient to students.]
The howling of the coyote sounds rather distant. [Sounds links the
descriptive word distant to howling.]

Some verbs can be either action verbs or linking verbs, depend

ing on their use in a sentence.
ACTION Lynette felt along the wall for the light switch.
LINKING Although Ron studied late all week, he still felt ener
getic by the weekend.

Auxiliary Verbs
Sometimes a verb needs the help of another verb, called an
auxiliary verb or a helping verb. The verb that it helps is called the
main verb. Together, a main verb and an auxiliary verb form a verb
phrase. A verb phrase may have more than one auxiliary verb.
Common auxiliary verbs appear in the following list:
am, are, be, been, is, was, were may, might
have, has, had can, could
do, does, did will, would
shall, should must

13
Unit I Grammar

In the following sentences, the auxiliary verbs are in italic type,

and the main verbs are in boldface type. Still and not are not part of
the verb phrase.
When Rhonda left, other cast members were still rehearsing.
The clerk at the warehouse could not have been wrong when she
said that our package had arrived!
Will you be waiting for me at the entrance to the art institute?

Characteristics of Verbs
Verbs have several characteristics that you need to understand
in order to use them correctly.
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. All action verbs are either
transitive or intransitive. A verb is transitive when its action is
directed toward someone or something, which is called the object of
the verb (pages 41—42).
vrb r- ob
The Chinese built the Great Wall of China over a period of several
hundred years. [Great Wall is the object of the verb, built. Built is
transitive.]

By using a timer, Mr. Allen photographed himself and his family.

[Himself and family are the objects of the verb, photographed.
Photographed is transitive.]

A verb is intransitive when the performer of the action does

not direct that action toward someone or something. In other words,
an intransitive verb does not have a receiver of the action. Some
action verbs, such as go, are intransitive. All linking verbs are
intransitive.
Although Bill knew about the surprise party ahead of time, he acted
surprised. [The verbs knew and acted do not have objects. They are
intransitive.]
The inn at the top of the mountain seems empty. [Seems is a linking
verb. It is intransitive.]

14
 1.lc

Verbs

Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, depending

on whether there is a receiver of the action.
verb obj.
TRANSITIVE Stop Sheila because she forgot to take this letter to
the mailbox. [The object of stop is Sheila.]

INTRANSITIVE The subway train approached the station and

stopped. [Stopped has no object.]

Active and Passive Voice. Verbs have active and passive
voices to show whether the subject of the sentence performs or
receives the action of the verb. If the verb is in the active voice, the
subject performs the action. If the verb is in the passive voice, the
subject receives the action. For a complete explanation of the active
and passive voices, see Section 2.2c of Unit 2, “Usage.”
Changes in Verb Form. An important characteristic of the verb
is that its form changes according to how it is used. A verb form
changes in order to agree in person and number with its subject. A
verb form also changes to express tense and mood. The basic forms of
a verb are its principal parts. For an explanation of the rules
governing changes in verb form, see Unit 2, “Usage.”

Exercise 3 Verbs Number your paper from ito 7. Step 1: Next

to each number, write the verbs and verb phrases in that sentence in
the following paragraph. There are twelve verbs and verb phrases.
Step 2: Label each main verb Action or Linking. Step 3: Label each
verb or verb phrase Transitive or Intransitive.
SAMPLE The League of Nations stirred people’s hopes for
permanent peace, but because the League was inef
fective, disillusionment replaced those hopes.
ANSWER stirred—Action, Transitive; was—Linking, Intransi
tive; replaced—Action, Transitive

Ill The League of Nations was an international association of

countries, and its goal was world peace. 12) After France, Great
Britain, Italy, Japan, and the United States wrote a constitution for

15
Unit I Grammar

the League in 1919, the League started operations inianuary 1920.

(3) Although President Woodrow Wilson of the United States was
the chief planner of the League, the United States did not join.
(4) The Senate disagreed with Wilson’s terms for membership.
(5) In March 1920, the Senate rejected the treaty that would have
brought the United States into the League. (6) Throughout the
1920s, people in the United States took less interest in foreign
affairs, and the country never joined the League. (7) In April of
1946, the United Nations replaced the League of Nations.

Using Verbs Effectively

Verbs can make the difference between an ordinary piece of
writing and one that stirs the reader’s imagination. For this reason,
good writers use verbs that tell how something happened. Consider
the verb ran and its synonym in the following example.
The dog ran across the field.
The dog scampered across the field.

When we read that a dog scampered, we form a definite image of how

the dog is moving.
The following paragraph is from the short story “The Lagoon”
by Joseph Conrad. Note how Conrad uses specific verbs to describe
the action. These verbs are in italic type.
The Malay only grunted, and went on looking fixedly at the
river. The [other] man rested his chin on his crossed arms and gazed
at the wake of the boat. At the end of the straight avenue of forests
cut by the intense glitter of the river, the sun appeared unclouded
and dazzling, poised low over water that shone smoothly like a band
of metal. The forests, somber and dull, stood motionless and silent
on each side of the broad stream. At the foot of big, towering trees,
trunkless nipa palms rose from the mud of the bank, in bunches of
leaves enormous and heavy, that hung unstirring over the brown
swirl of eddies. In the stillness of the air every tree, every leaf,
every bough, every tendril of creeper and every petal of minute
blossoms seemed to have been bewitched into an immobility perfect
and final.
Joseph Conrad, “The Lagoon”

16
 l.lc
Verbs

With the verb grunted, Conrad tells us how the man sounded.
The verb gazed suggests that the man was lost in thought. Later in the
paragraph, the forests stood, the palms rose, and the leaves hung. All
of these verbs make the forests seem alive. In your own writing, use
verbs that show the reader how an action occurs.

Assignment Using Verbs Effectively The passage that fol

lows contains ineffective verbs. On your paper, rewrite the passage
so that the verbs are more effective. Underline all the verbs that you
add to the paragraphs.
As Gina went slowly up the side of the mountain, she stopped
and looked at the valley below. It was noon, and the sun was
becoming warm. From this height the valley looked like the terrain
of a board game.
Soon Gina was at the most difficult part of the climb. A thick
mound of rock was on the side of the mountain directly above her.
There was a narrow passage to the left, but she could not move
through. She looked thoughtfully at the mound of rock. From her
backpack she took a piton, or metal spike, through which she could
put her rope. She placed the tip of the piton in a crevice and made
it go into the rock until it was secure. Then she put her line through
the ioop at the other end of the piton and made it tight. She
attached another piton to the side of the mountain to serve as an
anchor and attached the line to it.
Gina took a deep breath and carefully went off the side of the
mountain. Now only her line was between her and the valley below.
From her pack she placed another piton in her hand. Almost imme
diately it was out of her fingers and was going to the rocks below.
Unconsciously, she counted. When she was at ten, she heard the
faint ping as the piton went against the rocks. A slight shiver went
down her back. She placed another piton in her hand, put it into the
rock, and went forward. A sudden breeze made her move backward
and forward. Ever so cautiously, she made herself stop swinging.
Painstakingly, she continued to put pitons into the rock and to creep
around and up the mound of rock.
An hour later Gina was on top of the mound of rock, and
there was a clear path to the top. For the first time that day, she
could see the peak without obstruction, and its beauty made her
stop walking. She took in the beauty and then moved quickly
forward—without venturing to look back at the obstacle that had
been in her way.

17
Unit I Grammar

1. d Adjectives

An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun. To

modify means to change; an adjective modifies a word by describing
or limiting it. In some sentences, nouns and certain pronouns are
used as adjectives. In such cases, consider them adjectives. Adjec
tives answer Which? What kind? or How many?

WHICH? The course focused on Western civilization. [Which

civilization? Western civilization.]

WHAT KIND? The tennis player has an unorthodox serve. [What

kind of serve? An unorthodox serve.]

HOW MANY? Twenty thousand people flocked to the amphitheater.

[How many people? Twenty thousand.]

Articles. The most frequently used adjectives are the articles, a,

an, and the. A and an are indefinite articles because they do not
specify a particular person, place, thing, or idea. The is a definite
article because it always specifies a particular person, place, thing,
or idea.

INDEFINITE Tom took a large supply of food on his camping trip.

DEFINITE He ate nearly all of the food that he brought.

Placement of Adjectives
Adjectives usually appear directly before the nouns or pro
nouns that they modify. Sometimes, a comma separates adjectives
from the words that they modify.

Just beyond the hill was a beautiful valley with several small clusters
of houses.

Illogical and vague, the speech made the audience restless.

18
 1.ld

Adjectives

Adjectives may follow linking verbs and modify the subjects

~age 36) of sentences.

The staff remained loyal throughout the long campaign, and the
candidate was very proud of them. [Remained and was are linking
verbs.]

Sometimes adjectives follow the words that they modify and are
separated from them by commas.

Our team’s offensive line, large but mobile, dominated our oppo
nent’s defense during the game.

Proper Adjectives
A proper adjective is an adjective formed from a proper noun.
Proper adjectives are usually capitalized.

Last evening we heard a Brahms symphony.

The New Orleans harbor is one of the busiest harbors in the country.
To create many proper adjectives, you use the suffixes -n, -an,
-ian, -ese, -ish, or -al, changing the spelling of the noun as needed.
PROPER NOUN PROPER ADJECTIVE
Elizabeth Elizabethan
Lebanon Lebanese
Ireland Irish
Albania Albanian

Nouns Used as Adjectives

Some nouns function as adjectives without changing form, as in
the following examples.

The office contained mahogany paneling and tables with glass tops.

The invention of the jet airp ane has diminished the need for

passenger trains, but freight trains have had an increase in business.

19
Unit I Grammar

Possessive Nouns. Possessive nouns are nouns that show

possession or ownership; they function as adjectives because they
modify nouns or pronouns. For rules on the spelling of singular
possessives and plural possessives, see Unit 14, “Spelling Skills.”

The tunnel’s lights suddenly went out, plunging us into darkness.

Everyone admired the actor’s costumes.

Pronouns Used as Adjectives

A pronoun functions as an adjective when it modifies a noun or
a pronoun. Indefinite pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, interroga
tive pronouns, the relative pronoun whose, and the possessive
pronouns in the following list may serve as adjectives.
SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON my our
SECOND PERSON your your
THIRD PERSON his, her, its their

For her class in computers, Donna asked the neighbors whether she
could use their minicomputer.

Your guitar seems to have lost its excellent tone. [Note that the
possessive pronoun its is spelled without an apostrophe.]

The words in the preceding list are called possessive pronouns

throughout this textbook, but some people call them pronominal
adjectives. Use the term that your teacher prefers.
The following list contains examples of the other kinds of
pronouns that can function as adjectives:
INDEFINITE few, many, several, some
DEMONSTRATIVE that, this, these, those

INTERROGATIVE what, which, whose

RELATIVE whose

20
 1.ld
Adjectives

Will the person w~r is blocking the entrance to the hospital

please move it?

I would like to know which newspaper carried that story about the
new amusement park, for several friends are interested in reading it.

ercise 4 Adjectives Number your paper from 1 to 8. Next

to each number, write the adjective or adjectives in that sentence in
the following passage. Do not include articles. Next to each adjec
tive, write the word or words that it modifies. You should list
twenty-nine adjectives in all.
SAMPLE In 1979 the United States launched Voyager I and
Voyager II, space probes that produced fascinating
pictures of our solar system.
ANSWER space—probes; fascinating—pictures; our—system;
solar—system.
(1) Perhaps the most dramatic pictures taken by Voyager I and
Voyager II were of Jupiter and its four large moons, which were first
discovered by Galileo. (2) Of the four Galilean moons, Jo is the
most interesting. (3) It is different from the others because it lacks
surface ice and water in any identifiable form. (4) In addition, lo
does not have impact craters, as the other moons do. (5) Orange
and white, b’s surface colors are a result of sulfurous deposits.
(6) Dark spots, fuzzy patches, and splotches of different colors are
scattered over the outer layer of the moon. (7) The most startling
feature is Jo’s volcanoes, the first active extraterrestrial volcanoes
that we have observed in the solar system. (8) When these volca
noes erupt, they shoot bluish plumes of debris miles above the
surface of Jo.

Using Adjectives Effectively

Adjectives provide the means for creating a mood or a lasting
impression of a person, a place, or a thing. To create mood, use
adjectives that appeal to the senses. Examples of such adjectives
include white, black, gigantic, miniscule, tepid, and frigid. However,

21
Unit I Grammar

you can also use adjectives that refer to emotional states and abstract
qualities. Innocent, angry, confusing, and hopeful are examples of
such adjectives.
The following passage is from the short story “The Fall of the
House of Usher” by Edgar Allan Poe. Notice how Poe uses some
adjectives that appeal to the senses and other adjectives that refer to
emotional states and abstract qualities. Adjectives that contribute to
the mood of the passage are in italic type.
The room in which I found myself was very large and lofty.
The windows were long, narrow, and pointed, and at so vast a
distance from the black oaken floor as to be altogether inaccessible
from within. Feeble gleams of encrimsoned light made their way
through the trellised panes and served to render sufficiently distinct
the more prominent objects around; the eye, however, struggled in
vain to reach the remoter angles of the chamber, or the recesses of
the vaulted and fretted ceiling. Dark draperies hung upon the walls.
The general furniture was profuse, comfortless, antique, and tattered.
Many books and musical instruments lay scattered about but failed
to give any vitality to the scene. I felt that I breathed an atmosphere
of sorrow. An air of stern, deep, and irredeemable gloom hung over
and pervaded all.

Several of Poe’s adjectives appeal to the senses: large, lofty,

vast, black, oaken, encrimsoned, trellised, vaulted, and dark. On the
other hand, stern, deep, and irredeemable refer to abstract qualities.
The mood is one of gloom and decay.
In your writing, use adjectives that appeal to the senses and
those that refer to emotional states or abstract qualities.

Assignment Adjectives in Writing The paragraph that fol

lows needs adjectives to make it more descriptive. Rewrite the
paragraph, using adjectives to make the setting more vivid. Under
line the adjectives in your rewritten paragraph.
Frank Smith has owned a shoe repair shop for years. Frank’s
shop is a reflection of his personality. Even before customers walk
in, they can see bric-a-brac and paintings in the front window. Upon
entering, most people notice the wood stove right away. The stove
creates an atmosphere in the shop. Also setting the shop apart from

22
 1.le
Adverbs

others are its antiques. In one corner is a cobbler’s bench. A radio

plays music. Another thing that permeates the shop is the smell of
leather. Shelves of shoes line the walls. Shoes are arrayed in lines on
the floor. On Frank’s bench are shoes. Seated behind those shoes is
the “shoe doctor” himself. With an expression on his face, he bends
over a shoe and works on it. He wears a brown jacket. His fingers
are brown from the shoe polish. He seems preoccupied. When a
customer approaches him, his expression becomes different. It isn’t
hard to see why people bring their shoes to Frank for repairs.

Adverbs

Like adjectives, adverbs are modifiers. An adverb is a word that

modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. An adverb answers
one of five questions about the word or phrase that it modifies: How?
When? Where? How often? or To what extent?

HOW? Tricia raised her arms triumphantly when she set a

school record in the high jump.

WHEN? The personnel manager will see you now.

WHERE? We called everywhere, but no room is available for

the conference.

HOW OFTEN? Sometimes the smoke alarm sounds when some

thing on the stove is burning.

TO WHAT EXTENT? Jeanine is rather doubtful about getting a part-

time job.

Adverbs such as rather, really, certainly, indeed, and truly are

adverbs of extent and are used for emphasis.

Leonardo da Vinci was a truly remarkable man in both the breadth

and the depth of his interests. [To what extent was Leonardo da
Vinci remarkable? Truly remarkable.]

23
Unit I Grammar

The words not and never are adverbs. They tell to what extent
(not at all) and when (never).

Dennis will not build the kitchen cabinets himself be~ause he

has never had experience in carpentry.

Many sentences contain nouns that function as adverbs. Such

adverbs usually tell when or where.

Yesterday our boss informed us that we have Saturday off.

Adverbs Used to Modify Verbs

Adverbs often modify verbs. An adverb does not have to
appear next to the verb that it modifies. Notice the different positions
of the adverbs silently and slowly in the following sentences.

BEGINNING Silently and slowly, the tide covered the narrow strip
of land.
—:~.
MIDDLE The tide silently and slowly covered the narrow strip
of land.

END The tide covered the strip of land silently and slowly.

Adverbs Used to Modify Adjectives

Adverbs may modify adjectives. An adverb usually comes
directly before the adjective that it modifies.
• —~•..
In spite of its very forbidding title, the essay was fairly easy to read.

The Super Bowl drew an audience of nearly one hundred million

viewers.

Adverbs Used to Modify

Other Adverbs
Adverbs can modify other adverbs. Such adverbs usually pre
cede the adverbs that they modify.

24
 1.le
Adverbs

Rafael is popular because he listens so well to other people. [So

emphasizes the fact that Rafael listens well.]
Although the footbridge over the ravine was considered safe, Ed
—4
and Mark crossed it quite slowly.

Exercise 5 Adverbs Number your paper from 1 to 9. Next to

each number, write the adverbs in that sentence in the following
paragraph. Next to each adverb, write the verb, adjective, or adverb
that it modifies. There are fifteen adverbs in the paragraph.
SAMPLE Beekeeping is certainly a very special skill and is
commonly practiced as an industry as well as a
hobby.
ANSWER certainly—is; very—special; commonly—is practiced
(1) As an industry, beekeeping has become quite popular in
the United States, Canada, and Australia. (2) Farmers in those
countries who care regularly for their bees can easily sell large
amounts of honey and beeswax. 3 The bees pollinate the farmers’
crops constantly. (4) Beekeepers usually provide standard hives
that consist of several easily removable sections resembling drawers.
(5) The bees can then simply build their honeycombs on frames
inside the section.
(6) Other people view beekeeping as a hobby, and they
study bees very closely in order to understand these fascinating
insects. (7) These people often keep bees in a glass-walled hive,
where the always bustling activity of the bees is easily seen.
(8) Beginning beekeepers must always buy their bees. (9) A state
inspector should carefully inspect the hive to see that it does not
contain disease.

Assignment Adverbs in Writing The following paragraph

needs adverbs to make it more descriptive. Rewrite the paragraph,
adding adverbs. Underline the adverbs in your rewritten paragraph.
For variety, use adverbs that modify verbs, adjectives, and other
adverbs.
Ben had slept until the mooing of a calf brought him out of a
deep sleep. He splashed water on his face and ate his breakfast from
his old tin plate, which he balanced on a rock near the chuck

25
Unit I Grammar

wagon. To prepare for work, he pulled on his chaps to protect

himself from cactus and sagebrush. It was the third straight month
that he had ridden the trail, and he remembered what it was like to
be in a city, dine in a restaurant, and talk to someone who was not
a cowpoke about something that was not a cow. Ben walked to get
his horse, which he trusted. If the herd of cattle stampeded, he had
to trust his horse to lead the steers and protect them from harm. He
tightened the saddle around the middle of the animal and lifted
himself into the saddle. As Ben began to ride, his bad temper
disappeared. Feeling the familiar motion of the horse beneath him,
he watched as the sun rose over the horizon and illuminated the
plains, which seemed to stretch around him. The sound of the cattle
reminded him of an old song that he never tired of. With a slight
movement that his horse understood, he raced to catch up with the
other cowpokes.

.lf repositions

A preposition is a word that expresses a relationship between a

noun or a pronoun and another word in a sentence.
A special pilot from shore climbed on board and went to the helm.
[The preposition from relates shore to pilot. The preposition on
relates board to climbed. The preposition to relates helm to went.]

The following list contains frequently used prepositions:

along beyond off to

among by on toward
around despite onto under
at down out underneath
before during outside until
behind except over up
below for past upon
beneath from since with
beside in through within
besides near till without
betweep
 1.lf

Prepositions

A compound preposition is a preposition that consists of

more than one word.
When the Lansings got to the store, they bought two easy chairs
instead of just one.

Frequently used compound prepositions are in the following

list:
according to in regard to
aside from in spite of
as of instead of
as well as on account of
because of out of
by means of prior to
in addition to with regard to
in front of with respect to
in place of

A preposition is usually followed by a noun or a pronoun, which

is called the object of the preposition. Together, the preposition,
the object, and the modifiers of that object form a prepositional
phrase.
prep
The referee called a charging foul against the opposing team’s

seven.foot-tall center. [The prepositional phrase consists of the prep

osition, against; the modifiers, the, opposing, team’s, and seven-foot-
tall; and the object, center.]

In some sentences, particularly interrogative sentences, the

preposition follows the object.
prep.
Whom are you rooting for this weekend? [Think: For whom are you
rooting this weekend?]

A prepositional phrase functions as an adjective if it modifies a

noun or a pronoun. A prepositional phrase functions as an adverb if it
modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

27
Unit 1 Grammar

USED AS AN ADJECTIVE

The road by the old mill has a picnic area for the residents.
USED AS AN ADVERB

The defense attorney looked doubtfully at the witness and then

began her cross-examination in a quiet but effective voice.

Some words can function as prepositions or as adverbs, depend

ing on their use in a sentence.
prep.
PREPOSITION Larry saw Marilyn standing outside the stadium.

ADVERB If you venture outside in the cold weather, wear a

coat.

E ercise 6 Prepositional Phrases On your paper, list the

prepositional phrases in the following sentences. Underline the
propositions once and the objects of the prepositions twice.
SAMPLE The term utopia, which was first used by Thomas
More, refers to any imaginary place with ideal politi
cal, social, and economic conditions.
ANSWER by Thomas More; to any imaginary p~~; with ideal
political, social, and economic conditions
1. Throughout history individuals have envisioned societies where people
could live in harmony with one another and with nature.
2. Plato, a philosopher who lived in ancient Athens, wrote The Republic,
which described his concept of the ideal society.
3. In Plato’s perfect society, harmony would exist between the three
classes: the philosopher kings, who would be responsible for govern
ment; the guardians, who would maintain order in the land; and the
artisans, farmers, and merchants, who would supply material needs.
4. According to Plato all people in the society would find satisfaction in
their roles, despite the divisions among the classes.
5. Since Plato’s era many other people have been intrigued by the idea
of utopian communities.

28
 1.lg
Conjunctions

6. The Anabaptists, a Protestant group during the Reformation, believed

that people could achieve moral perfection on the earth and estab
lished “holy communities” for the pursuit of such perfection.
7. In the late 1700s, many Europeans were concerned about the effects
of industrialism; Robert Owen, a social reformer born in Wales,
created a factory community where the interests of the workers were
respected.
8. Among the reforms in Owen’s community were shorter working hours
for employees, clean housing, and schooling for the workers’ children.
9. In 1888 Edward Bellamy, a writer born in Massachusetts, published
Looking Backward, a novel about a socialist utopia; the popular novel
sold one million copies in six languages within ten years.
10. Except for the Hutterian Brethren—a religious communal sect in
South Dakota, Montana, and western Canada—few utopian communi
ties exist in modern society.

g Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word that connects words or groups of

words. In fact, the word conjunction literally means “the act of
joining” or “combination.” There are three kinds of conjunctions:
coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinat
ing conjunctions.

Coordinating Conjunctions
A coordinating conjunction connects individual words or
groups of words that perform the same function in a sentence. The
coordinating conjunctions are and, but, for, nor, or, and yet. A
coordinating conjunction can connect words, phrases, or clauses. For
a complete explanation of phrases and clauses, see Section 1.3 of this
unit.
The dolphin next to our boat surfaced, jumped, and dived as we
watched. [connects words]
The antique dealer, hoping to find a bargain but not expecting to
find one, went to the auction. [connects phrases]
We may be a few minutes late for the picnic, for the road crews
repairing the expressway have slowed traffic considerably. [connects
clauses]

29
Unit I Grammar

Correlative Conjunctions
A correlative conjunction is a conjunction that consists of two
or more words that function together. Like coordinating conjunc
tions, correlative conjunctions connect words that perform equal
functions in a sentence. The following list contains correlative
conjunctions:
both . . . and not only . . . but (also)
either . . .or whether . . . or
neither . . nor
.

Julian said that he had read neither this novel nor that long poem
before. [connects words]
Not only did we see a funny show at the club, but we also watched
comedians doing improvisations after the regular show.
[connects clauses]

Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction introduces a subordinate clause
(page 59), which is a clause that cannot stand by itself as a complete
sentence. The subordinating conjunction connects the subordinate
clause to an independent clause, which can stand by itself as a
complete sentence.
sub clause indep clause
As the months went by, the Smiths grew accustomed to their new
home: [The subordinating conjunction, as, introduces the subordi
nating clause and connects the clause to the independent clause.]

Subordinating conjunctions usually express relationships of

time, manner, cause, condition, comparison, or purpose.
TIME after, as, as long as, as soon as, before, since, until,
when, whenever, while
MANNER as, as if, as though
CAUSE because
CONDITION although, as long as, even if, even though, if,
provided that, though, unless, while

30
 1.lg
Conjunctions

COMPARISON as, than

PURPOSE in order that, so that, that
Jerry has been practicing the drums constantly and plays
sub clause
as though he has had a great deal of experience. [As though express
es manner.] ____________

The stores are extremely crowded these days unless you go

sub. clause
early on a Saturday morning. [Unless expresses condition.]

Conjunctive Adverbs
A conjunctive adverb is an adverb that functions somewhat
like a coordinating conjunction because it usually connects indepen
dent clauses (page 58). A semicolon precedes the conjunctive adverb,
and a comma usually follows it.
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB
An expert on career planning will speak in the auditorium on
Friday; furthermore, he will answer your questions after the
lecture.
COORDINATING CONJUNCTION
An expert on career planning will speak in the auditorium on
Friday, and he will answer your questions after the lecture.

The following list contains frequently used conjunctive adverbs:

also furthermore later still

besides however moreover then
consequently indeed nevertheless therefore
finally instead otherwise thus

xercise 7 Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adverbs

Number your paper from 1 to 10. Next to each number, write a
coordinating conjunction, a subordinating conjunction, or a conjunc
tive adverb to replace the corresponding blank.

31
Unit I Grammar

SAMPLE _L. scientists have been studying cryogenics, or ex

tremely low temperatures, engineers can produce
_2~. maintain low temperatures for a variety of uses.
ANSWER 1. Because; 2. and
The first industrial use of cryogenics was the production of
liquid air, which is a source of liquid oxygen _i_ liquid nitrogen.
~ the production of liquid oxygen became possible, it was used in
certain types of aircraft....~_ spacecraft. _4_ the liquid oxygen was
converted into gaseous form, crews could use it to breathe on long
flights. Liquid oxygen has also proven to be quite versatile; ~_, it
is used to manufacture synthetic gases ~ to treat waste water.
_L_ the industrial uses of cryogenics have increased, the
medical uses have increased even more rapidly. For instance, sur
geons have more flexibility during operations cryogenics allows
.....~_

blood to be frozen _~_ preserved for a long time. With cryogenic

techniques, internal organs can be frozen _1Q. not harmed during
surgery.

Assignment Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adverbs

On your paper, rewrite the following paragraphs by using conjunc
tions and conjunctive adverbs whenever appropriate to connect ideas
and to provide variety in your sentences. You may make other
changes so that the passage reads more smoothly. Underline the
conjunctions and the conjunctive adverbs that you use.
Margaret Mead was a psychological anthropologist. She was
respected. She was controversial. Mead was born in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, in 1901. She grew up in a liberal intellectual atmos
phere. Her father was a professor. Her mother was a sociologist.
Her mother was an early advocate of women’s rights. Mead was a
senior in college. She took a course in anthropology. She later said
that this was the most influential event in her life. She decided to
become an anthropologist. She became known as a tireless field
investigator.
Margaret Mead’s interests centered on several aspects of psy
chology and anthropology. She studied childhood and adolescence.
She studied cultural change. She studied the contemporary national
character. Her first field research was done in Samoa in 1925 and
1926. She went by herself. She studied the lives of adolescent girls.
She went to New Guinea to study the young children. She wanted to
test some of the psychological theories popular at that time. Twenty

32
 1.lh
Interjections

five years later she returned to observe the changes. The children
had become adults. In the late 1930s she did field research in Bali.
There she pioneered the use of photography in the study of behavior
and personality.
During her career she served on several United States govern
ment commissions. She was very involved in education. She taught
in universities. She interpreted the lessons of anthropology to the
general public. She was a curator at the American Museum of
Natural History for most of her professional life. She was involved
in programs concerned with mental health and technological change.
Margaret Mead died in New York City on November 15, 1978.
Blackberry Winter is her autobiography.

Interjections

An interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase that can

stand by itself, although it may also appear in a sentence. Many
interjections express strong emotions. They are followed by exclama
tion marks.
Wow! That ball was really hit!
When an interjection appears within a sentence, you should set
if off with a comma or commas.
So, you didn’t find what you were looking for at the corner store.
My, these grapefruits are truly excellent!

Exercise 8 Interjections On your paper, write an interjection

that fits in each blank of the following paragraph. Use the interjec
tions from the following list. Each interjection is used only once.
SAMPLE i! Don’t bump your head against the low ceiling.
ANSWER Oops
of course good grief oh whew
oueh darn well alas
i, what a horrible day I had yesterday! First thing, I fell
out of bed. i.! It still hurts where I fell, if you want to know the
truth. I went downstairs, and, ~, there was absolutely nothing to
eat for breakfast. I went back upstairs to get dressed. 4! There

33
Unit I Grammar
‘~ ~

were no clean shirts in the closet. I had no choice but to go back

downstairs, get out the ironing board, and iron a shirt. Meanwhile,
it had begun to rain, and by the time I went outside, we were
having a regular thunderstorm. _~! It was really coming down!
as I drove to work, I got a flat tire. By the time I fixed it, I
was completely waterlogged. _L_, the rest of my day didn’t get
much better, although I won’t bore you with the details. I got home,
ate dinner, and crept into bed two hours earlier than usual. ~_! It
was a day that I would never want to relive!

• — ~ WI ri War

‘U), ~ 0~

Using Words Effectively

Write a character sketch of a fictional person. In the
sketch, use nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs that effec
tively reveal the character’s personality traits. Try to show
several sides to your character’s personality. If appropriate,
use the following list of common personality traits.
extroverted optimistic decisive
thoughtful conscientious reserved

1. n e
• a Four Sentence Purposes

A sentence is a group of words that has a subject and a

predicate and that expresses a complete thought. It describes an
action or states a condition of a person, a place, or a thing. There are
four categories of sentences: declarative, interrogative, imperative,
or exclamatory.

34
 1.2a

Sentence Purposes

A declarative sentence makes a statement and ends with a

period. An interrogative sentence asks a question and ends with a
question mark. An exclamatory sentence shows strong feeling and
ends with an exclamation point. An imperative sentence gives an
order or makes a request. A mild command or request ends with a
period, but a strong command or request ends with an exclamation
point. Some imperative sentences take the form of questions but are
actually mild commands or polite requests. Such sentences end with
periods.
DECLARATIVE Before reading the novel, Stephen read the preface.
INTERROGATIVE Why did Napoleon lose the battle at Waterloo?

EXCLAMATORY This traffic will make us miss our airplane!

IMPERATIVE Lock the door on your way out.
Don’t drink that sour milk!
Donna, will you please move your car.

E ercise I Sentence Purpose On your paper, write sen

tences in which you use the following groups of words, and add
appropriate punctuation. Label each sentence Declarative, Interroga
tive, Imperative, or Exclamatory.
SAMPLE would you look
ANSWER Would you look to see whether the newspaper has
come yet?—Interrogative
1. what a lucky person
2. waiting for a bus in the rain
3. don’t forget
4. does the electronics store
5. the first signs of spring
6. from now on
7. talking to friends
8. is the company going to
9. twenty-five laps every day
10. a beautiful sight

35
 Unit 1 Grammar

Subjects and Predicates

Simple Subjects
The simple subject is the noun or pronoun that names the
person, place, thing, or idea that the sentence is about. The simple
subject does not include modifiers. The complete subject (page 37)
consists of the simple subject and its modifiers. In this book the term
subject refers to the simple subject. In the following sentences, the
simple subject is in boldface type.
Sigmund Freud is considered one of the founders of modern
psychiatry.
The last of the artifacts that the archeologist discovered was the
most interesting.
Where will the seminar on computer education be held?

The simple subject of an imperative sentence is always you.

Often, you is understood rather than stated.
Be sure to study the chapter in your history book about Reconstruc
tion. [Think: You be sure.]
Compound Subjects. A compound subject is a simple subject
that consists of two or more nouns or pronouns of equal rank. The
term compound subject refers to a compound simple subject.
A larger dining room, a den, and a big closet will be added to Mr.
Grabowski’s house. [Dining room, den, and closet form the com
pound subject.]

Simple Predicates
The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase that describes
the action or states the condition of the subject. The simple predicate
does not include modifiers and words that complete the meaning of
the verb. It also does not include the adverb not or never. The
complete predicate (page 38) includes all such modifiers and comple
ments (page 41). It also includes not or never. In this book the term

36
 1.2b

Complete Subjects

predicate refers to the simple predicate. In the following sentences,

the simple predicate is in boldface type.
subj pred
For biology class each student collected samples of forty different
kinds of leaves.
subj c— pred.—.——,
By this time tomorrow, our family wifi have driven through Sequoia
National Park.
pred.p— subj.—, pred.
What do social scientists view as the major trends for cities in the
next ten years?

Compound Predicates. A compound predicate is a simple

predicate that consists of two or more verbs or verb phrases of equal
rank. The term compound predicate refers to a compound simple
predicate.
Julius Caesar led the Roman army in one conquest after another
and expanded the Roman Empire all the way to Britain but was
assassinated in 44 B.C. [Led, expanded, and was assassinated form
the compound predicate.]

Complete Subjects
and Complete Predicates
The complete subject consists of the simple subject and all the
words that modify it or identify it.
complete subject
Brown County, which is in the south.central part of Indiana, is
known for its art galleries. [Brown County is the simple subject.]
complete subject
Remembered for his courage in battle, Chief Crazy Horse actually
had a quiet, unassuming manner. [Chief Crazy Horse is the simple
subject.]
complete subject
Harvard University, the oldest university in the United States, and
Laval University, the oldest university in Canada, were both founded
to train people for the clergy. [Included in the complete subject is
the compound simple subject, which appears in italic type.]

37
Unit I Grammar

The complete predicate consists of the simple-predicate and

all the words that modify it or complete its meaning.
The Vikings, who came from Scandinavia, made raids on other
complete predicate
European countries from the eighth century through the eleventh
century. [Made is the simple predicate.]
I complete predicate
Film for your camera can be bought at the visitors’ center at the zoo.
[Can be bought is the simple predicate.]
comp ete predicate
Demographers study population trends and predict that the average
age of people in the United States will rise~ [Included in the complete
predicate is the compound simple predicate, study and predict.]

Placement of Subjects
and Predicates
Subjects and predicates may be arranged in a variety of ways in
sentences. The placement of the subject and the predicate often
depends on the purpose of the sentence. In the examples that follow,
the complete subjects are underlined once and the complete predi
cates twice.
DECLARATIVE SENTENCES
Household utensils made of pewter, an alloy consisting pri
marily of tin, have been used since the fourteenth century.
[The subject precedes the predicate.]
Here are the periodicals that you requested from the reference
librarian. [The sentence has inverted word order; that is, the
subject follows the predicate.]
Into the street rolled the tennis ball. [The sentence has invert
ed word order.]
Because they had been studying the ancient history of Britain,
Sue and Paulette, who were on a tour, were particularly
interested in seeing Stonehenge. [The subject is between the
two parts of the predicate.]
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE
How were you able to fix the plugged drain in the kitchen?
[Think: You were able to fix.]

38
 1.2b

Placement of Subjects

IMPERATIVE SENTENCE
Try to finish painting the porch by this evening. [Think: You
try to finish. The entire imperative sentence is the complete
predicate because the subject, you, is understood.]
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES
The pictures that you took are beautiful!
What a fascinating exhibit that was!

Exercise 2 Subjects and Predicates On your paper, write

the following sentences. Underline the complete subjects once and
the complete predicates twice. Write subj. over each simple subject
and pred. over each simple predicate. If the subject is the understood
you, write it in parentheses, underline it, and label it.
SAMPLE Because the population of the world has been in
creasing so rapidly, the study of population trends
has become an important science.
ANSWER Because the population of the world has been

increasing so rapidly, the study of population

r—pred —i
trends has become an important science.
1. The population of the world in the year 1650 was five hundred million.
2. Between 1650 and 1850, the world’s population doubled.
3. During the 1800s, large numbers of people moved from the farms to
the cities.
4. During the nineteenth century, the United States became home for
the millions of Europeans who fled from the overcrowded conditions
in their native countries.
5. In the past there was relatively little migration from the densely
populated nations of Asia, which now accounts for three fifths of the
world’s population.
6. Will the rapid growth in population, now 2 percent a year, continue?
7. Because medical advances allow people to live longer, the birth rate
exceeds the death rate in many countries.
8. Population experts expect continued growth and believe that the in
creasing population will put a strain on the world’s resources, particu
larly food and energy.

39
Unit I Grammar

9. The increased demands for food have been offset somewhat by the
“Green Revolution,” the rapid increase in food production aided by
improved seeds and agricultural methods.
10. By the year 2015, the population of the world could reach eight billion
people.

E ercise 3 Subjects and Predicates In all of the following

sentences, the subject precedes the predicate. Step 1: Rewrite the
sentences so that they do not follow the subject-predicate pattern. To
do so, invert the word order of the sentence, changing the sentence
into a question or putting the subject between two parts of the
predicate. Step 2: Draw one line under the complete subject and two
lines under the complete predicate in your rewritten sentences.
SAMPLE The stepladder and the bucket of paint fell against
the house.
ANSWER Against the house fell the stepladder and the bucket
of paint. OR
Did the stepladder and the bucket of paint fall
against the house?
1. The defendant, a middle-aged man in a business suit, appeared before
the judge.
2. Mr. Hanson was stricken by Rocky Mountain spotted fever when the
Hansons were traveling through the West.
3. Laura is taking a course in creativity because she wants to learn how
to generate innovative ideas.
4. The emblem that you are holding in your hand is a keepsake from my
grandmother.
5. The road that we are on winds through the Great Smoky Mountains.
6. The club that the Riveras belong to is going to do folk dances at the
carnival tonight.
7. An important message for Norma has come by telegram.
8. Mrs. Lorenzo is covering her flowers so that they will not be harmed
by tonight’s freeze.
9. The neighbors gave us a wonderful sendoff before we started on our
cross-country motoring trip!
10. You will find the Egyptian collection down the stairs and to your right.

40
 1.2c
Objects

C Complements

A complement is a word or a group of words that completes

the meaning of a verb in a sentence or a clause (page 58). Comple
ments are always part of the complete predicate.
The oranges sent to us from Florida were delicious. [The oranges
were what? Delicious. Delicious is a complement.]
This afternoon Chet is chopping wood for the winter. [Chet is
chopping what? Wood. Wood is a complement.]

If the preceding sentences did not have complements, their

meaning would be incomplete.
The oranges sent to us from Florida were [Were what?]
Chet is chopping [Is chopping what?]

This section covers three types of complements: objects, objec

tive complements, and subject complements.

Objects
Objects are nouns or pronouns that follow action verbs in the
active voice (Unit 2). There are two kinds of objects: direct objects
and indirect objects.
Direct Objects. A direct object is a noun or a pronoun that
follows an action verb in the active voice and receives the action of
the verb. It answers the question What? or Whom? Verbs that take
direct objects are called transitive verbs (pages 14—15). Modifiers are
not part of the object.

DO
The Leggets visited the aunt of one of their friends. [Visited whom?
Aunt.]

The next-door neighbors have a small tractor for clearing the snow
from the driveway. [Have what? Tractor.]

41
Unit I Grammar

Indirect Objects. An indirect object is a noun or a pronoun

that names the person or thing to whom or for whom an action is
performed. An indirect object follows an action verb in the active
voice. In most cases an indirect object is used with a direct object.
The indirect object comes immediately after the verb and before the
direct object.

IC DO
The men’s choir will sing us one more song to conclude the assem
bly. [Think: The choir will sing (for) us one more song.]

0 D.O
Will you bring me a couple of books from the library when you go
there? [Think: Will you bring (to) me a couple of books?]

Compound Objects. Like subjects and predicates, objects may

be compound. A compound object consists of two or more objects
that complete the same predicate.
COMPOUND DIRECT OBJECT

Jerry read several articles and books about the presidency of

James Monroe.
COMPOUND INDIRECT OBJECT

We will show Maxine and Paulette as many historical sites as

we have time for.

Objective Complements
An objective complement is a noun or an adjective that
follows a direct object and explains, identifies, or describes that
object. Only certain verbs take an objective complement: make, find,
think, elect, choose, appoint, name, consider, call, and synonyms of
these verbs.
NOUN AS OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT
r—D0
The voters have elected Alexandra Smith state senator. [State
senator is the objective complement of the verb phrase, have
elected. It identifies the direct object, Alexandra Smith.]

42
 1.2c
Subject Complements

ADJECTIVE AS OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT

~
We considered the dancer’s performance briffiant.
[Brilliant is the objective complement of the verb, considered.
It describes the direct object, performance.]

A sentence may have a compound objective complement,

which consists of two or more objective complements.
DO
The board of trustees has appointed Dan the director of
O,C
public information and the coordinator of the research department.
[The nouns director and coordinator are objective complements.]

Subject Complements
A subject complement is a word that comes after a linking
verb and identifies or describes the subject of a sentence or a clause
(page 58). Subject complements often follow forms of the verb be.
Other verbs that may take subject complements are in the following
list:
appear look sound
become remain stay
feel seem taste
grow smell

There are two kinds of subject complements: predicate nomina

tives and predicate adjectives.
Predicate Nominatives. A predicate nominative is a noun or
a pronoun that follows a linking verb and identifies the subject of the
sentence. The root of the word nominative is nominate, which means
“to name.” In a sense the predicate nominative renames the subject.

During the coming year, Ron will remain a volunteer at the local
recycling center. [Volunteer identifies the subject, Ron.]
After Mrs. Sampson’s expert training, Butch has become an
obedient dog. [Dog identifies the subject, Butch.]

43
Unit I Grammar

r—P.N.
The broadcast will be either a press conference or a speech
by the governor. [The sentence has a compound predicate nomina
tive, press conference and speech. Both identify broadcast.]

Predicate Adjectives. A predicate adjective is an adjective

that follows a linking verb and modifies the subject of the sentence.

The sound coming out of the speakers was rather feeble. [The
predicate adjective, feeble, modffies the subject, sound.]

The story that I read last night was quite difficult to follow. [The
predicate adjective, difficult, modifies the subject, story.]

A~A.
Harrison felt refreshed and relaxed after his month-long vacation.
[The sentence has a compound predicate adjective, refreshed and
relaxed.]

In some sentences the predicate adjective precedes the verb or

verb phrase.

Lighthearted was the play that we saw at the theater. [The predicate
adjective, lighthearted, modifies the subject, play.]

Exercise 4 Complements On your paper, write the words

and phrases that are in italic type in the following sentences. After
each word or phrase, write the label Direct object, Indirect object,
Objective complement, Predicate nominative, or Predicate adjective.
SAMPLE Sir Winston Churchill, best remembered for his lead
ership during World War II, gave Britain six decades
of service.
ANSWER Britain—Indirect object; decades—Direct object
1. Winston Churchill experienced setbacks in his early life, but those
setbacks did not prevent him from leading a distinguished life.
2. Churchill’s childhood was undistinguished, for his teachers considered
him the worst student in his class.

44
 1.2c

Subject Complements

3. In addition, Churchill was stubborn and high spirited, and these per
sonality traits alienated adults.
4. Churchill found a direction at the age of eighteen; at that time his
father sent him to the Royal Military College at Sandhurst.
5. The school gave Churchill his first military training, and he became an
excellent student of military tactics and fortifications.
6. After he had completed his education, Churchill sought adventure,
and his experiences gave him the opportunity to become a war corre
spondent.
7. Churchill became a member df Parliament for the first time in 1900
and held several positions in the cabinet for the next ten years.
8. In 1911 the prime minister of Britain appointed Churchill first lord of
the admiralty, but in 1915 Churchill resigned from that post after
making a military decision that was disastrous.
9. Churchill saved his reputation by serving in several other posts toward
the end of the war, and after the war he remained active in politics.
10. The years after World War I also gave Churchill the time to develop
his writing ability, and he became an accomplished historian.
11. Later events gave Churchill yet another opportunity to serve his
country, for in April of 1940 war broke out between Britain and Nazi
Germany, and later that year he became the Prime Minister.
12. Churchill promised his fellow Britons “blood, toil, tears, and sweat”;
he then led England to its finest hour, the defeat of the German air
force over British soil.
13. In 1953 the Swedish Academy awarded Winston Churchill the Nobel
Prize for literature, and in the same year Queen Elizabeth II made
him a peer.
14. Those were not all the honors, for in 1963 the United States made
Winston Churchill an honorary citizen.

Exercise 5 Complements Next to each number that follows

is a noun and a verb. Step 1: Using each noun as the subject and some
form of each verb as the predicate, write a sentence that has one or
more complements. Supply suitable modifiers for the subjects, the
predicates, and the complements. Step 2: Label each complement
that you write D. 0. for direct object, 1.0. for indirect object, 0. C.
for objective complement, P. N. for predicate nominative, or P.A. for
predicate adjective.

45
Unit 1 Grammar

SAMPLE communication, is
P.A.
ANSWER Effective communication is necessary to the effective
functioning of an organization.
1. explorer, find 6. scientist, study
2. golfer, hit 7. crowds, attend
3. director, give 8. sports writer, name
4. cabinet member, appoint 9. hawk, see
5. fox, appear 10. factory, become

Assignment Complements In descriptions of characters and

settings, authors of stories and essays often use predicate nominatives
and predicate adjectives to convey descriptive details and qualities.
Find a fictional story or an essay that contains a descriptive passage.
On your paper, write the predicate nominatives and predicate
adjectives that appear in the passage. Label each one P.N. or P.A.
Be sure to identify the selection that you use.

ss S

With phrases and clauses, you can have a variety of sentence

structures in your writing. This section explains the functions of both
phrases and clauses.

.3a Phrases

A phrase is a group of related words that functions as a single

part of speech but lacks a subject, a predicate, or both. This section
deals with three common kinds of phrases: prepositional phrases,
appositive phrases, and verbal phrases.

Prepositional Phrases
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and its
object, including any modifiers of that object. In the following
sentences, the prepositional phrases are in boldface type.

46
 1.3a
Prepositional Phrases

prep
An important challenge facing the United States for the last

two hundred years has been maintaining the proper balance

prep
between the individual’s rights and society’s rights. [The second
prepositional phrase has a compound object of the preposition.]

prep.
Which person are you looking for? [Think: For which person are you
looking?]

Prepositional Phrases Used as Adjectives. A prepositional

phrase that modifies a noun or a pronoun functions as an adjective.
Such a phrase is sometimes called an adjective phrase.

MODIFIES NOUN
ATh
The man with the brown raincoat will drive us downtown,

where we will find the location of the meeting.

MODIFIES PRONOUN

Several of the students have entered the chess tournament.

Prepositional Phrases Used as Adverbs. A prepositional

phrase functions as an adverb if it modifies a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb. This kind of phrase is sometimes called an adverb
phrase.

MODIFIES VERB

The impressionist movement spread from Europe and influ

enced American artists in the early 1900s.
MODIFIES ADJECTIVE

The entire class was curiotjs about new energy sources.

MODIFIES ADVERB

The tour guide led the visitors down to the lowest deck.

47
Unit I Grammar

A prepositional phrase can modify the object in another

prepositional phrase.

~~phrase
A detour took us around the construction site

r adj phrase—, adj. phrase

in the middle of the city.

Appositive Phrases
An appositive is a noun or a pronoun placed near another
noun or pronoun to explain it or identify it.

The senior class president, Amy Jones, has brought several new ideas
into student government.

Will our supervisors show us trainees the best selling techniques?

Albert Schweitzer, doctor, missionary, and philosopher, will long be

remembered for his humanitarian work in Africa. [The sentence has
a compound appositive: doctor, missionary, and philosopher.]

Like an appositive, an appositive phrase explains or identifies

a noun or a pronoun. It includes all the words or phrases that modify
an appositive.

Colette’s hobby, nature and wildlife photography, will probably lead

to an interesting job.

We listeners with questions can talk to the professor after the lec
ture.

A year of fierce snowstorms and widespread drought, 1978 will long

be remembered.

An essential appositive or an essential appositive phrase is

an appositive that is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. This

48
 13a
Appositive Phrases

kind of appositive should not be separated from the rest of the

sentence with a comma.

‘~ositive
D. H. Lawrence’s short story “The Rocking-Horse Winner” appears
in numerous literature anthologies. [Lawrence wrote more than one
story. The appositive is necessary to identify which story.]

A nonessential appositive or a nonessential appositive

phrase is an appositive that is not necessary to the meaning of the
sentence. Such an appositive should be separated from the rest of the
sentence with a comma or commas.

appositive phrase
Lawrence also wrote “The Fox,” a story that is widely read and
studied: [The appositive is not necessary to identify the story being
discussed.]

Exercise I Prepositional and Appositive Phrases

Number your paper from 1 to 15. Next to each number, write a
prepositional phrase or an appositive phrase to complete the sen
tence. Use the kind of phrase that is indicated.
SAMPLE Frank put on his shoes, (1) _i_ (appositive phrase),
and got his raincoat (2) _L (prepositional phrase).
ANSWER 1. a pair of brown loafers
2. from the closet
Frank, (1) 1 (appositive phrase), left his house (2) 1
(prepositional phrase) early this afternoon. As he walked (3) 2
(prepositional phrase), he met his friend, (4) L. (appositive
phrase), who was waiting (5) 1 (prepositional phrase). They
talked (6) i.. (prepositional phrase) and continued together
(7) 1 (prepositional phrase). Frank and his friend passed the
public library, (8) .i (appositive phrase), and turned the corner
(9) .1 (prepositional phrase). They.walked (10) i (preposition
al phrase) and finally arrived at the Shubert Theater, (11) L
(appositive phrase). They presented their tickets (12) ..1 (preposi
tional phrase) and climbed the stairs (13) L (prepositional phrase).
(14) 1 (prepositional phrase), they were enthralled by Hamlet,
(15) 1 (appositive phrase).

49
Unit I Grammar

Verbal Phrases
Verbals are verb forms that function as nouns, adjectives, or
adverbs but retain some of the properties of verbs. For instance, they
express action or being, and they may take complements. There are
three kinds of verbals: participles, gerunds, and infinitives.
Participles. A participle is a verb form that can function as an
adjective while still keeping some of the properties of a verb. It
expresses action or being, and it may take a complement.

Annoyed, Jane kept driving around the block to find a parking place.
[Both annoyed and parking are participles.]

There are two kind of participles: present participles and past

participles. The present participle and the past participle are two of
the four principal parts of a verb. For a complete explanation of the
principal parts of verbs, see Section 2.2a of Unit 2.
Besides functioning as adjectives, present participles and past
participles can form part of a verb phrase. When a participle
functions as a verb, it is not a verbal. This section deals with present
participles and past participles that function as adjectives. For an
explanation of participles used as verbs, see Unit 2.
To form a present participle, add -ing to the infinitive form of a
verb.

Did you figure out a solution to that ~uzz1ing problem? [Puzzling

is a present participle that consists of the verb puzzle and the
ending -ing.]

To form a past participle, first determine whether the verb is

regular or irregular (Unit 2).
1. Regular verbs. To form the past participle of a regular verb,
add either -d or -ed to the infinitive form of the verb.
INFINITIVE PAST PARTICIPLE
exhaust exhausted
2. Irregular verbs. To form the past participle of an irregular
verb, use a special form of the verb. See Section 2.2a of

50
 1.3a
Verbal Phrases

Unit 2 for a list of past participles of commonly used

irregular verbs.
INFINITIVE PAST PARTICIPLE
freeze frozen
tear torn

A participle used as an adjective may have one or more

auxiliary verbs. The auxiliary verb and the participle function as a
unit to modify a noun or a pronoun.

Having been lost, Jason vowed never to drive in the city again
without a map. [Having and been are the auxiliary verbs, and lost is
the participle.]

Participial Phrases. A participial phrase consists of a partici

ple and its modifiers and complements. The participial phrase
functions as an adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun. Both
present participles and past participles may be used to form participi
al phrases.

There is Maria walking briskly to city hail.

Disappointed by the cast’s mediocre performance during dress re

hearsal, the director emphasized the importance of concentration

during a performance.

Having forgotten to send a birthday card, Ed sent a telegram to his

brother.

Notice that in the preceding sentences, the participial phrases

are near the words that they modify. For an explanation of the correct
placement of participial phrases, see Unit 2.
Another kind of phrase that is formed with participles is the
absolute phrase. An absolute phrase modifies the entire indepen
dent clause (pages 58—59) of the sentence; it does not have a direct
grammatical connection with any single word in the independent

51
Unit I Grammar

clause. An absolute phrase contains both a participle and the noun or

pronoun that is modified by the participle. Consequently, the phrase
is “absolute,” or complete within itself.
The flour having fallen from the top shelf of the pantry, I had to
spend half an hour cleaning the floor. [The absolute phrase modifies
the entire independent clause by telling why I had to spend half an
hour cleaning.]

Exercise 2 Participial Phrases On your paper, combine

each of the following pairs of sentences by rewriting one sentence as a
participial phrase. Underline the participial phrases in your rewritten
sentences. You may change phrasing as necessary.
SAMPLE Madeline’s feature article was criticized for its poor
organization. She worked until twelve o’clock that
night to rewrite it.
ANSWER Having been criticized for the poor organization of
her feature article, Madeline worked until twelve
o’clock that night to rewrite it.
1. Marita sent Julie a letter. Julie sent back a letter about her summer
vacation.
2. Bill ran after Leslie’s volley. He reached it and smashed the ball back
to her side of the net.
3. The people were disappointed by the lack of snow this holiday season.
They just stayed inside and watched television.
4. Amanda arrived late for the wedding. She sat down quietly in the last
row of seats.
5. Cathy and Elizabeth walked down the street to the health food restau
rant. The restaurant offers two dinners for the price of one before five
o’clock.
6. Eugene visited his uncle during spring vacation. He took the train to
St. Louis.
7. Fred was informed that he must appear as a witness in court on
Monday. He told his employer that he would not be able to work that
day.
8. A large crowd gathered to watch the man. He was attempting to walk
a high wire.

52
 1~3a
Gerunds

9. Brenda was undecided about the next move to make in the chess
game. She thoroughly examined each option before she decided to
move the queen.
10. Vera had looked forward to reading the new novel. She was disap
pointed that it was so boring.

Gerunds
A gerund is a verbal that ends in ing and functions only as a
noun. Although it functions as a noun, a gerund has some of the
properties of a verb. It expresses action or being, and it may take a
complement such as a direct object or an indirect object.
USED AS SUBJECT
According to doctors, laughing may be one way to treat cer
tain kinds of illness.
USED AS DIRECT OBJECT
When you study, don’t forget skimming, which allows you to
review a great amount of material quickly.
USED AS INDIRECT OBJECT
Sue gave skiing high marks after her first try yesterday.
USED AS OBJECT OF PREPOSITION
To become an artist, one must first learn the fundamentals of
drawing.

USED AS PREDICATE NOMINATIVE

A good way to gain exercise daily is walking.
USED AS APPOSITIVE
Most children’s favorite pastime, playing, actually has great
educational value.

Gerund Phrase. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund and its

modifiers and complements.
gerund phrase I
The cheering of the crowd all but prevented us from hearing
gerund phrase
the convention’s main speaker.

53
Unit i Grammar

Like gerunds, gerund phrases may perform all the functionS of a

noun.
USED AS SUBJECT
The marching of the band made the ground tremble.
USED AS DIRECT OBJECT
At this point in the hearings, the committee will avoid debat
ing specific policy proposals.
USED AS INDIRECT OBJECT
The city has given developing new sources of revenue the
greatest importance this year.
USED AS OBJECT OF PREPOSITION
The council has voted in favor of setting aside additional land
for public parks.
USED AS PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
One way to reduce grocery bills is planting a garden of toma
toes, lettuce, beans, and cucumbers.

USED AS APPOSITIVE
Elaine’s summer job, selling sportswear in a department store,
will prove valuable in her career in merchandising.

Infinitives
An infinitive is a verbal that consists of the first principal part
(Section 2.2a of Unit 2) of the verb. The word to usually, though not
always, precedes the infinitive. An infinitive may function as a noun,
an adjective, or an adverb. Like a participle and a gerund, an
infinitive has some of the characteristics of a verb. It expresses action
or being and may take a complement.
FUNCTIONS AS NOUN
To relax is Greg’s goal over spring vacation. [subject]
Because the line for the movie was so long, we decided to
leave. [direct object]
The purpose of speech class is to communicate. [predicate
nominative]
 1.3a
Infinitives

FUNCTIONS AS ADJECTIVE

Phyllis has an excellent ability to remember. [What kind of

ability? The ability to remember.]

FUNCTIONS AS ADVERB

At the end of the play, the people rose to applaud. [Why did
the people rise? They rose to applaud.]

It looks to me as if the dog is too lazy to run. [To what extent

is the dog lazy? It is too lazy to run.]

You may form an infinitive with one or more auxiliary verbs and
a past participle. Such infinitives indicate the time of the action.

The Super Bowl to have watched was the 1969 game between the
New York Jets and the Baltimore Colts.

The route to be followed is marked in red.

Infinitive Phrases. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive

and its modifiers and complements. An infinitive phrase can function
as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

FUNCTIONS AS NOUN
To buy a birthday present is my errand at noon.

FUNCTIONS AS ADJECTIVE

The best time to find bargains in the stores is the last week of
December. [Which time? The time to find bargains in the
stores.]

FUNCTIONS AS ADVERB

A crowd gathered to watch the unveiling of the new sculpture.

[Why did a crowd gather? It gathered to watch the unveiling of
the new sculpture.]

55
Unit I Grammar

In some sentences an infinitive phrase may be used without the

word to.
Will you help me put up the badminton net? [Think: help me to put
up the badminton net.]
Silently, Peg’s friends watched her practice her figure skating.
[Think: watched her to practice her figure skating.]

Sometimes the infinitive has a subject. Together, the subject of

the infinitive and the infinitive make up an infinitive clause. If the
subject of the infinitive is a pronoun, that pronoun is in the objective
case (Section 2.4b of Unit 2).
infinitive clause
The gym teacher told the class to run one more mile that day. [Class
is the subject of the infinitive.]
infinitive clause
Sophie’s aunt and uncle asked her to pay them a visit when she
passed through Cincinnati.’
I— nfinit,ve clause
Dale wants us to start a collection of art objects from around the
world.’

E ercise 3 Gerunds and lnfi itives On your paper, com

bine each of the following pairs of sentences by rewriting one
sentence as a gerund phrase or an infinitive phrase. Use the kind of
phrase indicated in parentheses. Underline the verbal phrases in your
rewritten sentences.
SAMPLE Mr. Harrison will plow part of the back yard for a
garden. He will rent a small tractor. (infinitive
phrase)
ANSWER Mr. Harrison will rent a small tractor to plow part of
the back yard for a garden.
1. Sheila raises German shepherd puppies. It is a rewarding and profit
able project for her. (gerund phrase)
2. John plays golf every Saturday during the summer. He borrows his
brother’s golf clubs. (infinitive phrase)
3. Pedro built an oak desk. That was his final assignment for the year in
industrial arts. (gerund phrase)

56
 1.3a
Infinitives

4. Kirsten sat in a quiet corner of the library all afternoon. She finished
Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice. (infinitive phrase)
5. As a reporter for the school newspaper, I met with the college
president last month. We discussed the challenges of that position.
(infinitive phrase)
6. Mary prepared to play a minuet for her piano recital. It took hours of
practice. (gerund phrase)
7. Katrina knit the vest that she is wearing. She used wool yam. (infini
tive phrase)
8. I must collate these pages for the school yearbook by the last period
today. Will you help me? (infinitive phrase)
9. Truck drivers spend long hours on the road and drive through all
kinds of weather. If you don’t mind those things, you should look
further into becoming a truck driver. (gerund phrase)
10. Last Sunday our family drove around the countryside. We looked at
the beautiful fall foliage. (infinitive phrase)

Exe cise 4 Verbal Phrases The sentences in the following

paragraph are short, making the paragraph monotonous. On your
paper, rewrite the paragraph to give the sentences more variety. Use
participial phrases, gerund phrases, and infinitive phrases where
appropriate. Underline the verbal phrases in your rewritten para
graph.
SAMPLE I was a new member of the debate team. I was
particularly nervous during the few minutes before
the start of the debate.
ANSWER Being a new member of the debate team, I was
particularly nervous during the few minutes before
the start of the debate.
I sat at the front of the auditorium. I held a white sheet of
paper with a few tiny black marks scratched across it. I stared down
at my own handwriting, but my notes were unrecognizable. I looked
in front of me. I saw pencils and a glass of water on the table. I
grew uncomfortable in my hard chair. I shifted my weight and
wished that I could stand up. I waited for the opposing team. They
would march in and sit behind the table on the other side of the
lectern. They finally entered and sat down. They looked intelligent

57
Unit I Grammar

and informed. I stared at their confident faces. Doing so made me

even more nervous, and I looked away. I kept my mind on the
subject of the debate. I recalled my most important facts and ideas.
The moderator then rose and walked toward the lectern. She would
introduce the debate teams to the audience. The moderator finished
her introduction. She sat down again. I took a deep breath. I hoped
that the deep breath would control my nervousness. I walked to the
lectern. I could feel a calmness come over me. I knew that I was in
control, and I began. I spoke effortlessly, just like an experienced
debater. I’d prepared my case thoroughly. The preparation had
really paid off!

1.3 Clauses

A clause is a group of related words that contains both a

subject and a predicate. There are two kinds of clauses: independent
clauses and subordinate clauses.

Independent Clauses
An independent clause can stand by itself as a sentence. The
following sentence contains two independent clauses, which are in
boldface type. Notice that each clause has a subject and a predicate
and that each could be a separate sentence. In the following example,
the subject is underlined once, and the predicate is underlined twice.
Our literary club intended to read Dune, by Frank Herbert, but we
chose Ray Bradbury’s Fahrenheit 451 instead.

A comma and the coordinating conjunction but join the clauses in the
preceding sentence. But is not part of either clause. Rather, it
coordinates, or connects, the independent clauses. The other coordi
nating conjunctions are and, or, nor, for, and yet.
You can also join independent clauses with either a semicolon
or a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb (page 31).
Career information has become increasingly critical to today’s high
school graduates; the guidance department is planning a series of
workshops on careers this spring. [semicolon]

58
 1.3b

Subordinate Clauses

Career information has become increasingly critical to today’s high

school graduates; therefore, the guidance department is planning a
series of workshops on careers this spring. [semicolon and conjunc
tive adverb]

Subordinate Clauses
A clause that cannot stand by itself is a subordinate clause.
This kind of clause is sometimes called a dependent clause. In the
following examples, the subjects are underlined once, and the
predicates are underlined twice. However, the clauses cannot stand
by themselves because they do not express complete thoughts.
Which is one of the vanishing species in the United States
While we are waiting for the car to be tuned up
Although the weather has been mild

Notice that the preceding subordinate clauses begin with the

words which, while, and although. Which is a relative pronoun (page
10), and while and although are subordinating conjunctions (pages
30—31). Many subordinate clauses begin with either a relative pro
noun or a subordinating conjunction. Such introductory words are
part of the subordinate clause, and they join the subordinate clause to
an independent clause.

I indep cause sub.cause

Most observers admire the bald eagle, which is one of the vanishing
species in the United States.’

indep clause ,r—sub. clause

Why don’t we walk around the shopping center while we are waiting
for the car to be tuned up?’

sub clause indep clause

Although the weather has been mild, forecasters are predicting a
harsh winter~

Clauses Used as Adjectives. A clause functions as an adjec

tive if it modifies a noun or a pronoun. Such clauses are called

59
Unit I Grammar

adjective clauses. Most adjective clauses begin with a relative

pronoun: that, which, who, whom, and whose.

~~clause
The policy paper that the candidate issued on city services has some
worthwhile ideas. [Which paper? The paper that the candidate issued
on city services.]
clause
I can’t remember the name of the artist whose paintings are being
featured at the art institute~ [Which artist? The artist whose paint
ings are being featured at the art institute.]

You may also begin adjective clauses with relative adverbs.

Some of the relative adverbs are after, before, since, when, and
where.

adj. clause
The years since the Wright brothers flew at Kittyhawk have brought
enormous changes in people’s lives. [Which years? The years since the
Wright brothers flew at Kittyhawk.]

Sometimes the introductory word in an adjective clause is

implied rather than stated.

adj clause
The bus the commuters usually took to work was discontinued
without any announcement. [Think: bus that the commuters usually
took.]

Essential and Nonessential Clauses. An adjective clause

that is necessary to identify a noun or a pronoun is an essential
clause. An essential clause is not separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas.
ESSENTIAL CLAUSE
When our car broke down, we were lucky to find the only
~~~~iause
service station that was open late at night. [The clause is
essential in order to identify the station.]

60
 1.3b
Subordinate Clauses

A nonessential clause is an adjective clause that is not

necessary to identify a noun or a pronoun. A nonessential clause is
set off from the rest of the sentence by commas.
NONESSENTIAL CLAUSE
The morning classes were shortened because of the

assembly, which featured speeches by students running for

student council~ [The clause is nonessential because without it,
the reader would still know which assembly is being dis
cussed.]

Exercise Adjective Clauses On your paper, combine the

following sets of sentences by writing one or more of the sentences as
an adjective clause. Underline the adjective clauses in your rewritten
sentences.
SAMPLE Judo was developed in ancient Japan as a means of
self-defense. It has grown rapidly as a sport and now
has more than four hundred thousand participants in
the United States.
ANSWER Judo, which was developed in ancient Japan as a
means of self-defense, has grown rapidly as a sport
and now has more than four hundred thousand par
ticipants in the United States.
1. President Theodore Roosevelt was among the first people in the
United States to learn judo. He was competent enough to earn a
brown belt.
2. In the last one hundred years, judo has grown into an international
sport. It was first included in the Olympic Games in 1964.
3. A person does not have to be big or strong to practice judo. In
English the word means “the gentle way.”
4. Instead of using brute strength, judo experts use timing and balance
to protect themselves from their oppon~ents. Opponents may weigh
more and have more strength.
5. Judo teachers conduct their training in a gymnasium called a dojo.
There, people take judo because it is good exercise and provides an
excellent method of self-defense.

61
Unit I Grammar

6. People participating in judo wear a special costume. The costume

consists of a white jacket and pants and a belt in one of three colors.
7. According to the United States Judo Federation, the level of compe
tence in judo is indicated by the colors of the belts. These belts are
white for beginners, brown for intermediates, and black for experts.
8. In the first few sessions of a judo class, a student learns several
exercises. These exercises train the student to fall without being hurt.
9. In later classes the student learns techniques in three areas. These
areas include throwing, holding, and striking.
10. Judo competitors may appear in two types of contests, kata and
randori. Both are supervised by a referee and scored by two judges.

Clauses Used as Adverbs. A subordinate clause functions as

an adverb when it modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. Such
clauses are called adverb clauses.

MODIFIES VERB
Newspapers played a large role in colonial America

adv clause
because they supported and publicized the efforts of colonists
protesting British rule.

MODIFIES ADJECTIVE
adv clause
All of the neighbors were sure that Mr. Wallace would recover
comp ete y rom is ness.

MODIFIES ADVERB
For her research paper, Evelyn went through the county

~cla use
records more thoroughly than anyone else had done before.

An adverb clause always begins with a subordinating conjunc

tion (pages 30—31), which is a word that shows the relationship
between the subordinate clause and the independent clause. A list of
frequently used subordinating conjunctions is on pages 30—31.

62
 1.3b

Subordinate Clauses

Adverb clauses tell how, when, where, to what extent, and why.
In the following examples, the subordinating conjunctions are in
boldface type.

HOW
Although nervous, Sharon greeted the

adv clause
personnel director as if she were completely at ease.

WHEN adv

While the tide is coming in, you should not stand on those low
rocks near the ocean.

WHERE
adv. clause
For lunch we will meet you where State and Madison streets
intersect~

TO WHAT EXTENT
The tourists were so e ger to see the Washington Monument
adv cause
that they walked to it before breakfast.

WHY
adv. clause
So that the restaurant can be sure of seating such a large
party, you should cal ahead of time for a reservation.

Elliptical Clauses. An elliptical clause is an adverb clause in

which part of the clause is omitted. Even though the clause is
incomplete, its meaning is clear; therefore, it is still classified as a
clause.

You deserve more credit for the success of our fund-raising

adv
rciausel
campaign than I. [Think: You deserve more credit than I deserve.
Than I modifies more.]

63
Unit I Grammar

adv. clause
While walking along the wharf, Larry tripped and fell. [Think: while
he was walking.]

Exercise 6 Adverb Clauses On your paper, combine each set

of sentences into one sentence. Do so by rewriting one or more of the
sentences as adverb clauses. You may change wording as necessary so
that the resulting sentence makes sense. Underline the adverb clauses
in your rewritten sentences.
SAMPLE A committee of parents wants a new traffic light put
•up in front of the high school. Drivers will have an
easier time entering the highway from the parking
lot.
ANSWER A committee of parents wants a new traffic light put
up in front of the high school so that drivers will have
an easier time entering the highway from the parking
lot.
1. Luella spends three hours studying in the library every night. She
hopes to make the honor roll this semester.
2. Kevin practices free throws every Saturday afternoon. He is already a
member of the varsity basketball team.
3. We’ll go skating later this afternoon. Barbara has an appointment with
the ophthalmologist at one o’clock.
4. Joanne ordered the daisies for Mother’s Day this afternoon. Her
mother was shopping in the grocery store.
5. The Fletchers went tobogganing near Lake Tahoe last winter. More
than ten feet of snow was on the ground.
6. Mrs. Sorenson has become very interested in business investing. She
has signed up to take a course in investments.
7. Anne visited friends at a dairy farm in Vermont during Thanksgiving
vacation. It was too expensive to fly home to Phoenix.
8. Mark crept quietly toward the deer and the fawn. H6~vanted to take
photographs of them.
9. The officials in charge of the marathon were surprised. So many
runners had qualified to run in the race!
10. The visitors lined up on the two-yard line of the home team. The
crowd roared. The members of the visiting team could not hear their
quarterback yell the signals.

64
 1.3b

Subordinate Clauses

Clauses Used as Nouns. Clauses that function as nouns in

sentences are noun clauses. A noun clause may function as a
subject, a predicate nominative, a direct object, an indirect object, an
object of a preposition, or an appositive.
FUNCTIONS AS SUBJECT
noun clause
Where the city should build a new library is the main item on
the agenda at the city council meeting.
FUNCTIONS AS PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
r-- noun clause
The turning point of World War II was when the Allied forces
landed successfully on the shores o ormandy.

FUNCTIONS AS DIRECT OBJECT

noun clause
Research scientists are hoping that the process of nuclear fu
sion will help to solve the world’s energy problems in the
twenty- t century.
FUNCTIONS AS INDIRECT OBJECT

noun clau e
Mr. Pritkin will give whoever finds his pet poodle a substantial
reward.
FUNCTIONS AS OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION
The people in the train station are waiting for
noun clause
whichever train arrives first.

FUNCTIONS AS APPOSITIVE
‘ noun clause ‘

It’s after four-thirty, and the pranksters, whoever they are, are
to return to my office at nine o’clock tomorrow morning.

You may introduce a noun clause with an interrogative pro

noun, a subordinating conjunction, or the relative pronoun whose.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
who, whom, whose, which, what, whoever, whomever, what
ever, whichever

65
Unit I Grammar
J11 ~7~”? ~•;~•

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
how, that, when, where, whether, why
RELATIVE PRONOUN
whose

Sometimes you may omit the introductory word in a noun

clause.
noun clause
Has anyone told the reporters they were the winners of several
awards for their documentaries this year. [Think: informed that they
were the winners.]

ercise 7 Noun Clauses Complete the following sentences

by replacing the blank with a noun clause. The noun clause should
perform the sentence function indicated in the parentheses. Write the
entire sentence on your paper, and underline the noun clause.
SAMPLE _L has been a subject of debate for at least twenty
years. (subject)
ANSWER Whether the state should finance the construction of
a new community college in this area has been a
subject of debate for at least twenty years.

1. When we take the tour of the famous author’s house, I hope 2_.
(direct object)
2. 2 will be the national champion. (subject)
3. Brian guessed L. (direct object)
4. We are planning to buy a picnic table at 2_ (object of preposition)
5. Our partners for the project will be 2. (predicate nominative)
6. When you walked through the tunnel, did you happen to see
(direct object)
7. 2 certainly left our cabin remarkably neat and clean. (subject)
8. The hope of going on the archeological dig in the spring was
(predicate nominative)
9. Although she was busy herself, Margaret always helpecLl_. (direct
object)
10. Even though she receives hundreds of letters every week, the actress
sends 1 an autographed picture. (indirect object)
 1.3c
Sentence Structure

Assignment Clauses in Writing In the passage that follows,

most of the sentences are short, making the passage repetitious. On
your paper, rewrite the paragraph so that the sentences have more
variety. Do so by using adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun
clauses to combine sentences. Underline the clauses in your rewritten
paragraphs.
During the spring and fall of each year, nature creates its own
light show. We call this show the aurora borealis, or the northern
lights. The aurora is a multicolored glow. It seems to hover over the
far northern horizon. Observers look in that direction on a clear
night. They may see a glow. The glow is tinted green or red.
Canadians have an excellent view of this natural light show. The
northern lights have also been seen in the continental United States
and even as far south as Mexico.
Electrically charged particles from the sun hit the atmosphere
of the earth. The aurora borealis results. The charged particles
encounter friction. Their electrical charge changes. A glow results.
The lights are actually more than seventy miles above the surface of
the earth. They may appear in a variety of patterns. To the observ
er, these patterns look like arcs or rays in the sky. At times the sun
has a great deal of sunspot activity. Then we can expect particularly
vivid shows here on the earth. People view this natural phenome
non. They cannot fail to be impressed by its beauty.

.3c Sentences Classified by Structure

Sentences are classified according to the number and kinds of

clauses that they contain. The four kinds of sentences are simple,
compound, complex, and compound-complex.
Simple Sentences. A sentence containing one independent
clause and no subordinate clauses is a simple sentence. It may have
any number of phrases, and it may have a compound subject, a
compound predicate, or both. However, it does not have more than
one clause.
Fish, underwater plants, and coral were visible in the crystal blue
water.
Myra’s car had a flat tire, forcing her off the road.

67
Unit 1 Grammar

Compound Sentences. A sentence consisting of two or more

independent clauses is a compound sentence. A compound sen
tence never has a subordinate clause. The independent clauses are
usually joined with a comma and one of the coordinating conjunc
tions: and, but, nor, or, for, or yet.
I indep clause I
Skydiving is an increasingly popular sport, but you should
indep clause
be in excellent physical shape to try it.

Independent clauses may also be joined with a semicolon or

with a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb such as nonetheless,
consequently, or still (page 31). A comma always follows the conjunc
tive adverb.
indep. clause I
A dirigible, a type of aircraft, is lighter than air; the first
indep. clause
dirigible was built in 1884.
indep clause
During the 1800s a man named John Chapman traveled throughout
the Ohio River valley and planted apple seeds;1
I indep clause I
consequently, Chapman is known to us as Johnny Appleseed.

Complex Sentences
A sentence consisting of one independent clause and one or
more subordinate clauses is a complex sentence.
sub, clause
When herders in the mountains of Switzerland want to
communicate to one another across long distances: they use a
indep clause ,~ sub, clause
twelve-foot-long instrument that is called an alpenhorn.
I sub clause
Paris’s Arc de Triomphe, which commemorates Napoleon’s victories,
sub clause
was not completed until 1836 even though it was started in 1806.
[The sentence contains one independent clause: Paris’s Arc de
Triomphe was not completed until 1836. That clause contains a
subordinate clause: which commemorates Napoleon’s victories.J

68
 1.3c
Complex Sentences

Compound-Complex Sentences. A sentence consisting of

two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate
clauses is a compound-complex sentence.
I sub clause
When the first synthetic fiber, rayon, was developed in 1884,
indep clause
the way was opened for the development of modem textiles,
indep clause I
and these textiles have revolutionized the clothing industry.
sub, clause
Since commercial television became popular in the 1950s,
I indep clause
the major networks have dominated the programming, but recent
sub clause
developments, which include cable television and public television,
may c ange t e structure o t e m ustry. [The second independent
clause, recent developments may change the structure of the industry,
is interrupted by the subordinate clause which include cable televi
sion and public television.]

Exercise 8 Sentence Classification Each numbered item

contains a set of sentences. Rewrite each set, combining the sëntenc
es into one sentence. Label each sentence that you write Simple,
Compound, Complex, or Compound-complex.
SAMPLE Experts have made a prediction. The small computer
will allow many people to work at home to develop
and sell computer software.
ANSWER Experts have predicted that the small computer will
allow many people to work at home to develop and
sell computer software.—Complex
1. Marcia loves all water sports. She especially enjoys swimming for the
school team. The team travels all over the state for meets.
2. Roberto has never seen the Grand Canyon. He is planning a vacation
there.
3. We were in Washington, D.C., last summer. We visited the Library of
Congress. The library was founded in 1800 to provide members of
Congress with reference and research assistance.

69
Unit I Grammar

4. New England whalers were successful in the early 1800g. The United
States was the world’s foremost whaling country at that time. The
wealth originating from that industry helped boost the foreign trade of
the United States.
5. Morris is a die-hard Dodgers fan. He considers himself an expert on
baseball. He was too busy this summer to go to a game.
6. John Singleton Copley is considered the finest colonial American por
trait painter. The Boston native studied in London in his later years.
He remained in London for the rest of his life.
7. Virginia and I met some bird watchers. We were at the wildlife refuge
on Saturday. Th~y let us use their binoculars to look at the bald eagle.
They had spotted it.
8. Nicholas Nickleby was recently adapted for television. It was one of
Charles Dickens’s early novels. The television version effectively
dramatized the author’s biting criticism of the private-school system in
nineteenth-century England.
9. I am going to be outside in cold weather. I always try to wear wool
clothing. Wool is a natural fiber. The fiber insulates well.
10. One of the basic tenets of economics is the inverse relationship be
tween inflation and unemployment. The unemployment rate declines.
The rate of inflation tends to increase.

3 Writing Complete Sentences

A complete sentence is a group of words that has at least one

subject and one predicate and that expresses a complete thought.
You should use complete sentences in your writing. Two common
errors in writing are the use of sentence fragments and run-on
sentences. In this section you will learn how to recognize and correct
both kinds of errors.

Avoiding Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is a group of words that lacks a subject
or a predicate or does not express a complete thought.
COMPLETE SENTENCE
Harriet planned to pick up the reuphoistered chair on her way
home.

70
 1.3d

Sentence Fragments

FRAGMENT
Harriet planned. To pick up the reupholstered chair on her
way home. [The second group of words lacks a subject and a
predicate.]
FRAGMENT
Harriet, planning to pick up the reupholstered chair on her
way home. [The group of words lacks a predicate.]

If the sentence fragment is a phrase, you can correct it by

combining the fragment with a related sentence.
FRAGMENT
During lunch today. I would like to talk about the plans for
the panel discussion.
COMPLETE SENTENCE
~ prepos tonal
phrase
During lunch today I would like to talk about the plans for the
panel discussion.

FRAGMENT
The zoo has acquired an anaconda. A large snake native to
South America.
COMPLETE SENTENCE
r— appositive phrase —
The zoo has_acquired an anaconda, a large snake native to
South America~

FRAGMENT
To buy an old car and rebuild the engine. That is what Al has
decided to do.
COMPLETE SENTENCE
infinitive phrase
Al has decided to buy an old car and rebuild the engine.

FRAGMENT
I think that I saw Tjncle Bill. Waiting in line at the concession
stand.

71
Unit I Grammar

COMPLETE SENTENCE
~— participia phrase
I think that I saw Uncle Bill waiting in line at the concession
stand.

FRAGMENT
Paddling upstream in a canoe. That requires a great expendi
ture of energy.
COMPLETE SENTENCE
gerund phrase
Paddling upstream in a canoe requires a great expenditure of
energy.

If the sentence fragment is a subordinate clause used without an

independent clause, you can also correct it by combining the frag
ment with a related sentence.
FRAGMENT
The entire group has decided to go to Palomar Park. Which is
featuring carnival rides at half price over the weekend.
COMPLETE SENTENCE
The entire group has decided to go to Palomar Park, which
subordinate clause —I
is featuring carnival rides at half price over the weekend.

FRAGMENT
Before you apply to all those colleges. You should give more
thought to your career goals.

COMPLETE SENTENCE
~ subordinate clause
Before you apply to all those colleges, you should give more
thought to your career goals.

Some sentence fragments require additions or rewording to

make them complete sentences.
FRAGMENT
The ocean, sparkling under the noonday sun.
COMPLETE SENTENCE
The ocean sparkled under the noonday sun.

7,
 1.3d

Sentence Fragments

FRAGMENT
The metric system, which is becoming more widely used in the
United States.
COMPLETE SENTENCE
The metric system is becoming more widely used in the
United States.

E ercise 9 Eliminating Fragments The following passage

contains numerous sentence fragments. On your paper, rewrite both
paragraphs, eliminating all the sentence fragments.
SAMPLE Without water, no living thing can live on the earth,
yet most people take water for granted. Until they
are deprived of its benefits.
ANSWER Without water, no living thing can live on the earth,
yet most people take water for granted until they are
deprived of its benefits.
More than three hundred million cubic miles. That’s how
much water covers our planet. However, 97 percent being salty.
Which leaves 3 percent fresh water. Three quarters of that fresh
water is in ice caps. And in glaciers. Sixteen thousand gallons.
That’s how much water the average person drinks in a lifetime.
Each person, using seventy gallons a day. Although the world’s
demand for water has more than doubled since 1960. There is still a
sufficient supply to take care of humanity’s needs. However, regular
water shortages in certain parts of the world. Because the pattern of
rainfall throughout the world is uneven. For instance, four hundred
inches of rain a year in some parts of India, but no rain for several
years in other parts of the world.
We can understand the effects of water shortages. When we
read about the long droughts in the southwestern United States
during the 1930s. When that region came to be known as the Dust
Bowl. Today, many communities have devised inventive ways. To
conserve water. One of the most effective being to treat sewage
water and use it to water lawns and to form lakes. In spite of such
efforts. There is still a great deal of waste. For instance, leaks from
faucets and water pipes. Add up to 20 percent of the amount of
water that a city uses. Leaks that rob the city of Chicago of one
hundred fifty million gallons of water every day.

73
 Unit I Grammar

Avoiding Run-on Sentences

A run-on sentence consists of two or more separate sentences
written as one sentence. In some run-on sentences, only a comma
separates the two sentences; in others there is no punctuation at all.
RUN-ON Radio and television announcers have warned people
not to look at the sun during the eclipse tomorrow,
doing so could result in blindness. [A comma by itself
cannot connect two independent clauses.]
RUN-ON Radio and television announcers have warned people
not to look at the sun duiing the eclipse tomorrow
doing so could result in blindness. [The sentences are
run together without punctuation or a conjunction.]
CORRECT Radio and television announcers have warned people
not to look at the sun during the eclipse tomorrow,
for doing so could result in blindness. [A comma and
the coordinating conjunction for connect the two
clauses.]

There are several ways to correct run-on sentences. Read the

following run-on sentence. Then study the five ways in which you can
correct that sentence.
RUN-ON SENTENCE The bridge over the river is closed, a ferry will
take you to the other side.
1. Separate the run-on sentence into two or more sentences.
CORRECT The bridge over the river is closed. A ferry will take
you to the other side.

2. Join the independent clauses with a comma and a coordi

nating conjunction (page 29).
CORRECT The bridge over the river is closed, but a ferry will
take you to the other side.

3. Join the independent clauses with a semicolon.

CORRECT The bridge over the river is closed; a ferry will take
you to the other side.

74
 1.3d

Run-on Sentences

4. Turn one of the independent clauses into a subordinate

clause, and add a subordinating conjunction (pages 30—31)
or a relative pronoun (page 10).
CORRECT Because the bridge over the river is closed, a ferry
will take you to the other side.

5. Join the independent clauses with a semicolon and a

conjunctive adverb such as also, thus, or however (page 31).
CORRECT The bridge over the river is closed; however, a ferry
will take you to the other side.

Exercise 10 Eliminating Run-on Sentences The following

passage contains numerous run-on sentences. On your paper, rewrite
the paragraphs, correcting all the run-ons.
SAMPLE The maps of ancient peoples were by no means accu
rate, they provide us with a vivid record of humani
ty’s gradually increasing knowledge of geography.
ANSWER The maps of ancient peoples were by no means
accurate, but they provide us with a vivid record
of humanity’s gradually increasing knowledge of
geography.
The oldest map that we know about dates back about 4300
years to ancient Babylonia, it shows an estate surrounded by moun
tains. As in so many other endeavors, the Greeks were ahead of
their time in map making for their maps showed the world as round
rather than flat, the Greeks also developed a system of longitude
and latitude for identifying locations. The Romans were excellent
administrators and military strategists, therefore, it is no surprise
that they made worthy road maps and military maps The most
famous map maker of ancient times was Claudius Ptolemy of Alex
andria, Egypt, he created a comprehensive map of the world and
maps of the regions that were known to ancient travelers.
In the 1300s and the 1400s, European explorers began ventur
ing into unknown parts of the world, consequently, they developed
charts and maps to assist those who followed them. Most ships on
voyages of exploration carried chart makers and these experts made

75
Unit I Grammar

maps of coasts, islands, bays, and other geographical features that

were discovered. One such map maker was the most famous explor
er of all, Christopher Columbus, Martin Waldseemüller, a
German who in 1507 first used the name America on a map, was
another.
America was a completely unknown territory to Europeans,
indeed, one of the greatest challenges facing explorers in the New
World was charting the lands, rivers, and mountains that they en
countered. The task was monumental but Lewis and Clark, John C.
Frémont, and Zebulon Pike all made maps these maps helped gold
seekers in the California Gold Rush of 1849. The maps of these
explorers were not completely accurate, however, they were the
basis for the truly accurate maps that the United States government
began to develop in about 1875.

Assi nment Run-on Sentences and Fragments On your

paper, rewrite the following paragraph, correcting all the run-on
sentences and the sentence fragments.
George Mason, the Virginian statesman who influenced Thom
as Jefferson. He once wrote, “The freedom of the press is one of
the great bulwarks of liberty, and can never be restrained but by
despotic governments.” The shapers of the Constitution took
Mason’s words seriously for they made freedom of the press the
First Amendment in the Bill of Rights. However, it has not always
been widely accepted. That people should have the right to publish
what they think without pressure from the government or from
private citizens and organizations. For example, during the Middle
Ages, before the idea of individual rights was generally acknowl
edged. Governments required printers to obtain licenses before pub
lishing material and the state closely regulated the content of books
and newspapers. Philosophers gradually popularized the idea of a
“marketplace of ideas.” Which meant that the free exchange of
ideas led to a better-informed citizenry and to a more responsive
government. In the American colonies, the turning point for free
dom of the press came in 1735 with the trial of newspaper publisher
John Peter Zenger, Zenger had published articles criticizing British
rule but a jury found him innocent of libel, or publishing statements
that injure someone’s reputation.
Even though freedom of the press is an accepted ideal in the
United States. The practice of this right sometimes causes extremely
difficult dilemmas. For instance, most journalists would probably

76
 1.3d
Run-on Sentences

agree that the press should not publish libelous material, however,
what constitutes libel has been a source of disagreement between the
press and the courts. A controversy also surrounding the interpreta
tion of national security. This was an issue during World War II.
When Congress made it illegal to publish material that might hinder
the war effort. During the 1960s a major controversy arose over gag
orders, these are orders from a judge to the press not to print
disclosures. Making it impossible for defendants to receive fair trials.
The freedom of the press will continue to be the source of contro
versy in the future for interpreting the limits of such a freedom is
never a black-and-white affair. Often the way it is under a demo
cratic form of government.

• — fl WIF1~ WA

/ 7T7i

Phrases and Clauses

The preview for this unit shows the importance of subor
dinate clauses in making an analogy clear. With adjective
clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses, you can emphasize
the similarities between the two parts of an analogy. Using
one of the following topics or a topic of your own, write one
or two paragraphs in which you use an analogy to make a
process clear to your reader. In your paragraphs be sure to
use subordinate clauses. Underline the clauses that you write.
1. Making decisions
2. Gaining the cooperation of others
3. Making friends
4. Listening to other people
5. Taking part in an artistic activity

77
Unit Practice
cti I
A Parts of Speech (pages 3—34) On your paper, write the
words that are in italic type in the following sentences. Next to each
word or phrase, write the label Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Adjective,
Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, or Interjection.
1. While riding in the trafn to San Antonio, Max got along very well with
the man sitting next to him.
2. The fence that Anthony helped his father build twenty years ago is
still in excellent shape.
3. All of the people at the picnic formed a cluster around the campfire in
order to stay warm.
4. Do you know which fence the horse jumped over when it escaped
from the corral?
5. The trained dolphins delighted the adults in the audience as much as
the children.
6. The students were curious to see what the outcome of the experiment
would be.
7. As the twins became older, they grew distant from each other and
developed separate interests.
8. During the Johnson administration, Congress passed several laws that
guaranteed civil rights.
9. According to Betty’s friend Stacy, the bicycle path along the river has
been maintained well throughout the summer.
10. People have enjoyed Uncle Rich’s stories as long as I can remember.
11. Must you really drive into town during this blizzard?
12. Lynette approached the lectern with confidence, for she felt extremely
well prepared to give her speech to the class.
13. Well, I never expected to redecorate the living room so quickly!
14. The official put the three-inch-thick pile of papers before him on the
desk and prepared to go through it.
15. Carefully, the supervisor inspected the foundation of the building to
make sure that the cement had been poured properly.
16. Rumors swept through the science community that Atlantis itself had
been discovered by a team of divers.
17. Any athletic equipment that is ours must be removed from lockers by
three o’clock this afternoon.

78
18. We have not been able to accept all the people who are interested in
the French cooking class.
19. Because the snow was so wet and heavy, the Lesters helped to clean
the snow off their neighbors’ bushes.
20. Not only did the seniors produce a literary magazine with excellent
content, but they also illustrated it well.
21. Samantha was surprised to find that the trees were sprouting buds in
March; usually buds did not appear until April.
22. Even as a youngster, when he loved animals, Woody considered a
career as a veterinarian.
23. According to many ancient philosophers, the emotion that causes the
most division among people is jealousy.
24. The captain ordered all deck hands to appear for the lifeboat drill.
25. When the pioneers traveled overland to the West, they faced the
dangers of disease and bad weather.

B. Sentence Structure (pages 34—46) On your paper, write

the words that are in italic type in the following sentences. Then write
the correct label for each word or phrase: Simple subject, Simple
predicate, Complete subject, Complete predicate, Direct object, Indi
rect object, Objective complement, Predicate nominative, or Predicate
adjective.
26. Last week the environmental group appointed Mrs. Jenkins chair
person of the committee on legislative relations.
27. As we walked around the lake, we saw several turtles sunning them
selves on logs and boulders.
28. Most political cartoons include caricature, in which the cartoonist
exaggerates some characteristics in order to achieve a satirical effect.
29. My niece made me a lovely blue and yellow patchwork quilt for my
birthday.
30. In 1932, just five years after Lindbergh’s historic transatlantic ffight,
Amelia Earhart became the first woman to pilot a plane across the
Atlantic.
31. My brother Arturo always stops to feed the swans by the pond.
32. The Taj Mahal, a tomb built for the wife of a seventeenth-century
Indian ruler, took twenty-one years to build.

(Continue on the next page.)

79
Unit Practice (continued)

33. The Lincoln High School marching band’s half-time show was out
standing.
34. Loons, aquatic birds that often make their homes near isolated lakes
in northern states, can be distinguished by their unusual cry.
35. Ryan promised to take all of us water-skiing next Saturday.
36. Our Explorer troop is planning a canoe trip in Florida’s Ocala
National Forest.
37. Rembrandt, who painted about one hundred self-portraits throughout
his career, was the most influential artist from the Netherlands.
38. Driving through western Pennsylvania just after sunrise, we saw a doe
and her fawn at the edge of a meadow.
39. The Hudson River School painters in the nineteenth century por
trayed the beauty and grandeur of America’s untamed wilderness.
40. Although she has played the game for only a year, Ann’s strategy on
the soccer field is flawless.

C. Phrases and Clauses (pages 46—77) On your paper, write

the phrases and clauses that are in italic type in the following
sentences. Then write the correct label for each phrase or clause:
Prepositional phrase, Appositive phrase, Participial phrase, Gerund
phrase, Infinitive phrase, Independent clause, Adjective clause, Ad
verb clause, or Noun clause.
41. Andrea stood before the department store window admiring the beauti
ful silk dress.
42. Whenever my family goes out for dinner, my six-year-old brother,
Mark, always orders chicken.
43. The hearing on environmental issues will be held tomorrow.
44. Eleanor Roosevelt, who was a niece of one President and the wife of
another, earned fame for her humanitarian work.
45. Sarah, who has the best batting average on the team, can’t play be
cause of a sprained thumb.
46. Whoever supervises chemistry labs should instruct students in the prop
er precautions while working with acid.
47. Circling the globe in Friendship 7, John Glenn became the first Ameri
can to orbit the earth on February 20, 1962.
48. Just after dawn we went out on the beach to collect shells during low
tide.

80
49. The bicycle trails on Cape Cod are beautiful, but they are often
crowded during peak periods of the summer vacation.
50. Historians sometimes ponder how the country would have fared if
President Kennedy had not been assassinated.
51. Since she has been away at college, Cindy and I have exchanged
letters, but we have seen each other only occasionally.
52. Our company may have an opening for a certified public accountant
like you.
53. After their annual concert, the Monroe High School orchestra held a
reception for friends and relatives who had attended the performance.
54. This novel, published last year, has been praised as the writer’s finest.
55. Jessica must leave home before eight o’clock every morning to catch
the bus at the corner.

t.
On your paper, rewrite the following paragraph to eliminate all
fragments and run-on sentences.
A bright object appears suddenly in the sky the object makes
a trail and disappears just as suddenly. Although we call the light a
shooting star, it is actually a meteor. A piece of metal or rock that
enters the atmosphere of the earth. Friction with the atmosphere.
That is what makes the meteor glow so brightly. Some meteors bum
up completely in the atmosphere others hit the earth’s surface, the
latter are called meteorites. Approximately two hundred million
meteors, which add about one thousand tons to the weight of Earth.
These meteors enter the atmosphere every day. Sometimes meteors
appear in a group. Which we call a meteor shower. The brightest
meteor shower in recorded history was the Leonid shower of No
vember 13, 1833, the same shower can be seen every November as
it makes its orbit around the sun. A meteorite makes a crater. When
it hits the surface of the earth. One giant crater in the United
States, the Great Meteor Crater of Arizona. It was created fifty
thousand years ago scientists believe, this crater is 4150 feet across
and 570 feet deep. Some craters being several miles wide. It is
difficult. To imagine the impact that such a meteorite must have
made as it hit the earth.

81
Unit Tests
St
A. Parts of Speech (pages 3—34) On your paper, write the
words that are in italic type in the following sentences. Next to each
word or phrase, write the label Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Adjective,
Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, or Interjection.
1. I know that the task of cleaning this basement seems herculean, but
perhaps if you get an early start, you can finish by noon.
2. The aircraft mechanics placed blocks of wood in front of and in back
of the tires so that the airplane would not roll.
3. Although the man was chopping wood a half mile away on the other
side of the lake, he sounded much closer than that.
4. Why are there never any envelopes around here when I need one?
5. Oh, you’d better check the air pressure in the tires before we drive to
the mountains tomorrow.
6. Hundreds of people stood outside for more than four hours to buy
tickets for the opera in spite of the bad weather.
7. If you use the binoculars, you can see a bevy of larks flying in the
distance.
8. The father asked the children to play downstairs so that he could
concentrate on his reading upstairs.
9. An atmosphere of tension pervaded the packed stadium, but the
players themselves seemed relaxed and confident.
10. When your family went to Williamsburg, Virginia, last summer for
vacation, what hotel or motel did you stay in?
11. While looking through the newspaper, Clair saw an advertisement for
a sale on fine leather shoes at Goodson’s Department Store.
12. The parade officials are meeting in order to decide who will be the
grand marshal.
13. Carla could not find her necklace anywhere, but Barbara called and
said that it was at her house.
14. The west side of Mt. Everest has never been scaled successfully during
the winter.
15. The advertising executives decided that either radio or television
would be an effective medium on which to advertise the new product.
16. Our history teacher, Mrs. Jorgenson, makes a persuasive argument

82
 that discussions of current issues are more enlightening when the
participants are well informed.
17. The Hendersons took the elevator to the top of the Empire State
Building but could not see very far because of the haze.
18. One of the museum’s favorite attractions is the model of a coal mine.
19. Did you hear the name of the person whom the announcer just named
as winner of the door prize?
20. Auguste Rodin, a French sculptor of the nineteenth century, created a
famous sculpture of a man who sits and reflects.
21. The cross-country skis in the shed are mine, but you are certainly
welcome to use them while you are visiting us.
22. The film about the Air Force during World War II featured many
exciting sequences, but I feel that the film was somewhat long.
23. We should pack a lunch for the seven-hour-long trip on the car ferry.
24. Small ships are not the only ones that use this harbor; sometimes we
see large ocean-going ships as well.
25. The journalism teacher told the class that a questioning attitude is the
mark of a good reporter.

B Sentence Structure (pages 34—46) On your paper, write

the words that are in italic type in the following sentences. Then write
the correct label for each word or phrase: Simple subject, Simple
predicate, Complete subject, Complete predicate, Direct object, Indi
rect object, Objective complement, Predicate nominative, or Predicate
adjective.
26. The meeting of the Union Pacific from the east and the Central Pacific
from the west in 1869 marked the completion of America’s first trans
continental railroad.
27. When Scott called home to wish his mother a happy birthday, the time
was eleven o’clock in North Carolina but only eight o’clock in
Orgeon.
28. At the medical school graduation ceremony, the members of the
graduating class pledged to uphold the Hippocratic oath, named for the
ancient Greek healer, Hippocrates.
29. To John Locke, the seventeenth-century British philosopher, the
human mind resembles a blank slate at birth.

(Continue on the next page.)

83
Unit Tests (continued)

30. Be sure to visit the 110-story Sears Tower during your stay in Chicago.
31. When I took a course in French literature, I found the novels by
Victor Hugo fascinating.
32. Like his Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, which survived the earthquake of
1923, Frank Lloyd Wright’s designs were innovative and functional.
33. By the end of today’s art class, these newspaper and magazine clip
pings will become a collage.
34. The basketball circled the hoop several times and finally fell through,
scoring the winning point.
35. Leaves of the bay laurel tree were used to make wreaths for heroes
and victors in ancient Greece and Rome.
36. In 1981 President Ronald Reagan named Sandra Day O’Connor a
justice of the United States Supreme Court.
37. After nearly every rugby game, Phil is bruised and muddy.
38. With a population of fifty-five hundred animals, the San Diego Zoo
must have a representative of nearly every species.
39. Will you buy Derek and Ginger tickets for the Saturday-night perform
ance of the musical?
40. The opinions expressed on the editorial pages of the newspaper could
affect the outcome of this year’s gubernatorial race.

C. Phrases and Clauses (pages 46—77) On your paper, write

the phrases and clauses that are in italic type in the following
sentences. Then write the correct label for each phrase or clause:
Prepositional phrase, Appositive phrase, Participial phrase, Gerund
phrase, Infinitive phrase, Independent clause, Adjective clause, Ad
verb clause, or Noun clause.
41. As we walked through the covered bridge, we could hear the old
wooden joints creak and groan.
42. Renee worked on her calculus assignment all evening, but she still did
not understand the new concept well enough to complete all the
problems.
43. The father, beaming with pride, snapped photograph after photograph
as his daughter crossed the stage to receive her diploma.
44. Gilbert Stuart’s “Athenaeum” portrait of George Washington, which
is unfinished, is probably the best known portrait by an American
painter.
45. Will you patch my jeans, the pair with the hole in the knee?

84
46. Almost every state has a two-house legislature, but Nebraska, with its
one-house legislative body, is an exception.
47. Although Cheryl loves seafood, she must avoid shellfish; she’s allergic
to lobster, clams, and crab.
48. The coach told Marybeth how she could improve her jump shot.
49. Walking quickly, Anthony made it to his dental appointment on time.
50. An important step in making maple syrup is boiling the sap from the
maple tree.
51. Things just haven’t been the same since Rachel moved away.
52. Whoever is elected as head of the city council will have a time
comsuming job.
53. Ulysses S. Grant was elected President in 1868 after his success as a
Union general during the Civil War.
54. After Bart broke his arm playing football, he could not write and was
forced to record his class lectures on cassettes.
55. After the movie we all went out for hamburgers.

On your paper, rewrite the following paragraph to eliminate all

fragments and run-on sentences.
One of the first leaders of the women’s rights movement in the
United States. That is who Elizabeth Cady Stanton was. She was
born in 1815 in Johnstown, New York, she attended the Troy Fe
male Seminary. Women’s rights and abolition of slavery, being two
issues that interested her. In fact, she married a leader of the
abolition movement. Henry B. Stanton. She met Lucretia Mott,
another leader of the women’s rights movement, together they or
ganized the first convention for women’s rights. Which was held in
Seneca Falls, New York, inJ848, for that convention Stanton wrote
the Declaration of Sentiments, which stated that “all men and
women are created equal.” The National Woman Suffrage Associa
tion. It was an organization founded in 1869 by Stanton and Susan
B. Anthony. To push for a constitutional amendment giving women
the vote. Women did not accomplish this goal during Stanton’s
lifetime they did attain it in 1920 with the passage of the Nineteenth
Amendment. Elizabeth Cady Stanton. She will long be remembered
for her role in the women’s rights movement.

85
Unit 2

____ ~— —

-t
By following certain accepted standards of English usage,
you will enhance your ability to communicate clearly, thereby
increasing the impact of whatever you want to say or write.

For Analysis The following paragraph has been adapted

from Chapter 1 of Charles Dickens’s A Tale of Two Cities. As you
read this intentionally altered version, try to find the errors in
usage.
They were the better of times, they were the more worser
of times, it were the age of wisdom, it were the responsibility
age, it was the foolishness age, it is the belief epoch, it is the
incredulity epoch, it is the Light season, it were the season for
Darkness, it were the spring of hope, it were the despair of
winter, we did have everything before us, us didn’t have noth
ing before us, we was all going direct to Heaven, we was all
going direct the other way—in short, the period were so far just
like the present period, that some of your noisiest authorities
insisted on its be received, for good or evil, in the superlative
only degree of comparison.

Now read the paragraph the way Dickens wrote it, and
compare the two versions.
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was
the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the
epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the
season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the
spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything
before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct
to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way—in short,

86
 the period was so far like the present period, that some of its
noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or
for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only.
Answer the following questions based on your comparison
of the two paragraphs.
1. What standards of usage have been ignored in the first para
graph?
2. How does the switch from they to it affect the first version?
3. What is the difference in meaning between despair of winter and
winter of despair?
4. What is wrong with the following phrases: the more worserof
times; it were; and didn’t have nothing?
5. How does the change in location of only affect the meaning of
the last phrase in the two paragraphs?
6. Which paragraph is easier to understand?

In answering these questions, you have dealt with several

usage problems that can affect the clarity and meaning of your
speaking and writing. You have seen how adherence to accepted
English usage makes Dickens’s writing understandable, interest
ing, and even powerful. In this unit, you will study usage
problems like those in the altered paragraph and learn ways to
avoid them in your own communications.

T f
The English language is dynamic. It embraces usage ranging
from that found in particular occupations or professions (jargon) to
that used in particular locales or by particular ethnic groups (dialect);
from that used in everyday conversation (colloquial) to that used only
on important occasions (ceremonial); from that used only in the past
(archaic or obsolete) to that used briefly by cliques or by certain age
groups (slang). Moreover, the English language is constantly chang
ing. Words and idioms (unit expressions, such as to make believe) that
are now slang may be considered part of formal usage in the future.
Other language that we use today may in time be obsolete.

87
Unit 2 Usage

To communicate effectively, we must learn to recognize levels

of English usage and to use them appropriately. The way we speak
and write says much about us. Using language appropriately is
somewhat like dressing appropriately: rightly or wrongly, we are
judged by our use of language just as we are by the style of our
clothing.

Levels of Usage
Formal English. Formal English is the standard English that is
used for serious occasions or writing. It is composed of the words,
expressions, grammar, and standards of usage found in formal essays,
research papers, scholarly writing, literary criticism, and speeches
made on significant or solemn occasions. The sentences used in
formal English are often long and precisely structured, sometimes
employing parallelism and repetition for rhetorical effect. Formal
English uses extensive vocabulary, few contractions, and almost no
slang.
Informal English. Informal English is the standard English used
in almost all conversation and broadcasting and in many newspapers,
magazines, books, letters, and nonceremonial speeches. It is charac
terized by the sentence variety and length typical of conversation, by
vocabulary understood and used in conversation, and by more
relaxed standards of usage than those of formal English. Informal
English includes contractions, colloquialisms, and slang.
Nonstandard English. Nonstandard English is composed of
words, expressions, and grammatical constructions that are not
generally accepted as correct English, although they may sometimes
be accepted in certain geographic areas or by certain groups of
people. Nonstandard English should not normally be used to commu
nicate with a general audience.

Jargon and Occupational Language

Jargon often refers to the special words used by people in a
particular field of work or activity. Computer programmers use
jargon; so do baseball players. Such occupational language can be
an efficient, precise means of communication for specialists. When

88
 2.1
The Scope of Usage

specialists write or speak to a wider audience, however, they must

adjust their language, being careful not to bewilder the reader or
listener. At its worst, jargon can be inflated and pretentious: “The
position afforded much interface, impacting on management objec
tives.”

Avoiding Redundancy
and Verbosity
Redundancy is the practice of saying or writing the same thing
in several different ways to no purpose; it usually occurs because of
carelessness or ignorance. Verbosity, or wordiness, is the practice of
saying something in the most complicated way possible.
To eliminate redundancy and verbosity, use concrete words.
Never avoid a short, simple word just because it is common; use
specific verbs, such as grumbling instead of talking; and repeat an
idea in a phrase or a sentence only when the idea is made clearer by
the repetition. For more help in avoiding redundancy and verbosity,
see Section 6.5 in Unit 6, “Revising.”

Exercise The Scope of Usage On your paper, rewrite each

of the following sentences in clear, informal English, removing
jargon, redundancy, and verbosity.
1. It has been a good month saleswise, even though the net profit shows
only a moderate increase over last month, which, when compared with
our expectations for the new year as a whole, is disappointing.
2. It is understood that the aforementioned landowner shall lease all
rights to the property, except for the rights of access outlined in the
preceding paragraph, to the party of the second part, herewith re
ferred to as Mr. Peters, for the sum of two hundred dollars per
month.
3. We hope to involve ourselves in the implementation, as well as the
execution, of the proposal to have installed for the well-being of those
members of the community whose needs will most clearly be met by
such a move, the new street light on the corner of Maple and Vine
streets.
4. The gray-green color of the hospital walls, so commonplace yet so
inexplicable, only served to exacerbate my already almost overwhelm
ing sensation of nausea.

89
Unit 2 Usage

5. I am resolved, without further discussion, debate, or argument, to

consider most thoroughly, if not to meditate upon, the idea, or no
tion, of requiring each and every member of this class, not excepting
anyone, to remain following the conclusion of school if you do not
immediately and forthwith cease your unnecessary, rude, impolite,
and irrelevant talk.

Assignment Eliminating Jargon Jargon and inflated lan

guage appear frequently in printed matter, in broadcasts, and in
business communications. Find and write down at least five actual
examples of such usage from various sources. Then rewrite each
example, using more precise, understandable language.

t s ers
Your ability to communicate increases dramatically with your
ability to use verbs correctly. By changing the form of a verb, you can
express its tense, the number and the person of its subject, its voice,
~nd its mood.

2.2a Principal Parts of Verbs

The four principal parts of a verb, the basic forms of a verb,

are the infinitive, the present participle, the past, and the past
participle. By using these f9rms alone or with auxiliary verbs, you
can express the various tenses of a verb.
The infinitive and the present participle are formed in the same
way for all verbs. The infinitive is the basic verb form that appears in
the dictionary. The word to usually precedes the infinitive in a
sentence; in some sentences, however, the word to is understood but
not stated.
INFINITIVE Five miles is a long way to walk in the cold. Raising
money for charity, however, will make us all walk
willingly.

90
 2.2a
Irregular Verbs

The present participib is always a combination of the infinitive

and -ing; it is used in a sentence with a form of the verb be as an
auxiliary verb.
PRESENT
PARTICIPLE Jenny is walking to prove to herself that she can.

Regular Verbs
Verbs are considered regular or irregular depending on how
their past and past participle forms are constructed. You form the
past and the past participle of any regular verb by adding -d or -ed
to the infinitive. In a sentence, the past participle takes a form of the
erb have as an auxiliary verb.
PAST Margaret walked ten miles every week to get ready
for the big day.
PAST
PARTICIPLE We have walked several miles a week to get ready.

Here are the principal parts of two regular verbs. The auxiliary
verbs in parentheses remind you that the correct form of the verb be
is used with the present participle and the correct form of the verb
have is used with the past participle.

PRESENT PAST
INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE PAST PARTICIPLE
offer (is) offering offered (has) offered
contribute (is) contributing contributed (has) contributed

Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs are considered irregular because they do not
follow the standard rules for forming their past and past participle.
Like regular verbs, however, they do use a form of the auxiliary verb
be with the present participle and a form of the auxiliary verb have
with the past participle. The sentences on the following page show
the correct use of the principal parts of the irregular verb drink.

91
Unit 2 Usage

INFINITIVE You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it
drink.

PRESENT
PARTICIPLE The horse is drinking the water now.

PAST The horse drank the water when we moved away

from its trough.
PAST
PARTICIPLE The horse has drunk all of the water.

Although no standard rules govern the formation of the past

and the past participle of irregular verbs, you should have little
trouble mastering their usage. You have probably already developed
a good sense of what is correct by what sounds correct. Memorize the
principal parts of verbs that you use frequently, and consult your
dictionary for those that you do not use as often. The following list
contains many common irregular verbs and should serve as a useful
reference.
PRESENT PAST
INFINITIVE PARTICI PLE PAST PARTICI PLE
be (is) being was (has) been
become (is) becoming became (has) become
begin (is) beginning began (has) begun
bite (is) biting bit (has) bitten
blow (is) blowing blew (has) blown
burst (is) bursting burst (has) burst
catch (is) catching caught (has) caught
choose (is) choosing chose (has) chosen
come (is) coming came (has) come
dive (is) diving dived, dove (has) dived
do (is) doing did (has) done
draw (is) drawing drew (has) drawn
drive (is) driving drove (has) driven
eat (is) eating ate (has) eaten
fall (is) falling fell (has) fallen
find (is) finding found (has) found
fling (is) ffinging flung (has) flung
fly (is) flying flew (has) flown
get (is) getting got (has) gotten
give (is) giving gave (has) given

92
 2.2a
Irregular Verbs

go (is) going went (has) gone

grow (is) growing grew (has) grown
have (is) having had (has) had
know (is) knowing knew (has) known
lay (is) laying laid (has) laid
lead (is) leading led (has) led
leave (is) leaving left (has) left
lie (is) lying lay (has) lain
lose (is) losing lost (has) lost
ride (is) riding rode (has) ridden
ring (is) ringing rang (has) rung
rise (is) rising rose (has) risen
say (is) saying said (has) said
set (is) setting set (has) set
sit (is) sitting sat (has) sat
speak (is) speaking spoke (has) spoken
swear (is) swearing swore (has) sworn
swim (is) swimming swam (has) swum
tear (is) tearing tore (has) torn
tell (is) telling told (has) told
throw (is) throwing threw (has) thrown
wear (is) wearing wore (has) worn
write (is) writing wrote (has) written

Exercise 1 Principal Parts of Verbs On your paper, write

the form of the verb in parentheses that correctly completes each
sentence. Do not use auxiliary verbs other than those already given in
the sentences.
SAMPLE Are you ~L to join us for the walkathon? (go)
ANSWER going
1. Have you 2..... behind in your studies? (be)
2. The guide i the frightened couple to safety. (lead)
3. The doorbell had i several times before anyone inside 1 it.
(ring, know)
4. They are i to the newspaper to express their opinions. (write)
5. The team i all it could, but it 1 the game anyway. (do, lose)
6. Alicia has .i repeatedly that she dislikes crowds. (say)
7. Joshua i a new life and i the old one behind. (choose, leave)

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Unit 2 Usage

8. The motorist 2_ fifty miles before he 2_ a restaurant. (drive, find)

9. Claudette had 2_ her promise, but she 1 to regret her decision.
(give, come)
10. I _1_ an unusual experience when I _1_ to Europe. (have, fly)

2. Verb Tense

You use the various forms of a verb to show whether an action

or a condition takes place in the present, took place in the past, or
will take place in the future. The forms of a verb that express time are
called tenses. To form tenses, you combine the principal parts with
auxiliary verbs. The six English tenses are present, past, future,
present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect.
To conjugate a verb is to list all of the forms for its six tenses.
The conjugation of a verb also shows how the verb forms change
for the first person, the second person, and the third person and for
the singular and the plural.

Conjugation of the Regular Verb Walk

Singular Plural
Present Tense
I walk we walk
you walk you walk
he she it walks they walk
Past Tense
I walked we walked
you walked you walked
he she it walked they walked
Future Tense
I will (shall) walk we will (shall) walk
you will walk you will walk
he she it will walk they will walk
Present Perfect Tense
I have walked we have walked
you have walked you have walked
he/she/it has walked they have walked

94
 2.2b
Verb Tense

Past Perfect Tense

I had walked we had walked
you had walked you had walked
he she it had walked they had walked
Future Perfect Tense
I will (shall) have walked we will (shall) have walked
you will have walked you will have walked
he/she/it will have walked they will have walked

The Six Tenses of Verbs

Present Tense. To form the present tense of a verb, use its
infinitive. To form the third-person singular, you usually add -s or -es
to the infinitive.
Rule Use the present tense to show an action that takes place
now, to show an action that is repeated regularly, or to show a
condition that is true at any time.
We walk four miles to school.
We walk every day to increase our endurance.
We found that walking is good exercise. [Think: Walking is always
good exercise.]

Rule Use the present tense in statements about literary works

or other works of art.
A Tale of Two Cities is one of Charles Dickens’s most intriguing
novels. Its hero confronts a difficult choice.

Rule Use the present tense occasionally to describe past

events with special immediacy. When the present tense is used
for this effect, it is called the historical present.
In World War I, the English see London damaged severely.

In informal communication, you can use the present tense to

describe future action if you include a word or a phrase that clearly
indicates that the action will occur in the future.
We walk in the walkathon next Monday.

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Unit 2 Usage

Past Tense. To form the past tense of a regular verb, add -d or -ed
to the infinitive. To avoid confusion, memorize the principal parts of
irregular verbs.
Rule Use the past tense to express action that occurred in the
past and was completed entirely in the past.
We walked home from the theater last night.

Future ense. To form the future tense, combine will or shall

with the infinitive form of the main verb.
Rule Use the future tense to describe action that will occur in
the future.
We will walk in the walkathon next Monday.
Present Perfect Tense. To form the present perfect tense, use
has or have with the past participle of the main verb.
ule Use the present perfect tense to describe action that was
completed either in the recent past or at an indefinite time in the
past.
We have just walked farther than we have ever walked before.
Past Perfect Tense. To form the past perfect tense, use had with
the past participle of the main verb.
ule Use the past perfect tense to describe an action that was
completed by a certain time in the past or before another action
was completed.
past perf past
We had walked the required distance before we realized that we
could have stopped to rest.
Future Perfect Tense. To form the future perfect tense, use will
have or shall have with the past participle of the main verb.
Fiule Use the future perfect tense to describe a future action
that will be completed before another future action will be
completed.
We wifi have walked ten miles before the rest of our group begins.

96
 2.2b

Verb Tense

Tenses of Infinitives and Participles

Infinitives (page 54) and participles (page 50) have two tenses:
the present and the perfect.
INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE
PRESENT to walk walking
PERFECT to have walked having walked

Rule Use infinitives and participles in the present tense to

express action that occurs at the same time as that of the main
verb.
—,
PRESENT I wanted to walk by myself.
part
Walking alone, I saw a flock of geese.

Rule Use infinitives and participles in the perfect tense to

express action that takes place before the action of the main
verb.
______ inf _______

PERFECT To have walked in the walkathon made me feel good.

~_-._——— part —,
Having walked by myself most of the way, I gladly
joined my friends for the final mile.

xercise 2 Verb Tense On your paper, write the following

sentences, correcting all errors in verb tense. Underline the corrected
verb forms. If a sentence has no errors, write Correct.
SAMPLE The apples arrive four hours after I made all the
preparations.
ANSWER The apples arrived four hours after I had made all
the preparations.
Mrs. MacGrady based her comment on the adage that a penny saved
was a penny earned.
2. By the time the apples come in, I will boil the cherries for three
hours.
3. Being here all morning, they finally saw four truckloads of apples
arrive just after noon.

97
Unit 2 Usage

4. I will make four pots of applesauce by the time the store closes.
5. Having eaten the apples while I work is part of the fun of making
applesauce.
6. The family hired Jed Lawrence to help because he had worked for ten
years in an orchard.
7. After we counted all the jars, we saw that we surpassed last year’s
total by 20 percent.
8. To have avoided all the work, Helen and Sally stayed back in the
house.
9. Next year my mother and father will harvest apples for thirty-nine
years.
10. Having thought Jed was out of town, Mary was surprised to see him
at the store.

The Progressive
and Emphatic Forms
The Progressive Form. To form the progressive, use the appro
priate tense of the verb be with the present participle of the main
verb.
Rule Use the progressive form of a verb to describe continu
ing action.
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
We are walking to raise money for charity.
PAST PROGRESSIVE
We were walking near the coast.
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
We wifi be walking for the next two hours.
PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
We have been walking for two hours.
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
We had been walking for two hours when we met the rest of
our group.
FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
We wifi have been walking for two hours by the time the main
group starts.

98
 2.2b

Modals

When communicating informally, you can use the present

progressive tense to express future action. Be sure to include a word
or a phrase that indicates the future.
We are walking in the walkathon next Monday.

The Emphatic Form. To use the emphatic form, use the present
or the past tense of the verb do with the infinitive form of the main
verb.
Rule Use the emphatic form to add emphasis or force to the
present and past tenses of a verb.
PRESENT EMPHATIC We do walk every day when the weather is
good.
PAST EMPHATIC We did walk before the snow began to accumu
late.

Modals. Modals are the auxiliary verbs can, could, do, did, may,
might, must, shall, will, and would. These auxiliary verbs are used
with main verbs to add emphasis to a sentence or to provide shades of
meaning.
ule Use can (present tense) and could (past tense) to express
ability to perform the action of the main verb.
We can call home if we need to.
We could have taken the car yesterday, but not today.

Rule Use do (present tense) and did (past tense) to make

negative statements and to ask questions.
We do not walk more than four miles without resting.
Did you walk farther today than you did yesterday?

Rule Use may to mean “have permission to” or to express a

possibility.
His uncle said we may go now.
We may be late if we do not hurry.

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Unit 2 Usage

Rule Use might, the past tense of may, to express a possibility

that is somewhat less likely than one expressed by may.
There is always a chance that the exam might be cancelled.

Rule Use must to convey the idea that the action of the main
verb is required or to suggest a possible explanation.
We must return immediately.
We must be thoughtless to ask for such a favor.

ule Use should, the past tense of shall, to suggest that

something ought to happen or that, although something ought
to happen, it may not.
We should call home right now. [Think: We ought to call.]
We should be home right now. [Think: We should be, but we aren’t.]

Rule Use would, the past tense of will, to express actions that
were repeated in the past or to show that you disapproved of an
action in the past.
In the winter we would drive to school every day. [repeated action]
We were always late. Well, we would leave everything until the last
minute! [disapproval]

Exercise 3 Progressive and Emphatic Forms On your

paper, write a sentence with each of the following verbs, using the
form of the verb indicated in parentheses.
SAMPLE volunteer (present perfect progressive)
ANSVi~ER I have been volunteering my time to the hospital for
three years.
1. make (present emphatic)
2. offer (future progressive)
3. buy (past perfect progressive)
4. may (auxiliary showing future possibility)
5. may (auxiliary showing future permission)

100
 .2b

Sequence of Tenses

6. relax (present progressive)

7. manufacture (past emphatic as a question)
8. can (auxiliary in the past tense expressing possibility)
9. snow (past progressive)
10. publish (future perfect progressive)

Sequence of Tenses
In most sentences, you use verbs that are in the same tense
because the time periods described are the same. In some situations,
however, you need to use verbs in different tenses to show a
difference in time. You can show this difference in time effectively by
changing not only the forms of the verbs but also the relationship of
one verb to another.
Consistency of Tenses. When two or more actions take place
at the same time, you should use verbs that are in the same tense,
particularly when you write compound sentences and sentences with
compound predicates. Also, remember to use the same verb tense
throughout a paragraph unless the meaning of the paragraph requires
that you shift tense.
Rule Use verbs in the same tense to describe actions occur
ring at the same time.
past pres
INCORRECT Hugh held the clutch in, while the rest of us push
the car.
past past
CORRECT Hugh held the clutch in, while the rest of us pushed
the car.

Shifts in Tense.’ If you need to show a shift from one time period
to another, be sure to indicate accurately the relationships between
the tenses. By changing forms and tenses, you can express precisely
the time sequence that is required.
ule If two actions occurred at different times in the past, use
the past perfect tense for the earlier action and the past tense for

101
Unit 2 Usage

the later one. To emphasize the closeness in time of two events,

however, use the past tense for both.
earlier later
past perf. past
I had waited in line for hours before I bought my ticket. [actions
that occurred at different times in the past]
earlier ater
past past
We traveled for many miles and reached the coast by dark. [past
actions that were close in time]

Rule If two actions occur in the present but one began in the
past, use the present perfect tense for the earlier action and the
present tense for the later one.
earlier later
pres per pres
Because she has been making calls all afternoon, Meg feels a sense
of accomplishment.

Rule If two actions will occur in the future, use the future
perfect tense for the action that will take place earlier and the
future tense for the action that will occur later.
earlier
future perf
Because we will have been working on this project for several weeks
ater
future
before its deadline, we will want to finish it correctly.

xercise 4 Correct Use of Tense On your paper, write a

sentence for each set of actions in?licated. Underline the verbs. If you
wish, you may write your sentences about a single situation, such as a
dramatic performance, an athletic contest, or a historical event.
SAMPLE Three actions occurring in the present
ANSWER A drama critic attends a performance, evaluates the
production, and writes a review.
1. Two actions occurring at the same time in the past
2. Two actions occurring in the future, one before the other

102
 2.2c
Voice

3. Two actions occurring at the same time in the present

4. Two actions occurring at the same time in the future
5. Two actions occurring in the past, one before the other
6. Two actions occurring in the present, one beginning in the past
7. An action occurring in the past and an action occurring in the present
8. An action occurring in the present and an action occurring in the
future

C Active Voice and Passive Voice

A verb is in the active voice when the subject performs the

action of the verb. The active voice is generally a more direct and
effective way of expressing action.
The audience applauded the orchestra’s encore.

A verb is in the passive voice when the subject receives the

action of the verb. Use the passive voice only when you want to
emphasize the receiver of the action, or when the person or thing
performing the action is unknown, or occasionally when there is no
other way to write the sentence. Overuse of the passive voice quickly
becomes tedious and weakens your writing.
Rule To form the passive voice, use a form of the verb be and
the past participle of the main verb.
The orchestra’s encore was applauded by the audience.

Only transitive verbs (page 14) can be used in the passive voice.
Intransitive verbs (page 14) cannot be in the passive voice because
they do not take objects. When a verb in the active voice is changed
to the passive voice, its direct object becomes the subject of the
sentence, and the subject becomes the object of a preposition.
subj verb
ACTIVE The symphony orchestra played a Beethoven sonata.
sub; verb
PASSIVE A Beethoven sonata was played by the symphony
ob; of prep.
orchestra.

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Unit 2 Usage

When you shift a transitive verb that has both a direct object
and an indirect object to the passive voice, either object can become
the subject. The other object, however, remains as the complement
of the verb. An object that remains as a complement in a passive
construction is called a retained object.
subj verb 1.0. DO
ACTIVE His friends gave Bill a surprise party.
retained
subj verb object
PASSIVE Bill was given a surprise party by his friends.
retained
subj verb object
PASSIVE A surprise party was given Bill by his friends.

Rule Avoid shifting from the active voice to the passive voice
when describing a series of events.
active passive
INCORRECT The stable manager fed the horses, was reminded
active
to change the straw in their stalls, and gave them
fresh water.
act ye active
CORRECT The stable manager fed the horses, remembered to
active
change the straw in their stalls, and gave them fresh
water.

xercise 5 Active and Passive Voice On your paper, write

each verb in the following sentences and label it Active or Passive. If
an active verb cannot be changed to the passive voice, write
Intransitive.
SAMPLE This play seems to be ycomedy.~
ANSWER seems—Active—Intransitive

1. Jane Austen wrote many novels about courtship and marriage, but she
remained single herself.
2. Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels satirizes humanity in a memorable
way.
3. In 1926 Agatha Christie disappeared, and a cross-country search for
her was conducted.

104
 2.2d\

Subjunctive Mood

4. John Milton lost his sight but still produced poetry of great beauty.
5. Some of Maggie Tulliver’s experiences in The Mill on the Floss were
borrowed from the life of the author, George Eliot.
6. Mary Shelley wrote the classic Frankenstein when she was in her early
twenties.
7. Charles Dickens’s books were first published in serial form.
8. The popular musical My Fair Lady is based on George Bernard
Shaw’s play Pygmalion.

2. Mood

In addition to tense and voice, verbs also express mood.

Although you use the indicative mood more frequently, the effective
use of the imperative mood and the subjunctive mood will enhance
your writing.

The Indicative and

the Imperative oods
R le Use the indicative mood to make a statement of fact or to
ask a question.
Thunder often frightens small children.
Did you remember the license plate number?

Rule Use the imperative mood to make a request or to give a

corn ma nd.
In the imperative mood, the subject of the sentence is often
understood rather than stated. Use of the imperative mood adds
directness and emphasis to your writing.
Consider taking the train the next time you travel.
Take all your belongings when you leave.

The Subjunctive Mood

Of the three moods, the subjunctive mood is the most infre
quently used in conversation and in informal writing. It is primarily
used in formal communications, especially in diplomatic statements

105
Unit 2 Usage

and in parliamentary procedure. You also use the subjunctive mood,

however, to make doubtful, wishful, or conditional statements; to
express something that is contrary to fact; or to ask, insist, order,
request, or propose in a respectful manner.
You can use verbs in the subjunctive mood in the present tense
and in the past tense.
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE If the truth be known, I am to be congratu
lated.
PAST SUBJUNCTIVE If the truth were known, I should have been
congratulated.

The most commonly used verb in the subjunctive mood is the

verb be, used as a linking verb or as an auxiliary verb. Study the
differences between the indicative mood and the subjunctive mood in
this partial conjugation of the verb be.
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT I am we are (if) I be (if) we be
you are you are (if) you be (if) you be
he is they are (if) he be (if) they be
PAST I was we were (if) I were (if) we were
you were you were (if) you were (if) you were
he was they were (if) he were (if) they were

Rule Use be for the present subjunctive of the verb be regard

less of its subject.
Mrs. Penwell asks that her children be friendly to their neighbors.

Rule Use were for the past subjunctive of the verb be regard
less of its subject.
If Rudy were a better actor, we wouldn’t have known that he forgot
a line.

ule To form the present subjunctive of verbs other than be,

use the infinitive form of the verb regardless of its subject.
Professor Art insists that the class listen attentively.

106
 2.2d

Subjunctive Mood

Rule To form the past subjunctive of verbs other than be, use
had as an auxiliary verb with the past participle of the main
verb.
If I had seen her, I would have invited her too.
Had I known, I would have told you sooner.

Rule To express something that is not true or that you doubt

will ever be true, use a verb in the subjunctive mood in a clause
that begins with if, as if, as though, or that.
Notice that something that is contrary to fact is often expressed
as a wish or a condition.
Because this has been such a long day, I wish that I were home.
[I am not at home.]
If I were you, I would ask Diane before I borrowed her book.
[I cannot be you; this statement is contrary to fact.]

Rule Use the subjunctive mood in clauses that begin with that
and that follow verbs that (1) make requests, such as ask, prefer,
and request; that (2) make demands, such as demand, deter
mine, insist, order, and require; and that (3) make proposals,
such as move, propose, recommend, and suggest.
These clauses often appear in formal usage, particularly in
standard expressions used in parliamentary procedures.
Morris recommended that the session be postponed.

Exercise Mood On your paper, write each verb or verb

phrase in italics. Then label each one Indicative, Imperative, or
Subjunctive.
SAMPLE If I were you, I would follow her example.
ANSWER were—Subjunctive; would follow—Indicative

1. Hitch your wagon to a star.

2. Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne made major contributions
to the development of the American short story.
3. Ms. Zimmerman insisted that the student submit an outline before
proceeding with his term paper on Henry James.

107
Unit 2 Usage

4. Did you know which film is an adaptation of a novel by Theodore

Dreiser?
5. If I were a faster reader, I would finish this book before the end of the
term.
6. Before Bill runs in the marathon, it is necessary that he be mentally
alert and physically fit.
7. Give examples of Dickens’s method of social protest in two of his
novels.
8. Would you please lend me your copy of Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s
poems?
9. Mr. Guiness suggested that the class attend a local production of a
Shakespearean play.
10. I was delighted when Denise asked that I read her original short story.

Assignment Active and Passive Voice On your paper,

write a paragraph in which you narrate a brief incident. You may
invent a situation, describe a personal experience, or tell about a
historical event. Use verbs in the passive voice whenever possible.
Then rewrite your paragraph, changing verbs to the active voice.
Finally, write a brief statement explaining which paragraph is more
effective.

Assignment 2 IVibod On your paper, write a paragraph ex

plaining to a friend how to do or make something. Use verbs in the
indicative mood throughout your paragraph. Then rewrite your
paragraph as a set of directions, changing verbs to the imperative
mood whenever possible. Finally, write a brief statement explaining
which paragraph is more effective and why.

ujct- e
.3 Singular and Plural Subjects and Verbs

ule A subject and its verb must agree in number.

You can change the forms of nouns, pronouns, and verbs to
express number. If the subject is singular, the form of the verb should

108
 2.3a

Singular and Plural

be singular. If the subject is plural, the form of the verb should be

plural.
SINGULAR Peter lives in Ottawa, near my sister’s house.
PLURAL Those three people live near the capital.

Verb Phrases. For a verb phrase to agree with its subject, the
auxiliary verb must agree in number with the subject.
verb phrase
SINGULAR Marianne has taken dancing lessons.
verb phrase
PLURAL Marianne and I have taken dancing lessons.

Intervening Words and Phrases. Sometimes words and

phrases come between a subject and its verb. Such intervening words
or phrases do not change the number of the subject, and, as always,
the verb must agree in number with the subject. Be sure to make the
verb agree in number with the subject of the sentence, not with some
word in the intervening phrase.
SINGULAR The director, a newcomer to the world of movies,
was not conscious of the producer’s concerns. [Think:
director was.]

PLURAL The spectators waiting outside the theater were be

coming restless. [Think: spectators were.]

E ercise 1 Subject-Verb Agreement On your paper, write

the verb form in each sentence that agrees in number with the subject
of the sentence. Label each verb or verb phrase Singular or Plural.
SAMPLE The woman who lives next door to the Smiths (is
moving, are moving) next week.
ANSWER is moving—Singular
1. Arthur’s friends (is swimming, are swimming) for the school team.
2. Ted’s refusal to do the dishes (was, were) responsible for his having to
stay home tonight.
3. Halloween, one of my favorite holidays, (is, are) on Sunday this year.
4. The tools in the tool chest (is rusting, are rusting) away.

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Unit 2 Usage

5. The curators of the museum (distributes, distribute) information to all

interested community groups.
6. Steven, one of the animal trainers, also (wants, want) to be a veteri
narian.
7. Janice, one of the interns, (has written, have written) to her represen
tative in Washington, D.C.
8. The campaign officials who are working for the governor (travels,
travel) all over the state.
9. Most creatures in the forest (is, are) wary of loud noises.
10. The winners of the contest (has been notified, have been notified).

Determining the Number of the Subject

In some sentences, you may find it troublesome to determine

the number of the subject. To avoid confusion, pay special attention
to the following types of subjects.

Compound Subjects
A compound subject (page 36) is composed of two or more
subjects that are connected by and, or, nor, either. or, or
. .

neither. . nor. A compound subject may take a singular or a plural

.

verb, depending on (1) which conjunction is used and (2) whether the
words in the compound subject are singular or plural.
Rule Use a plural verb with most compQund subjects connect
ed by and.
PLURAL The Prime Minister and the President were to attend
the meeting.

ule Use a singular verb with a compound subject that refers

to one person or one thing or to something that is generally
considered as a unit—that is, plural in form but singular in
meaning.
SINGULAR This year’s most popular author and lecturer
is addressing our class tomorrow. [The author and
lecturer are the same person.]

110
 2.3b
Determining Number

Rule Use a singular verb with a compound subject that is

composed of singular nouns or pronouns connected by or or
nor.
SINGULAR Either my aunt or my uncle likes to read poetry.

ule Use a plural verb with a compound subject that is

composed of plural nouns or pronouns connected by or or nor.
PLURAL Neither the farmer’s goats nor his sheep have been
sold.

Rule When a compound subject is composed of a singular

subject and a plural subject connected by or or nor, use a verb
that agrees in number with the subject that is closer to the verb
in the sentence.
sing —,

SINGULAR Neither the musicians nor the conductor is on stage.

sing
PLURAL Neither the team manager nor the players agree on
the terms of the contract.

In following this rule, you may discover that some sentences

sound awkward. In that case, rephrase the sentence.
The musicians are not on stage, and neither is the conductor.

Rule When the subject is both affirmative and negative, use a

verb form that agrees in number with the affirmative part of the
subject.
sing.
My brothers, not I, are planning to travel this summer.

Indefinite Pronouns as Subjects

Indefinite pronouns (page 10) are pronouns that refer to
people or things in general. Some irjdefinite pronouns are always

111
Unit 2 Usage

singular and, therefore, always take singular verbs. The following are
examples of singular indefinite pronouns:

anybody everybody nobody other

anyone everyone no one somebody
anything everything nothing someone
each much one something
either neither
SINGULAR Almost everybody watches television sometime.

Some indefinite pronouns are always plural and, therefore,

always take plural verbs. The most common are both, few, many, and
several.
PLURAL Many go jogging in the park on Saturday morning.

The indefinite pronouns all, any, enough, more, most, none,

plenty, and some may be singular or plural, depending upon their
antecedents (page 7).
SINGULAR All of the music presented that day was enjoyable.
[The indefinite pronoun refers to music; it is singular
and takes the singular verb was.]
PLURAL All of the band’s members have exceptional talent.
[All refers to members; it is plural and takes the
plural verb have.]

Sometimes an indefinite pronoun refers to a word that is

understood rather than stated.
Even though many had gone, most were still at the party when we
arrived. [The listener or reader would know that the pronouns refer
to guests.]

Collective Nouns as Subjects

A collective noun (page 4) is a word that names a group of
people or a collection of objects that is singular in form and may be
either singular or plural in meaning. Examples include committee,
crowd, fleet, jury, and team.

112
 2.3b

Determining Number

Rule If a collective noun refers to a group as a whole, use a

singular verb.
SINGULAR The crowd wants action. [The crowd is thought of as
a whole.J

Rule If a collective noun refers to individual members or parts

of a group, use a plural verb.
PLURAL The cast know themselves well. [The members of the
cast are acting as individuals.]

ouns with Plural Form

Nouns such as economics, mathematics, measles, and news are
plural in form but singular in meaning. Although they end in s, they
refer to a single thing or to a unit and, therefore, take a singular verb.
(Notice that removing the s does not make a singular noun.)
SINGULAR Aeronautics is a subject that I have never studied.

Other nouns, such as clothes, congratulations, pliers, and

scissors, end in s but take a plural verb, even though they refer to one
thing.
PLURAL Your garden shears are on the workbench.

Some nouns, such as athletics, dramatics, and politics, end in s

but may be singular or plural, depending on their meaning in the
sentence. Use your dictionary to find out whether a noun that ends in
s takes a singular or a plural verb.
SINGULAR In her lecture she told us that dramatics is her avoca
tion.
PLURAL His dramatics are often ignored by his friends.

Titles and Names as Subjects

Titles of individual books, stories, plays, movies, television
programs, musical compositions, and magazines take the singular
form of the verb, even though the titles may contain plural words.

113
Unit 2 Usage
~ JTh~ ~3
The name of a country or of an organization also takes a singular verb
when it refers to an entire country or group. (See Unit 3, “Mechan
ics,” for rules regarding capitalization and underlining, or italics, for
titles.)
SINGULAR Hemingway’s A Farewell to Arms was made into a
movie.
SINGULAR The United Nations often sends peacekeeping forces
into troubled areas.

Words of Amount and Time

Rule Use singular verbs with words and phrases that refer to
single units: fractions, measurements, amounts of money,
weights, volumes, or intervals of time when the interval refers
to a specific unit.
SINGULAR One hundred yards is the length of a football field.

Rule Use a plural verb when the amount or the time is

considered to be a number of separate units.
PLURAL Five quarters are all that you need to do the laundry.

When you use the number or the variety as a subject, you

usually use a singular verb. When you use a number or a variety as a
subject, you usually use a plural verb.
SINGULAR The variety of plants at the garden shop is amazing.
PLURAL A variety of plants are for sale at the garden shop.

Exercise 2 Subject-Verb Agreement On your paper, write

the verb that correctly completes each sentence.
SAMPLE A number of different insects, such as crickets and
grasshoppers, (use, uses) leaping as a means of escape
from enemies.
ANSWER use

1. Neither Toronto nor Vancouver (is, are) as large as Montreal.

2. Gloves, sweaters, and ties (was, were) on sale at Garvin’s today.

114
 2.3c
Agreement Problems

3. The entire committee (was, were) invited to attend the reception.

4. The bookstore and the libraries nearby (provide, provides) many
hours of pleasure for John and his daughter.
5. Nobody (is, are) able to solve all the world’s problems.
6. Homemade bread and milk (has, have) always been my uncle’s favor
ite snack.
7. The team (was, were) debating the strategy that they would use for
the game on Saturday.
8. Although the community (has, have) expressed its support, the school
committee (has, have) voted against providing funds to build a new
auditorium.
9. (Has, Have) the League of Nations been a topic of discussion yet?
10. Bacon, lettuce, and tomato (is, are) a popular combination for a
sandwich.

2.3c Problems in Agreement

Inverted Word Order In some sentences, especially questions

or sentences beginning with Here or There, you may have difficulty
locating the subject because the verb comes before the subject. By
mentally rearranging the sentence in its normal subject-verb order,
you can find the subject and make the verb agree with it in number.
SINGULAR Near the building was a public park. [Think: park
was.]
PLURAL There are many ideas to be explored. [Think: ideas
are.]
SINGULAR Is Uncle George or Aunt Susan meeting us at the
restaurant? [Think: Aunt Susan is.]
PLURAL Here are the coat and the shirt that you ordered.
[Think: the coat and the shirt are.]

Sentences with Predicate Nominatives. Using a predicate

nominative (page 43) can confuse subject-verb agreement when the
subject and the predicate nominative differ in number.

115
Unit 2 Usage

Rule Use a verb that agrees in number with the subject, not
with the predicate nominative.
INCORRECT Violets is one of her favorite flowers.

CORRECT Violets are one of her favorite flowers. [plural sub

ject; singular predicate nominative]

Agreement in Adjective Clauses. When a relative pronoun,

such as who, which, or that, is the subject of an adjective clause (page
60), decide whether the verb of the adjective clause should be
singular or plural by finding the antecedent (page 7) of the relative
pronoun.
Rule The verb of an adjective clause and the antecedent of the
relative pronoun must agree in number.
SINGULAR Willie Mays, who was one of baseball’s greatest cen
ter fielders, used to make spectacular catches. [Who
refers to Willie Mays, the singular subject.]
PLURAL People who do a job well seem to feel better about
themselves. [Who refers to People, the plural sub
ject.]

Rule When an adjective clause follows the term one of those,

use a plural verb in the clause.
PLURAL Yesterday’s assignment is one of those that are meant
to be a challenge.

Every and Many a. As adjectives, every and many a (or many

an) emphasize separateness when they modify subjects. Every
teacher means “every single teacher,” not “all teachers”; many a
teacher means that each teacher is separate from all the other
teachers.
Rule Use a singular verb with a single subject or a compound
subject modified by every, many a, or many an.
Every teacher and student wants to be at the meeting.
Many a teacher corrects papers every night.

116
 2.3c

Agreement Problems

E ercise Subject-Verb Agreement On your paper, write

the verb form that correctly completes each sentence.
SAMPLE Many an intriguing sight (awaits, await) the observ
ant visitor to Los Angeles.
ANSWER awaits
1. Near the congested downtown area (stands, stand) the Victorian
houses of Carroll Avenue.
2. Their ornate architecture and their gingerbread-style trimmings are
what (makes, make) them attractive to photographers.
3. Not many years ago, houses on Carroll Avenue (was, were) one of
the great undiscovered treasures in local real estate.
4. Restoring an old house is one of those activities that (appeals, appeal)
to many people.
5. By now, there (is, are) rarely a house for sale in the neighborhood,
and property values, like those throughout the country, (has, have)
soared.
6. Not far from Carroll Avenue (is, are) other examples of the city’s
architectural heritage.
7. The Bradbury Building and the Oviatt Building, both specimens of
the city’s nineteenth-century skyline, (has, have) been restored as
office buildings that (houses, house) twentieth-century businesses.
8. Much of the architecture in Los Angeles (seems, seem) to reveal
attempts to disguise a building’s function.
9. One of the most startling sights (is, are) a building that (looks, look)
like a huge ship.
10. Designed in the style of California’s early Spanish missions (is, are)
Union Station.
11. A number of people (has, have) commented that one of the more
recently built hotels (resembles, resemble) a cappuccino machine.
12. Plenty of variety in architecture, both serious and whimsical, (repre
sents, represent) the complexity of this vast city’s history.

Assignment Subject-Verb Agreement On your paper,

write ten interesting sentences, using one of the following phrases to
begin each sentence. Be certain that subjects and verbs agree.
Underline each verb that you provide.

117
Unit 2 Usage

SAMPLE Neither the manager nor the cashier

ANSWER Neither the manager nor the cashier has any idea
when the store will be open tomorrow.

1. The restless crowd 6. The children next door who

2. Either Jim or Joan 7. One of those friends who
3. Mother’s scissors 8. Foreign languages and mathematics
4. School athletics 9. There
5. Every parent 10. Someone

• — w S I • v a r

777i

Subject-Verb Agreement
In writing a letter to a friend, you want to recommend a
novel, a play, or a film that you have recently read or seen.
Choose a work that has several characters to discuss, and
describe them and their actions both individually and as a
group. Include a brief statement telling why you recommend
the work to your friend. Revise your paragraphs, making sure
that subjects and verbs in your sentences agree in number.

C U

• a Pronoun Antecedents

All pronouns, whether they are personal (page 8), indefinite

(page 10), relative (page 10), reflexive (page 9), or intensive (page 9),
must agree with their antecedents in number, gender, and person
(page 8).

118
 2.4a
Pronoun Antecedents

Agreement in Number
Rule Use a singular pronoun to refer to or to replace a
singlular antecedent; use a plural pronoun to refer to or to
replace a plural antecedent.
SINGULAR PLURAL
I, me, my, mine we, us, our, ours
you, your, yours you, your, yours
he, him, his they, them, their, theirs
she, her, hers
it, its

SINGULAR Jack said that he would take his car.

PLURAL Jack’s friends said that they would take their cars.

Rule Usea plural pronoun to refertoorto replacetwo or more

singular antecedents joined by and; use a singular pronoun to
refer to or to replace two or more singular antecedents joined by
or or nor.

‘Jack and Rick went to hear their favorite singer.

Neither Jack nor Rick wanted to drive his car.

Indefinite Pronouns as Antecedents. The following indefi

nite pronouns are singular in meaning. Use singular pronouns to refer
to or to replace them.

anybody everybody nobody other

anyone everyone no one somebody
anything everything nothing someone
each much one something
either neither

SINGULAR Each of the women paid for her own ticket.

In sentences where the intended meaning of a singular indefi

nite pronoun is plural, use a plural pronoun to refer to or to replace

119
Unit 2 Usage

the antecedent. For example, it is not sensible to use a singular

pronoun in the following sentence.

UNCLEAR When everybody arrived at the theater, he or she

bought a ticket and went inside.

Because the antecedent everybody really means all and not each
person individually, you should use a plural pronoun or, preferably,
rewrite the sentence to avoid the awkward construction.

CLEAR When everybody arrived at the theater, they bought

tickets and went inside

BETTER When all of the people arrived at the theater, they

bought tickets and went inside.

Some indefinite pronouns, such as several, both, few, and many,

are plural in meaning; use plural pronouns to refer to or to replace
them.

PLURAL Several of the students made their own lunches.

Some indefinite pronouns, such as all, any, enough, more, most,

none, plenty, and some, can be either singular or plural. Use either
singular or plural pronouns to refer to or to replace them, depending
on the meaning of the sentence.
SINGULAR All of the color in the painting had lost its vibrancy.
[All refers to color, which is singular; its refers to all.]
PLURAL All of the books need to have their bindings re
placed. [All refers to books, which is plural; their
refers to all.]

Collective Nouns as Antecedents. When an antecedent is a

collective noun (page 4), you must first determine whether the
collective noun is singular or plural in meaning. If it is singular, use a
singular pronoun to refer to or to replace it; if it is plural, use a plural
pronoun to refer to it.

120
 2.4a

Pronoun Antecedents

SINGULAR The ad hoc committee voted to change its meeting

time. [The meeting time is for the entire committee
as a unit.]

PLURAL The ad hoc committee voted to increase their salaries.

[The committee voted for individual salaries.]

Agreement in Gender
The gender (page 8) of a noun or a pronoun is either masculine,
feminine, or neuter. The masculine pronouns are he, him, and his;
the feminine pronouns are she, her, and hers; and the neuter
pronouns, those refering to neither masculine nor feminine anteced
ents, are it and its.
Rule Use a pronoun that agrees in gender with its antecedent.
MASCULINE Martin Luther King motivated his followers to take
action.
FEMININE Flannery O’Connor based her stories on her own
experience.

NEUTER A ship has to have its keel scraped annually.

Sometimes it is unclear whether the gender of a singular

antecedent is masculine or feminine. If a neuter pronoun will not
work, you can use the phrase his or her to show that the antecedent
could be either masculine or feminine. This construction, however, is
often awkward. If possible, rewrite the sentence so that the antece
dent and all words that refer to it or replace it are plural. Sometimes
you can repeat the noun that is the antecedent.
AWKWARD A lawyer has a confidential relationship with his or
her clients.
BETTER Lawyers have confidential relationships with their
clients.

Agreement in Person
Pronouns are in either the first person, the second person, or
the third person (page 8).

121
Unit 2 Usage

Rule Use a pronoun that agrees in person with its antecedent.

FIRST PERSON I will graduate from high school before my brother
does.
SECOND PERSON Will you graduate from high school before your
brother does?
THIRD PERSON Harriet will graduate from high school before her
brother does.
When the indefinite pronoun one is an antecedent, use a
third-person singular pronoun to refer to it or to replace it, or repeat
the indefinite pronoun.
One often feels that he or she is under a microscope during exam
time.
One often feels that one is under a microscope during exam time.
Note: In general, do not use he to represent both he and she.
You should either repeat the noun or pronoun that is the antece
dent or rewrite the sentence to make both the antecedent and the
pronoun plural.

Agreement of Reflexive
and Intensive Pronouns
Reflexive and intensive pronouns (page 9), formed by adding
either -self or -selves to personal pronouns, must also agree with their
antecedents in number, gender, and person. Reflexive and intensive
pronouns are always used with antecedents; do not use them alone to
replace a noun or a personal pronoun.
INCORRECT For the first time, Robert and I are filing income tax
forms by themselves.
INCORRECT For the first time, Robert and myself are filing in
come tax forms.
CORRECT For the first time, Robert and I are filing income tax
ref ex ye
forms by ourselves.
(For more information on correct usage of reflexive and inten
sive pronouns, see the Usage Notes on pages 152, 156, and 160.)

122
 2.4b
Pronoun Case

xercise 1 Pronoun Antecedents On your paper, write the

pronoun that correctly refers to the antecedent in each sentence.
Make sure that each pronoun and its antecedent agree in number,
gender, and person.
SAMPLE When everyone saw Meg, _1_ shouted, “Surprise!”
ANSWER they
1. One of the goals of the program is for each worker to establish _L
own production goals.
2. She is a dancer who knows when _1_ is performing well.
3. Everyone needs time for _L own interests.
4. This is one of those rainstorms that last for days; I wonder when _L
will let up.
5. The school committee discussed _L proposals for the agenda.
6. Neither of the other organizations has written _L agenda.
7. No one on the board has been willing to change _i_ vote.
8. Neither Sarah nor Jessica has _L umbrella with _L.
9. Does Melissa _L know any games that 2_ might teach Karen?
10. June and Nathan have learned to tie _L shoelaces by _L.

Pronoun Case
To show the grammatical use of a pronoun in a sentence, you
change its form, or case. The three cases are nominative, objective,
and possessive.
SINGULAR PLURAL
NOMINATIVE CASE I we
you you
he, she, it they
OBJECTIVE CASE me us
you you
him, her, it them
POSSESSIVE CASE* my, mine our, ours
your, yours your, yours
his, her, hers-, its their, theirs
*The pronouns my, your, his, her, its, our, and their are sometimes called
pronominal adjectives (page 20).

123
Unit 2 Usage

Pronouns in the Nominative Case

Rule Use the nominative case when a pronoun acts as a
subject (page 36), as a predicate nominative (page 43), or as an
appositive to a subject or to a predicate nominative (page 48).
SUBJECT
I would like to speak to Rosalie, please.
PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
This is she. To whom am I speaking?
APPOSITIVE TO A SUBJECT
Your friends, Sandy and I, would like you to go to the game
with us. [Think: Sandy and I would like.]
APPOSITIVE TO A PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
We are the friends, Sandy and I, who helped you with your
science project. [Think: We are Sandy and I.]

Pronouns in the Objective Case

Rule Use the objective case when a pronoun acts as a direct
object (page 41), as an indirect object (page 42), as an objective
complement (page 42), as an object of a preposition (page 46~,
as a subject of an infinitive clause (page 56~, as an appositive to
a direct or an indirect object (page 48), or as an appositive to an
object of a preposition (page 48).
DIRECT OBJECT
Mara met her just before school began.
INDIRECT OBJECT
She lent her a notebook for her first class.
OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION
Nancy gave it back to her after her class.
SUBJECT OF AN INFINITIVE CLAUSE
Mr. Mitchell told them to see him after school.

124
 2.4b
Possessive Case

OBJECT OF AN INFINITIVE CLAUSE

Mara wanted to ask him why he wanted to see them.
APPOSITIVE TO A DIRECT OBJECT
She liked her friends, Mara and her.
APPOSITIVE TO AN INDIRECT OBJECT
She told them, Mara and her, the whole story.
APPOSITIVE TO AN OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION
Mr. Mitchell wanted to read over their papers with both of
them, Mara and her.

Pronouns in the Possessive Case

Possessive pronouns show to whom or to what something
elongs. They do not include apostrophes.
Rule Use the possessive pronouns mine, yours, his, hers, its,
ours, and theirs to refer to or to replace nouns.
You can use these possessive pronouns in the same way that you
would use nouns: as subjects, predicate nominatives, direct or
indirect objects, objects of prepositions, or appositives.
SUBJECT
Hers is the short story that won first place.

PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
The second-place short story is his.
DIRECT OBJECT
After thinking about the plot for a long time, Kathleen wrote
hers in two hours.
INDIRECT OBJECT
Carl gave hers a rave review.
OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION
We should really find a publisher for theirs.
APPOSITIVE
A publisher has requested that both stories, hers and his, be
submitted at once.

125
Unit 2 Usage

ule Use the possessive pronouns* my, your, his, her, its, our,
and theirto modify nouns.
Will you visit your grandparents this summer?

ule Use a possessive pronoun to modify a gerund.

Gerunds (page 53) are -ing forms of verbs that are used as
nouns. Because they function as nouns, use the possessive forms of
nouns and pronouns to modify them.
Your visiting your grandparents will be a great pleasure fc~r them.
[Your is used instead of you because it is the visiting—your visiting
—that will be a great pleasure for them.]

Compound Constructions
with Pronouns
It is sometimes troublesome to choose the correct case for
pronouns in compound constructions, such as compound subjects or
compound objects of a preposition. To determine which case you
should use, say the sentence to yourself, leaving out the conjunction
and the noun or the other pronoun in the compound construction.
When you have determined how the pronoun functions by itself, you
can decide whether to use the nominative case or the objective case.
Thomas and they are responsible for the decorations. [Think: They
are responsible for the decorations.]
Between you and me, I think David deserved to win. [Because you
and me are compound objects of the preposition between, use a
pronoun in the objective case, me.]

Exercise 2 Pronoun Case On your paper, write the correct

pronoun for each sentence; then indicate how the pronoun is used in
the sentence.
SAMPLE In recent months, I have not seen (she, her) very
much.
ANSWER her—Direct object
*These possessive pronouns are sometimes called pronominal adjectives
(page 20).

126
 2.4b

Who and Whom

1. Tony will drive his cousins and (we, us) to the theater.
2. (We, Us) will see that nothing is taken from the museum without
permission.
3. Although (she, her) looks younger, Caroline is actually older.
4. The three contestants, the twins and (I, me), took our places at the
starting line.
5. Answering the door, we discovered that it was (he, him).
6. (You, Your) moving to another town will make it difficult for (we, us)
to practice together.
7. I never expected to find (he, him) here with the children.
8. Will you see (him, he) or (she, her) after the rehearsal?
9. Let us give (he, him) a surprise party.
10. Did you realize when you met them that it was (them, they)?

Who and Whom

You can use the forms of the word who either as interrogative
pronouns (page 9) or as relative pronouns (page 10). As is true of
other pronouns, the way that you use the pronoun determines which
case or form of the word you should choose. Who and whoever are in
the nominative case; whom and whomever are in the objective case;
whose is in the possessive case.

Who and Whom as Interrogative Pronouns. Who and

whom are interrogative pronouns when they introduce questions. To
determine whether to use who (the nominative case) or whom (the
objective case), simply turn the question into a statement.

ule Use who when an interrogative pronoun acts as a subject

or as a predicate nominative. Use whom when an interrogative
pronoun acts either as an object of a verb or as an object of a
preposition.
NOMINATIVE Who is singing the lead in Madama Butterfly? [Who is
the subject of the verb is singing.]

OBJECTIVE To whom did you speak when you telephoned the

White House today? [Whom is the object of the
preposition to.]

127
Unit 2 Usage

If the interrogative pronoun who or whom is followed by an

interrupting phrase, such as do you feel, you can mentally rearrange
the sentence to determine the use of the pronoun in the sentence and
which form of the pronoun to use.
Who do you feel will best fill the position of vice-president? [Think:
Who will best fill the position? Who is the subject.]

In informal writing and in conversation, who is often used to

ask a question, regardless of whether the nominative or the objective
case is needed. In formal usage, however, you should follow the rules
for using the nominative case, who, and the objective case, whom.
INFORMAL Who do you plan to go with to the movie?
FORMAL With whom will you attend the plenary session next
week?

Who and Whom as Relative Pronouns. When forms of the

word who introduce subordinate clauses (page 59), they are relative
pronouns. Choose the form of the word to use by its use in the
subordinate clause, not by its use in the main clause.
Rule Use who or whoever when a relative pronoun is the
subject of the subordinate clause; use whom or whomever
when a relative pronoun is an object within the subordinate
clause.
The new teacher, who has been here only a week, has made many
friends among the students and faculty. [Who is the subject of the
clause who has been here only a week.]
My mother, whom many people respect, was honored at a testimoni
al dinner. [Whom is the direct object of respect.]

Exercise 3 Who and Whom On your paper, write the pro

noun that is correct in formal usage. Also, indicate how the pronoun
is used in the sentence.
SAMPLE About (who, whom) was that story written?
ANSWER whom—Object of the preposition about

128
 2.4b
ronoun ppositives

1. (Who, Whom) wants to buy my bicycle helmet for twenty dollars?

2. Even though I don’t know (who, whom) you gave my old clothes to, I
wish that you had asked my permission first.
3. Jackie, (who, whom) was elected student council president last month,
announced today that her family is moving.
4. (Who, Whom) noticed where I misplaced my glasses?
5. My father, (who, whom) I respect even though I don’t always agree
with him, feels more strongly than I about the conservation of natural
resources.
6. Jason’s aunt, (who, whom) is almost ninety years old, lives with him
and his family.
7. The students did not know (who, whom) their new mathematics
teacher would be.
8. Nobody saw (who, whom) placed the chair on top of the flagpole.
9. Patricia, (who, whom) I saw just yesterday, is leaving today for a
cross-country bicycle trip.
10. It was John Donne (who, whom) wrote, “Ask not for (who, whom)
the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.”

Pronouns in Appositive Phrases

The pronouns we and us are often used in appositive phrases,
such as we engineers or us pilots. Because an appositive explains or
renames the word with which it is in apposition, you must first
determine how the appositive phrase is used in the sentence. If the
phrase is a subject or a predicate nominative, use the nominative case
of the pronoun; if the phrase is an object, use the objective case.
To determine which case to use, say the sentence to yourself
without the noun in the appositive phrase.
NOMINATIVE We engineers attended the computer conference in
Los Angeles last April. [Think: We attended. Because
we and engineers are subjects, we is in the nominative
case.]
OBJECTIVE The refresher course for us pilots will be given again
in the spring. [Think: The refresher course for us.
Because us and pilots are objects of the preposition
for, us is in the objective case.]

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Pronouns in Comparisons
In some comparisons using than or as, part of the phrase or
clause is not stated, but merely implied. To choose the correct
pronoun, mentally supply the missing words to determine how the
pronoun is used. Because the case of the pronoun used in an
incomplete comparison can alter your intended meaning, make your
choice carefully. In the following examples, notice the change in
meaning according to the choice of pronoun.
NOMINATIVE I will walk as far with you as she. [Think: as far as
she will walk. Use the nominative-case pronoun be
cause she is the subject of the implied clause, she will
walk with you.]
OBJECTIVE I will walk as far with you as her. [Think: as far with
you as with her. Use the objective-case pronoun, her,
because the intended meaning makes her the object
of the implied preposition with.]

Exercise 4 Other Uses of Pronoun Case On your paper,

write the correct pronoun for each of the following sentences.
SAMPLE The coach really lectured (we, us) players.
ANSWER us

1. (We, Us) performers will need to be ready by Wednesday.

2. I wish that I were more coordinated than (he, him).
3. If Jane had listened to (we, us) swimmers, she would have known that
the lake was too shallow for competitive swimming.
4. Will you arrive home sooner than (I, me)?
5. Mrs. Berstein asked (we, us) neighbors to water her lawn while she
was away.
6. The crate was a great deal heavier than (they, them) thought.
7. The crate was a great deal heavier than (they, them).
8. Mary’s mother gave (we, us) band members a ride to the concert.
9. Do you think my present made her as happy as (I, me)?
10. The broken axle on the train car made the journey rather uncomfort
able for (we, us) passengers.

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 2.4c
Pronoun Reference

Ac Correct Pronoun Reference

To avoid confusing your listeners or readers, be certain that the

pronouns you use refer clearly to their antecedents. If you find an
unclear reference, rephrase the sentence.
Rule Avoid using a pronoun that could refer to more than one
antecedent.
UNCLEAR Jerry picked Bill to be on his team because he knows
the game well. [Who knows the game well? The
antecedent of he is unclear.]
CLEAR Jerry picked Bill to be on his team because Bill
knows the game well.

Rule Avoid using the pronoun it, they, you, or your without a
clear antecedent in formal usage.
The following example shows how you can usually replace the
pronoun with a noun to eliminate confusion.
UNCLEAR I forgot my umbrella and my flashlight. When I
thought about it, I laughed. [What is it? The pronoun
has no clear antecedent.]
CLEAR I forgot my umbrella and my flashlight. When I
thought about my forgetfulness, I laughed.

Rul Do not use the pronoun your in place of an article (a, an,
or the) if possession is not involved.
AVOID Many of your gymnasts have been training for years.
USE Many gymnasts have been training for years.

Rule Avoid using which, it, this, and that to refer to ideas that
are not clearly stated.
The following example demonstrates how you can avoid making
such general references.

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Unit 2 Usage

GENERAL We went to every game in the series, but we didn’t

see anyone hit a home run, which was quite disap
pointing. [The pronoun which has no clear antece
dent; instead, which refers generally to an idea in the
previous sentence.]
CLEAR We went to every game in the series, but we were
quite disappointed because we didn’t see anyone hit a
home run.

Exercise 5 Pronoun Reference On your paper, rewrite the

following sentences, making certain that all pronoun references are
clear and accurate. If a sentence is correct, write Correct.
SAMPLE I was locked out of my house with a bottle of milk in
my hand when it started to pour.
ANSWER I was locked out of my house with a bottle of milk in
my hand when the rain started.
1. Arabella is devoted to nature, and she once became very angry with a
woman because she saw her littering her garden.
2. Examination of the Table of Contents of Shakespeare’s First Folio
shows that when Timon of Athens first appeared it replaced Troilus
and Cressida.
3. Although there are a great many pre-Columbian metal objects in
museums and private collections, we know relatively little about the
techniques or implements that they employed in its manufacture.
4. Like Antwerp’s, New York’s rise from provincial capital to cosmo
politan center demonstrates its historical connections between the
development of trade and the flowering of culture and art.
5. It is characteristic of organizations that they are not immortal; they
may not seem it, but they flourish and then die just as a living
organism does.
6. For all its immense intellectual vigor, the James family was one beset
by personal calamities and disorders.
7. Billy told Eli, Jake, and Steve that he shouldn’t have done it.
8. The day was bright, my family was close by, and the food was
delicious, which I will never forget.
9. Good training techniques are essential to the development of fine race
horses because without them, any competitive edge would be lost.

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Pronoun Reference

10. Until Napoleon’s dreams of an empire led him into the land of the
pharaohs, knowledge of Egypt’s past was as obscure as the hieroglyph
ics on its stone facades.

Assignment I Pronoun Usage On your paper, list the elev

en pronouns from the passage and classify each according to type and
to its use in the sentence.
With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in
the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish
the work we are in, to bind up the nation’s wounds, to care for him
who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and orphans; to
do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among
ourselves and with all nations.
From Abraham Lincoln’s
“Second Inaugural Address”

As&g ment 2 Pronoun Usage On your paper, rewrite each

of the following sentences, using personal pronouns to replace the
nouns in italics. Underline the pronouns that you supply. Be certain
that the person, number, and case are correct.
SAMPLE The bouquet is a gift for the neighbors.
ANSWER It is a gift for them.
1. Victoria Woodhull was the first woman to be nominated for the presi
dency of the United States.
2. I expected a reply from Celeste yesterday.
3. Several of the players received injuries during the game. The players
had to be given medical attention.
4. 0. Henry wrote short stories while serving a prison term for embezzle
ment.
5. Charles and Tina consider Mr. O’Hara their best teacher.
6. Barbara gave Thomas a watch for his birthday.
7. The winning essay was Claudia’s.
8. Mrs. Torres told the babysitter to make Margaret a sandwich.
9. Whose book did Ed borrow, Judy’s or Robert’s?
10. No one can bring Joan happiness but Joan.

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Unit 2 Usage

C ec o
2. Comparison of Modifiers

By using different forms of adjectives and adverbs, you can

compare two or more persons or things. The three degrees of
comparison are positive, comparative, and superlative.

The Three Degrees of Comparison

You use a modifier in the positive degree to assign some
quality to a person, a thing, an action, or an idea. You use a modifier
in the comparative degree to compare a person, a thing, an action,
or an idea with another one. You use a modifier in the superlative
degree to compare a person, a thing, an action, or an idea with at
least two others.
ADJECTIVES
POSITIVE That line is long.
COMPARATIVE That line is longer than the one for the other movie.
SUPERLATIVE That line is the longest one that I have ever seen.
ADVERBS
POSITIVE Roger behaves maturely.
COMPARATIVE Roger behaves more maturely than Eric.
SUPERLATIVE Of all the students, Roger behaves the most maturely.

Using Comparisons Correctly

Rule Add the suffix -erto form the comparative and the suffix
-est to form the superlative of modifiers with one or two
syllables.
In some cases, to form the comparative modifier correctly, you
must drop a final e, double a final consonant, or change a final y to i
before adding the suffix. (See Unit 14, “Spelling Skills.”)

short, shorter, shortest

funny, funnier, funniest

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 2.5a

Using Comparisons

ule Use more to show the comparative degree and most to

show the superlative degree in three instances: with all three-
syllable words, with two-syllable words that would otherwise
be difficult to pronounce, and with adverbs ending in ly.
serious, more serious, most serious
dreadful, more dreadful, most dreadful
restfully, more restfully, most restfully

Rule Use less and least to form the comparative and superla
tive degrees of comparisons showing less.
humorous, less humorous, least humorous
hopeful, less hopeful, least hopeful
ambitiously, less ambitiously, least ambitiously

Remember, also, that some modifiers are irregular and do not

form comparisons in a standard way. You should memorize them to
be able to use them correctly.
bad, worse, worst little, less, least
far, farther, farthest many, more, most
far, further, furthest much, more, most
good, better, best well, better, best
ill, worse, worst

Rul Avoid double comparisons. Use either the word more or

most or else the appropriate suffix; do not combine the two.
INCORRECT Jim is more funnier than anyone else in the group.
CORRECT Jim is funnier than anyone else in the group.

Rule Avoid incomplete comparisons by clearly indicating the

things being compared.
When you compare one member of a group with the rest of the
group, you can avoid being unclear or misleading by using the
comparative degree and the word other or else.
UNCLEAR Richard plays the oboe better than anyone in the
class. [This sentence says either that Richard plays

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Unit 2 Usage

the oboe better than anyone in the class, including

himself, or that Richard plays the oboe better than
anyone in a class of which he is not a part.]
CLEAR Richard can play the oboe better than anyone else in
the class. [Richard is the best oboe player in his
class.]

Rule Use the words as as or as

. . . . . . as . . . than to com
plete a compound comparison.
A compound comparison really makes two statements by
using both the positive and the comparative degrees of a modifier.
The positive degree shows that the things being compared are at least
equal or similar; the comparative degree shows that they may, in fact,
be different. Because you would still have a complete sentence if you
removed the second, or parenthetical, part of the comparison, use
commas to set off the parenthetical part from the rest of the sentence.
Being on time to my 8:00 A.M. class is as difficult as, if not more
difficult than, being on time to my 7:00 A.M. class.
Being on time to my 8:00 A.M. class is as difficult as being on time to
my 7:00 A.M. class, if not more difficult.

ule Avoid making comparisons that are illogical because of

missing or faulty elements or because no comparison can be
made.
To avoid having your reader or listener misunderstand your
meaning, rephrase the comparison to include all of the important
words.
ILLOGICAL Sarah writes computer programs that are as compli
cated as Francine. [Computer programs cannot be
compared to Francine. Sarah can write programs; she
cannot write Francine.]
LOGICAL Sarah writes computer programs that are as compli
cated as Francine’s. [Think: Sarah’s programs are as
complicated as Francine’s programs.]

Certain adjectives, such as perfect, unique, dead, round, full,

and empty, do not have a comparative or superlative degree because

136
 2.5b
Placement of Phrases

they express an absolute condition. Because logically nothing can be

“more perfect” or “more empty,” use the forms more nearly or most
nearly when you use these words in comparisons.
Jim’s plate was the most nearly empty at the end of the meal.

ercise I Correct Use of Comparisons On your paper,

write the correct form of the modifier given in parentheses. Identify
the degree of comparison of each correct modifier.
SAMPLE Of my two goldfish, Fred was the (deader, more
nearly dead) when I returned from vacation.
ANSWER more nearly dead—Comparative
Mutiny on the Bounty is one of the (more engrossing, most engross
ing) novels that I have ever read.
2. Your solution is good, but his is (better, best).
3. Which comedy in the double feature is (funnier, funniest)?
4. Of the four faces carved on Mount Rushmore, the one that seems
(less lifelike, least lifelike) is Theodore Roosevelt’s.
5. Is Chaucer or Milton the (more difficult, most difficult) writer to
understand?
6. That was the (worse, worst) résumé that the employment counselor
had ever received.
7. Which sport do you find (livelier, liveliest): tennis, volleyball, or
handball?
8. Who is the (more tragic, most tragic) of the three heroines: Madame
Bovary, Anna Karenina, or Tess of the D’Urbervilles?
9. Does a liquid quart or a liter have the (greater, greatest) volume?
10. I am not certain which is the (shorter, shortest) book: Ethan Frome,
The Pearl, or Of Mice and Men.

2. b Placement of Phrases and Clauses

Rule Place modifying phrases and clauses as close as possible

to the words that they modify.
Misplacement of phrases and clauses can create unclear and
unintentionally humorous sentences. To avoid misplacing modifiers,

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Unit 2 Usage

identify the word to be modified and place the modifying phrase or

clause as close as possible to that word, while retaining your intended
meaning.
UNCLEAR Mrs. Santos decided to support the referendum, per
suaded by the editorial. [The phrase persuaded by the
editorial appears to be modifying referendum, thereby
distorting the meaning of the sentence.]
CLEAR Mrs. Santos, persuaded by the editorial, decided to
support the referendum.
CLEAR Persuaded by the editorial, Mrs. Santos decided to
support the referendum.

Notice in the following example that improper placement of the

modifying phrase can alter the meaning of the sentence. As you
revise your sentences, check to be certain that your intended
meaning is still clear.
UNCLEAR Strolling by the lake, a family of ducks walked in
front of me. [Who was strolling by the lake?]
CLEAR Strolling by the lake, I noticed a family of ducks in
front of me. [Meaning: I was strolling by the lake
when I noticed the ducks in front of me.]
CLEAR In front of me, I noticed a family of ducks strolling
by the lake. [Meaning: The ducks were strolling by
the lake.]

Rule To avoid dangling modifiers, provide an antecedent for

every modifying phrase or clause to modify.
A dangling modifier is a modifying phrase or clause that does
not clearly or logically modify any word in the sentence; a dangling
modifier can make a sentence unclear or unintentionally humorous.
UNCLEAR Before going home, the door must be locked. [Who
is going home?]
CLEAR Before going home, you must lock the door. [The
adverb phrase before going home now modifies the
verb phrase must lock.]

138
 2.5b

Placement of Phrases

You can also correct a dangling phrase by changing the phrase

to a subordinate clause.
CLEAR Before you go home, the door must be locked.

In current usage some dangling modifiers have become accept

ed as part of idiomatic expressions. These are usually such present
and past participles as allowing for, based on, considering, concern
ing, failing, generally speaking, granting, judging, owing to, and so
forth.
Judging from the cover, the magazine is about computers.
According to available information, the scholarship committee won’t
be meeting until July.

You can determine whether an expression is acceptable even

though it may seem to be a dangling modifier by asking yourself these
questions: “Does the reader expect a word for the phrase to modify,
or is the phrase or clause common enough to be considered an idiom?
Is the meaning of the sentence clear?”

Exercise 2 Placement of Modifiers On your paper, rewrite

each of the following sentences, eliminating all misplaced or dangling
modifiers.
SAMPLE Obsessed with locating the sunken treasure, the
ocean floor was scoured. -

ANSWER Obsessed with locating the sunken treasure, the div

ers scoured the ocean floor.
1. Being newcomers to the community, the one-way streets confused the
Bryants.
2. Brad watched the parade riding his bicycle.
3. Roasted over charcoal, we particularly like corn on the cob.
4. After being sequestered in the jury room for ten hours, the need for
food was felt by the jury.
5. Having practiced the role for a month, the prospect of an audition no
longer alarmed Lucille.
6. As guests in their home, the Coopers urged us to use their station
wagon freely.

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Unit 2 Usage

7. While chatting with his former teacher recently, the subject of careers
was raised.
8. After attending college and law school for seven consecutive years, a
break in the academic routine was welcomed.
9. Watching the movie intently, the screen suddenly went blank.
10. Upon receiving the defective record, it was immediately returned to
the mail-order house.

Assignment Use of Modifiers On your paper, write sen

tences using each of the following phrases correctly.
SAMPLE through the thick fog
ANSWER The encouraging sight of the lighthouse beacon ap
peared through the thick fog.
1. made of a gritty substance 9. most obedient
2. more accurately 10. acting petulant
3. in spite of repeated warnings 11. misinterpreting their
4. examining the beaker intentions
5. at the age of eighteen 12. feigning ignorance
6. speaking in a stentorian voice 13. as outspoken
7. as miraculous 14. less productive
8. according to the theory of 15. if not sooner

— — —._ V ~ W~ ~

-WI’ 777i

Using Modifiers
You can convey a great deal of information and atmos
phere in just a few sentences by using concrete modifiers.
Write a one-paragraph description of a scene that you wit
nessed in the past week. Limit your paragraph to the number
of details you would have perceived if you had observed this

140
 2.6
Usage Notes

scene for only one minute. Make your description detailed and
interesting by using colorful phrases and clauses as modifiers.
Include at least one comparison. Check over your paragraph
to be sure that you have placed modifiers correctly.

Se e
The following pages contain an alphabetical list of words and
phrases that often present usage problems. Each entry describes
correct usage, and most entries include examples. Cross-references
help you to locate related information.

a lot, alot A lot means “a great number or amount” and is always

two words; avoid using a lot in formal usage. Alot is not a word.

a while, awhile While is a noun and can be preceded by for a or

in a to make a prepositional phrase. Awhile is an adverb; do not
use for or in before awhile.
We have been here for a while.
We have been here awhile.

accept, except Accept is a verb that means “to agree” or “to

receive.” Except is a preposition that means “leaving out” or
“but.”
We did not want to accept the expensive gift.
Beth has taken every art course offered by the school, except
the course on silk screening.

adapt, adopt Adapt means “to change or adjust” or “to make

more suitable.” Adopt means “to take or accept.”
Since he had always lived in a warm climate, it took Jeremy
several months to adapt to our cold climate.
The Macintosh family has decided to adopt a child.

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Unit 2 Usage

advice, advise Advice is a noun that means “helpful suggestion

or opinion.” Advise is a verb that means “to give or offer
counsel.”
My accountant advised me to file my income tax forms on
time. Unfortunately, I did not follow that advice.

affect, effect Affect is a verb that means “to influence.” Effect

can be a verb that means “to bring about or achieve” or a noun
that means “result.”
Because our town was not directly affected by the flood, we
could offer refuge to several families who were forced out.
The severe storm effected a change in our travel plans. [verb
meaning “brought about”]
The effects of the flood were less extreme than we had
thought. [noun meaning “results”]

ain’t Ain’t is nonstandard. Do not use it.

all ready, already All ready functions as a compound adjective

that means “entirely ready” or “prepared.” Already is an
adverb that means “before some specified time” or “previous
ly.” Do not confuse the two.
Are you all ready to begin the test?
I can’t believe that you’ve already finished that typing!

all right, alright All right means “satisfactory,” “unhurt,” “cor

rect,” or “yes, very well.” Airight is an incorrect spelling; do
not use it.
Because we were so late, we telephoned Uncle Jack to let him
know that we were all right.
AU right, who has a better suggestion?

all the farther, as far as All the farther should not be used for as
far as.
Two miles is as far as I will run today. [not all thejarther]

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 2.6

Usage Notes

all together, altogether All together means “in a group.”

Altogether means “completely” or “thoroughly.”
We bought tickets all together because no one wanted to be
responsible for choosing the seats.
They are altogether too late to be considered.

almost, most Do not confuse the adverb almost with the adjec
tive most.

Most people sleep almost eight hours.

although, though Both of these conjunctions mean “in spite of

the fact.” In conversation, though can be used as an adverb to
mean “however.” Avoid this usage in written English.
David goes to the gym to exercise, although (or though) the
track season is months away. [conjunction]
He didn’t mind going to a basketball game, though, when his
friends were going. [adverb]

among, between Use among for comparisons involving groups

of persons or things. Use between when only two items are
being considered at a time.
Only one among all the race car drivers would win.
Can you tell the difference between a jonquil and a daffodil?

amount, number Use amount with a noun that names something

that can be measured or weighed. Use number to refer to
things that can be counted.
A large amount of snow fell last night.
A large number of snowstorms are expected next winter.

and/or And/or means “either and or or.” It is confusing and

should be avoided.

anxious, eager Both words can mean “strongly desirous,” but

you should use anxious to suggest concern or worry.
Abigail was anxious to get to work before the storm broke.

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Unit 2 Usage

any more, anymore These terms are not interchangeable. The

phrase any more describes quantity; any is an adverb modifying
the adjective more. Anymore is an adverb meaning “at present”
or “from now on.”
Is there any more traffic on the bridge than there is in the
tunnel?
I don’t drive to work anymore.

anywhere, everywhere, nowhere Do not use in a plural

form: anywheres, everywheres, nowheres.

appraise, apprise Appraise means “to evaluate”; apprise means

“to inform.”
Having appraised the old desk, the antique dealer apprised its
owner that it was worth one thousand dollars.

apt, liable, likely In informal usage, these words are often used
interchangeably. In formal usage, only apt and likely are
interchangeable, meaning “tending to” or “inclined to be.” Use
liable to suggest the probability of a harmful, unfortunate, or
negative event or to show exposure to legal action.
Robert is apt to be unpleasant when he first awakens in the
morning.
Mark is liable to strain a muscle during the game if he doesn’t
start practicing more regularly.
Barbara was liable for damages when her daughter accidental
ly knocked over a carton of glassware in the department store.

as, like In formal usage, like is most often used as a preposition to

introduce a prepositional phrase. As is most often used as a
conjunction to introduce a subordinate clause.
Margot thinks like her father. [prepositional phrase]
Margot thinks as her father does. [subordinate clause]
In informal usage, like is sometimes used as a conjunction.
Avoid using like as a conjunction in formal usage in place of as,
as if, or as though.

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 2.6

Usage Notes

AVOID The hikers felt like they had walked twenty miles.
USE The hikers felt as if they had walked twenty miles.

as far as, all the farther See all the farther, as far as.

author Do not use author as a verb. Books are written, not

authored.

bad, badly Bad is always an adjective, and badly is always an

adverb. Use bad following a linking verb.
You have a bad cold. Are you feeling bad?
The foundation badly needs repairs.

because, on account of On account of means “because of” or

“due to.” The phrase functions as a preposition and takes an
object. Do not use on account of instead of because to introduce
a subordinate clause.
The ffights to Chicago were cancelled on account of snow.
I am going to be quiet now because I have talked enough in
this meeting. [not on account of]

being as, being as how, being that Do not use these expres
sions for since or because.
Since he had broken his arm, Harvey could not help us lift the
cartons. [not Being as]
Because he couldn’t help lift the cartons, Harvey volunteered
to get us all cold juice. [not Being that]

beside, besides Beside means “next to.” Besides means “in

addition to.”
I parked the car beside oui neighbor’s truck.
Besides a truck, our neighbor owns a station wagon.

between, among See among, between.

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Unit 2 Usage

between you and me Never use the nominative case I as the

object of a preposition. Between is a preposition.
The discussion is between you and me. [not between you and I]

borrow, lend, loan A person borrows from and lends to another

person. Loan is a noun meaning “that which is lent” or “the act
of lending.” You may also use loan as a verb, but lend is
preferred.
Michael borrowed a book from Louise. [verb]
Louise lent (or loaned) Michael a book. [verb]
The loan of the book helped Michael to complete his home
work assignment. [noun]

both, either, neither When used to modify compound elements,

place both, either, and neither just before the compound
construction. The elements in the compound construction
should be parallel or similar in form.
INCORRECT Nelson intends both to study business and engi
neering.
CORRECT Nelson intends to study both business and engi
neering.

bring, take Use bring when you mean “to carry to.” Use take
when you mean “to carry away.”
Bring your swimming suit with you when you come to the
party.
Remember, take your swimming suit with you when you go to
the party.

bust, busted Do not use these words as verbs to substitute for

break or burst. The verbs bust and busted are nonstandard.
That little girl’s balloon just burst. [not busted]

can, may See “Modals,” page 99.

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 2.6

Usage Notes

cannot (can’t) help but In standard English, use cannot (can’t)

help followed by a gerund.
Madeline can’t help wishing that her brother could attend her
graduation. [not can’t help but wish]

can’t hardly, can’t scarcely Avoid these terms; they are

double negatives.
That insect is so tiny that I can hardly see it without a
magnifying glass. [not can’t hardly]

compare to, compare with Use compare to when pointing out

similarities; use compare with when pointing out similarities and
differences.
In that metaphor the bright yellow flowers are compared to
sunshine.
Compared with a tornado, this is a minor windstorm.

consensus of opinion Because consensus means “group or

collective opinion,” this phrase is redundant. Use only the word
consensus.

credible, reditable, credulous Credible means “believable”

or “worthy 6f belief.” Creditable means “worthy of commenda
tion.” Credulous applies always to people and means “willing to
believe” or “gullible.”
It was a credible story; we did not need to force ourselves to
become involved in the plot.
The movie director did a creditable job; the movie won three
awards.
Rick is a credulous young man; he thought that the science
fiction about robots running the Pentagon was true.

data is, data are Data is the plural form of the Latin datum. In
formal English it should be followed by a plural verb. In
informal English a singular verb may be used.

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Unit 2 Usage

differ from, differ with Things (or persons) differ from each
other if they are physically dissimilar. When persons differ with
each other, they are in disagreement.
Children differ from adults.
I differ with Hank about the need for a new stadium.

different from, different than Use different from. Use the

idiom different than only to introduce a subordinate clause.
My ideas are different from hers. [not different than]
My ideas are different than hers are.

disinterested, uninterested Disinterested implies a lack of

self-interest; it is synonymous with unbiased or impartial.
Uninterested implies a lack of any interest.
Although I am disinterested in which party wins the court
case, I am not uninterested in the principles of law that are
being challenged by the case.

double negative A double negative is the use of two negatives

where one is sufficient. Avoid using not or contractions with -n’t
with words such as no, none, never, and nothing. (See also can’t
hardly, can’t scarcely.)
Sometimes I feel that I don’t have any friends.

double subject Do not use a noun and a pronoun together as a

single subject.
INCORRECT My friend she helped rue with the dishes.

CORRECT My friend helped me with the dishes.

CORRECT She helped me with the dishes.

each and every Each and every is redundant. Use either each or
every.

eager, anxious See anxious, eager.

148
 2.6

Usage Notes

effect, affect See affect, effect.

e.g., i.e. E.g. stands for the Latin words exempli gratia, meaning
roughly “an example for free.” E.g. means “for example” in
English. I.e. stands for the Latin words id est, meaning “that
is,” and should be used to cite an equivalent. Use both
sparingly.

either, both, neither See both, either, neither.

eminent, imminent Eminent means “prominent” or “outstand

ing in some way.” Imminent means “about to occur.”
We were fortunate that the eminent historian agreed to visit
our school.
The heavy, dark clouds indicated that a storm was imminent.

et al. This is a Latin abbreviation for et alii and means “and

others” (persons, not things). It is used most often in footnotes
to refer to other members of a team of authors.

etc. This Latin abbreviation for etcetera means “and other things,”
“and so forth.” Avoid using etc. in formal writing; use and so
forth instead. Do not use and etc.; it is redundant.

every day, everyday Every day means “each day.” Everyday is

an adjective meaning “ordinary.”
I am supposed to check the mail every day.
Jim wore his everyday clothes to work.

every one, everyone Every one refers to each person or thing in

a group and is usually followed by of. Everyone means “every
body, every person.”
Every one of us went home after the picnic.
Everyone went home after the picnic.

everywhere, anywhere, nowhere See anywhere, everywhere,

nowhere.

149
Unit 2 Usage

except, accept See accept, except.

explicit, implicit These adjectives are antonyms. Explicit refers

to something that is directly stated. Implicit refers to something
that is not directly stated.
Patty was explicit in her description of the swearing-in
ceremonies.
Betty’s feelings about her mother were implicit in her willing
ness to help her in any way she could.

famous, noted, notorious Famous means “renowned or cele

brated.” Noted means “celebrated.” Notorious means “known
widely and regarded unfavorably.”
The famous (or noted) economist predicted that inflation
would continue.
The notorious prankster was finally caught and punished.

farther, further These two words are not interchangeable. Far

ther means “more distant in space.” Further means “more
distant in time or degree, additional.”
Bill swam farther than Tom did.
The further you investigate this story, the more confused the
facts seem to be.
Conway further discussed his ideas about pedestrian safety.

fewer, less Use fewer to refer to things that you can count
individually. Use less to refer to quantities that you cannot
count and to amounts of time, money, or distance when the
amount is a single quantity.
There were fewer requests for help this week than last week.
I have less trouble with number concepts than he does.
I have less than three dollars in my pocket.

figuratively, literally Figuratively and literally are antonyms.

An expression that uses a metaphor to represent a fact is
figurative; an expression that states a fact is literal.

150
 2.6

Usage Notes

Felix was speaking figuratively when he said, “It’s raining cats

and dogs out there.” What he meant literally is that it was
raining heavily.

first, firstly; second, secondly Use first and second, not firstly
and secondly to mean “in the first (or second) place.”
First, put the flowers into a vase. [not Firstly]

formally, formerly These two words sometimes sound alike but

have distinct spellings and meanings. Formally means “in a
formal or official manner.” Formerly means “previously” or “at
an earlier time.”
Beth spoke formally to the audience.
He formerly was a doctor.

former, latter Of two things or persons named sequentially, the

first is the former; the second is the latter.
Betsy and Peter will come to dinner tonight. The former
[Betsy] may be half an hour late, but the latter [Peter] will be
on time.

further, farther See farther, further.

good, well Good is an adjective. Well can be an adverb or a

predicate adjective meaning “satisfactory” or “in good health.”
The opposite of feeling sick is feeling well.
Fuller is a good writer.
Oliver teaches well.
Are you feeling well?

got, have Got is the past tense of the verb get. It means
“obtained.” Avoid using got with or in place of have. Also
avoid using don’t got in place of don’t have.
I have to pick up Freddy this afternoon. [not I got to]
I don’t have any other errands. [not I don’t got]

151
Unit 2 Usage

had ought, hadn’t ought Avoid using had and hadn’t with
ought. Instead, use ought, which is usually followed by the
preposition to.
Lewis ought to be ready for the concert. [not had ought]
He ought not to miss any rehearsal. [not hadn’t ought]

half a Use a half or half a(n). Do not use a half a(n).

Will drove by about a half hour ago. [not a half an hour]

hanged, hung Hanged and hung are alternative forms of the past
tense and past participle of the verb to hang. Use hanged when
referring to death by hanging. Use hung in all other cases.
The Scarlet Pinipernel was hanged at dawn.
They hung plants on the porch.

have, got See got, have.

have, of Have and of sound similar in rapid speech, but they are
different parts of speech. Have is a verb; of is a preposition. Be
careful to say and write have when completing a verb phrase,
especially after the helping verbs should, would, and could. Of
is not a verb.
We should have visited him earlier. [not should of]

hisseif, theirselves Hisseif and theirselves are both nonstandard

forms. Do not use them. Himself and themselves are the correct
forms for reflexive and intensive pronouns.

hung, hanged See hanged, hung.

i.e., e.g. See e.g., i.e.

imminent, eminent See eminent, imminent.

implicit, explicit See explicit, implicit.

152
 2.6

Usage Notes

imply, infer Imply means “to hint at” or “to suggest.” Infer
means “to reach a conclusion based on evidence or deduction.”
These words are not interchangeable.
I implied in my remarks that the council should approve the
plans to build a new school.
I inferred from the applause that followed my remarks that
the audience supported my suggestion.

in, into Use in to mean “within” and into to suggest movement

toward the inside from the outside.
Ruth walked into the store to buy supplies for the camping
trip.
While she was in the store, she found the lantern that she
wanted.

individual, person Use individual to distinguish one person from

a larger group. Do not use individual generally in place of
person.
Persons in the hospital should be treated as individuals.

ingenious, ingenuous Ingenious means “clever”; ingenuous

means “naive.”
The ingenious child was always trying to invent questions that
we couldn’t answer.
The newcomer was so ingenuous that we had to explain even
the most basic things to him.

irregardless, regardless Do not use irregardless; it is nonstan

dard. Use regardless instead.
We will call you when we arrive, regardless of the time.

its, it’s Its is a possessive pronoun; it’s is the contraction for it is.
The bear was standing on its hind legs, ready to attack.
It’s a nice day, so leave your heavy jacket at home.

153
Unit 2 Usage

judicial, judicious Judicial means “of or pertaining to a court of

law.” Judicious means “having or showing good judgment.”
The judicial proceeding was scheduled to take four days.
Jeremy’s use of money is judicious; he is able to save even
though his salary is rather small.

just exactly This phrase is redundant. Use either just or exactly.

It’s just thirty-five feet from my desk to yours.
It’s exactly thirty-five feet.

kind of, sort of In most writing do not use these colloquial

forms to mean “somewhat.” See also these kinds, this kind.
The casserole is rather tasty. [not kind of or Sort Of]

latter, former See former, latter.

lay, lie Lay is a transitive verb that means “to put or to place
something somewhere.” It always takes a direct object. Lie is
an intransitive verb that means “to be in or to assume a
reclining position.” It does not take a direct object. (See page
93 for the principal parts of these irregular verbs.)
Lay the placemats on the table before you lie down to rest.

learn, teach Do not use these words interchangeably. To learn is

“to receive knowledge” or “to acquire knowledge.” Teach
means “to give knowledge.”
Maureen will learn to play the flute quickly if you will teach
her.

leave, let Leave means “to go away” or “to abandon.” Let means
“to permit” or “to allow.”
Will you let me leave with them on the train tomorrow?

lend, borrow, loan See borrow, lend, loan.

less, fewer See fewer, less.

154
 26

Usage Notes

liable, apt, likely See apt, liable, likely.

lie, lay See lay, lie.

like, as See as, like.

likely, apt, liable See apt, liable, likely.

likewise Likewise is an adverb that means “similarly.” Do not use

it as a conjunction to mean “and” or “together with.”
Her cheerfulness, together with her intelligence, made her the
perfect candidate for the job. [not likewise]

literally, figuratively See figuratively, literally.

loan, borrow, lend See borrow, lend, loan.

many, much Use the adjective many to describe things that you
can count (pencils, people). Use the adjective much to describe
things that you cannot count (gas, truth, strength). When used
ds indefinite pronouns, much is singular and many is plural.

Many responded to our requests for volunteers.

Much was expected, but little gained.

may, can See can, may.

may, might See “Modals,” page 99.

may be, maybe In the term may be, may is an auxiliary that
indicates possibility. (See “Modals,” page 99.) The adverb
maybe means “perhaps.”
Donna may be able to attend the planning session.
Maybe Donna will attend the planning session.

more than one This phrase, although plural in meaning, takes a

singular verb.
More than one child has the flu.

155
Unit 2 Usage

most, almost See almost, most.

much, many See many, much.

myself, yourself Do not use a reflexive pronoun in place of I,

me, or you.
INCORRECT My brother and myself enjoy sightseeing to
gether.
CORRECT My brother and I enjoy sightseeing together.

neither, both, either See both, either, neither.

nohow, noway Nohow and noway are nonstandard. Avoid using

them. You can, however, use no way correctly as two words.
INCORRECT Noway can we finish on time.
CORRECT There is no way that we can finish on time.

noted, notorious, famous See famous, noted, notorious.

nothing like, nowhere near In formal English, use nothing like

to mean “not at all like”; use nowhere near to mean “not
anywhere near.”
This movie is nothing like the one that we saw last Saturday.
[formal]
The studio is nowhere near my house. [formal]
That book was nowhere near as suspenseful as I had thought it
would be. [informal]

nowhere, anywhere, everywhere See anywhere, everywhere,

nowhere.

of, have See have, of.

off, off of Of is unnecessary. Do not use off or off of in place of

from.

156
 2.6

Usage Notes

We lifted the chair off the carpet so that we could vacuum.

[not off of]
Larry got that idea from his brother. [not off]

only To avoid confusion, place only before the element that it

modifies. The placement of only can dramatically affect the
meaning of your sentence.
Only Dale gave him a watch.
Dale only gave him a watch.
Dale gave only him a watch.
Dale gave him only a watch.

on to, onto In the phrase on to, on is an adverb and to is a

preposition. Onto is a preposition that means “to a position on”
or “upon.”
When we leave Denver, we will go on to Phoenix.
He got onto the train in Denver.

outside, outside of Use outside of only when outside is a noun

and of is a preposition.
Will you wait outside the room for a minute? [not outside of]
The outside of the box has been damaged in shipping.

passed, past Passed is the past tense of the verb to pass, which
means “to move on or ahead, to proceed.” Past is an adjective
that means “no longer current,” “over,” or “before the pres
ent”; a noun that means “a time earlier than the present”; an
adverb that means “so as to go beyond”; and a preposition that
means “beyond, after.”
Jocelyn passed us without even waving. [verb]
Don’t let past events bother you now. [adjective]
Margaret likes to study the past. [noun]
Harrison drove past in a cloud of dust. [adverb]
It is past the time for the concert to begin. [preposition]

157
Unit 2 Usage

people, persons Use persons when referring to a relatively small,

specific group. Use people when referring to a large group in a
collective sense.
Ten persons (or people) were winners in the contest.
Some people who are very pessimistic always expect to fail.
[not persons]

persecute, prosecute To persecute people is to harass or other

wise mistreat them. To prosecute is to bring a court action.
The bullies persecuted the small children in the neighborhood.
The store owners prosecuted the alleged shoplifter.

person, individual See individual, person.

precede, proceed Precede means “to exist or come before in

time.” Proceed means “to go forward or onward.”
Tim and Willy proceeded with the job, wishing that Max and
Sam, who had preceded them in the use of the carpentry shop,
had sharpened the saws.

provided, providing In formal usage use provided as a conjunc

tion meaning “on the condition that” or “if.”
I will call you tomorrow provided that I don’t see you this
evening. [not providing]

raise, rise Raise is a regular transitive verb that means “to lift”; t
always takes a direct object. Rise is an irregular intransitive ve~b
that means “to move upward.” See page 93 for the principal
parts of the irregular verb rise.
Adele raised her feet from the table when her mother scowled
at her.
The moon rises early in the afternoon.

real, really Real is an adjective; really is an adverb.

It is really fortunate that you found your wallet. [not real]
That is a real surprise!

158
 2.6
Usage Notes

reason is because, reason is that Reason is because is redun

dant. Use reason is that or simply because.
INCORRECT The reason that I am late is because I missed
my bus.
CORRECT The reason that I am late is that I missed my
bus.

refer back Refer back is redundant. Use just refer.

I refer to our discussion of this morning. [not refer back]

regardless, irregardless See irregardless, regardless.

regretful, regrettable Regretful means “full of sorrow or re

gret.” Regrettable means “deserving regret or sorrow.”
Mark was regretful over the decision to close the theater.
Closing the theater was a regrettable decision.

respectfully, respectively Respectfully means “showing re

spect or esteem.” Respectively means “each in the order
indicated.”
Bob and Linda always spoke respectfully to their grandmother.
The librarian discussed the issue with Nate and Louise respec
tively.

rise, raise See raise, rise.

said, says, goes, went Said is the past tense of the verb say;
says is a present-tense form. Do not use says for said. Also, do
not use goes or went for said.
Gary called and said, “Do you have a tent for the camping
trip, or are you going to rent one?” [not says or goes]

second, secondly; first, firstly See first, firstly; second, sec

ondly.

seldom ever Seldom ever is redundant. Use only seldom.

159
Unit 2 Usage

-self, -selves The suffix -self is singular; -selves is plural. Be sure

to use the correct suffix to form a reflexive pronoun.
SINGULAR myself, yourself, himself, herself
PLURAL ourselves, yourselves, themselves

set, sit Set is a transitive verb that means “to place something.” Sit
is an intransitive verb that means “to rest in an upright
position”; sit does not take a direct object.
Sit down next to the door, please.
Set your books on the floor next to you.

slow, slowly Slow is an adjective that can be used as an adverb in

informal speech, especially in commands or for emphasis.
Slowly is an adverb; it is preferred in formal usage.
Our waiter is very slow. [predicate adjective]
He is walking slowly from table to table. [adverb]
Do you think that someone told him to walk slow? [adverb;
informal]

so, so that Both can be used to mean “in order that.” However,
use so only in informal speech or writing. So is also used as an
explanatory or superlative qualifier of adjectives and adverbs.
Tilson went early so that he would be sure to get tickets for
the nine-o’clock show. [or informally, so]
The six-year-old was so excited about the circus that she coul
not sleep.

some time, sometime, sometimes When you use two words,

some is an adjective modifying time. Sometime can be an adverb
that means “at an indefinite time,” or it can be an adjective that
means “occasional.” Sometimes is an adverb that means “occa
sionally, now and then.”
adj. noun
He needs some time to be alone.

I would like to go to Peru sometime.

160
 2.6

Usage Notes

Evan is a sometime musician.

Sometimes I like to go away by myself.

sort of, kind of See kind of, sort of.

supposed to, used to Supposed to means “expected to” or

“required to.” Used to means “accustomed to, familiar with.”
Be sure to spell supposed and used with a final -d.
You were supposed to take the children shopping with you.
[not suppose toj
They are quite used to you now. [not use to]

sure, surely Sure is an adjective meaning “certain” or “dependa

ble.” Surely is an adverb meaning “certainly, without doubt.”
Rob was sure that the dog was in the house.
The dog will surely return by morning.

take, bring See bring, take.

teach, learn See learn, teach.

than, then Use than as a conjunction in a comparison. Use then as

an adverb to show a sequence of time or events. Do not use
either one as a conjunction between two independent clauses.
The play was, in my opinion, truer to the book than the
movie was.
If we get home in time, then you may watch television.

that, which, who Use that as a relative pronoun to introduce

essential clauses (page 60) that refer to things or to collective
nouns referring to people. Because it introduces an essential
clause, do not use a comma before that.
The cat that was crying at our door has just run away again.

161
Unit 2 Usage

Use which as a relative pronoun to introduce nonessential

clauses (page 61) that refer to things or to groups of persons.
Always use a comma before which when it introduces a
nonessential clause.
This book, which is one that I received for my birthday, is
extremely interesting.
Use who or whom as a relative pronoun to introduce essential
and nonessential clauses that refer to persons. Use a comma
before who or whom when it introduces a nonessential clause.
The girl who won that prize is Cathy’s sister.
Nadia, who goes to the same school as I do, is a clerk in this
store.

that there, this here Do not use either construction. Use only
this or that.
Where do you want this chair moved? [not this here]

theirselves, hisseif See hisseif, theirselves.

then, than See than, then.

these kinds, this kind Use this or that to modify the singular
nouns kind, sort, and type. Use these and those to modify’the
plural nouns kinds, sorts, and types. Use the singular form of
these nouns when the object of th~ preposition is singular; use
the plural form when the object of the preposition is plural.
S ng
This kind of book is easy to read.

These kinds of bo~oks are more difficult.

though, although See although, though.

till, until Both words are acceptable. Until is preferred as the first
word in a sentence. Do not use til or ‘til.
Until I have my homework finished, I cannot leave the library.

162
 2.6
Usage Notes

toward, towards Both mean “in the direction of” or “approach

ing,” but toward is preferred. Towards is the British form.

try and, try to Use try to instead of try and.

Please try to be on time. [not try and]

uninterested, disinterested See disinterested, uninterested.

used to, supposed to See supposed to, used to.

very Use very only sparingly. Overuse diminishes its effect.

way, ways Do not use ways when referring to distance.

You have only a short way to go to reach the supermarket.
[not ways]

well, good See good, well.

where . . . at Do not use at after where.

Where is that discount store located? [not Where is it at?]

which, that, who See that, which, who.

who, whom See pages 127-128.

-wise Avoid using -wise on the end of a word to mean “with

reference to” or “concerning.”
AVOID Weatherwise, it is a pleasant week.
USE The weather has been pleasant this week.

would have Do not use would have instead of had in clauses that
begin with if.
If he had let me know, I would have gone with him to the
hospital. [not if he would have]

yourself, myself See myself, yourself.

163
Unit Practice
e
A. The Scope of Usage (pages 87—90) On your paper, identify
each sentence as an example of Formal English, Informal English,
Nonstandard English, or Occupational language.
1. The present governor of Indiana won’t run in next year’s primary
race, but he’s interested in a higher office.
2. After Chuck finished reconciling the books, he was sure that the
debits balanced the credits in the general ledger.
3. If you’re finished reading that photo magazine, I’d like to borrow it.
4. Why doesn’t youse set in this here shade before you takes off?
5. In turbulent times a spirit of cooperation grows; at this particular
juncture, let us work together.

Correct Use of Verbs (pages 90—108) On your paper, copy

each sentence, replacing each bl~nk with the ‘correct verb or verb
phrase. Use a form of the infinitive that is given in parentheses.
6. _L all of the proposals fairly and without any personal bias. (judge)
7. Mr. Penny requests that the landscaping crew _1_. thoroughly. (trim)
8. Finally the vending machine in the lobby _L_ properly because the
worn parts have been replaced. (operate)
9. Marc used to be forgetful; he often 2 his gloves in odd places.
(leave)
10. The interviewer asked that I _L my transcript and test scores with
me. (bring)
11. By the time Tim and Laurie finish the cottage, they _L. for three
days. (paint)
12. Right now the store aisles 2 with bargain items and eager shop
pers. (crowd)
13. Having completed debate over the document, John Hancock 2 the
Declaration of Independence. (sign)
14. By next month they 2 whole sentences in German for some time,
and they will present a short dialogue. (speak)
15. Yesterday a professional storyteller dramatically ? the audience a
local legend. (tell)

164
-C Subject-Verb Agreement (pages 108—118) On your paper,
write the verb that correctly completes each sentence.
16. Mason, a fan of silent films, (have, has) ticke~s for the film festival.
17. Neither Burt nor Cathleen (were standing, was standing) close enough
to the microscope.,
18. Nobody (want, wants) the building facade to be remodeled, yet the
present structure is cracked and worn.
19. Preparing for the long voyage, the crew (cleans, clean) the deck, the
cabins, and the equipment.
20. Romeo and Juliet still (gives, give) pleasure to audiences today.
21. Gymnastics (de ds, demand) discipline and strength.
22. Either the workers or the supervisor (take, ta the night shift
occasionally.
23. Plenty of the participants (answers, a~~er) the political poll as hon
estly as possible.
24. Near the plaza and the frescoes on the old city wall, merchants
sell) their wares.
25. My aunt is one of the people who (owns wn) this florist shop.

D Correct Use of Pronouns (pages 118—133) On your paper,

rewrite each sentence, correcting all errors in the use of pronouns.
26. Him traveling by ship across the Atlantic has given him all sorts of
interesting tales to relate.
27. When the band members play well, his or her fans always cheer
appreciatively.
28. Whom do you imagine actually discovered that continent first?
29. Depend on your colleagues, Betsy and I, to help you meet your
deadline.
30. Anyone on the trail might get lost, but not if they had adequate
instructions.
31. Martin’s brothers are as likely to become veterinarians as him.”~
32. Let w~)~pecialists polish and refinish the surface of that marble monu
ment.
33. Bold headlines proclaimed it; everyone was excited by the news about
the scientific advance.

(Continue on the next page.)

165
Unit Practice (continued)

34. Your car manufacturers recommend that spark plugs be replaced pen
ddically.
35. My brother and myself will take a vacation when we finish our sum
mer jobs.

E. Correct Use of Modifiers (pages 134— 141) On your paper,

rewrite each sentence, correcting all errors in the use of modifiers.
36. Of all the county’s delegates, Gina was the younger.
37. Don’s career is as rewarding as his friends.
3& I attended an art history lecture, curious about Renaissance painting.
39. Barry has a more smooth running stride than his cousin Sid.
40. My fitness routine is as strenuous if not more strenuous than his.
41. What is the most far distance that you have hiked?
42. Cacti are more abundant in the desert than any plants.
43. After leaving a profession, finding a new career is challenging.
44. I enjoy physics more than calculus, although physics is hardest.
45. Of all the states, Wyoming was less populated in 1970.

Rewrite the following passage, correcting all errors in usage.

Sagarmatha National Park receives many adventurous visitors
yearly. In order to reach the park, everyone climb more than twenty
thousand feet. Sir Edmund Hillary, the famous climber, first sug
gested that a park is built on the summit of Mount Everest in Nepal.
With the aid of Ne~v Zealand advisers, the 480-square-mile park is
established in 1976. This park may be considered more unique than
any other park because it includes the three ~~highest mountains
in the world. Among the p~tk~s other features are 120 species of
birds; and musk deer, yaks, and snow leopards atfracting thousands
of visitors. Sherpas, who are the native people of the region, live
here and manage the park itself. The reason for selecting this
unusual site was conservation. Scarce forests has been endangered
by an increasing demand for firewood. Supporters of this parkhope
that its efforts to plant trees and to enforce conservation measures
will preserve the area.

166
Unit Tests
si
A. The Scope of Usage (pages 87—90) On your paper, identify
each sentence as an example of Formal English, Informal English,
Nonstandard English, or Occupational language.
1. “Why doesn’t you guys just clam up?” shouted someone in the crowd.
2. So many students signed up for the computer course that the school had
to buy more equipment.
3. The sea represents liberation; water imagery consistently illustrates
the dominant theme of the novel.
4. A subpoena has been served; if the witness fails to appear, the court
will issue a bench warrant.
5. This committee has devoted an inordinate amount of time to triviali
ties; let us turn our attention to more significant matters.

Correct Use of Verbs (pages 90— 108) On your paper, copy

each sentence, replacing each blank with the correct verb or verb
phrase. Use a form of the infinitive that is given in parentheses.
6. Get plenty of rest because tomorrow you _1_ in the fields. (work)
7. A glass’beaker 2_ when it fell from the laboratory shelf. (crack)
8. The workers were informed that they _L the production target
sooner than expected. (achieve)
9. Ivan .2_ unable to get to last night’s play rehearsal on time because
of the rush-hour traffic. (be)
10. The townspeople gathered quickly when the meeting bell _L_. yester
day. (ring)
11. Fortunately, we _L a makeshift shelter just before the rain started.
(construct)
12. If I ._L. in charge, I would have sent detailed instructions along with
the original plans. (be)
13. Although my brother 1 heavy cartons all morning, he is not tired
yet. (lift)
14. When Gino arrived at the information desk, a welcoming committee
L there. (wait)
15. The moderator asked that the panel i. (proceed)

(Continue on the next page.)

167
Unit Tests (continued)

C. Subject-Verb Agreement (pages 108—118) On your paper,

write the verb that correctly completes each sentence.
16. Twilight and dusk (is, ar≤) two terms associated with sunset.
17. Loretta, not they, (contritutes, cont~M~te) most to the success of the
production.
18. On weekends the children in the neighborhood (lip, likes) to watch
my brother, who is rebuilding a car engine.
19. The ailment is one of those that (resist, r~s~sts) easy diagnosis.
20. Either mangoes or papayas (arrives, ~rive) periodically at the fruit
stand.
21. On the windowsill (grow, g/ows) a variety of herbs in containers.
22. Few (decides, de~(de) at first glance; many customers need time to
compare and to test the ~roducts.
23. Of all the unusual items, bongo drums (we~, was) his favorite gift.
24. Neither Doug nor his sisters, (practices, pra~ce) every day; however,
they are all dedicated musicians.
25. Because his parents’ company (h~ have) again been relocated,
Darryl has moved twice in the past year.

Correct Use of Pronouns (pages 118-133) On your paper,

rewrite each sentence, correcting all errors in the use of pronouns.
26. Most of the village changed after architects and contruction workers
together restored them.
27. I eagerly read the letter from Lucy; at this moment she is most likely
exclaiming over the news in theirs.
28. One usually benefits when it works patiently to attain a goal.
29. Dr. Sudbury instructed we dental students with a high degree of
professionalism.
30. Donna and Suzanne went to the box office, and she purchased tickets
as—her birthday surprise for Dominic.
31. Mrs. Santos told Phyllis to remember to bring a book to read while
she waits for the plane.
32. Responsibility for scheduling rests with yourself.
33. When one does an excellent job, they deserve some recognition.
34. Its owners were amused by the loyalty of the beagle that trotted
behind Lila and I.
35. Who did Gerry’ invite to speak at the ground-breaking ceremony?

168
E Correct Use of Modifiers (pages 134— 141) On your paper,
rewrite each sentence, correcting all errors in the use of modifiers.
36. When mending fences, posts are carefully measured.
37. The view from the porch was as peaceful as the garden.
38. Incandescent light is more dependable than any form of illumination.
39. This auction is as crowded if not more crowded than the last one.
40. Maya changes a tire faster than anyone in the driver’s training class.
41. None are more braver than the members of that mountaineering club.
42. Greenland is larger than any island in the world.
43. Mr. Fiedler hurried out the revolving door rushing to an appointment.
44. Odd Facts is the most unique program on television.
45. Fortunately, Deb feels more well today than she felt yesterday.

e
Rewrite the following passage, correcting all errors in usage.
Ar your name Baxter, Bailey, Hill, or Wood? Then perhaps
your ancestors was employed as bakers or as bailiffs, or one lived
near a hill or a forest. In the past people do not always have last
names. One might have identified themse yes adequately with just a
first name. The population began to require last names as it in
creased. Although last names become fashionable in some countries,
they were not employed universally until the 1700s. In the fifteenth
century, Henry V ordered that occupations and dwellings are listed
on formal papers. Because of his order, many last names used today
be derived from jobs and surroundings. Since your members of
royalty usually inherited its names, other people eventually followed
this trend. Surnames ha~~ntinued to change, especially in the
United States, due tóii~pioneers and the immigrants whom mis
spelled or Anglicized their last nar~ies.

169
Unit 3

/ 7/ 4
— ~ ~ Ad ~

When you speak, you use pauses and vocal inflections to

help convey meaning to your listeners. When you write, you use
mechanics—capitalization, punctuation, italics, and numbers
—to convey meaning to your r~aders.

For Analysis Read the following passage from David Copper

field, and try to answer the questions about it. You may have
some difficulty, because it lacks the mechanics of capitalization
and pu.nctuation.
well ill tell you what said mr barkis praps you might be writin
to her I shall certainly write to her i rejoined ah he said slowly
turning his eyes towards me well if you was writin to her praps
youd recollect to say that barkis was willin would you that
barkis is willing i repeated innocently is that all the message
yees he said considering yees barkis is willin

1. How many speakers are there in the passage?

2. What is the first speaker’s name?
3. What is the message the first speaker wants to send?
4. How many separate quotations are there; that is, how often does
one person stop speaking and another begin?
5. How many contractions are there in the passage?

Now read the same passage with the mechanics correctly

in place.

“Well, I’ll tell you what,” said Mr. Barkis. “P’raps you
might be writin’ to her?”

170
 “1 shall certainly write to her,” I rejoined.
“Ah!” he said, slowly turning his eyes towards me. “Well!
If you was writin’ to her, p’raps you’d recollect to say that
Barkis was whIm’; would you?”
“That Barkis is willing,” I repeated, innocently. “Is that all
the message?”
“Ye—es,” he said, considering. “Ye—es. Barkis is willin’.”
Charles Dickens, David Copperfield

You can see that quotation marks, commas, dashes, and

other mechanical devices clarify and enliven this passage. By
using the rules of mechanics that you will learn about in this
unit, you can make your own writing clear and interesting.

Cal 1

Capital letters are most frequently used to indicate the begin

ning of a sentence or to show that a word is a proper noun (page 4).

3..la Capitalization in Sentences

Rule Capitalize the first word of a sentence and the first word
of a direct quotation that is a complete sentence.
Creatures that normally roam the woods at night are called noctur
nal animals.
Marcie said, “Aerial photographs of the affected region would be
extremely helpful.”

Begin the second part of an interrupted quotation with a capital

letter if it is a new sentence; otherwise use a lower-case letter.
“The bobsled team has just come around the final curve!” he an
nounced excitedly. “A new record has been set on this course.”
“That leaky pipe can be repaired,” said Mr. Hobbes, “if I replace
the worn section with a new piece.”

171
Unit 3 Mechanics

Rule Capitalize the first word of each line of a poem.

Fair daffodils, we weep to see
You haste away so soon;
As yet the early-rising sun
Has not attained his noon.
Robert Herrick, “To Daffodils”

Many modern poets do not capitalize the first word of each line
of poetry. When you copy a poem, follow the style of the poet.
beauty is a shell
from the sea
where she rules triumphant
William Carlos Williams, “Song”

.1 Proper Nouns

ule Capitalize the names and initials of people. If a last name

begins with Mc, O~ or St., capitalize the next letter as well. If a
last name begins with Mac, de, D~ Ia, le, van, or von, use
capitalization according to individual family preference.
J. O’Shea Hernando de Soto Robert La Follette

Family-Relationship Words. Capitalize a word that shows family

relationship if it is part of a particular person’s name or if it is used in
place of a particular person’s name. Usually, if a word is preceded by
a possessive pronoun (page 8), or if it is used as a general term, it is
not capitalized.
Grandfather Hosmer Aunt Jeanne Cousin Rita
Harriet told Mother that she would be late for dinner this evening.
Karen hoped that Uncle Frank would visit in September.
Her brother said that he wished he had a new car.

Personal and Official Titles. Capitalize a personal or official title

or its abbreviation when it is used as a name in direct address (page
182) or precedes a person’s name.

172
 3.lb

Proper Nouns

Capitalize the names and abbreviations of academic degrees or

honors that follow a person’s name. Capitalize the abbreviations Sr.
and Jr.
Dean Simpson Superintendent Rossi
Eleanor Brock, M.D. Governor Ralston
David Oleson, Jr. Roberta Myers, Ph.D.
Yes, Senator, the report has been delivered.
I told the senator that the report had been delivered.

Do not capitalize a title that follows or substitutes for a person’s

name unless it is the title of a head of national government. Do not
capitalize prepositions, conjunctions, and articles that are part of
titles unless they begin a sentence.
TITLE BEFORE NAME TITLE FOLLOWING NAME
Professor Fischer Walter Fischer, professor
President Wilson Woodrow Wilson, President
The President will address the nation at four o’clock this afternoon.

Gods of Mythology. Capitalize the names of gods of mythology,

but do not capitalize the word god when it refers to one of them.
Myths about the ancient Egyptian god Osiris portray the process of
cyclic renewal.

Rule Capitalize the names of particular places, such as conti

nents, countries, cities, parks, and rivers.
Bering Strait Erie Avenue Iceland Ohio
Cooper River Fairmont Park Kalamazoo Paraguay

Compass Points. Capitalize compass points that refer to specific

geographic regions. Do not capitalize compass points that simply
indicate directions or general regions.
We spent our vacation in the Southwest last fall.
They traveled west, then northwest to reach their destination.

173
 LJJlit~%4 C
•~‘ •‘r ,.

Heavenly Bodies. Capitalize the names of planets, stars, and

constellations. Do not capitalize sun and moon. Capitalize Earth
when referring to the planet, but do not capitalize earth when it is
preceded by the word the.
Andromeda Neptune Sirius Aquarius
Photographs of Earth taken from satellites in space revealed many
cloud formations above the planet’s surface.
The path of the earth around the sun is called the earth’s orbit.

Rule Capitalize the names of nationalities, peoples, and lan

guages.
Asian Melanesian Finnish
Brazilian Hopi Latin

Rule Capitalize the names of days, months, holidays, and

special events. Do not capitalize the name of a season unless it
is part of a proper noun.
Tuesday August spring
Winter Carnival Memorial Day winter

Rule Capitalize the names of historical events and periods.

Capitalize the names of awards and documents.
the Middle Ages the Treaty of Versailles
the Emancipation Proclamation the Nobel Prize

Rule Capitalize the first, the last, and all other important words
in the titles of books, newspapers, poems, television programs,
musical works, paintings, and so forth. (See also pages 190,
202.) Capitalize a conjunction, an article, or a preposition only
when it is the first or the last word in a title or when a
conjunction or a preposition has five or more letters.
“The Corn Grows Up” A Man Without a Country
“Singing in the Rain” For Whom the Bell Tolls

Rule Capitalize the names of school subjects that are lan

guages or that are followed by a course number. Capitalize
proper adjectives in the names of school subjects.

174
 3.lc
Other Capitalization
~

Latin science French literature

Biology II history American history

Rul Capitalize the names of structures and the names of

organizations, such as businesses, religions, government bod
ies, clubs, and schools. Capitalize a word such as school or club
only when it is part of a proper noun.
Abbot Hall House of Representatives
Taoism Gordon’s Bookstore
the Museum of Fine Arts The Chess Association
the Broadcasters’ Club BUT a broadcasters’ club
Essex College BUT an agricultural college

Rule Capitalize trade names. Do not capitalize a common

noun that follows a trade name.
Tree-Ripe fruit juice Lyle lamps

Rule Capitalize names of trains, ships, airplanes, rockets, and

spacecraft. (See also page 202.)
the Lake Shore Limited Viking II

3. C Other Uses of Capitalization

Rule Capitalize most proper adjectives (page 19). Use a lower

case letter for a proper adjective that is in common usage.
Queen Anne’s lace Persian cat Gordian knot
BUT oxford shoes

If you are not sure whether to capitalize a proper adjective,

consult your dictionary.
Rul Capitalize both letters in the abbreviations A.D., B.C., A.M.,
and P.M. Write A.D. before the date; write B.C. following the date.
1120 B.C. A.D. 1970 4:30 P.M.

175
Unit 3 Mechanics

Rule Capitalize both letters in the two-letter Postal Service

abbreviations of state names.
Use Postal Service abbreviations only in addresses that include
the ZIP code; do not use them in formal writing.
Minnesota MN 55411 Rhode Island RI 02915

Exercise Capitalization On your paper, rewrite each sen

tence, using capitalization correctly. Use your dictionary if you need
help.
SAMPLE the drama club meets in Massell hail at 4:30 p.m.
ANSWER The Drama Club meets in Massell Hall at 4:30 P.M.
1. cellophane, which was first made in france, was invented by jacques
edwin brandenberger, a swiss chemist.
2. “have you ever taken a train ride along the coastal route?” asked roy.
“the silver meteor passes through the southern states.”
3. i warmed my hands over the franklin stove after a long walk near mt.
katahdin, in maine.
4. this new advertising campaign for glow-ever lightbulbs is certainly
eye-catching!
5. for their research on the structure of crystals, sir william henry bragg
and his son shared the 1915 nobel prize for physics.
6. one winter the explorers meriwether lewis and william clark camped in
Oregon; fort clatsop national memorial now marks the site.
7. newton’s bookstore has everything in stock from thomas hardy’s the
mayor of casterb ridge to a futuristic novel about society on the planet
pluto.
8. mrs. weatherby’s great-niece plays the viola in the plainfield symphony
orchestra, and she will take part in a recital this sunday at 2:00 p.m.
9. would you repeat that humorous remark that the writer h. 1. mencken
made many years ago in the american mercury magazine?
10. john donne, a poet of the seventeenth century, wrote these lines in
the poem “song”:
o how feeble is man’s power,
that if good fortune fail,
cannot add another hour,
nor a lost hour recall!

176
 3.2

Punctuation

Assignment Capitalization Choose a country that you

would like to know more about. Using appropriate reference books
(pages 485—488), gather information about the country. What is the
capital city? What is the main language spoken? What are some
geographical points of interest such as lakes, rivers, and mountain
ranges? What countries border the country? What sites, buildings, or
landmarks are well known? What historical events are associated
with the country? When you have gathered several facts, write a
paragraph about the country using capitalization correctly.

. — nw,,., WA

Capital Letters
You have recently visited a historical site that has espe
cially interested you and a friend for a long time. Because
your friend was unable to make the trip, you have decided to
write a brief but detailed description of the site and its attrac
tions. The site may be real or imaginary, but be sure to
include details in your description. Describe the structures,
monuments, artifacts, or documents that you saw. Use proper
nouns when appropriate. Tell about an important event asso
ciated with the site, giving names, dates, and other important
information. Using direct quotations, summarize a brief con
versation with another visitor about what impressed each of
you at the site. When you have completed your description,
check to see that you have followed the rules of capitalization.

Punctuation marks show when to stop, when to pause, and

when to pay special attention to a particular part of a sentence. By
using punctuation correctly, you help your readers understand what
you have written.

177
Unit 3 Mechanics

Periods, Question Marks,

and Exclamation Points

The Period
Rule Use a period at the end of a declarative sentence, a mild
command; or a polite suggestion.
A rook is a bird that closely resembles a crow.
Soon the stage lights will dim, and the production will begin.
Wait here until the traffic stops.
Dorothea, would you please lower the volume of the television.

Rule Use a period after most standard abbreviations, includ

ing initials that are used as part of a person’s name or title.
Do not use periods after abbreviations for most units of weight,
units of measure, or for chemical elements. Use the abbreviation in.
for inch to show that you are not writing the preposition in.
Do not use periods when the abbreviation of a company or an
organization is in all capital letters or when you are writing Postal
Service abbreviations of state names.
USE PERIODS DO NOT USE PERIODS
Capt. Mario Venditto mm—minute
Julia S. Drake, R.N. Kr—Krypton
Dec.—December gal—gallon
Rte.—route AZ—Arizona
Co.—company FAA—Federal Aviation
Administration
Miss.—Mississippi

Do not confuse standard two-letter state abbreviations (which

require periods) with Postal Service abbreviations (which require no
periods).

USE PERIODS DO NOT USE PERIODS

Preston, Ga. [no ZIP code] Rhine, GA 31077
Cascade, Ky. [no ZIP code] Clark, KY 41011

178
 3.2a
xclamation Point

Rule When a period in an abbreviation precedes a question

mark or an exclamation point in a sentence, use both marks of
punctuation.
When is it correct to use Dr.?

Note: Avoid using abbreviations in formal writing. Spell out

words instead.

The Question Mark

Rule Use a question mark at the end of an interrogative
sentence.
Has Del applied for the summer internship?
Were those old watches appraised at the jewelry store?

Rul Use a question mark after a question that is not a

complete sentence.
The date? December 30.

Rule Use a question mark to express a doubt about what

comes before it.
Josiah Clark (1762? —1809) made furniture that is sturdy and usable
even today.

The Exclamation Point

Rule Use an exclamation point at the end of a sentence that
expresses strong feeling or a forceful command or after a strong
interjection or other exclamatory expression.
He nearly escaped!
Don’t miss the total eclipse!
Congratulations! You are the new assistant.
Wait! Never leave a campfire burning!

Exercise I End Punctuation and Abbreviations On your

paper, write each sentence and supply the correct punctuation.

179
Unit 3 Mechanics

SAMPLE Leave the premises at once

ANSWER Leave the premises at once!
1. Wait That flashlight needs new batteries
2. The postcard mailed from San Antonio, Texas, had a picture of La
Villita, a restoration of a small city
3. The architect said, “That house is the best example of the Colonial
period in this region”
4. Oh Don’t forget the symbol for iron, Fe, in the equation
5. Mrs. Knudson, will you please repeat the last statistic
6. At last, Gerald has completed his Ph D
7. Copy the list of ingredients
8. The newspaper gave a full account of the latest NATO meeting
9. Give me your answer this minute
10. A J Foyt has won numerous auto racing championships

3. Commas

Commas in Series
ule Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases,
or clauses in a series. Use a comma after each item except the
last.
Donna bought potting soil, marigold seeds, and fertilizer at the plant
store.
The campers climbed the mountain, selected a campsite, and pitched
their tents for the night.
In preparation for the play, Bert rehearsed his lines, Carla checked
the props, and Florence tested the sound system.
Do not use commas to separate items in a series if all of them
are joined by conjunctions.
Did you decide to go swimming or fishing or boating last weekend?

Do not use commas to separate pairs of nouns that are thought

of as a single item or as a unit.
Unit
For breakfast we ordered juice, cereal, bacon and eggs, and milk.

180
 3.2b

The Comma

Commas After Introductory

Expressions
Rule Use a comma to show a pause after an introductory
word or phrase.
Prepositional Phrases. Use a comma after an introductory
prepositional phrase (pages 46—47) of four or more words.
After the management seminar, the participants handed in their
reports.

Participial Phrases. Use a comma after an introductory particip

ial phrase (pages 51—52).
Wondering if she had missed her appointment, Carol raced to the
elevator.

Adverb Clauses. Use a comma after an introductory adverb

clause (pages 62—63) regardless of its length.
Before she left, Sandra watered the plants.

Interjections. Use a comma to separate yes, no, and other

interjections, such as oh and well, from the rest of the sentence.
Yes, Sheila is eligible for the athletic scholarship.
No, I will not be able to go bowling tomorrow evening.
Oh, here are some hand-lettered greeting cards for sale.
Well, the harvest next year may be more bountiful.

Modifiers. Use commas to separate two or more adjectives that

modify the same noun. Do not use commas if the adjectives form a
compound with the noun (page 4).
To determine whether to use a comma, ask yourself whether the
sentence would sound right if you reversed the adjectives or if you
put and between them. If it sounds natural, use a comma or commas.
If it does not, do not use commas. Do not use a comma between the
last adjective and the noun that it modifies.

181
Unit 3 Mechanics

NATURAL Men manages a successful, innovative business.

[comma: successful and innovative each modify busi
ness.]

NATURAL Men manages an innovative, successful business.

NATURAL They listened avidly to the first radio broadcast. [no
comma: It is the radio broadcast that is first; radio
broadcast is a compound.]
UNNATURAL They listened avidly to the radio first broadcast.
UNNATURAL They listened avidly to the first and radio broadcast.

Commas to Separate
Sentence Parts
Rule Use a comma to separate sentence parts that might
otherwise be read together in a confusing manner.
Later, former senators will gather for a formal group photograph.
Whenever possible, alternatives should be researched.

Repeated Words. Use a comma to separate most words that are

repeated.
What little food there was, was shared by all.

Rewrite sentences to avoid repeating words whenever possible.

Rule Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (pages

30—31) that joins the independent clauses of a compound
sentence (page 68).
Josie never saw a meteor shower, but she viewed the Great Meteor
Crater in Arizona.
Deliver this message immediately, and call Mr. Hutchinson before
tomorrow morning.

Rule Use a comma or a pair of commas to set off words of

direct address and parenthetical expressions within a sentence.
Frank, please do not forget the maps.
Her evaluations of the play have, after all, been positive.

182
 3.2b
The Comma

Rule Use a comma or a pair of commas to set off nonessential

appositives (page 49). Do not set off essential appositives
(pages 48—49).
Treat an a6breviated title or a degree following a name as a
nonessential appositive.
NONESSENTIAL
Karen’s brother, Steve, will meet her at the airport tonight.
[Karen has only one brother.]
Jules Verne, the author of Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the
Sea, was one of the first writers of science fiction.
Wilma Sarkin, D.D.S., will be the guest speaker this after
noon.
ESSENTIAL
My cousin Tony moved from Boston to Los Angeles fifteen
years ago. [I have more than one cousin.]
The American novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote about the
duality of human nature. [There is more than one American
novelist.]
Julie’s cat Tiny Tim purred contentedly. [Julie has more than
one cat.]

Rule Use a comma or a pair of commas to set off a nonessen

tial phrase or a nonessential clause (page 60) from the rest of the
sentence. Do not set off an essential phrase or an essential
clause (page 61).
NONESSENTIAL
The students, who found the new material difficult, met in
study groups after school. [All of the students found the new
material difficult.]
Every week I shop at the same store, where I often see people
whom I know.

ESSENTIAL
The students who found the new material difficult met in study
groups after school. [Only the students who found the new
material difficult met in study groups.]
Every week I shop at the store that is nearest to my home.

183
Unit 3 Mechanics

Rule Use commas before and after the year when it is used
with the month and the day. Do not use commas when only the
month and the year are given.
Joanne moved into her new apartment on July 7, 1983, and she
plans to stay there until she graduates from college.
Stuart visited Boston in May 1979.

Rule Use commas before and after the name of a state,

province, or country when it is used with the name of a city. Do
not use commas between a state and its ZIP code.
Arlene lives in Lincoln, Wisconsin, with her brother and sister-in-
law.
Craig carefully wrote the following address on the package: John
Saxon, 100 South Street, Waltham, MA 02154.

Rule Use a comma after the greeting, or salutation, of a

social letter and after the complimentary close of any letter.
Dear Roseann, Sincerely yours, Yours truly,

Exercise 2 Commas On your paper, rewrite the following

sentences, using commas where necessary.
SAMPLE Yes Norma does plan to play softball next year.
ANSWER Yes, Norma does plan to play softball next year.
1. Lyndon B. Johnson was a United States representative a senator and
the Vice President before he became President.
2. Sam borrowed the library book he read the first chapter and he
copied some information for his research.
3. Ms. Slade a noted historian lectured about the events leading up to
the Civil War the war itself and the Reconstruction.
4. We can try either Indonesian Chinese or Vietnamese cuisine in this
city.
5. After his death in 1792 the naval hero John Paul Jones was buried in
the chapel at the United States Naval Academy.
6. The Dobson family has purchased a new time-saving lawnmower.
7. Whatever caused it it had a disruptive effect on the whole community.

184
 3.2c
The Semicolon

8. The outcome of their experiment unfortunately was rather disappoint

ing.
9. Signing the contract in the presence of a witness the partners were
ready to begin their business venture.
10. The architect who won the prize for the best design received the
award on June 11 1975 at a small ceremony.

3. Semicolons

Semicolons are used to connect independent clauses and to

clarify meaning in sentences that contain a number of commas.

Rule Use a semicolon to connect independent clauses.

Without a Coordinating Conjunction. Use a semicolon in a
compound sentence to connect closely related independent clauses
that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction.
Many times we prepared to turn back; swift rapids nearly tipped the
canoes.

With a Conjunctive Adverb, or an Explanatory Expression. Use

a semicolon to connect independent clauses that are joined by a
conjunctive adverb (page 31) or an explanatory expression. Use a
comma after the conjunctive adverb or after the explanatory expres
sion.
The members of the diving team were excited about being in the
state finals; however, each member seemed calm when the event
began.
Hal really enjoyed his trip to Canada; in fact, he said that it was the
best trip he had ever taken.

ul Use a semicolon to clarify meaning in a sentence that

contains several commas.
Independent Clauses. Use a semicolon to clarify and separate
independent clauses that have several commas within them, even
when a coordinating conjunction is used.

185
Unit 3 Mechanics

I have studied the works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, a neighbor of

one of my ancestors; and I would also like to study the works of
Henry David Thoreau, Louisa May Alcott, and Bronson Alcott.
Items in a Series. Use semicolons to separate items in a series if
those items have internal commas. The semicolons make clear how
many items are in the series.
UNCLEAR The main characters are Walter, a talented but unrecog
nized young artist, Pamela, a dedicated art student,
Will, a famous art critic, and Harriet, a patron of the
arts. [four or seven characters?]
CLEAR The main characters are Walter, a talented but unrecog
nized young artist; Pamela, a dedicated art student;
Will, a famous art critic; and Harriet, a patron of the
arts. [four characters]

Exercise 3 Semicolons On your paper, write each sentence,

adding semicolons where they are needed. You may need to replace
commas with semicolons to make a sentence clearer.
SAMPLE She had already seen the movie therefore, she stayed
at home.
ANSWER She had already seen the movie; therefore, she
stayed at home.
1. Rhode Island is the smallest state in the country it measures forty-
eight miles north to south and thirty-seven miles east to west.
2. The poinsettia grows outdoors in southern states, but, because of its
vibrant red and green coloring, it is also a popular indoor plant during
the winter months in cold climates.
3. Neptune was the god of the sea in Roman mythology he resembled
the Greek sea god Poseidon.
4. Edgar Allan Poe published “The Raven” in 1845 as a result, the poem
brought him great recognition, and it is still read widely today.
5. Sara had been expecting an important call all afternoon therefore she
dashed to the telephone and picked up the receiver after the first ring.
6. The most valuable players on Gainesville High School’s varsity base
ball team include Greg Hillman, the catcher, Chuck Ruggeroli, the
shortstop, and Frank Fletcher, an outfielder.
7. This train stops at Riverview, Oakland, and Raymond, but it does not
stop at Marston.

186
 3.2d
The Colon

8. The view from the top of the skyscraper was unclear, however, we
could see the tugboats in the harbor as they pushed the ocean liner
out to sea.
9. Cheryl wanted to go blackberry-picking at a local farm however, when
she arrived, she found that the berries were not ripe.
10. The merchandise arrived on Friday, the last possible day the store was
able to have the sale, and, although they had little time to browse, the
customers were quite pleased.

3.2 Colons

Rule Use a colon to introduce an explanatory phrase or a

statement or a list of items that completes a sentence. The part
of a sentence before a list may contain a demonstrative word
such as these or those or an expression such as the following or
as follows.
The disappointing news was reported to the waiting crowd: the
building would have to be torn down.
New legislation will affect the following cities: Frankfort, Louisville,
and Bowling Green.
Of the marsupials, he was able to study these: kangaroos, koalas,
and opossums.

Do not use a colon to introduce a list that immediately follows a

verb or a preposition.

The graphic design includes triangles, parallelograms, and circles.

[not includes:]
What products are made in Venezuela, Bolivia, and Brazil? [not in:]

Rule Use a colon to separate two independent clauses when

the second clause explains or completes the first sentence.
I think I know why I have read that book three times: I have the
same outlook on life that the main character has.

Rul Use a colon to separate the hour and minutes in an

expression of time, the chapter and verse in a Biblical reference,

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Unit 3 Mechanics

the title and subtitle of a book, and the volume and page number
of a book or magazine reference.
3:22 P.M. Wheels and Wagons: Early Transportation
Genesis 12:2 Mountaineering Monthly 6:72

ule Use a colon after the salutation of a business letter.

Dear Mr. Statler: Dear Ms. Fortuna:
Rule Use a colon to introduce a direct quotation.
Dr. Doneski began her presentation with these words: “I feel hon
ored to be speaking to such a distinguished group.”

Exercise 4 Colons Some of the sentences that follow need

colons. On your paper, write the sentences, supplying colons where
needed. If a sentence is correct as it is, write Correct.
SAMPLE The artist bought the following supplies charcoal, an
easel, and a sketch pad.
ANSWER The artist bought the following supplies: charcoal, an
easel, and a sketch pad.
1. Marge went to the post office with an armful of materials to mail
letters, parcels, and postcards.
2. Because the sidewalks were slick after the storm, Virginia gave the
following advice to her students “Watch out for icy patches.”
3. In order to get to the gym in time for the 800 P.M. tip-off, we will
have to leave by 715 P.M.
4. John Paul Jones’s response to the British commander’s demand for
surrender is famous “I have not yet begun to fight.”
5. Mr. Perry referred to an article about geological exploration in Scien
tific American 245 2.
6. A golfer might use the following clubs woods, irons, and a putter.
7. For my course in traditions of Western literature, I read Genesis 2 15.
8. Before moving to her new home, Barbara read an informative book
entitled Florida Ponce de Leon to the Present.
9. Dear Mr. Saunders
Thank you very much for your helpful letter that suggests peo
ple to contact in the area, information to include with my application,
and possible employment opportunities in the Midwest.

188
 3.2e
Quotation Marks

10. The group arrived equipped with hoes, rakes, shovels, plant food, and
a watering can.

3.2 Quotation Marks

Rule Use quotation marks to show that you are writing the
exact words that someone said, thought, or wrote. Use quota
tion marks at both the beginning and the end of the quotation.
Do not use quotation marks around an indirect quotation: a
retelling, in the writer’s words, of what another person said, thought,
or wrote.
Eliza asked, “May I borrow this tape recorder?”
Vic said, “The opera The Magic Flute was on the radio last night,
and I really enjoyed listening to it.”
Vic said that he thoroughly enjoyed listening to The Magic Flute on
the radio last night. [indirect quotation]

Dialogue. When you are writing dialogue, begin a new para

graph and use a separate set of quotation marks each time the
speaker changes.
“Did you check the source of your information?” Dale asked.
“Of course,” replied Irene. “I always double-check informa
tion concerning a controversial subject.”

Brief Quotations. If you are writing a brief quotation that

continues for more than one paragraph, use opening quotation marks
at the beginning of each paragraph, but use end quotation marks only
at the end of the last paragraph.
“No, he had never written about Paris. Not the Paris that he
cared about. But what about the rest that he had never written? [no
quotation marks]
“What about the ranch and the silvered gray of the sage
brush, the quick, clear water in the irrigation ditches, and the heavy
green of the alfalfa.”
Ernest Hemingway, “The Snows of Kilimanjaro”

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Unit 3 Mechanics

Long Quotations. When you are copying a quotation of five or

more lines, set it off from the rest of your paper by indenting it five
spaces from the left and right margins. Single-space the quotation if
you are typing. Do not use quotation marks with a quotation that is
set off in this way.

ule Use quotation marks to set off the title of a short story,
an article, an essay, a short poem, or a song.
Use quotation marks to set off the title of any piece that forms
part of a larger work such as the following: a single television show
that is part of a series, a chapter of a book, a section of a newspaper,
or a feature in a magazine. (See also page 202.)
Miguel will recite Browning’s poem “My Last Duchess.”
Please rehearse “The Impossible Dream,” the second song in the
show.
The sixth and final episode, entitled “Today’s Environment,” was
informative.
Luke always reads the “Hints for Hikers” column in Wilderness
magazine.

Rule Use quotation marks to call attention to the special

nature of such words as nicknames used with a person’s full
name, technical terms, and odd expressions.
Colonel Edwin E. “Buzz” Aldrin, Jr., participated in the historic
moon-landing mission.
The bottom of a hydroplane is designed so that the boat “planes”
on the surface of the water.

Note: The preceding rule is for informal usage only. Avoid such
usage in formal writing if possible.

ule Use quotation marks to set off a word that defines

another word.
I use the word calculating to mean “shrewd.”
Other Punctuation with Quotation Marks. The following
rules will help you to determine where and how to use single
quotation marks, commas, periods, colons, semicolons, question

190
 3.2e
Quotation Marks

marks, and exclamation points with quotation marks.

ule Use single quotation marks around a quotation or a title
that occurs within a longer quoted passage.
“Watch the episode called ‘The Industrial Revolution’ at eight
o’clock tonight,” said Mr. Creiger.

Rule Place a comma or a period inside closing quotation

marks.
“Return one day and visit,” suggested our guide, “for I have
enjoyed showing you some of the spectacular sights this city has to
offer.”

Rule Place a semicolon or a colon outside closing quotation

marks.
Grady reported, “The dam is close to overflowing”; consequently,
safety measures were taken immediately.
Now I remember why I carefully read the article “How to Improve
Your Memory”: I didn’t want to forget any of the details.

Rule Place a question mark or an exclamation point inside the

closing quotation marks if it applies only to the material quoted.
If the entire sentence is a question or an exclamation, place the
question mark or exclamation point outside the closing quota
tion marks. If both the quotation and the sentence require a
question mark or an exclamation point, put the end mark inside
the closing quotation marks.
Loren wondered, “Did I miss the appointment?” [The quotation
itself is a question.]
Did Alicia say, “I think that I will buy a digital watch”? [The entire
sentence, not the quotation, is a question.]
How did you answer the question “What is your job experience?”
[Both the quotation and the sentence are questions.]

Exercise 5 Quotation Marks On your paper, write correctly

the sentences that need single or double quotation marks. Be sure to
use capitalization, other punctuation, and paragraphing correctly. If
a sentence needs no quotation marks, write Correct on your paper.

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Unit 3 Mechanics

SAMPLE Why did they leave asked Larry.

ANSWER “Why did they leave?” asked Larry.
1. Kenny watched the production of the episode The Eisenhower Era for
the television series News Watch.
2. Do you know the lyrics to the song Give My Regards to Broadway?
asked Mr. Rodgers.
3. The great Charlie Bird Parker was noted for playing the alto saxo
phone.
4. Grace wondered where the next exposition would be held.
5. Golf originated in Scotland Peter said in the twelfth century.
6. Marianne said to her friend Lise, We should be arriving at the most
scenic point of the park very shortly.
7. Scholars have searched for years to find the actual urn described in
John Keats’s poem Ode on a Grecian Urn.
8. How does sleet differ from hail? asked Warren. Although sleet and
hail are formed in nearly the same way, sleet occurs only in the
winter, replied Mrs. Hartwick.
9. When Lenore said, Pack these items, she gave us a helpful list for
travel in Europe.
10. The artist explained that intaglio means engraving.

3. The Apostrophe

Possessives
Rule Use an apostrophe to show possession.
Singular and Plural Nouns. Use an apostrophe and an s (‘s) to
form the possessive of a singular noun or a plural noun that does not
end in s.
the bear’s cubs the people’s choice
Keats’s poetry the sheep’s grazing land

Plural Nouns Ending in s. Use an apostrophe alone to form the

possessive of a plural noun that ends in s.
the settlers’ land the Elks’ convention
the Davises’ house the petitioners’ plea

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 3.2f
The Apostrophe

Do not add an apostrophe or ‘s to possessive personal

pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs. They already show
ownership.
The house is finally ours!
Isn’t that jacket his?

Compound Nouns. Change the last word of a compound noun

(page 4) to the possessive form.
the passer-by’s comment
the bellboys’ uniforj~s

Joint Ownership. Use the possessive form of only the last

person’s name when a thing is jointly owned. Use the possessive form
of each name when two or more people each possess separate items.
Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein’s musicals
Wallace Stevens’s and T.S. Eliot’s poetry

Expressions Ending in s. Use an apostrophe alone to form the

possessive of most expressions that end in s or the sound of s.
for goodness’ sake three years’ work

Ancient Classical Names Ending in s. Use an apostrophe alone

to form the possessive of ancient classical names that end in s.
Socrates’ dialogues Hippocrates’ oath

Contractions
Rule Use an apostrophe to replace letters or numbers that
have been left out in a contraction.
I can’t lift these barrels by myself.
They’ll be ready to leave in less than an hour.
Were the clothing styles of the ‘20s quite different?

Plural Forms
Rule Use an apostrophe and an s (‘s) to form the plural of
letters, numbers, symbols, and words that you are referring to
as words or symbols.

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Unit 3 Mechanics

Use italics (underlining) correctly in forming plurals with apos

trophes. Do not underline the ‘s.
There are three s’s in dissatisfied.
The vote received twenty-five yea’s and three nay’s.
She told him to mind his p’s and q’s.

Note: The plurals of abbreviations that do not include periods are

formed by adding )ust -s.
There are several PTAs in our school district.
BUT The PTA’s on the poster were faded. [Referring to the
letters, not to the organization.]

Although names of years are written with numerals, they also

usually function as words and should be treated as such.
My grandmother told stories about growing up in New
England in the early 1900s.
BUT The 1983’s were blurred in Chapter 2 and Chapter 17.
[Referring to the numerals, not to the year.]

Exercise 6 Apostrophes On your paper, write correctly the

sentences that need apostrophes. If a sentence needs no apostrophes,
write Correct.
SAMPLE Phylliss bike is in the repair shop.
ANSWER Phyllis’s bike is in the repair shop.
1. The mens track teams at the University of Southern California held
state championships throughout the 1960s.
2. How many ss and is are there in Mississippi?
3. Lewis and Clarks expedition to the Pacific Ocean strengthened the
claims of the United States to the northwestern territory.
4. The Gianellis collie wound his chain around the chestnut tree in their
back yard.
5. Saddle shoes reached their height of popularity during the 1950s.
6. The class vote was tied with sixteen yess and sixteen nos.

194
 3.2g
The Hyphen

7. Stephen told the other attorneys that his view of the case was the
same as theirs.
8. Stephanies science-fair project on solar energy won two prizes: a blue
ribbon and the Best of Show award.
9. The s key sticks on both Chriss and Ellens electric typewriters.
10. “Weve done it! Weve scaled the mountain!” exclaimed Ryan as we
reached the top of Pine Peak.

3.2 Hyphens, Dashes, and Ellipsis Points

The Hyphen
le Use a hyphen to divide a word at the end of a line.
Do not divide a word of one syllable, such as washed or grieve.
Do not divide any word so that one letter stands by itself.
Always divide a word between its syllables and in such a way
that the reader will not be confused about its meaning or pronuncia
tion.
INCORRECT Marsha went to the bank Friday and cash
ed her paycheck. [Cashed is a word of one syllable.]
CORRECT Marsha went to the bank Friday and
cashed her paycheck.

INCORRECT During Jan’s vacation trip, the weather was a

greeable and the accommodations were satisfactory.
[The letter a stands by itself.]
CORRECT During Jan’s vacation trip the weather was agree
able and the accomodations were satisfactory.

Prefixes and Suffixes. Divide a word with a prefix only after the
prefix. Divide a word with a suffix only before the suffix.
Paula and Frank told me that they attended an important inter
national conference last week.
The only way to open the lock is to turn the dial in a clock
wise direction.

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 Unit 3 Mechanics

Compound Words. For a compound word that is written as one

word, divide it only between the base words. Divide a hyphenated
compound word at the hyphen.
If we work quickly, we will be able to finish everything some
time in February.
He described his trip to the mountains during the storm as a hair-
raising experience.

ule Use a hyphen after the prefixes all-, ex-, and self-. Use a
hyphen to separate any prefix from a proper noun or adjective.
all-purpose Neo-Platonism BUT neophyte
ex-president pre-Alexandrian BUT preview
self-assured intra-Asian BUT intrastate

Note: Do not use a hyphen between most other prefixes and their
root words.
entitle predetermine substandard

Rule Use a hyphen after the prefix of a word that is spelled the
same as another word but has a different origin and meaning (a
homograph).
re-collect re-count re-form
recollect recount reform

Rule Use a hyphen after the prefix of a word when the last
letter of the prefix is a vowel and is the same as the first letter of
the base word.
de-escalate pre-eminent re-educate

ule Hyphenate a compound adjective when it precedes the

noun that it modifies, but not when it follows it. Do not
hyphenate a compound adjective when its first word is an
adverb that ends in -/y.

Kate admires this well-written column.

This column that Kate admires is well written.

196
 3.2g

The Dash

The moderator introduced up-to-date issues.

The issues that the moderator introduced were up to date.
A barely moving train slowed to a complete stop in order to avoid
an obstruction on the tracks.

Fractions. Hyphenate a fraction that is used as a modifier. Do

not hyphenate a fraction that is used as a noun.
MODIFIER The soup was two-thirds water.

NOUN One third of the soup was vegetables.

ule Use a hyphen to separate compound numbers from

twenty-one through ninety-nine.
forty-nine seventy-three
BUT five hundred ninety thousand

he Dash
Rule Use a dash to show an interruption in a thought or in a
statement. Use a second dash to end the interruption if the
sentence continues.
“If we can just—”; suddenly he had another idea.
Someone—I think it’s Barbara—will bring the table decorations.

Appositives and Parenthetical Expressions. Use dashes when

appositives or parenthetical expressions have internal commas.
We will need some equipment—I think that a tent, sleeping bags,
backpacks, and cooking utensils wifi do—before we can plan an
overnight camping trip.
Several colors—orange, green, and violet, for example—are made up
of combinations of other colors.

In typing, use two hyphens to represent a dash. Do not type a

single hyphen to stand for a dash.

Note: Avoid the overuse of dashes in formal writing.

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Unit 3 Mechanics

Ellipsis Points
Rule Use ellipsis points, a set of three spaced periods ( . . . ),
to indicate an omission or a pause in written or quoted material.
A little neglect may breed great mischief for want of a . . .

nail the shoe was lost; for want of a shoe the horse was lost; and for
want of a horse the rider was lost.
Benjamin Franklin, Poor Richard’s Almanac

Other Punctuation Marks. If what precedes the ellipsis points is

part of a complete sentence, use a period followed by three ellipsis
points ( . . ). If what precedes the ellipsis points is not part of a
. .

complete sentence, use only the three ellipsis points leaving a space
before the first point ( . . ). If what precedes the ellipsis points is
.

part of a complete sentence ending with a question mark or an

exclamation point, retain that mark before the three ellipsis points.

ORIGINAL PASSAGE
None of them knew the colour of the sky. Their eyes glanced
level, and were fastened upon the waves that swept toward
them. These waves were of the hue of slate, save for the tops,
which were of foaming white, and all of the men knew the
colours of the sea. The horizon narrowed and widened, and
dipped and rose, and at all times its edge was jagged with
waves that seemed thrust up in points like rocks.
Stephen Crane, “The Open Boat”

ABRIDGED PASSAGE
None of them knew the colour of the sky. Their eyes.
were fastened upon the waves. These waves were of the
. . .

hue of slate,. and all the men knew the colours of the
. .

sea. The horizon narrowed and widened, and at all ...

times its edge was jagged with waves. . .

Sentences and Paragraphs. Use a line of periods to indicate the

omission of a stanza of poetry or of an entire paragraph from written
material.

198
 32h
Parentheses

Exercise 7 Hyphens, Dashes, Ellipsis Points On your

paper, copy the following sentences. Add hyphens, dashes, and
ellipsis points where necessary.
SAMPLE Sharon likes to study pre Columbian art.
ANSWER Sharon likes to study pre-Columbian art.
J~. Muriel was obviously self conscious as she practiced her
speech.
2. Please take that package if you haven’t already done so to the post
office this afternoon.
3. Steven wrote down the beginning of the Preamble to the Constitution
of the United States: “We the People of the United States, in order to
form a more perfect Union.”
4. The grocery bill for one week amounted to forty three dollars.
5. I found Robinson Crusoe so fascinating that I read 175 pages in a
single evening one third of Defoe’s novel!
6. Joanne spent most of Saturday shopping for a new all weather coat.
7. The application form was three quarters essay questions and one
quarter statistical information.
8. Someone I think it was your brother telephoned while you were at the
meeting.
9. The rarely shown film received good reviews for its accurate portrayal
of pre Victorian life.
10. The dusty carriage slowed to a stop, and when the travel weary
passengers stepped out, they were delighted to view a many hued
rainbow.

3 Parentheses and Brackets

Parentheses
Rule Use parentheses to enclose material that is not basic to
the meaning of the sentence.
Kathleen requested information from the FEC (Federal Election
Commission) about the campaign funds of the congressional candi
dates in her district.
Senator Blake (Utah) will serve on the committee.
The cardinal (sometimes called the redbird) is the state bird of
Illinois.

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 Unit 3 Mechanics

Other Punctuation with Parentheses. Place commas, semicolons

and colons outside parentheses. Place periods outside parentheses
unless the parenthetical material is a separate sentence beginning
with a capital letter; then place the period inside the parentheses.
Place question marks and exclamation points inside the parentheses if
they are part of the parenthetical material; otherwise place them
outside the .parentheses.

Brackets
ule Use brackets to enclose explanations, or comments that
are inserted in a quotation, but that are not part of the quotation.
The tour guide said, “It [the Great Salt Lake] is four to five times as
salty as the ocean.”

Use brackets to enclose parenthetical information that is part of

the material already in parentheses.
Over a dozen oil companies are bidding for the rights to drill in the
Atlantic Ocean off the New Jersey shore. (Today’s newspaper also
contains an article on the environmental risks of off-shore drilling
[see p. 56].)

Other Punctuation with Brackets. The only punctuation marks

used with brackets are those within the bracketed material.

xercise 8 Parentheses and Brackets On your paper,

write the following sentences, using parentheses and brackets cor
rectly.
SAMPLE I recognized Chuck he was wearing his cowboy hat
the moment he walked through the door.
ANSWER I recognized Chuck (he was wearing his cowboy hat)
the moment he walked through the door.
1. Old Faithful it received its name in 1870 erupts continuously four
minutes out of every sixty-five.
2. Thomas Jefferson relied on elements of classical European architec
ture when he designed Monticello Charlottesville, Virginia.

200
 3.3a

Italics

3. Barbara Sorenson ‘72 attended law school after graduation and is now
legal advisor to the public utilities commission in Clark County.
4. The term psychology is derived from the Greek words psyche “soul”
and logos “word.”
5. The textbook described a case of ornithophobia fear of birds and
listed several other interesting studies.
6. Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote The House of the Seven Gables 1851, a
riveting tale about descendants of the Pyncheon family.
7. The pamphlet gives the following information: “The population of
Virginia City, Nevada, see photograph and caption below the most
famous ghost town in the United States, dwindled from a high of
23,000 people 1876 to the current 450 permanent residents.”
8. Our physics class was taught by a substitute Mr. DuPont had left a
complete set of instructions for a whole week.
9. The explorer’s memoirs included this account: “Several times during
our trek through the Canadian wilderness, our party was forced to
portage carry canoes.”
10. One of the biographies was about the British bacteriologist Sir Alex
ander Fleming, who was awarded the Nobel Prize 1945 for his work.

Assignment Punctuation Write a paragraph that states an

opinion that you would like your readers to accept. (See the first two
pages of Unit 8, “Persuasive Writing.”) First, write your paragraph
omitting all punctuation marks except periods. Read the paragraph as
written. Does it effectively convey what you want to say? Is it
convincing enough to influence your readers? Then rewrite the
paragraph, using additional punctuation correctly.

.3 s I c e
I

.3a Italics

In printed material, certain words and symbols are set in italic

type (slanted letters like these). In handwriting and typing, you should
underline such words and symbols according to the following rules.

201
Unit 3 Mechanics

ule Italicize (underline) the names or titles of books, book-

length poems, newspapers, magazines, periodicals, plays, mov
ies, television series, paintings, trains, ships, aircraft, and so
forth.
Italicize (underline) an article (a, an, the) that comes before a
title only if it is part of the title. (See also page 190.)
The Portrait of a Lady Paradise Lost
Casablanca Apollo 11

ule Italicize (underline) letters, numbers, symbols, and

words when you are referring to them as words or symbols.
I marked a 21 in the last column to complete the store’s inventory.
Ryan noticed that occasionally was misspelled in the caption.

ule Italicize (underline) words from other languages if those

words are not commonly used in English. Do not italicize foreign
place names or currency.
A spontaneous shout of appreciation followed the singer’s
solo, the pièce de résistance of the evening.
BUT Paula spent the day at the Musée de Louvre. This new
restaurant has a standard a la carte menu. [A la carte is
commonly used in English.]

Italicize (underline) a word or phrase that you wish to empha

size. Avoid overuse of this device.
“After hours of work,” reported the excited archaelogist, “we finally
found evidence of a structure.”

Exercise I Italics On your paper, copy the following sentences,

underlining (italicizing) wherever necessary.
SAMPLE This account describes the fate of the passenger ship
Lusitania.
ANSWER This account describes the fate of the passenger ship
Lusitania.

202
 3.3b
Numbers

1. The 1927 Warner Brothers production of The Jazz Singer, which

included a speaking role by Al Jolson, brought an end to the era of
silent films.
2. “Homogenize should be divided between the g and the e,” announced
the typist.
3. Did you read the article about the Dodgers in this morning’s Los
Angeles Times?
4. Maureen spells her surname, MacDonald, with a capital M and a
capital D: MacDonald.
5. Louis yelled “Au revoir!” to his friends as he ran to catch the airport
bus.
6. Virgil drew upon the works of the Greek poet Homer as he composed
the Aeneid, his epic on the founding of Rome.
7. Was Renoir’s Oarsman at Chatou on exhibit when you visited the
National Gallery of Art?
8. Lou methodically wrote in the $‘s next to each number on the club’s
record of annual dues that had been paid.
9. Everyone laughed at the list of faux pas described in the nineteenth-
century handbook of social etiquette.
10. Stuart has resolved to write his e’s more legibly so they will not look
like c’s.

Using Nu bers in Writing

ule Spell out numbers of one hundred or less. Spell out

numbers that are rounded to hundreds and that can be written
in two words or less.
Ferdinand Magellan’s expedition from Spain began with five
ships, yet only three of them continued the trip to the
Pacific Ocean.
Were there nearly one thousand boxes of hats delivered
yesterday?
BUT Nina collected 1250 postcards from around the world.

Note: Do not mix numerals and words when writing two or more
numbers in the same category.

203
Unit 3 Mechanics

INCORRECT Two hundred general practitioners and 350 specialists

attended the convention on May 29.
CORRECT Two hundred general practitioners and three hundred
fifty specialists attended the convention on May 29.
[Words are used to describe the numbers of people in
attendance; numerals are used in the dates.]

ule Spell out any number that begins a sentence, or rewrite

the sentence.
The word and is unnecessary in writing numbers except those
numbers between one hundred and one hundred and ten, and so
forth.
INCORRECT 106 guardrails wifi be placed along that steep incline.
CORRECT One hundred and six guardrails will be placed along
that steep incline.
CORRECT Along that steep incline, 106 guardrails will be
placed.

Ordinal numbers. Spell out ordinal numbers (first, second,

third, and so forth) in your writing. You may write the day of the
month as an ordinal number preceding the month, but the month
followed by an Arabic numeral is the preferred form.
fifth day June 8
seventh grade eighth of June

Compound numbers. Hyphenate compound numbers from

twenty-one through ninety-nine.
thirty-two eighty-six ninety-three

Spell out cardinal numbers (one, two, three, and so forth) that
occur in a compound with nouns or adjectives.
five-dollar tickets twenty-pound turkey

ule Spell out an expression of time unless it is a specific time

using A.M. or P.M. Use numerals and A.M. or P.M. in all technical
writing.

204
 3.3b
Numbers

Ruth usually leaves her apartment around eight o’clock.

BUT My computer printout was finished at 3:51 A.M.

Rule Use numerals to express dates, street numbers, room

numbers, apartment numbers, telephone numbers, page num
bers, and percentages. Spell out the word percent.
July 16, 1925 pages 56—101
122 San Gabriel Avenue 10 percent

Dates. When you write a date, do not add -st, -nd, -rd, or -th to
the numeral.
INCORRECT May 5th, 1971 October 2nd
CORRECT May 5, 1971 October 2

ercise 2 Numbers in Writing On your paper, write the

following sentences, correcting any errors in the writing of numbers.
SAMPLE The gas stove is not working in Apartment Twelve.
ANSWER The gas stove is not working in Apartment 12.

1. The human foot has 26 bones, including 7 ankle bones, 5 instep

bones, and 14 toe bones.
2. 105 members of the Tacoma chapter of the Audubon Society were
present at the meeting held on Thursday, March 3rd.
3. Marcie sold 200 bumper stickers during the campaign to raise funds
for the recreation center.
4. The Garcfas packed one hundred and three boxes before they w~re
ready to move to their house at seventy two Crescent Drive.
5. Did you know that the average watermelon is ninety three % water?
6. In 1909 Robert Peary reached the North Pole on the 6th of April; he
was the first person to make this journey.
7. We observed and took notes on the chimpanzee’s behavior for 2 hours
until the building closed at 4 o’clock.
8. Remember to bring your 2 dollar coupon when we meet for dinner at
6 o’clock.

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Unit 3 Mechanics

9. Only 10% of the two hundred and ninety seven applicants sent all of
the necessary forms to Sacramento by the April 15th deadline.
10. The article about F. Scott Fitzgerald is 5 pages long; it runs from page
87 to page 91.

Assignment I Italics Write a paragraph about one of the

three topics listed. Include in your passage as many of the following
as you reasonably can: titles, foreign words, words used emphatical
ly, letters, numbers, and symbols. Check your paragraph for correct
underlining (italicizing).
1. A trip that you have taken or would like to take
2. An exciting sports event that you recently attended
3. The works of a well-known author or a well-known musician

Assngnment 2 Numbers in Writing Find information about

one of the planets in our solar system. Your information should
answer some of the following questions:
1. What is the distance of the planet from the sun?
2. How long does it take the planet to make one revolution around the
sun?
3. What is the size of the planet?
4. Does the planet have any satellites? If so, how many does it have?

Write a short paragraph about the planet, using numbers correctly.

— — _._ , Ii., WA ~

-WI ~
Using Mechanics
You are planning to teach a continuing education course
in a subject that you know very well. You have been asked to
write a brief description of the course for a brochure that will
be mailed to members of your community. In your description

206
 3.4a
Proofreading Symbols

give your prospective students the following information:

course title, time and place, and starting and ending dates.
Then describe your own background, education, and degrees
in the subject area, including any awards or special recogni
tion that you have received. Then describe the course itself.
Highlight aspects that you think will be particularly appealing
to prospective students. Suggest books or articles to be read
as background material, and list all of the reading that will be
required for the course. As you write your description, make
sure that you correctly use mechanics: capitalization, punctua
tion, underlining (italicizing), and numbers.

a sc
3. a Proofreading Symbols

The following symbols are commonly used to identify and

correct errors in composition. Use them when you revise and
proofread your writing.

A insert something lost her walking on stilts

space bought a re balloon

~. begin new paragraph last of the heroes. In the

next century

,‘~j transpose letter or this fab~ c made a

words

J2Jdelete a mountaintop retreat

(Continue on the next page.)

207
Unit 3 Mechanics

3 close up letters I am happ y to introduce

let it stand (under consisted of a

something crossed out) percentage

capitalize the Department of

agriculture

make lower case Marlene gazed at the

ortrait.

3. Manuscript Form

Handwritten Manuscripts
Paper. Write on standard-size paper (81/2 by 10 inches or 8’/2 by
11 inches). Write on one side only.
Ink. Use black or blue ink.
Margins. Leave margins of 112 inches at the left side and 1 inch at
the right side. The left margin must be even.
Title. Write the title, if any, in the center of the top line. Skip at
least one line between the title and the first paragraph. Do not put
quotation marks around the title.
Indentation. Indent the first line of every paragraph about 1
inch.

Typewritten Manuscripts
Paper. Use standard-size white typing paper (81/2 by 11 inches).
Double space, and use only one side of the paper.
Ribbon. Use a black typewriter ribbon.

208
 34b

Manuscript Form

Margins. Leave margins of 11/2 inches at the left side and 1 inch at
the right side. The left margin must be even. On all pages except the
title page, place the first line at least 1 inch below the top of the page.
Leave a margin of 1 inch at the bottom of all pages.
Title. Center the title about 2 inches below the top of the page. Do
not put quotation marks around the title. Begin the first paragraph
four lines below the title.
Indentation. Indent the first line of every paragraph five spaces.

Labe ing and Numbering Pages

Unless your teacher gives you other instructions, write your
name, the subject, and the date (in that order) in the upper-right
corner of the first page. On every page except the first page, put the
page number in the upper-right corner. Use Arabic numerals.
If your paper consists of more than one page, attach the pages
at the upper-left corner with a staple or a paper clip.

209
Unit ractice

A. Capitalization (pages 171— 177) On your paper, rewrite each

of the following sentences, supplying the appropriate capitalization.
1. the meteor never reached earth, according to the account in science
news.
2. when uncle kenneth decided to clean and repair the old boat, all of
his nephews and nieces were willing to help him.
3. historians cite tremendous progress in commerce, science, and the arts
during the renaissance.
4. one of the most popular courses, ceramics II, is being offered again
this semester at the community center.
5. “oh, no!” exclaimed coach o’leary. “we have only three minutes
remaining on the clock.”
6. A new restaurant that will open next wednesday features polynesian
cuisine.
7. in order to reach san diego, turn southwest on the expressway and
head south for several miles.
8. the broadway limited leaves new york at 2:10 p.m., and it is scheduled
to arrive in chicago at 9:15 a.m.
9. the original bill of rights can be viewed in the national archives
building in washington, d.c.
10. send this sample copy of the williamette gazette to 125 gurney street,
wilmington, de 19899.

B Punctuation (pages 177—20 1) On your paper, rewrite each of

the following sentences, supplying the appropriate punctuation.
11. Comments about this years proposed budget appear in Congressional
News pages 60 62
12. On the large white chart Betsy please add the symbol Ni where the
element nickel is written said Mrs. Stewart
13. Speaking at a recent meeting of the EEC European Economic
Community a representative began a speech as follows The climate for
exports this quarter was generally good
14. One of the meanings of the word extract is concentration for example
plants and herbs yield flavored extracts used in cooking

210
15. Dear Aunt Loretta
Yes Im anxious to see you
I’ll arrive at 3 30 PM on Tuesday
16. Doreen wanted to see the play however she was not able to get
reasonably priced tickets
17. Kyle enjoyed reading the biographical sketch of Lawrence Yogi Berra
18. Her brother in laws performance of September Song received a good
review in Songfest 12 81
19. Dawn read three chapters Our Constitution The Supreme Court and
Political Parties in a book about government
20. The honored guests at the celebration were Dora Graham a fashion
designer Burt Chester a reporter and Evelyn DuBarry a physicist

C. Italics and Numbers in Writing (pages 20 1—207) On your

paper, rewrite each of the following sentences, underlining the words
that should be italicized and correcting all errors in the use of
numbers in writing.
21. According to the sports page of the Baltimore Sun, your favorite team
lost by 23 points.
22. On November 12th each voter will mark an x on a paper ballot.
23. Ray and Jamie will be late for the seven-thirty P.M. showing of the
classic film Mutiny on the Bounty.
24. The words For Sale were written on a sign that the owner of the
sailboat Belle Isle had attached to its mast.
25. Almost 3000 ticketholders crowded the auditorium on the 2nd day of
the concert tour.
26. On page two hundred sixty-eight of the detective novel, the modus
operandi of the clever sleuth was clearly described.
27. Were there actually four hundred twenty-two participants in the dance
marathon that was held on June 27th, 1952?
28. 25 members of the French Club will meet at thirty-seven Hillcrest
Avenue at two o’clock on Friday.
29. Gilbert and Sullivan’s musical The Mikado will be presented on April
14th and 15th.
30. Del told me to look for the office building with the 34 written over the
door; it is the only 30-story building on the block.

(Continue on the next page.)

211
Unit Practice (continued)

a °c
Rewrite the following passage, supplying the appropriate capitaliza
tion, punctuation, and italics (underlining), and correcting the use of
numbers in writing.
one of the worlds largest art collections is housed in paris
france the louvre situated on the northern bank of the river seine
has 8 miles of galleries 275,000 pieces of art are estimated to be
within the museums one hundred forty rooms the louvre noted for
its gothic and renaissance architecture was built by king philip II in
the 13th century to be used as a fortress eventually french kings
used the louvre as a palace today the museum provides space for the
following government offices an art school and museum offices when
the private art collections of kings were exhibited in 1793 the louvre
became the 1st public art museum visitors to the louvre may view
the well known painting mona lisa and the sculpture winged victory
of samothrace among the priceless artwork

212
Unit Tests
S

A. Capitalization (pages 171— 177) On your paper, rewrite each

of the following sentences, supplying the appropriate capitalization.
1. last january the drama club of murphreyvile organized an actors’
workshop.
2. please purchase a pair of sew-right embroidery scissors at nelson’s
sewing goods store.
3. arlene, a student teacher, enjoyed preparing lessons for her trigonome
try class.
4. the orders were secretly delivered to captain james d. colwell, jr.
5. has astrid returned from a year-long stay at the university in helsinki,
finland?
6. Doris asked, “where does the armadillo usually live?”
7. carl copied these lines from “the woodspurge,” by dante gabriel
rossetti:
my eyes, wide open, had the run
of some ten weeds to fix upon;
among these few, out of the sun,
the woodspurge flowered, three cups in one.

8. “one of the playwrights who intrigue me,” said brett, “is thornton
wilder, the author of our town.”
9. is that an authentic Indian arrowhead?
10. the largest planet, named for the god in roman mythology, is jupiter.

B unctuation (pages 177—20 1) On your paper, write each of

the following sentences, supplying appropriate punctuation.
11. When a glacier melts it forms the following lakes moraines and
drumlins
12. The mechanic said to the concerned car owner Don’t worry about it
well take care of it today
13. Did you watch Roosevelts Youth the first episode of the series asked
Stella
14. Don is reading Crossing the Bering Strait A Personal History his
interest is in nonfiction books

(Continue on the next page.)

213
Unit Tests (continued)

15. Robins and Juless projects for the weekend include the following to
move the sofa to the other side of the room and to address a package
to Powder Springs Ga
16. How much does that wooden rocker if it is for sale cost
17. Auguste Comte a French philosopher coined the term sociology
18. Oh dear exclaimed Dr. Peterson Bandages gauze and tongue depres
sors must be ordered immediately
19. Lets ask tonights lecturer who spoke so enthusiastically at last years
banquet if she is available to speak again next year
20. Did Brady read the following comment by the theater reviewer This is
an all star cast

C Italics and Numbers in Writing (pages 201—207) On your

paper, rewrite each of the following sentences, underlining the words
that should be italicized and correcting all errors in the use of
numbers in writing.
21. This month’s edition of Vacation Guide lists the 3 most popular resort
towns in the United States.
22. When Greg looked at the neon sign in the store window, the M
seemed to flicker.
23. 102 interested guests arrived at approximately 8:30 to view the newly
acquired objets d’art.
24. A record-breaking train run was achieved when the Jersey Arrow
reached a speed of nearly 100 miles per hour.
25. Before the rain began, Jim O’Dell worked steadily, and he was able to
harvest 15% of the wheat crop.
26. From a group of two thousand two hundred designs, the executive
advertising committee selected Claudia’s submission.
27. Gerald and Pam completed the laboratory research project at exactly
eight forty-three A.M.
28. When Loren was in the 10th grade, he attended a performance of
Bizet’s opera Carmen at the Metropolitan Opera House.
29. This new alarm system effectively gives a piercing 30 second warning.
30. Remember to include a $ when you write down the figures in the
taxable income column of the form.

214
 es
Rewrite the following passage, supplying the appropriate capitaliza
tion, punctuation, and italics (underlining), and correcting the use of
numbers in writing.
each autumn approximately 30 writers from all over the world
gather to lecture to write to exchange ideas and to view american
life where do writers from such diverse countries as ethiopia trinidad
and tobago ireland and hungary meet these novelists poets and
playwrights congegrate in iowa city iowa prominent foreign writers
are invited to the international writing program at the university of
iowa the program which was founded by paul engle and is currently
directed by hualing nieh engle began on june 9th 1967 the task of
creating an esprit de corps or a feeling of harmony among people
from so many different cultures is difficult however it is accom
plished by a well trained staff an example of this cooperative spirit is
the collaboration on translations between american and foreign writ
ers the engles were honored in 1976 when they were nominated for
a nobel peace prize by participants in the international writing
program

215
Part
Two
L ~‘r

Unit 4 Prewriting 218

Unit 5 Writing Paragraphs 242
Unit 6 Revsing 276
Unit 7 Three odes of Writing 320
Unit 8 Persuasive Writing 356
Unit 9 Writing an Essay 400
Unit 10 riting About Lterature 436
Unit 11 Writing a Researc Paper 478
Unit 12 Technical Writing 5 2
Unit 13 Writing Business Letters 586
 In your work in the future as well as in your assignments
now, you will need to present your thoughts to others in
essays, reports, and letters. To communicate your ideas clear
ly in writing, you must develop them thoughtfully and present
them in a logical order. In Part Two, you will learn and prac
tice techniques for generating, organizing, and presenting
your ideas in effective writing.
Units 4 through 6 explain the process of writing in three
steps: prewriting, writing, and revising. Units 7 and 8 provide
strategies for writing for a specific purpose: explaining, de
scribing, narrating, or persuading. Units 9 through 13 present
the special techniques required for writing essays, research
papers, technical reports, and business correspondence.

t’
4•
C_C ~e
t0 ~CO ~ tot
Unit 4

To become a good writer, you need to understand the steps

in the writing process, learning and practicing them one step at
a time. For whatever you are writing, you follow a three-step
process: prewriting, writing a draft, and revising.
Prewriting is the planning, exploration, and preparation
that you do before you write a first draft. At this stage, you
gather ideas for writing, explore them from different angles, and
finally focus them by deciding on topics and by identifying a
purpose and an audience for your writing. If you work thorough
ly at the prewriting stage, you will greatly simplify the actual
writing stage.
The following are some prewriting notes on the subject of
television.

Used for recreation, education, information

My favorite shows are old movies and documentaries.
Some children spend more time watching TV than attending
school.
Cable TV one of fastest growing areas in television industry
CATV transmits programs via cable rather than airwaves.
Most TV shows sponsored by advertisers
How is public TV supported?
TV signals transmitted by relay towers or underground wires
Satellites used in cable TV transmission. How?
Phosphor dots used in color TV
New developments: television-telephones, video disks, large
screen TV, computer hookups to TVs
How was television developed?

218
 How is television programming determined?
What kinds of jobs are available in the TV field?
How are people affected by many hours of watching television?

For Analysis Reread the prewriting notes, and follow these

directions.
1. Write two additional questions that you could ask to find out
more about television.
2. List two writing topics that come to mind when you look at these
prewriting notes about television.
3. Copy the notes that would be useful if you were planning to
write about cable television.

In following these directions, you began to practice the

process of prewriting. In this unit you will learn techniques for
prewriting. You will find ideas for writing, develop these ideas,
and focus your prewriting notes for specific assignments.

When you write, one of your first tasks is finding something to

write about. Prewriting activities will help you to discover ideas for
writing and will provide you with a rich collection of source material
for later writing assignments. Your goal at this point is simply to
record a substantial number of possible subjects in a reasonably
orderly way. You will choose a few of these subjects to develop later.

4.1 Keeping a Writer’s tebook

A good way to assemble ideas for writing is to keep a writer’s

notebook, in which you record interesting information that you have
read, seen, or heard. A writer’s notebook is similar to an artist’s

219
Unit 4 Prewriting

sketchbook. It is a personal, often spontaneous, record of ideas,

thoughts, observations, and experiences. You may record entries in
any form that makes sense to you: single words, phrases, lists,
sentences, and symbols. Each entry should contain enough informa
tion to refresh your memory when you reread it. Along with each
entry, you may want to add a question, a related idea, or a possible
subject to write about.
The following strategies and examples demonstrate some meth
ods for starting a writer’s notebook.

Strategies
1. Compile a list of your interests, activities, hobbies, talents,
and ambitions. Include notes for each entry.
EXAMPLES NOTES
Photography How is a disk camera
different from a single-lens
reflex camera?
Swimming Nervous about next week’s
meet
Debating Club Paralegal careers—
educational requirements?
First appointment of woman
to Supreme Court
How is logic learned?
Hang gliding Ms. Johnston’s hobby (Talk
to her)
Safety equipment required?
2. List or briefly record some memorable experiences. You
may include facts, feelings, causes, outcomes, or whatever
seems most important to you.
EXAMPLE NOTES
Saw volcano erupt last Changes in Earth’s
summer crust—explanations?
Feelings of awe, wonder,
fear; relate feelings to
myths about natural
phenomena

220
 4.la

Writer’s Notebook

3. Record problems or issues that interest you.

EXAMPLES NOTES
River is polluted Why aren’t antipollution laws
(again!), more strictly enforced?
Whose interests are served?
School dress code Seems reasonable; helpful
to students—explain

4. Record anything that you observe, think, or do and want to

remember.
EXAMPLES NOTES
Saw migrating birds Scientific reasons
flying in V-formation Metaphor for society?
Shook hands with Origin of custom? Dates,
governor reasons

5. Clip and save pictures, cartoons, and advertisements.

EXAMPLES NOTES
Advertisement for What kitchen appliances are
kitchen appliance really necessary?
Effect on energy consumption
Political cartoon Why is dove symbol of
peace? Other symbols for
peace
6. React to what you read. Take notes on subjects or ideas that
you would like to learn more about. Include your opinions
about what you read.
EXAMPLES NOTES
A billboard advertisement Medical reports on
for suntan lotion overexposure to sunlight
Newspaper report on What diseases have been
immunization program almost eradicated
for children through immunization?
Roosevelt had
polio—courage to live
with disability

221
Unit 4 Prewriting

Thoreau’s Walden. “Our My life is growing more

life is frittered away by complicated. How can I
detail. . Simplicity,
. simplify it?
simplicity, simplicity!”

7. Record your significant viewing and listening experiences.

Radio and television programs, movies, exhibits, perfor
mances, and everyday conversations are potential sources
of ideas for writing. Think about the ideas that you
encounter, and note your responses to those ideas.
EXAMPLES NOTES
Television documentary Common problem.
about runaways What agencies
provide shelter and
counseling?
Lecture about Picasso’s Find out about artists
life and work who may have
influenced his work.

Exercise I Prewriting: Writer’s Notebook Choose one

item from each group below. In your notebook, make a specific
entry; then make at least two notes for each entry.
SAMPLE A situation in which you were not assertive
ANSWER New record was defective. Store would not exchange
it, so I bought another copy.
Notes. What was intimidating about clerk’s manner,
words?
“Press” a record—meaning?
1. a. A hobby that, if you pursue it, could lead to a career
b. An interest that requires some scientific knowledge
c. A team sport that you play or enjoy watching
2. a. An experience that challenged you to behave maturely
b. A situation in which you declined a friend’s offer of help
c. An expedition that turned out very differently from what you had
anticipated
3. a. An issue that cannot be broached without arousing strong emotions
b. A political event of current national or international significance
c. A problem that your school handles well

222
 4.la

Writer’s Notebook

4. a. An observation of a natural phenomenon

b. A thought that occurred to you in response to an everyday experi
ence
c. A series of unlikely coincidences
5. a. A political cartoon that makes a strong point about a national issue
b. An advertisement for a product that could be harmful to health
c. A picture that indicates a sentimental attitude toward children

Exercise 2 Prewriting: Writer’s Notebook From the list

below, choose five items that interest you. Make an entry for each in
your notebook. Record any related thoughts, feelings, or ideas that
occur to you.
1. Business ethics 9. Medical careers
2. Chemical research 10. Holiday customs
3. Comedy routines 11. Pet training
4. Electronic games 12. Political campaigns
5. Food chains 13. Stage design
6. Greek mythology 14. Television broadcasting
7. Japanese art 15. Utility companies
8. Mathematics 16. Air pollution

E ercise 3 Prewriting: Writer’s otebook Make an entry

in your notebook for five of the items that follow. Give a specific
example; then record your responses, thoughts, and ideas.
SAMPLE An interview with a movie actor
ANSWER Interview with Cohn Scott. Wants to play a fish next
—how could that be staged? His kind of humor is
bizarre—what other kinds of humor are there?
1. A novel in which the main character does not conform in some way
2. A paragraph from a textbook, magazine, or newspaper
3. A conversation that you had with a child
4. A comic strip or cartoon that deals with some human weakness
5. A situation comedy that conveys a serious message
6. A concert, dance performance, or song to which you had a strong
response
7. A ceremony you have witnessed that marks a passage from one stage
of life to another

223
Unit 4 Prewriting

8. A discussion or debate in which you participated

9. A newspaper or television editorial on an issue that you consider
important
10. A comment by a political leader
11. A letter that you have received or written
12. A novel or an article that deals with some past era

b Analyzing and Interpreti g Information

Another way to find ideas for writing is to analyze and interpret

what you read, see, and hear. As you analyze and interpret, you
attempt to go beyond the words, events, and sounds in order to
understand them in a way that was not immediately obvious. From
your new understanding, you may find ideas for writing.
The following questions will help you to begin analyzing and
interpreting information. Not every question will apply to every kind
of material, and you will probably think of other questions as you
work.
1. Which statements can be proved, and which cannot?
2. Does the work seem to indicate that the author (or painter,
dancer, and so on) has a particular point of view or feeling
about an issue? What evidence in the work indicates a point
of view?
3. Is the work meant to entertain, to persuade, or to inform?
4. How do the ideas presented relate to each other and to my
own experience?
5. What are the major ideas and feelings in the work?
6. Can these ideas and feelings be expressed in another way or
through another medium?
7. Can I make a general statement based on this information?
8. What examples can I think of that use this information?
9. What predictions can I make from this information?
10. To what trends in events or current thinking does this
work point?

224
 4.lb

Using Information

For example, suppose that you read the following:

The amount of money available for federally supported student
loans will be reduced by 50 percent next year.
The maximum allowable family income for students eligible for
these loans has been lowered by 20 percent to $20,000 a year.
Many major colleges and universities will be raising their tuition
rates by at least 20 percent for the next year.

Using the list of questions to analyze these facts, you might

write the following notes.
1. Fewer students whose family income is between $20,000 and
$25,000 a year will be able to attend college.
2. Alternatives: work-study programs, other kinds of loans, de
ferred tuition-payment plans
3. Will colleges lower admission requirements because fewer stu
dents can afford to attend?

The following example is a newspaper article that lends itself to

terpretation.
Dairy farmers in this area face bleak economic prospects for
the next year. The problem, ironically, is that their cows are produc
ing too much milk. Because the demand for milk has not kept pace
with increased production, prices are down fifteen cents per hundred
pounds of milk from this time last year.
As one farmer explains, “The price of milk has gone down,
but our expenses for feed, equipment, transportation, and land
rental have gone up. If I sell off part of my herd now, I won’t be
able to replace it later when the price of milk and cows goes up.”
There is no doubt that many smaller farmers will go out of
business before the year is over, and the problem is, for the mo
ment, insolvable.

Using the list of questions to interpret the information in the

paragraph, you might write the following notes.
1. Milk prices down, but is problem really insolvable?
2. Supply and demand affect price—true in other industries?
3. If some cows are sold, fewer cows will be producing milk, and
prices will probably rise again.

225
Unit 4 Prewriting

Exercise 4 Prewriting: Using Information Read the news

paper article that follows. On a sheet of paper, analyze and interpret
the article. Write three possible writing subjects that you think of as
you work.
A recent survey of graduating students in two city high schools
revealed that students’ scores on college entrance examinations and
students’ plans for the future are determined by the particular
school that they have attended.
At Meadowbrook High School, it was found that 30 percent of
the 350 graduating students plan to attend four-year colleges, 40
percent will attend two-year colleges, 10 percent will seek vocational
training, and 20 percent will look for jobs. Students at Blue Ridge,
on the other hand, will most likely pursue vocational training (70
percent). Another 20 percent will look for jobs, while only 10
percent of the graduating class of 250 will attend college.
Scores on college entrance examinations varied significantly,
with scores of students at Meadowbrook averaging 150 points higher
than students at Blue Ridge. It is clear that this discrepancy in
scores indicates a lack of college preparatory classes at Blue Ridge.

Assignment 1 Prewriting Keep a log of your television and

movie viewing for one week. Make at least one note for each show.
At the end of the week, classify the shows (comedy, talk show,
documentary, drama, and so on) and analyze each group.

Assignment 2 Prewriting Clip several factual articles from a

newspaper or a magazine, and put them into your writer’s notebook.
Analyze each article according to the questions on page 224. Write at
least three statements about each article, based on these questions or
others that you think of. Write down one possible writing idea about
each article that develops from this preliminary analysis and interpre
tation.

ssignment 3 Prewriting Keep your writer’s notebook with

you for three days. In it, jot down interesting bits of conversation,
quotations from any materials that you read, thoughts that occur to
you, and observations about yourself, other people, or events.

226
 4.2a

Making Lists

ontinuing Assignment Prewriting Select three items.

from your writer’s notebook. One should be based on factual
information; the second should be based on a personal experience, an
observation, or an idea from your analysis and interpretation of what
you read, see, and hear; the third should be a subject about which
you would like to learn more. Write each item on a separate page in
your notebook. Later you will develop these items intp possible
writing subjects.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
~ 1. Did you accurately record information in your notebook?
i# 2. Did you analyze and interpret the information?
i.. 3. In the Continuing Assignment, did you choose one factual
item, one based on a personal experience or an idea, and one
new subject?

4. I as
In your writer’s notebook, you will accumulate an extensive ifie
of ideas for writing. Each item in your writer’s notebook is a subject
that you can develop through a process of expansion or amplification.
By making lists and by exploring your ideas from many angles, you
can expand your notes into a variety of writing subjects. Your goal is
to produce a large amount of material from which you can later select
specific topics.

Making Lists

To begin, choose a subject and write down everything that you

know or want to find out about it. You may include opinions,
hypotheses, terminology related to the subject, questions, and facts
that you have learned through research. Next, let your mind wander,
and write down any related facts, experiences, or impressions that

227
 Unit 4 Prewriting

you associate with the subject. Some of your notes will overlap, some
may be irrelevant, and some may contradict one another. Do not be
concerned at this point; just try to write down as many ideas as you
can.
Suppose, for example, that you have chosen the subject of
photography. Your list might look like the following:
‘T~’pes of cameras_-range finder, single-lens reflex, twin-lens
reflex, studio
Camera obscura invented by ancient Greeks
Zoom lens good for sports, wildlife subjects
Crime detection; police photograph scene; fingerprints
F-stop? Aperture? Depth of field?
Louis Daguerre, daguerreotype (mid-1800s)
Light meters (reflected light, incident light)
Minor White (book with his photos at library)
Photos screened for printing in newspapers, books
Color photography—when invented?
Developing film (process); darkroom, enlarger

Exercise I Prewriting: Making Lists On your paper, make

a list of at least ten notes for each of five of the following subjects.
You may consult reference books.
SAMPLE Printing
ANSWER Visited newspaper printing plant
Phototypesetting uses computers.
Chinese invented movable type in 11th century
Lithography process
T~’pe faces (roman and italic)
Incunabula—books printed before 1500
Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanac (printing and
American Revolution)
Letterpress vs. offset printing
Compositors
Word processing

228
 4.2b
Exploring a Subject

1. Driving 6. Physics
2. Ecology 7. Popular music
3. Filmmaking 8. Senior citizens
4. Freedom of the press 9. Supply and demand
5. Industry 10. Wildlife refuges

.2 Exploring Your Subject

By making lists, you have begun to explore the ramifications of

your writing ideas. Your goal now is to generate additional detailed
information in a systematic way. The following list of general
questions is designed to help you explore many aspects of your
subject. Not all of these questions will be useful for every subject.
When exploring your subject, use those questions that apply and that
will produce useful information.
1. What are the characteristics of my subject?
2. What is the history of my subject?
3. What are recent developments in my subject and trends for
the future?
4. What important people, books, and other resources are
connected with my subject?
5. What terms or definitions are related to my subject?
6. What processes are involved in my subject?
7. What comparisons can I make within my subject or be
tween my subject and another?
8. Can I develop an analogy related to my subject?
9. What contrasts or opposites are within my subject?
10. What causes and effects are involved with my subject?
11. What problems and issues are connected with my subject?
12. What are my experiences with my subject?
As you work, you may think of other questions that will help you to
explore your subject.
By using some of the preceding questions to explore the subject
of photography, you might write the following notes.

229
Unit 4 Prewriting

History: camera obscura—ancient Greeks; daguerreotype developed

1830-1840; calotype (silver chloride), 1841; wet-plate photography,
1850s; dry-plate, 1870s; roll film, 1885 (Eastman)
Processes: developing latent image on film (developer, stop bath,
fixer) to produce negative from exposed film
Comparison: similar to realistic painting—two-dimensional image
from one point of view
Analogy: Film is to a photographer what canvas is to an artist.
Cause and effect: overexposing film leads to prints with too much
light
Problems, issues: copyright laws for photographs; how does amateur
photographer sell pictures?
Personal experience: Picture album in attic includes some daguerreo
types; I’ve set up my own darkroom.

Exercise 2 Prewriting: Exploring Ideas On your paper,

explore five of the following subjects by giving the information
requested. You may consult reference books.

SAMPLE Plants: two terms; a process; two problems

ANSWER Terms: epiphytes—plants that get nutrients from air;
photochrome—a light-sensitive pigment that acts as
an enzyme in plants
Process: photosynthesis—green plants convert carbon
dioxide, water, and sunlight into glucose and oxygen
Problems: irrigating deserts to produce food; air pol
lution affects amount of sunlight available to plants
1. Pollution: two causes and two effects; an analogy; a personal experi
ence
2. Postal system: history; a reference book; a comparison
3. Advertising: two issues; an effect; two terms
4. Lasers: two characteristics; two recent developments; a process
5. Abstract painting: a contrast; a definition; two important artists
6. United Nations: history; a cause and an effect; two issues
7. Television: two future trends; two processes; two personal experiences
8. Sports: two terms; two reference books or other resources; a contrast
9. Pottery: history; a process; two definitions
10. Patriotism: two characteristics; an analogy; an effect

230
 4.2b
Exploring a Subject

Exercise 3 Prewriting: Exploring Ideas On your paper,

explore five of the following subjects. For each subject use as many of
the questions on page 229 as you find appropriate.
1. Cable television 6. Newspaper publishing
2. Comic books 7. Sports legends
3. Contemporary crafts 8. Unemployment
4. Food additives 9. Whaling
5. Popular bands 10. Higher education

Assi nment I Prewriting Imagine that you are going to

interview a famous person who lived more than a hundred years ago.
Write the person’s name; then make a list of facts and ideas about the
person and the time period in which he or she lived. Use the
questions on page 229 to develop a list of possible interview topics
and questions.

A signment 2 Prewriting Assume that you have been asked

to write a research paper for your science class. Choose two
science-related subjects, and develop them by making lists and
exploring ideas.

Assignment 3 Prewriting Develop the subject of the Federal

Reserve System, exploring at least three of the following areas:
definition, comparison, contrast, cause, effect, and problems.

Assignment 4 Prewriting Select one aspect of contemporary

society that interests you. Some possible subjects are effects of
television, business conglomerates, international finance, magazine
advertising, food processing, city management. Develop the subject
using the techniques presented in this unit.

Continuing Assignment In the Continuing Assignment on

page 227, you chose three items of interest. Develop these items by
making lists and exploring ideas. Choose exploration techniques
appropriate to each item. Save your notes.

231
Unit 4 Prewriting

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
1. In Assignment 1, did your list reflect the life an times o your
subject?
z~ 2. In Assignment 2, did you explore two scientific subjects?
3. In Assignments 3 and 4, did you fully explore your subjects?
i# 4. In the Continuing Assignment, did you develop each subject as
fully as possible?

s• I
As you develop subjects, you will accumulate a vast amount of
material for writing. However, you are not yet ready to write. First
you must focus and refine this material for use in specific writing
assignments. In focusing it, you will determine a topic for your
writing and identify your purpose and your audience.

Finding Topics
A topic is a specific aspect of a subject; it must be broad
enough to provide sufficient material for your assignment and, at the
same time, narrow enough to be appropriate for a coherent, well-
developed piece of writing. The following procedure will help you to
focus on a topic.
Procedure
1. Review your prewriting notes on a subject. Jot down topic
ideas that emerge. Consider your analyses and interpreta
tions, your lists, and the notes that you made when
exploring subjects.
2. Look for logical groupings of information. You might find
many notes on the history of a subject, on the causes and
effects involved in a particular process, or on a specific
contrast or comparison.
3. Conduct a preliminary exploration of one or more topics
that occur to you. Review your notes to find related

232
 4.3

Focusing Ideas

material. Develop the topic. Ask yourself whether you

have too little or too much information for a specific
assignment. For example, the topic “History of photogra
phy” might be too broad for a five-page research paper; a
suitable topic might be “Nineteenth-century cameras.”

Determining Your Purpose

Your purpose in writing is what you intend to accomplish with
a particular paragraph, essay, letter, or research paper. The follow
ing list gives several common purposes for writing and a topic that
would be appropriate for each.

PURPOSE TOPIC
To inform or explain New developments in photography
To entertain How I set up a darkroom by trial
and error
To describe Effects of solarization on printing
photographs
To persuade Photography contests should not
require nonwinning entrants to
relinquish rights to their photos.
To narrate How I took my best photograph

Audience
Your audience is the group of readers for whom your writing is
intended. Identifying your audience will help you to select an
appropriate topic and relevant supporting material, to choose a
purpose for your writing, and to determine what style of writing you
should use. To understand the interests of your audience, ask yourself
the following questions:
1. How much does the audience know about the topic?
2. What else might the audience want to know?
3. Might the audience have strong ideas or opinions about the
topic?
4. Would a formal or informal writing style (Unit 9) be more
effective with this audience?

233
Unit 4 Prewritin

Once you have identified your topic, your purpose, and your
audience, you may need to repeat some of the prewriting techniques
in this unit. As you work on a writing assignment, you will do
additional prewriting in the form of organizing information, making
outlines, and doing research. Each subsequent composition unit in
this book will give you further practice in prewriting for specific kinds
of writing.

Exe cise Prewriting: Focusing Ideas On your paper, an

swer the four questions that follow these prewriting notes on the
subject of glass.
Made mostly of silica (sand)
Mirror of Palomar Observatory’s Hale telescope is 200 inches in
diameter.
Sodium carbonate and silica form water glass (dissolves in water).
Pittsburgh—glass-making center of United States in 1800s
Botanical glass models at Harvard University Museum, Cambridge,
Mass.
First glass manufactured in ancient Egypt about 1500 B.C.
Stained glass, a popular craft
History: Glass-blowing invented in Phoenicia in 1st century B.C.;
Romans used window glass, 1st century ~.n.; glass-making revived
in Europe mid-l2th century; Venice—glass capital of Europe in 16th
century
Important people: Henry William Stiegel, glass factory in Pa., 1763;
Michael J. Owens invented bottle-making machine, 1903; J. H.
Lubbers, machine for blowing glass mechanically
Manufacturing processes: rolling, casting, pressing, floating
Causes and effects: flux added to silica causes it to melt at lower
temp.; boron oxide added to make heat-resistant glass
Personal experiences: cutting glass bottles to make cups and vases;
broke window accidentally and replaced pane

1. What are three possible topics suggested by these notes?

2. State a purpose for each of the three topics.
3. For what audience would each topic be appropriate?
4. Write the notes that you would use if you were writing about “How
glass is manufactured.”

234
 4.3

Focusing Ideas

Ass~gnment I Prewriting Choose a subject from your writ

er’s notebook and develop it. From your notes identify two possible
writing topics. Indicate a purpose for writing and an audience for
each topic.

Assignment 2 Prewriting Assume that you have been as

signed a five-page research paper in a science class. Review the
material that you have developed in your writer’s notebook for
Assignment 2 on page 231. Select two possible topics from your
notes. For each topic, list the relevant information that you have
collected; then list several questions that will require further re
search.

Assignment 3 Prewriting Write down an idea that occurred

to you in response to a book that you read or a movie that you saw
recently. Develop the idea; then define a topic for a three-page essay,
and identify a purpose and an audience.

ontinuing Assignment In the Continuing Assignment on

page 231, you developed three subjects. Now focus your prewriting
notes, and identify at least three possible writing topics. Indicate a
purpose and an audience for each.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
i’ 1. In Assignment 1, did you develop your subject fully enough to
find two possible writing topics?
i~ 2. In Assignment 2, did you choose topics that could be ade
quately treated in a five-page report?
i.~ 3. In Assignment 3, did you develop the idea sufficiently to
identify a topic, a purpose, and an audience?
L’ 4. In the Continuing Assignment, did you identify a purpose arid
an audience for each topic?

235
 — — —— V IiF~ WA

/ - A

Going Places: Plans for an Article

Situation: You are writing a feature article for the “Going

Places” column in the travel supplement to the Sunday news
paper. The editor has suggested that you compare travel
today with travel at the turn of the century. As you begin
prewriting, keep in mind the following information.
Writer: you as a feature writer
Audience: readers of the Sunday supplement
Topic: travel today and travel eighty years ago
Purpose: to develop and focus your ideas for an article
Directions: To develop ideas, follow these steps.
Step 1. On a separate sheet of paper, copy and fill in the
chart on the facing page. For each category, list
ideas and associations, and write down questions
of interest.
Step 2. Review your completed chart, and jot down ideas
that emerge. Group related ideas.
Step 3. Choose a specific topic that you want to use for
your article. Be sure that you include a compari
son between then (conditions eighty years ago)
and now (conditions today).
Step 4. State the purpose of your proposed article. An
swer these questions: How much will readers of
the Sunday supplement know about my topic?
What else might they want to know?
Step 5. List key ideas that you need to research. Write
down where you might find additional informa
tion about your topic.
Step 6. Write a proposed title for your article.

236
 ~A VEL TheA~ V~ No i-i’
years ~
LAWI ThAbEL
of veluc/es
Peop/e.~ ,i, vo/ve~d

Advan l~es
D13 ad,,k~es

Prob/e.ft,s or 15$ aes

~2L4e5t,ons

Se-A TF~A VEL

Types 0t vehicles
Peop/e~ invo/ve~d
4dvan~~f S
DisadVan#~e.s
c:1,s ts
Problems or Issues
Questions

AIR ~ SPAL~E TI~A V~L

Types o~ vehicles
People- ;,~ivo/ved
Advan-fa5es
t~/s advmw1~ages
C6 5#S
Problems or issues

-‘ - ‘ ~

- 237
Unit Assignments
Assignment I Choose a memorable experience that relates to
the subject of friendship. Make a list that includes facts and impres
sions related to the subject. Develop the subject further by using
whatever exploration techniques are appropriate.

Assignment Assume that you have been asked to write a

two-page essay on the necessity for promptness. Your audience is
junior high school students in your community. Develop the subject
with particular emphasis on making comparisons, discussing causes
and effects, and stating problems or issues related to the subject. Be
sure to keep your audience in mind as you develop your subject.

Assignment 3 Choose a newspaper article that interests you.

Assume that you will write a letter to the editor of the newspaper in
which the article appeared. Analyze the article, and develop your
findings by making lists and exploring the ideas. Then state a topic for
your letter, identify a purpose for writing, and describe your audi
ence.

Assignment 4 Choose a subject related to one of your school

courses. Develop and explore the subject. State two possible topics
that emerge from your work. For each, identify a purpose for writing
and an audience.

Assignment 5 Assume that you have been asked to make a

market-survey questionnaire for a product that you have seen
advertised. Develop information about the product by making lists
and exploring ideas. Make a preliminary list of ten questions that
might be included in the questionnaire.

Assignment 6 Think about an issue that is currently in the news.

Using this issue as your subject, develop ideas about it. Then focus
your notes; decide on a topic, a purpose for writing, and a possible
audience for your topic.

238
Assignment 7 Choose an annual award, prize, or medal that
interests you (Nobel Prize, Pulitzer Prize, Newbery Medal, Caldecott
Medal, Academy Award, Grammy Award, and so forth). Imagine
that you have been asked to interview a winner of that award for your
school newspaper. Prepare a list of questions to ask that person. As
you develop your list, keep in mind the readers of your school
newspaper.

Assignment 8 You are planning to write about the advantages

and disadvantages of daylight-saving time. Develop the subject with
particular emphasis on causes and effects, problems and issues, and
personal experiences related to the subject.

239
Unit Tests

A. Number your paper from 1 to 5. Next to each number, write

True if the sentence is true and False if it is false.
1. A writer’s notebook is organized by topic.
2. Analyzing and interpreting information is one part of the prewriting
process.
3. After you have identified a topic, a purpose for writing, and an
audience, you may have to do further research.
4. Your reactions to the world around you may provide writing ideas.
5. Knowledge of your audience is important in selecting a topic.

~. Number your paper from 6 to 10. Next to each number, write

the letter of the term that correctly completes each sentence. You will
use all but one of the terms.
a. focusing d. analogy
b. writer’s notebook e. topic
c. prewriting f. analyzing

6. When you ask what the author’s point of view is, you are a piece
of writing.
7. You are i your ideas for writing when you identify a topic, an
audience, and a purpose.
8. A good place to record your notes and ideas for writing is your L.
9. Finding a(n) 2 is one way to explore an idea in prewriting.
10. A(n) L is a particular aspect of a subject.

Number your paper from 11 to 15. Next to each number, write

the letter of the item that correctly answers the question.
11. Which one of the following is not a good way to expand your prewrit
ing notes?
a. Look for causes and effects in your subject.
b. Do research on the history of your subject.
c. Organize your notes.
d. List terms and definitions relevant to the subject.

240
12. Which one of the following is the least productive way to develop the
subject of education?
a. Record your own school experiences.
b. Watch a TV documentary about high school students.
c. Read a magazine article about the health of children.
d. Talk to teachers about their jobs.
13. Which one of the following is not a purpose for writing a paper about
electricity?
a. To explain how hydroelectric plants work
b. To list questions about utility companies
c. To persuade the public to conserve electrical energy
d. To explain city codes for wiring in public buildings
Which one of the following is not a good way to find ideas for writing?
a. To watch television and go to the movies
b. To record personal observations and ideas
c. To decide on a formal or an informal writing style
d. To analyze and interpret what you have read and seen
Which one of the following should you not do when you are develop
ing a subject by making a list?
a. Note words relevant to the subject whose definitions you do not
know.
b. Carefully organize your list.
c. Record hypotheses that you have about the subject.
d. Ask questions that you will answer later.

est2
Choose one of the Unit Assignments or one that your teacher
suggests. Complete the assignment and hand it in to your teacher.

241
UNIT 5

F
~Jf
_ -
,~f/
—
- —.-.- -~..
0
/

A paragraph is a group of sentences that develops an idea

in an orderly way. As you read the following paragraph, notice
its structure and organization. Note how the choice and arrange
ment of details support the idea that is stated in the first
sentence, the topic sentence.

(1) Japan was already an important manufacturing nation

when the first visitors from western Europe arrived in 1543.
(2) The European visitors observed that Japan manufactured
many more kinds of paper than were available anywhere else.
(3) For example, the Japanese had invented thin, disposable
tissue paper. (4) The Japanese also showed little interest in
European iron and steel because their own were superior. (5) In
fact, Japan had long been a manufacturer of high-quality metal
weapons. (6) A modern film has documented the remarkable
strength of a fifteenth-century Japanese sword by showing it
cut through a thick piece of metal. (7) Clearly, Japan was not a
country hungering for technological gifts from the European
visitors.

Notice that the paragraph is organized clearly. That is, each

sentence leads logically to the next. In good paragraphs, transi
tional words and phrases such as then, more important, for
example, and however help to emphasize the logical connec
tions between sentences.

242
For Analysis On your paper, answer the following questions
about the preceding paragraph.
1. What idea is stated in the first sentence?
2. What goods manufactured in Japan are mentioned to support
the idea in the first sentence?
3. What is the relationship of Sentence 3 to Sentence 2? How is
that relationship emphasized in Sentence 3?
4. Does the concluding sentence restate the idea of the first sen
tence, or does it present a final comment on that idea?

In answering questions about this paragraph, you have

been able to observe the structure and organization of all
paragraphs. In this unit you will practice organizing and writing
paragraphs.

5 r
5. Selecting and Limiting a Topic
If you are free to choose a topic, select one that you find
interesting and feel will be interesting to your audience. To write well
about a topic, you should be familiar with it or be prepared to do
research to learn about it.
Once you have a general topic, limit it so that you can cover it
fully in a paragraph. You can limit a topic by narrowing it to just one
aspect, one example or one time period. For example, you could
narrow the general topic “Buildings” to the limited topic “Protecting
buildings from earthquakes” or “A skyscraper designed by Frank
Lloyd Wright.” You could narrow the general topic “Careers” to the
limited topic “Careers for women in the eighteenth century” or “The
benefits of career counseling.”
If you need help in limiting a topic, list details about the general
topic as you think of them. For example, the following is a list of
details related to the general topic “The theater.”
1. The director selects a performer for each part in a play.
2. In a theater-in-the-round, members of the audience sit on
all sides of the stage.

243
Unit 5 Writing Paragraphs

3. Making sure that the costumes and sets are coordinated is a

task of the director.
4. In a community theater, members of a community put on
plays in their spare time.
5. The director and the playwright work together to rewrite
ineffective parts of plays.
6. Many cities have acting companies that employ professional
performers.
7. High schools often have drama clubs that put on plays.
8. Coaching the performers during rehearsals is one of the
duties of a director.
9. The director makes sure that the audience can clearly see
and hear the performers.
10. Members of the audience sit on three sides of an open
stage.

In the preceding list, Details 1, 3, 5, 8, and 9 are related because

they all explain the duties of a director. Similarly, Details 2 and 10 are
related because they describe types of stages, and Details 4, 6, and 7
are related because they concern types of acting groups. You could
use any one of the three groups of details as the basis of a limited
topic. Using the largest group would be best because it contains more
information for developing a paragraph. This choice would narrow
the general topic “The theater” to the limited topic “The duties of a
director.”

Exercise I Prewriting: Limiting Topics Write two limited

topics for each of the following general topics. If necessary, list
details to help you limit the general topic.
SAMPLE Books
ANSWER The invention of the printing press
How All the King’s Men influenced me
1. Inventions 6. Politics
2. Films 7. Friendship
3. Transportation 8. The environment
4. Science 9. Art
5. Cities 10. Sports

244
 5.lb

Topic Sentence

5. b Wri ing a Topic Sentence

A topic sentence states the main idea of a paragraph. In it you

tell the reader what information to expect in the paragraph and how
the details in the paragraph are related. The topic sentence also helps
you to focus on the main idea, to avoid adding ideas that are not
related to the topic.
An effective topic sentence is specific. It states clearly what the
details in the paragraph have in common. A topic sentence is too
general if it suggests that you will discuss more than you actually do.
A topic sentence is too narrow if it suggests that you will discuss less
than you actually do.
The following details for a paragraph about the American
painter Albert Pinkham Ryder need to be united by a topic sentence.
In contrast to the brilliant colors of his contemporaries, Ryder’s
tones were dark and somber, suitable to the gloomy moods that he
was expressing.
In his effort to express moods, Ryder applied layer upon layer of
paint.
Even though Ryder’s drawing is regarded as technically deficient, all
design elements in a Ryder picture are harmonious because they
work together to express one mood.

The following statements are suggestions for a topic sentence to

unite the preceding details.
A. Technique can be used to express mood in a painting.
B. Ryder did not demonstrate technical skill.
C. Ryder’s technique developed from his need to express certain
moods.

Sentence A is too general. The preceding details reveal how Ryder

used technique to express mood, not how artists in general use
technique to express mood. Sentence B is too narrow. The details
discuss more than Ryder’s lack of technical skill. Sentence C is an
effective topic sentence because it focuses on the same idea that the
details do: the relationship between Ryder’s technique and the
moods that he wanted to express.

245
Unit 5 Writing Paragraphs

Exercise 2 Prewriting: Topic Sentences On your paper,

write a topic sentence for each of the following groups of details.
Make sure that each topic sentence states clearly what the details
have in common.
1. a. People’s lungs supply their blood with oxygen and remove impuri
ties from the blood.
b. Impurities are removed from the blood by the kidneys.
c. Kidneys regulate the water and salt content of the blood.
d. Nutrients are supplied to the blood by the liver and intestines.
2. a. Sea pens, relatives of jellyfish, hide in the sand during the day.
b. Humans’ body temperatures drop approximately two degrees at
night.
c. During the day, deep-sea creatures move closer to the surface of
the water.
d. Many leaves and flowers open during the day and close at night.

5. c Developing the Body of a Paragraph

When you write the body, or main part, of a paragraph, present

statements that will help your audience to understand your topic. You
may also provide a concluding sentence that ties together all of your
statements.

Writing Supporting Sentences

You need to support your topic with details. Supporting
sentences provide the specific details that explain or illustrate your
topic.
The most common types of supporting sentences contain facts,
examples, and reasons. A fact is something that can be proved to be
true. Statements of fact include statistical, historical, and technical
information. For example, “Seventy percent of company employees
attended the exercise program” is a statement of fact. Some facts can
be used as examples. An example is something that is representative
of a larger group. The following statement presents an example:
“Ellie Burns was one of the workers who attended the exercise
program during the lunch hour.” A reason is presented in a

246
 5.1 c

Supporting Sentences

statement that explains or proves something. For example, this

statement provides a reason: “The on-the-job exercise program is
beneficial because it makes the employees healthier and more
productive.”
In most paragraphs, you will use more than one kind of
supporting sentence. The notes in the margin of the following
paragraph show how facts and examples can be combined in a
paragraph.

Model
Topic sentence -___~ The Mayan civilization was highly developed by
Fact I A.D. 300. The art and architecture of the Maya were
Example elaborate and formal. For example, they built large-
scale ceremonial centers consisting of pyramids
Fact topped by ornamental temples. One of these ceremo
nial centers, Copán, was also known as a center for
Fact astronomy. At Copán and other centers, priests who
studied the stars were able to make accurate astro
Example nomical calculations. Not only were they able to de
termine when an eclipse of the sun would occur, but
they could predict when the orbit of Venus would
Fact intersect the orbit of the sun. Using observations of
the sun and stars, the Maya developed a calendar.
Fact Like our calendar, it was divided into 365 days. The
Fact Maya were also the first Indians in the Americas to
develop a system of writing. It is unfortunate that
this advanced civilization ceased to develop and fell
into ruins during the ninth century.

Exercise 3 Prewriting: Supporting Sentences On your

paper, write the numbers of the five statements that provide the best
support for the following topic sentence. After each number, write
whether the statement presents a fact, an example, or a reason.
Topic sentence: The southeastern states are no longer the largest producers of
cotton in the United States.
1. Southeastern farmers now find it profitable to grow fruits and vegeta
bles as market crops.
2. Cotton is used to make many types of clothing.

247
Unit 5 Writing Paragraphs

3. Mining, lumbering, and manufacturing have developed in the south

eastern states in this century.
4. Cottonseed oil is used in many food products.
5. Cotton growing has been moving to western states.
6. Texas now produces the largest cotton crop.
7. The cotton gin, invented in 1793, speeded the separation of cotton
seed from fiber.
8. Of the old cotton states, only Mississippi is still a top producer.
9. Bales of cotton are transported across the country in trucks.
10. Most all of the cotton grown in the United States is harvested by
machines.

E ercise 4 Prewriting: Supporting Details Copy the fol

lowing three topic sentences on your paper. Under each one, list the
letters of the supporting details that develop it.
Topic sentences:
1. Many methods are used to predict the weather.
2. Some situations cause changes in our climate.
3. For more than forty years, scientists have been experimenting with
methods to increase the rainfall in certain areas.
Supporting details:
a. The eruption of volcanoes can cause cooler weather by creating
clouds of ash that block the sun’s rays.
b. Today silver iodide, which resembles table salt, is shot into clouds
to create rain.
c. Satellite pictures of storms around the world help meteorologists to
predict the weather.
d. Carbon dioxide exhaust from cars and factories encircles the earth
and traps heat, making the climate warmer.
e. In 1946 scientists shot ice crystals into clouds to produce rain.
f. To determine what the weather will be, meteorologists study data
from balloons sent into the upper atmosphere every twelve hours.
g. Sometimes modern rainmakers drop silver nitrate into clouds from
a plane.
h. Air pollution from factories heats the air and causes an increase in
precipitation in the immediate area.

248
 5.lc
Implied Topic

i. Examining weather records from past years can help scientists to

predict weather for the current year.
j. Meteorologists read data from instruments that record changes in
temperature, humidity, and air pressure.

Position of the Topic Sentence

Usually you place the topic sentence at the beginning of a
paragraph and follow it with supporting sentences. Then your reader
flows immediately what you will discuss in the paragraph. You may,
however, place the topic sentence in the middle or at the end of a
paragraph. In this way, you can build up to the topic sentence for
mphasis, for clarity, or for surprise.
In the following example, the topic sentence, which is in italic
type, appears in the middle of the paragraph.

Model
When you push against a wall, a door, or a heavy piece of
furniture, you put stress on your muscles. That stress is the basis of a
valuable and easy form of exercise, called isometric exercise. In
isometric exercise, there is little movement; all benefit comes from
exerting pressure against an immovable object. It is a valuable form
of exercise because it not only tones muscles by forcing them to
contract but also increases their strength by overloading them. It is
an easy form of exercise because it takes only a few minutes each
day and requires no special equipment.

By giving an example before presenting the topic sentence, the writer

helps the reader to understand the topic sentence.

The Implied Topic Sentence

Not every paragraph needs a topic sentence. The topic idea may
be implied rather than stated directly. If your supporting, sentences
clearly present your topic idea, you do not have to include a topic
sentence in the paragraph. A narrative paragraph that is part of a
sequence of paragraphs about the same topic frequently has the
implied topic sentence “This is what happened next.”

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The topic idea of the following paragraph is implied.

Model
In early spring the grass is light green when you look with the
wind, and dark green when you look toward the wind. In summer
the grasses take on a reddish-brown hue and by autumn they show
purple and copper tints that Contrast with the red, gray, white, and
silvery tones of tall dropseed, SWitchgrass, squirreltail, and Indian
grass.
David F. Costello, The Prairie World

The implied topic sentence of the preceding paragraph is “As

the seasons change, so do the colors of the grass.” All of the
supporting sentences work together to convey that idea.

Exercise 5 Prewriting: Topic Sentences On your paper,

write the topic sentence or implied topic sentence of each of the
following paragraphs. Write Implied after each topic sentence that is
not actually expressed.
PARAGRAPH 1
The race in 1492 was to Create the first shipping lane to Asia.
The Portuguese expeditions had always sailed east, around the
southern tip of Africa. Columbus decided to head due west, across
open ocean, a scheme that was feasible only thanks to a recent
invention—the magnetic ship’s compass. Until then ships had stayed
close to the great land masses even for the longest voyages. Like
wise, it was only after an invention of the 1940s and early 1950s, the
high-speed electronic computer, that NASA would even consider
propelling astronauts out of the earth’s orbit and toward the moon.
Tom Wolfe, “Columbus and the Moon”

PARAGRAPH 2
The air not only moves horizontally; it rises and sinks, and in
so doing, it affects the state of the sky. Descending air has the effect
of inhibiting cloud formation, while ascending air, if it rises enough,
causes clouds. Sometimes there are weak upward air motions over
large regions and, as a result, cloud layers cover the entire sky. At

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Implied Topic

other times, particularly in the summer, violent updrafts and down-

drafts accompany the formation of thunderstorms. The variable air
motions over small distances account for the turbulence experienced
by planes flying through thunderstorms.
Louis J. Battan, Fundamentals of Meteorology

PARAGRAPH 3
In the young conch, the shell is simply twisted spiral upon
spiral. Only in adulthood does the animal produce its dramatic
flared lip, and then the shell stops enlarging and continues to lay
down material in the lip area alone. Thus the older a conch gets—
biologists believe they live for about six years—the thicker and
heavier is its shell. The conch’s lopsided shell—the flaring lip devel
ops only on one side—may be a result of the lack of mantle tissue
on the other side of the conch’s body, or just a clever adaptation
that allows the conch more security, the ability to wedge itself more
easily in the sand in turbulent water.
Carrol Fleming,
“The Snail That’s Too Good for Its Own Good”

E ercise 6 Writing: Position of the Topic Sentence

Using the following topic sentence and details, write supporting
sentences about what you could have seen in a chaparral, a dense
area of shrubs and small trees. Place the topic sentence in an effective
place in the middle of the paragraph. Save your paper.
Topic sentence: When I entered the chaparral, I discovered that it was
composed of two worlds: one above and one below the branches of the
shrubs.
Supporting Details:
1. Visited the chaparral in California in the foothills around Los Angeles
2. From a distance, the chaparral looked all green.
3. The shrubs were green only on top.
4. Yellow and blue flowers only on top too
5. Dark twisted branches down to the ground
6. No plants in underbrush
7. Mice and rabbits in underbrush

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Writing a Concluding Sentence

A concluding sentence helps your reader to recall or to
understand more clearly the point of a paragraph. For example, when
you write a long paragraph containing many facts, you can remind
your reader of what the facts show by writing a concluding sentence
that restates the topic sentence or summarizes the supporting state
ments. On the other hand, you can help your reader to understand a
topic by writing a concluding sentence that offers a final comment.
That final comment may be a logical conclusion, a personal impres
sion, a question, or a recommendation for a course of action.
Sometimes a paragraph does not need a concluding sentence
because the last supporting detail ties together the ideas of the
paragraph. Paragraphs that are part of a larger composition very
often are complete without a concluding sentence.
The following paragraph has a concluding sentence in which the
writer makes a comment about the topic.
Model
In the town of St. Malo on the coast of Brittany, the French
government has begun a daring experiment to launch every French
household into the computer age. The townspeople are receiving
free computer terminals provided by the state-run telephone com
pany. The French call the idea telematique, and it is putting comput
ing power in the hands of people in their homes. The initial reason
for distributing the electronic terminals is to replace the telephone
book; therefore, the terminals are, for the moment, used just for
locating telephone numbers. In the future they can be linked to
electronic mail, computerized shopping, and a host of other compu
terized information networks.
WGBH Boston, “Les Smart Cards”
The topic sentence and the supporting sentences of the para
graph explain what has already been done by the French government.
In the concluding sentence, the writer speculates about the future.

E e cise 7 Prewriting/Writing: Concluding Sentences

On your paper, write the type of concluding sentence that is used in
the following paragraph—one that restates the topic sentence or one

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Concluding Sentence

that offers a final comment. Then write a different concluding

sentence of the type that is not used.

In the United States, billions of dollars are spent each year on

advertising. Most large companies that market their retail products
nationally advertise on television. Why is television so popular?
First, advertisers often prefer television to newspapers and maga
zines because commercials have a captive audience. Most viewers do
not leave the room or change the channel when a commercial
interrupts a program. Second, although the cost of advertising on
television is higher than it is for advertising in newspapers or maga
zines, more than a million people may watch a program, and conse
quently, the television advertiser pays less per person exposed to the
advertising. Finally, the television advertiser hopes to become iden
tffied with the program that it interrupts, thus capturing the loyalty
of the viewers of that program. For these three reasons, most na
tional advertising is done on television.

E ercise B Writing: Concluding Sentences On your

paper, write a concluding sentence that restates the topic sentence to
complete the paragraph that you wrote for Exercise 6 on page 251.

Assignment I Prewriting I Writing Choose one of the limit

ed topics that you listed for Exercise 1 on page 244. Write a topic
sentence for the limited topic, and list details that support it. Using
the topic sentence and details, write a paragraph. Place the topic
sentence at the beginning of the paragraph, and write a concluding
sentence that summarizes the paragraph.

Assi nment 2 Prewriting/Writing Choose a limited topic

from the general topic “The arts.” Write a topic sentence for the
limited topic, and list some details that support it. Using the topic
sentence and details, write a paragraph. Arrange your sentences so
that the topic sentence in the middle of the paragraph, and write a
concluding sentence that provides a final comment on your topic.

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Assignment 3 Writing From the paragraphs that you have

written for previous exercises in this section, select one with a topic
sentence. Rewrite the paragraph so that it has an implied topic
sentence. Change the wording of the sentences in the paragraph so
that the topic idea is clear even though there is no topic sentence.

Assignment Checklist
Check your paragraphs for the following points:
V 1. Did you limit your topic so that it could be covered fully in a
paragraph?
V 2. In Assignments 1 and 2, did you write a specific topic sentence
and place it in the appropriate place?
V 3. Did you write supporting sentences that fully develop the
topic?
V 4. Did you write an effective concluding sentence?
V 5. In Assignment 3, did you rewrite the supporting sentences so
that your main idea is clear to your reader?
V 6. Did you check your paragraphs for correct grammar, usage,
spelling, and punctuation?

I • 1=

To express your ideas clearly, you must write a paragraph that is

coherent. In a coherent paragraph, ideas are organized in a logical
way. Each sentence in a paragraph should lead to the next, and
transitional words and phrases should emphasize the relationship
between the sentences. All details in the supporting sentences should
relate to the topic.
When you organize the ideas in your paragraph, follow these
guidelines.

Strategies
1. Introduce your topic before discussing it at length.
2. Precede an example with a general statement about the idea
that the example illustrates.

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Chronological Order

3. Discuss a series of items in the same order that you used to

introduce them.
4. Define any obscure or technical words or ideas when you
first use them and before you move to a new idea.

If you use the preceding guidelines and the following methods

for organization, you will be able to write coherent paragraphs.

.2a Chronological Order

When you use chronological order in a paragraph, you

arrange events in the order in which they occur. Use chronological
order to tell a story, to explain a process, or to recount a historical
event. In a paragraph arranged in chronological order, the sequence
of events should be indicated by dates and time-related transitional
words or phrases such as the following: after, at first, before, in the
beginning, next, then, and when.
The writer of the following paragraph uses time-related transi
tional words to show chronological order. Those words are in italic
type.

Model
Before a bill becomes law in the United States, it must go
through a complicated process. First, the bill must be introduced to
one of the houses of Congress, either the Senate or the House of
Representatives. Then the bill is assigned to a committee that spe
cializes in bills about one specific subject, such as transportation or
education. Next, the committee studies the bill and decides whether
to recommend the bill as it is, to recommend the bill with changes,
or to stop the bill from going any further. If the bill is recommend
ed, the members of the Senate or the House of Representatives
discuss the bill and then vote on it. The bill passes if a majority of
the members vote for it. After the bill passes in one house, it must
follow the same procedure in the other house of Congress. If the
members of the two houses do not agree on the same form of the
bill, members from both houses meet in a conference committee to
work out their disagreements. Finally, the bill must be signed by the

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President. If the President does not sign it, the bill may still become
law if two-thirds of the members of both houses vote to overrule the
President. Because the process is so complicated, some bills take
months to become law.

Exercise Writing: Chronological Order On your pap~r,

write the numbers of the following supporting details in chronological
order. Then write a chronologically arranged paragraph, using the
topic sentence and at least four of the details. Include dates and at
least three transitional words or phrases. You may change the
wording of the supporting details when you write the paragraph.
Topic sentence: For most of her adult life, Frances Perkins tried to improve
working conditions in the United States.
Supporting details:
1. In 1933 became secretary of labor for President Roosevelt; first
woman cabinet member; helped to draft labor legislation and to build
the Department of Labor; held post until 1945
2. In 1910 took volunteer job as secretary of the Consumers’ League in
New York City, where she worked to eliminate bad working condi
tions in bakeries
3. Became professor at Cornell University’s School of Industrial and
Labor Relations in 1957 when she was seventy-seven
4. Appointed member of the United States Civil Service Commission by
President Truman in 1945 and held the position until 1953
5. In 1912 became director of investigation for New York state’s Factory
Investigating Commission and helped to identify employers who jeop
ardized the health of their workers
6. As member of the New York State Industrial Commission in 1918,
settled strikes and helped to pass a law reducing the work week from
fifty-four to forty-eight hours

.2 Spatial Order

When you use spatial order in a paragraph, you arrange the

details about an object or a scene according to their location in space.
To write a clear paragraph, you must choose a specific spatial order to
describe an item or a scene. The most common spatial arrangements

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Spatial Order

are bottom to top, side to side, and foreground to background.

Emphasize the order that you choose by using spatial transitional
words or phrases such as the following: above, behind, beside, inside,
next to, over, to the side of, and under.
The writer of the following paragraph uses transitional words to
eniphasize the top-to-bottom spatial order of the details. Those
words are in italic type.

Model
Because the new subway line near my house was constructed
in a large ditch, I could see all of the features that are now hidden
under tons of dirt. At the top of the enormous ditch, I could see
layers of pavement from times when the road was resurfaced. Under
the pavement were the cobblestones from the original street. Below
the cobblestones were smooth concrete walls that covered the sides
of the ditch. Halfway down one wall, I saw a partly finished stair
way, which now carries passengers to and from the street. At the
mud-filled bottom of the pit, I could see two rectangular concrete
tunnels, one for subway traffic in each direction. Now, every time
that I walk down the stairs into the subway tunnel, I remember how
different it looked when it was under construction.

E ercise Writing: Spatial Order Write a paragraph using

the following topic sentence and supporting details. Arrange the
details in left-to-right spatial order. You may change the wording of
the supporting details, but be sure to use at least three transitional
words or phrases in the paragraph.
Topic sentence: When I first saw my neighbor’s home computer, I was
surprised because all of its components were small enough to fit together
on a table top.
Supporting details:
1. On the left side of the processing unit, a row of red flashing lights that
show how fast it is working
2. In the center of the table, a one-foot-square disk drive with two slots
for disks
3. On the right side of the table, the computer itself
4. Dark green background with light green letters on terminal screen
5. Disks are used to store information for the computer

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6. The processing unit is a blue metal box that is three feet wide and
eight inches tall.
7. On the left side of the table, a terminal with a screen to enter and
display data and a keyboard like that of a typewriter
8. On the right side of the processing unit, red and blue switches that
control it

Order of Importance

When you use order of importance in a paragraph, you

arrange details according to their significance or value. This order is
particularly useful for arranging a series of reasons, causes, effects, or
accomplishments. You may begin with the most important detail and
end with the least important item. It is usually more effective,
however, to begin with the least important item and build to the most
important item. You can emphasize the order that you choose by
using transitional words and phrases such as the following: finally,
first, least important, more important, and best of all.
In the following paragraph the writer proceeds from the least
important purpose to the most important purpose. The transitional
words and phrases that emphasize that progression are in italic type.

Model
Researchers at the Beltsville Agricultural Center near Wash
ington, D.C., are working with satellite photographs of fields of
crops. The photographs may be used for several purposes. First, by
monitoring the color of the fields as seen from above, researchers
can tell how effective various watering and fertilizing schedules are.
More important, the photographs can help researchers to predict
what crop yields will be. With that information, experts can set
prices in advance and arrange to make up shortages and sell surplus
crops. Most it. ‘portant, the photographs can be used to save crops.
From aerial ViL ws researchers can detect sooner and more clearly
any problems created by drought and insect infestation. In this way,
these conditions can be corrected before the crops are lost. Before
long, farmers throughout the country will benefit from the research
with satellite photographs.

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 5.2d
Classification

Exercise 3 Writing: Order of Importance Using the fol

lowing topic sentence, its supporting details, and the further explana
tions of the details, write a paragraph that is organized from the least
important to the most important detail. Include at least three
transitional words or phrases in the paragraph. You may change the
wording of the details when you write the paragraph.

Topic sentence: Paramedics, trained medical assistants, can perform many

medical tasks.
Supporting details:
1. Provide medical education that doctors do not have time to give; for
example, can teach patients how to plan a good diet or how to
diagnose simple problems
2. Provide medical care for all but most serious cases when doctors are
not available; for example, can provide care in remote areas or at
scene of accident
3. Work with doctors to provide routine care, freeing doctors for tasks
requiring more specialized knowledge; for example, can take medical
history, give physical exam, do laboratory work, and provide physical
therapy

.2 Classificatio

When you use classification in a paragraph, you arrange the

details in various categories according to a single principle. This order
is especially useful when you want to analyze a larger whole by
breaking it into smaller, distinct sections. For example, you might
discuss a zoological phylum by dividing it into the classes it com
prises, or you might discuss the methods of generating electricity by
sorting them according to the power source. When you use classifica
tion, you may arrange the details in some order of rank—for
example, the extent to which they are common or are important. By
using such transitional words and phrases as one kind, another kind,
and a third type, you can emphasize the order that you chose.
The writer of the following paragraph uses four categories,
which are arranged in a time order.

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Model
Nowhere are differences in human nature better illustrated
than in people’s habits of punctuality. When they must be at a
certain place at a certain time, people seem to fall into one of four
categories. One category is the Early Arrivals. They are the people
you see at a bus terminal, standing in front of the ticket window
before it is open, three hours before their bus is scheduled to leave.
Another category is the compulsive On the Dots. Usually prompt
ness is a virtue, but the On the Dots are punctual to an extreme. On
the Dots are the people you see arriving at a dance on the stroke of
nine, when the custodian is turning on the lights and the band
members are taking the instruments out of their cases. The Late
Bloomers, on the other hand, are the people who startle their host
by arriving for dinner as he is serving the dessert course. At that,
the Late Bloomers are more punctual than the No Shows, the least
reliable group of people, well known to long-suffering airline per
sonnel. Early Arrival, On the Dot, Late Bloomer, No Show—does
one of these names describe you?

Exercise 4 Writing: Classification Write a paragraph in

which you use the following topic sentence and organize the support
ing details by classification. Present the details in a logical order,
using transitional words and phrases to make the progression of
thought clear. Sometimes you will want to combine two details in one
sentence.
Topic sentence:
All fabrics are made from one or more of the three basic types of fibers.
Supporting details:
1. Fibers from plants
2. Fibers from animals
3. Synthetic fibers
4. Plant fibers sometimes called cellulose fibers
5. Animal fibers sometimes called protein fibers
6. Silk and wool fibers come from animals.
7. Cotton and linen fibers come from plants.
8. Cotton and linen are cool.
9. Synthetic fibers manufactured from chemical elements

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 5.2e
Comparison/Constrast

10. Nylon and polyester: synthetic fibers

11. Wool the warmest fiber
12. Most synthetic fibers are strong.

5 Comparison and Contrast

When you develop a paragraph by comparison, you point out

the similarities between two items. When you develop a paragraph by
contrast, you point out the differences between two items. You may
combine the two methods in one paragraph to show your readers how
an unfamiliar item is both similar to and different from an item with
which they are familiar. You can also combine comparison and
contrast to provide your readers with information about two unfamil
iar objects. Your paragraph will be clearer if you emphasize the
comparison and contrast by using transitional words and phrases such
as however, in contrast, and similarly, and the comparative and
superlative forms of adjectives (page 134).
When you compare or contrast two items, follow one of two
plans. You may use a balanced style by presenting all of the
information about one item and then all of the corresponding
information about the other item. Alternatively, you may decide to
present one point about the first item, give the similar or contrasting
information about the second item, and then move on to a new point,
repeating the pattern to form a point-by-point comparison. Which
ever strategy you use, make sure that you discuss the same points for
each item and that you present them in the same order.
The writer of the following paragraph contrasts two items using
the point-by-point method. The words that emphasize the contrast
are in italic type.

Model
Although some people prefer to see a stage play rather than a
film when they have the chance, both plays and films have their
good points. Seeing the performers in person makes the dialogue
and action of a play more convincing and exciting than those of a
film. The action of a play, however, is limited to the stage. It may
be hard to imagine the stage as a beach or a crowded street. In
contrast, the action of a film can move from a real beach to a real

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city Street. In addition, a film can emphasize an emotion or an idea

by focusing on one face or object. Playgoers lose that advantage but
gain the advantage of being able to focus on the performer or object
that interests them most. Thus, although films and plays do have
important differences, neither of them is better than the other.

E ercise 5 Writing: Comparison and Contrast On your

paper, use the following topic sentence and lists of information to
write a paragraph organized by comparison and contrast. Use the
point-by-point method of comparison and contrast, and include
words to emphasize the comparisons and contrasts. Make sure that
you consider the same points about each group.
Topic sentence: Two ways of life—that of the farmer and that of the
nomad—are common in the rural areas of southwest Asia.
Farmers:
Raise grain and fruit
Live on seacoasts and in river valleys
Make up seventy percent of the population
Live in small mud houses in villages
Rent their land from landlords
Eat their own products: grain, dates, olives
Live with extended families—that is, with several generations of their
families
Nomads:
Eat what they produce: cheese, meat, milk
Herd camels, goats, sheep
Live in tents made from animal skins
Live with extended families
Live in and near deserts
Wear clothing made from the fur and skin of animals

5. f Analogy

When you develop a paragraph by analogy, you make an

extended comparison between a familiar item and a less familiar
item. Your purpose is usually to teach your readers about the less
familiar item. The items should not be similar in all ways. They
should, however, be similar in at least one important way. As in a

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 5.2f
Analogy

paragraph developed by comparison, you may present the similarities

for each item in a block, or you may alternate between corresponding
points for each item.
In the following paragraph, the writer provides an interesting
way to view the unfamiliar subject of interviewing for a job by
comparing it with the more familiar subject of acting in a play.
Model
As I left my first job interview, I realized that interviewing for
a job is like playing a role in a drama. Before you interview, you
know the role that you are expected to play: secretary, salesperson,
or computer programmer, for example. You prepare for the inter
view by reviewing the skills and knowledge that you need to play
the part well. After rehearsing the part, you enter the interview;
you are onstage. You must show the interviewer—the audience—
how convincingly you can play the role. Just as an actor has to
overcome stage fright to play a part well, you have to overcome your
nervousness in order to show that you can do the job well. Once the
performance is over, you wait for the reviews from the interviewer.
If the reviews are excellent, you will probably get the job.

E ercise 6 Writing: Analogy Use the following information

to write a paragraph that presents an analogy between speed reading
and driving quickly through the countryside. Use at least two
similarities from the following lists, but do not include unrelated
points.
Speed reading:
Useful when you need to digest large amounts of information
Not useful for complex, dense works
Taught in classes throughout the country
Does not allow you to enjoy word choice or sentence structures
Allows you to cover material quickly—two thousand words per minute
Used by many students
Driving quickly through countryside:
Allows you to cover ground quickly fifty-five miles per hour
Not as safe as driving more slowly
Not possible on small, winding roads
Useful when you need to travel far
Most common to drive slowly through country
Does not allow you to gaze at scenery

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5. g Cause and Effect

When you develop a paragraph by cause and effect, you

explain how one event or situation necessarily results in another. The
cause brings about the effect. The effect is the result of the cause. The
following list provides examples of causes and their effects.
CAUSES EFFECTS
Warm air meeting cold air Fog
Earth spinning on its axis Change from day to night
Invention of power looms Increased production of fabric

In developing a paragraph by cause and effect, be sure that the

one event is a cause of another and not merely something that
preceded it in time. For example, chills may precede a cold, but they
do not cause it. A virus causes a cold. Also, make sure that one event
is the direct cause of another and not merely a reason that explains its
occurrence. For example, the existence of mines in New South Wales,
Australia, was a reason for building many factories there, but it did
not cause the factories to be built. You can demonstrate that an event
or situation is a cause by explaining the process by which it produces
an effect.
A cause may have more than one effect, and an effect may have
more than one cause. Therefore, in writing a cause-and-effect
paragraph, be sure to discuss all causes or effects, or at least mention
that there are multiple causes or effects. Also, causes and effects can
work like a chain reaction: an effect of one cause may become the
cause of other effects. For example, plant disease caused the failure
of the potato crop in Ireland in 1845. That effect in turn caused
famine among the Irish people, who relied upon potatoes for most of
their nourishment.
When you organize a paragraph by cause and effect, you may
present a cause first and then examine its effects, or you may present
an effect and then analyze its causes. Whichever method you choose,
make sure that you clearly distinguish the causes from the effects.
One way to do that is by using words and phrases such as as a result,
because, causes, consequently, creates, effect, produces, reason, re
sults, therefore, and why.

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 5.2g

Cause and Effect

In the following paragraph, the writer states an effect—the

noise that a house makes—and then explains the causes. The words
that indicate causes or effects are in italic type.
Model
Squeaks and creaks are not generally a matter for the police.
They are most likely the sounds of your house settling down for the
night. During the day the house heats up. The materials in the
house expand when they are heated. After dark the house cools off,
and the materials in the house shrink. The results of this expanding
and shrinking are heard as pops and creaks and squeaks. The reason
you hear them only late at night is that in most houses the noises
from the activity of the day drown them out. Also, maybe late at
night you are listening a little harder for strange noises. If you
listen, you may notice that your house makes strange noises all day
long. Some houses make such regular noises that you can tell the
time of day by the sound of expansion and shrinking—the creaks act
like a clock.
Linda Allison, The Wild Inside

Exercise 7 Writing: Cause and Effect Write a paragraph

using the following effect and its causes. Begin with the effect and
then present the causes. Include a topic sentence and use words that
emphasize the cause-and-effect relationship.
Effect: Soil becoming unsuitable for growing crops
Causes:
1. Growing plants for years without using fertilizer depletes the nutrients
necessary for growing more crops.
2. Using too much fertilizer destroys soil’s ability to produce nutrients.
3. Pesticides destroy bacteria that help to produce necessary nutrients.
4. Harmful chemicals buried nearby may leak into farmland.
5. High winds and rains can erode the topsoil in which plants grow.

Assignment I Prewriting/Writing Make a list of events

that occur when a tornado forms, or list devices that have been
developed to aid the blind. Organize your list in chronological order.
Using the list, write a paragraph. Use transitional words to emphasize
the chronological order of the paragraph.

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Assignment 2 Prewriting/Writing Make a list of details

about a room in which you spend a lot of time. For example, you
could list details about a gym, your room at home, or a library.
Arranging the details in spatial order, write a paragraph that
describes the room. Use transitional words.

Assignment 3 Prewriting/Writing List reasons for learning

how to play a musical instrument, how to program a computer, how
to drive, or how to type. Order the reasons according to their
importance, moving from least to most important. Using the list,
write a paragraph that explains why someone should learn that skill.
Use transitional words to indicate which reasons are the most
important.

Assignment 4 Prewriting / Writing Think of the last time

you went to a large store, and try to classify the shoppers you saw.
Write a light-hearted paragraph in which you discuss at least three
types of shoppers. Give each group a name, and arrange the groups
in a logical order, using transitional words for clarity. Begin with a
topic sentence, and end with a sentence that brings the paragraph to a
definite conclusion.

Assignment 5 Prewriting/Writing Write a paragraph that

contrasts a place as it seemed to you five or more years ago with the
same place as it seems to you today. Before you write, make lists of
details about the place at each time. When you write, present all of
the information about the place at the earlier time and then all of the
information about the place as it is now. In your concluding sentence,
present a general comment about how the place has changed.

Assignment Prewriting/Writing Write a paragraph that

presents an analogy between a certain type of athlete and a certain
type of animal. Before writing, list the characteristics that the athlete
and the animal share. Alternate between the two subjects as you
present their similarities.

Assignment 7 Prewriting /Writing Do research to find the

causes of the mudpots in Yellowstone National Park. List details
about the causes on your paper, and use the list to write a paragraph

266
 5.3

Combining Methods

organized by cause and effect. Begin with the effect and then discuss
the causes. Use transitional words to help the reader to understand
the cause-and-effect relationship.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
1. Does each paragraph have a precise topic idea, relevant
supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence if one is
necessary?
, 2. In Assignment 1, did you list details in chronological order?
3. In Assignment 2, did you present the details as they appear
from side to side, top to bottom, or front to back?
i# 4. In Assignment 3, did you begin with the least important
reasons and progress to the most important reasons?
~ 5. In Assignment 4, did you arrange the groups in a logical order
and use transitional words to make clear the progression
from group to group?
6. In Assignment 5, did you present all of the information about
the place at the earlier time before presenting the contrasting
information about the place at the later time?
i 7. In Assignment 6, did your analogy include one or two striking
characteristics shared by the athlete and the animal?
8. In Assignment 7, did you move from the effect to the cause?
9. Did you use suitable transitional words to make clear the
orga nization of your paragraphs?
t 10. Did you check your paragraphs for correct grammar, usage,
spelling, and punctuation?

o • e
• • a

Sometimes a paragraph will be most clear to your reader if you

combine two methods of organization. For example, when you
develop a paragraph by presenting an analogy between two items,
you can arrange the similarities in the order of their importance.
Similarly, when you develop a paragraph by cause and effect, you can
present the effects in chronological order.

267
Unit 5 Writing Paragraphs

The writer of the following paragraph contrasts two types of

spaceships. The points of the contrast are arranged in chronological
order.

Model
Compare a Lightsail with an ordinary rocket. A one-ton rock
et could push a cargo pod weighing more than a ton to a kilometer
per second in a few minutes. A one-ton sail (more than a mile wide)
would take all day to reach the same speed with the same cargo. But
the next day the rocket would coast, drained of fuel, while the sail
would add another kilometer per second to its speed. Accelerating
just over one thousandth as fast as a falling brick, it would pass
twenty times the speed of sound (in air) in less than a week.
Rockets beat sails at giving swift kicks, but in the long haul they run
out of gas and then can only coast along.
Eric Drexler,
“Sailing Through Space on Sunlight”

The writer of the model paragraph presents a point about a

rocket’s first day in space and then the contrasting point about a
Lightsail’s first day in space. Next, the writer presents a point about
the rocket’s following days in space and then the contrasting point
about the Lightsail’s following days in space. The paragraph ends
with a concluding sentence that summarizes the difference between
the two types of spaceships.

Exercise 1 Prewriting: Methods of Organization Read

the following list of details. One of the items is an effect, and the
others are its causes. On your paper, write the number of the effect
first. Then list the numbers of the causes in chronological order.
1. From 1700 on, travelers brought plants, such as the palm from Mada
gascar, that grew faster than native plants and crowded them out.
2. Dutch settlers arrived in 1638 and exported most of the local ebony
trees.
3. Many of the native plants and animals on the island of Mauritius are
almost extinct.
4. Recently, escaped pet birds have taken over the territories of native
birds.

268
 5-3

Combining Methods

5. In the 1500s Spanish and Portuguese sailors released pigs and pet
monkeys, which have become established and have eaten enormous
numbers of local plants and bird eggs.
6. French settlers arrived in 1715 and removed most remaining forests to
make room for farms.

Exercise 2 Writing: Methods of Organization Using the

information that you organized in Exercise 1, write a paragraph. You
may change the wording of the details as you write.

Assignment Prewriting/Writing Each of the following top

ics can be developed in a paragraph with more than one method of
organization. Select one of the topics and then list several supporting
details for it. Do research to find additional details. Then organize
the details according to the methods indicated next to the topic.
Write your paragraph.
1. Differences between the civil service system and the spoils system in
United States politics: comparison and contrast, order of importance
2. Effects of latitude on the climate: cause and effect, spatial order
3. Effects of pollution on a lake: cause and effect, chronological order
4. Differences between broadleaf and needleleaf trees: comparison and
contrast, spatial order

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignment for the following points:
V 1. Did you list enough supporting details to develop your topic
adequately?
V 2. Did you combine two methods of development in your para
graph?
k 3. Did you use transitional words and phrases to make clear the
methods of development that you used?
V 4. Did you check your paragraph for correct grammar, usage,
spelling, and punctuation?

269
 — — —— V Ii,,a VA

lIj~\1 -

Student Success Survey: Writing a Paragraph

Situation: The editors of the community newspaper, News
and Views, plan to run a weekly column about the reasons
that students succeed in a wide variety of activities. To gather
information for the column, they published a request that all
students write paragraphs explaining what abilities and skills
help them to succeed at various activities. As you write your
paragraph, you will keep in mind the following information:
Writer: you as a student who reads News and Views
Audience: editors and readers of News and Views
Topic: the abilities and skills that help you to succeed at
a particular activity
Purpose: to explain the reasons for your success

Directions: To write your paragraph, follow these steps:

Step 1. Read the editors’ request for paragraphs that ap
pears on the facing page. Then decide which ac
tivity you will write about.
Step 2. List all skills and abilities that help you to succeed
in the activity. Ask yourself the following ques
tions: What helps me to do well? What training
or background do I have for the activity?
Step 3. Select three or four reasons that seem most im
portant and arrange them in the order of their
significance, from least to most important.
Step 4. Using your list, write a paragraph. Include transi
tional words and phrases that emphasize the
order of importance. In your concluding sentence,
present a word of advice to others who would
like to succeed in the activity.

270
News and Views

STUDENT SUCCESS STORIES

A Survey Sponsored by News and Wews
Please submit one paragraph that explains the
reasons for your success at one of your favorite
activities. The results of our survey will be presented
in a series of weekly columns. We would like
information about your success in an activity such as
one of the following:
Playing a musical instrument
Writing stories, essays, poems, or songs
Participating in a sport
Working with small children
Organizing events
Acting in or doing backstage work for a play
Explaining something to others
Taking photographs
Getting support for school events
Repairing cars
Working at a part-time job
Doing volunteer work
Participating in a club
Working with animals
Collecting a particular type of item

-. 271
,,
Unit Assignments
Assignment I Write a paragraph about one topic from thc
following list. Use chronological order to organize the paragraph, and
include transitional words and time-related words to make that ordei
clear to your readers. Place your topic sentence at the beginning ol
the paragraph. Write for an audience of adults who are not familiar
with the topic.
1. Distilling water
2. The history of newspapers in the United States
3. How a Presidential candidate is nominated at a convention
4. Training for a certain career

Assignment In a paragraph, compare and contrast hydropon

ics (farming in water) with farming in soil. Define all difficult or
technical terms so that your readers clearly understand your topic.
Use an implied topic sentence, and make sure that all of the sentences
are clearly related to the topic idea.

Assignment 3 Choose a person whom you admire. Write a

paragraph about that person’s accomplishments, listing them in
chronological order. Then write another paragraph, listing the ac
complishments in the order of their importance. In each paragraph,
use transitional words to indicate the order that you chose. Write for
an audience of your friends.

Assignment 4 Write a paragraph in which you explain one of the

following groups of effects. Organize the effects in that group from
least to most important. Place your topic sentence somewhere other
than at the beginning. Write a concluding sentence that presents your
comment on the topic.
1. The effects of people on a forest or other natural setting
2. The effects of surface tension on liquids
3. The effects of excessive salt in the diet

Assignment 5 Write a paragraph in which you compare and

contrast two lakes or rivers, two bridges, or two pieces of sculpture.

272
Organize the details of the comparison in spatial order, and use
transitional words that emphasize the order that you choose.

Assignment 6 Choose a recent political event that interests you.

Write a paragraph in which you either discuss the causes and effects
of the event or present the actions of the event in chronological
order. Use transitional words to emphasize the order that you
choose.

Assignment 7 Write a paragraph in which you compare and

contrast two works of art by the same artist. Use the point-by-point
comparison strategy, and arrange those points in spatial order. Place
your topic sentence somewhere other than at the beginning of the
paragraph, and conclude with a sentence that summarizes the
paragraph.

ssignment 8 Write a paragraph in which you explain the

different types of musical instruments in a band or orchestra. Use
classification to arrange the supporting details, and include examples.
Use transitional words and phrases to give your paragraph clarity.

Revising Your Assignments

For help in revising a paragraph, consult the Checklist for
Revision on the last page of this book.

273
Unit Tests

A. Number your paper from 1 to 5. Next to each number, write

True if the sentence is true or False if it is false.
1. You should limit a topic by choosing to write about just one aspect of
it, one example of it, or one time period in it.
2. A good topic sentence should indicate that you will discuss more than
you actually do.
3. Supporting sentences provide the details that explain or illustrate your
topic.
4. A fact may be used as a reason or as an example.
5. You may not combine chronological order and cause and effect in the
same paragraph.

B. Number your paper from 6 to 10. Next to each number, write

the letter of the item that correctly completes the sentence. You will
use all but one of the items.
.~.concluding sentence d. fact
b. paragraph w. topic sentence
e~ analogy f. transitional word

6. A(n) 2 is a group of sentences that develops an idea in an orderly

way.
7. A(n) 1 states the main idea of a paragraph.
8. A(n) 2 helps the reader to recall or to understand more clearly the
point of a paragraph.
9. A(n) L emphasizes the logical order of a paragraph.
10. A(n) 2 is an extended comparison between a familiar item and a
less familiar item.

C. Number your paper from 11 to 15. Read the following passage.

Next to each number, write the letter of the item that correctly
answers the question.
(1) Worms in the Waitomo Caves in New Zealand glow in the
dark, and their lights attract the insects that they eat. (2) Like
these glowworms from New Zealand, most cave-dwelling animals

274
 are specially suited to their dark environment. (3) For example,
crayfish that live in caves have longer legs and antennae than cray
fish that live in light areas. (4) Their longer appendages help them
to find food by enabling them to reach farther. 5 One type of
cave-dwelling fish has ridges on its head. (6) The ridges help the
fish to detect the movement of its prey in the water. (7) Another
type of fish has an exceptionally large head and big fins that cause it
to bump into its prey more often than a fish with a smaller head and
normal fins would. (8) These special characteristics help the cave
animals to survive in their dark world.

11. Which of the following is the topic sentence for the paragraph?
a. Sentence 1 c. Sentence 3
b. Sentence 2 d. Sentence 8
12. Which of the following describes Sentence 1?
a. Topic sentence c. Concluding sentence
b. Supporting sentence d. Transitional sentence
13. Which of the following is contained in Sentence 3?
a. A comparison c. An analogy
b. A contrast d. A cause
14. Which of the following describes Sentence 5?
a. An example c. A cause
b. A reason d. A comparison
15. Which of the following contains a transitional word?
a. Sentence 3 c. Sentence 5
b. Sentence 4 d. Sentence 8

Choose one of the Unit Assignments. Write the assignment as

directed and hand it in to your teacher.

275
 nit6

4’.JA .‘
,1

r
When you have completed a first draft, you are ready for
the last phase of the writing process: revision. Revision entails
rethinking your work, reorganizing and rewriting it so that your
finished paragraph expresses your thoughts in a clear and
effective manner.
The following paragraph is a writer’s first draft. As you
read the draft, consider how you might improve it.

(1) There are differences in the height of tides. (2) The

positions of the sun and the moon and the shapes of the
coastlines cause the variations. (3) When the sun and the moon
, ~\ line up, their gravitational forces pull together, causing the
tides to rise. (4) When they do not line up and, therefore, pull in
different directions, the tides are lower. (5) The size and the
shape of coastlines have almost as great an effect on the height
of tides. (6) For example, because of the fact that the Bay of
Fundy in eastern Canada is shaped like a funnel, the level of
the tides there has risen as much as fifty feet in height. (7) The
tides are irregular. (8) Scientists who analyze the data about the
sun, the moon, and the coastlines can predict the height of
each tide.

or Analysis Answer the following questions about the writ

er’s first-draft paragraph.
1. The topic sentence, Sentence 1, should be more specific to em
phasize the purpose of the paragraph. Which of the following
revisions would be a better topic sentence?
a. Ocean tides vary at different times and in different places.
b. Ocean tides, the periodic rising and falling of water levels,
vary in height from week to week and from area to area.

276
 2. Which sentence could be improved by making it concise?
a. Sentence 3 b. Sentence 6
3 How can Sentences 7 and 8 be combined? Write one effective
sentence that includes the information contained in both sen
tences.

In answering these questions, you made decisions about

revising. As you gain experience in writing and revising, you will
develop methods that work well for you. This unit will give you
both an approach to revising and techniques for revising.

6.1 Revsi r e C
To be understandable, a paragraph must be coherent. In a
coherent paragraph, the supporting information is unified by its close
relationship to the topic sentence and by its appropriateness for the
audience. The paragraph is developed and organized according to a
plan that makes clear the relationships among the ideas. Further
more, a coherent paragraph is consistent in the way that it presents
the material.

6.la Unity and Order

Unity
A paragraph has unity when all of the information in it directly
relates to the topic. To unify your paragraph, you must make clear
your purpose in writing about your topic and develop your paragraph
fully with related information.
Use the following strategies to examine your writing for unity.

Strategies
1. Be sure that your paragraph has a topic sentence that makes
clear the topic and the purpose of your paragraph.

277
 nit6

~ ~‘

,1

When you have completed a first draft, you are ready for
the last phase of the writing process: revision. Revision entails
rethinking your work, reorganizing and rewriting it so that your
finished paragraph expresses your thoughts in a clear and
effective manner.
The following paragraph is a writer’s first draft. As you
read the draft, consider how you might improve it.

(1) There are differences in the height of tides. (2) The

positions of the sun and the moon and the shapes of the
coastlines cause the variations. (3) When the sun and the moon
line up, their gravitational forces pull together, causing the
tides to rise. (4) When they do not line up and, therefore, pull in
different directions, the tides are lower. (5) The size and the
shape of coastlines have almost as great an effect on the height
of tides. (6) For example, because of the fact that the Bay of
Fundy in eastern Canada is shaped like a funnel, the level of
the tides there has risen as much as fifty feet in height. (7) The
tides are irregular. (8) Scientists who analyze the data about the
sun, the moon, and the coastlines can predict the height of
each tide.

or Analysis Answer the following questions about the writ

er’s first-draft paragraph.
1. The topic sentence, Sentence 1, should be more specific to em
phasize the purpose of the paragraph. Which of the following
revisions would be a better topic sentence?
a. Ocean tides vary at different times and in different places.
b. Ocean tides, the periodic rising and falling of water levels,
vary in height from week to week and from area to area.

276
 2. Which sentence could be improved by making it concise?
a. Sentence 3 b. Sentence 6
3. How can Sentences 7 and 8 be combined? Write one effective
sentence that includes the information contained in both sen
tences.

In answering these questions, you made decisions about

revising. As you gain experience in writing and revising, you will
develop methods that work well for you. This unit will give you
both an approach to revising and techniques for revising.

r adC ~ty

To be understandable, a paragraph must be coherent. In a

coherent paragraph, the supporting information is unified by its close
relationship to the topic sentence and by its appropriateness for the
audience. The paragraph is developed and organized according to a
plan that makes clear the relationships among the ideas. Further
more, a coherent paragraph is consistent in the way that it presents
the material.

6. Unity and Order

Unity
A paragraph has unity when all of the information in it directly
relates to the topic. To unify your paragraph, you must make clear
your purpose in writing about your topic and develop your paragraph
fully with related information.
Use the following strategies to examine your writing for unity.

Strategies
1. Be sure that your paragraph has a topic sentence that makes
clear the topic and the purpose of your paragraph.

277
Unit 6 Revising

2. Make sure that the supporting sentences contain only infor

mation that directly relates to the topic. Remove irrelevant
information or rewrite it so that it fits the topic.
3. Be sure that your paragraph is completely developed. In
clude enough explanation (facts, examples, and reasons) so
that your reader completely understands your point. If you
require more information, do the necessary research to
find it.
4. If you have used a concluding sentence, be sure that it adds
to the paragraph by restating the topic or offering a final
comment on the topic.

Order
An important requirement in any piece of writing is order. An
effective sequence of sentences helps to unfold your ideas to your
readers and to show the relationships between the ideas.
The following strategies will help you to present your ideas in a
logical and effective order.

Strategies
1. Introduce your topic before treating it in any detail. Similar
ly, define an issue or a problem before offering solutions
to it.
2. Define obscure words or ideas before repeating them.
3. Discuss a series of items in the order in which you intro
duced them.
4. Give an example only after you have stated the general idea
that the example illustrates.
5. Organize your ideas according to an appropriate order:
chronological order, spatial order, or order of importance.
6. Use a method of development that is appropriate for your
purpose: classification, comparison and contrast, analogy,
or cause and effect.

278
 6.la

Order

Transitional Words and Expressions. To emphasize the

order used in your paragraph, use transitional words and expressions
(pages 254—260), which make clear the connections between the
ideas and help the paragraph flow smoothly from one sentence to
another.

E e cise I Revising: Unity The following paragraphs are

insufficiently developed. On your paper, revise each paragraph to
create unity. Be sure that the topic sentence clarifies the purpose of
the paragraph. Add facts and examples to support the topic. Remove
or rewrite any details that are not closely related.
1. I attended the Senior Stunt Night. The acrobatic dancing was
great. The jazz chorus never sounded better. The life-sized puppets
were especially clever. The teachers’ skit was hilarious. I’m glad that I
saw the show. It ran late.
2. Stories are valuable for many reasons. Stories can be in books,
in movies, or on television. A well-told story can almost always
captivate us with the lure of “what comes next.” Stories also tell us
about people. In the simplest sense, stories describe problems and tell
how people deal with them. The imaginary characters who move
through the pages of a story can often teach us about real people.

Exercise 2 Revising: Unity and Order On your paper,

revise the following paragraph. Add or remove information as
necessary to unify the paragraph. Present the supporting information
logically and effectively. Insert transitional words and expressions
and adjust wording as necessary.
The city of Venice was built in the fifth century. It was a clean,
beautiful city. Twentieth-century industrial development is causing the
city to deteriorate. The canals were deepened so that tankers could
use them to reach the factories. The increased water flow in the
deeper canals caused the erosion of seawalls and building foundations.
The factories created air pollution, which caused the deterioration of
statues and the outsides of buildings, just as pollution has damaged
the Acropolis in Greece. More than twenty thousand artesian wells
were built to supply water to the industries and to the people em
ployed in them. Removing water from the wells caused the lagoon bed
to fall and created a threat to all of the buildings in Venice. Now
experts have halted the sinking of the lagoon bed, and they are
working hard to save the beautiful old city.

279
Unit 6 Revising

.1 Consistency

Consistency in your writing is a further requirement for coher

ence. When you revise, be sure that you have been consistent in the
tense (page 101), voice (page 104), and mood (page 105) of verbs; the
person of pronouns (pages 121 —122); and the tone in which you
discuss the topic. Although shifts are occasionally appropriate,
unnecessary shifts can make your writing awkward and confusing.
The following strategies will help you to revise for consistency.

Strategies
1. Use the same verb tense, either within sentences or between
them, unless there is a change in the time in which the actions
occur.
INCONSISTENT
The first paragraph of the story establishes the place
and time through its detailed description of the carni
val. In the second paragraph, the central event of the
story occurred. [Tense shifts from present to past.]
REVISED
The first paragraph of the story establishes the place
and time through its detailed description of the carni
val. In the second paragraph, the central event of the
story occurs. [Present tense used consistently.]

2. Do not switch unnecessarily between the active voice and the

passive voice. Be aware that a change in the voice of the
verb also causes a change in the subject and, thus, a change
in the focus or emphasis. The active voice is generally
preferable.
INCONSISTENT
The triumphant pitcher received a generous offer
from the ball club, but a contract has not yet been
signed by him for next year. [Voice shifts from active
to passive; subject changes from pitcher to contract.]

280
 6.b
Consistency

REVISED
The triumphant pitcher received a generous offer
from the ball club, but he has not yet signed a con
tract for next year. [Active voice used consistently;
subject is the same.]
3. Be consistent in the mood of the verb (pages 105—107). Do
not shift unnecessarily from the indicative mood to the
subjunctive mood, for example, or from the subjunctive
mood to the imperative mood.
INCONSISTENT
The personnel department requires that the editorial
applicant write a paragraph and takes a proofreading
test. [Mood shifts from subjunctive to indicative.]
REVISED
The personnel department requires that the editorial
applicant write a paragraph and take a proofreading
test. [Subjunctive mood used consistently.]
INCONSISTENT
First take the test, and then you will worry about the
essay. [Mood shifts from imperative to indicative.]
REVISED
First take the test, and then worry about the essay.
[Imperative mood used consistently.]
4. Be consistent in your use of pronouns. Do not make
needless shifts from the third person (she, he, one, it, and
nouns) to the second person (you) or the first person (1).
INCONSISTENT
Although a beginning skater should not become pre
occupied with the danger of falling, you should exer
cise some caution. [Shifts from third person to second
person.]
REVISED
Although a beginning skater should not become pre
occupied with the danger of falling, he or she should
exercise caution. [Third person used consistently.]

281
Unit 6 Revising

REVISED
Although you should not become preoccupied with
the danger of falling, you should exercise some cau
tion. [Second person used consistently.]
5. Be consistent in the tone, or attitude, that you convey about
your topic. Establish a tone that is suitable for your topic
and your audience. For instance, do not change from
critical to sympathetic, or from sympathetic to sarcastic.
Maintain a degree of formality that suits the tone.
INCONSISTENT
Although it is generally known that Benjamin
Franklin once conducted an experiment by flying a
kite during a storm, I’ll bet that you don’t know what
got Ben started on that experiment. It was a glass
jar, known as a Leyden jar. [Tone shifts from serious
to casual.]
REVISED
Although it is generally known that Benjamin
Franklin once conducted an experiment by flying a
kite during a storm, few people realize that the ex
periment was prompted by an invention called the
Leyden jar. [Serious tone used consistently.]

xercise Revising: Consistency On your paper, revise

the following paragraph to make it consistent in tense, voice, mood,
person, and tone.
Although mosquitoes are found even in the Arctic, they are
relatively rare in cold or dry parts of the world. When you are
relaxing by a lake at five o’clock on a lazy summer afternoon, howev
er, one may have abundant reason to doubt that statement. Mosqui
toes seemed to be everywhere, at least everywhere that you were.
The following facts may give you some perspective, if not any relief.
Most other insects are not interested in you; you are sought out only
by the mosquito. There are more than twenty-five hundred species of
mosquitoes, but only a few of them will ever bite anyone. Of the
species that do bite, only the females will request that you supply her
with nourishment. When the next attack comes, be grateful that the
invading troops are a squad of mosquitoes and not an army of spiders,
and then you will want to start slapping away.

282
 6.2
Combining Sentences

Assignment Revising On your paper, revise the following

paragraph for coherence and clarity. Make sure that your revised
paragraph is unified, well organized, and consistent.
Serendipity is the capacity for making a fortunate discovery by
accident, often while keeping your eyes peeled for something else.
Horace Walpole, an eighteenth-century English writer, created the
term in honor of the many accidental discoveries of the main charac
ters in the fairy tale “The Three Princes of Serendip.” Walpole also
wrote The Castle of Otranto. Serendipity has been responsible for
many important discoveries. Christopher Columbus lands in
America by accident when he is searching for gold in the Indies. A
really wild discovery about the value of penicillium mold is made by
Sir Alexander Fleming by accident. He noticed that some of the
mold in his laboratory had accidentally killed all of the bacteria that
it touched. If you discover your grandfather’s diary while you are
cleaning the attic, that is serendipity. In addition, serendipity often
plays a part in everyday life. Although serendipity is never expected,
it always is welcome.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignment for the following points:
i-0 1. Did you state the topic clearly and develop it fully?
i- 2. Did you remove or rewrite unrelated information?
i- 3. Did you organize the supporting information in an order that
will make sense to a reader?
i. 4. Did you supply transitional expressions where necessary?
i- 5. Did you maintain consistency in the tense, voice, and mood of
the verbs, in the person of the pronouns, and in the tone?

Combining some sentences to establish the desired relation

ships between the ideas in them will make your sentences more
effective and will contribute to the coherence of your paragraph.
Furthermore, you often can express more information in a single
sentence.

283
Unit 6 Revising

SEPARATE SENTENCES
The architect was in favor of the proposal. She could not find
time for the Fieldstone project.
SINGLE SENTENCE
The architect was in favor of the proposal, but she could not
find time for the Fieldstone project. [contrast relationship]

You can often combine sentences in more than one way.

Sometimes a different combination can express very nearly the same
relationship.
REVISED SENTENCE
Although the architect was in favor of the proposal, she could
not find time for the Fieldstone project. [contrast relationship]

At other times a different combination expresses a different

relationship, changing the meaning of the sentence.
REVISED SENTENCE
The architect was in favor of the proposal because she could
not find time for the Fieldstone project. [cause relationship]

As you examine your sentences, see whether you can improve

some of them by combining them. Make sure that the combination
you choose expresses the correct relationship. The following strate
gies provide guidelines for combining sentences.

Strategies
1. Coordinate sentences. Coordination is the joining of similar
or equal parts into pairs or series. To coordinate sentences,
join them with coordinating or correlative conjunctions
(page 30) or conjunctive adverbs (page 31). You may also
use a semicolon without a conjunction. When you coordi
nate sentences, you form a compound sentence.
TWO SENTENCES
Representative Rea had voted against the original
highway bill. He was in favor of the revised version.

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 6.2

Combining Sentences

REVISED SENTENCE
Representative Rea had voted against the original
highway bill, but he was in favor of the revised ver
sion. [Sentences coordinated with comma and con
junction but.]
REVISED SENTENCE
Representative Rea had voted against the original
highway bill; however, he was in favor of the revised
version. [Sentences coordinated with semicolon and
conjunctive adverb however.]
REVISED SENTENCE
Representative Rea had voted against the original
highway bill; he was in favor of the revised version.
[Sentences coordinated with semicolon.]
2. Subordinate some sentences by converting them to subordi
nate clauses (pages 59—66). Put the less important (subordi
nate) ideas in adjective, adverb, or noun clauses. Use the
appropriate relative pronouns (page 10) or subordinating
conjunctions (pages 30—31). When you join a subordinate
clause with an independent clause, you form a complex
sentence.
TWO SENTENCES
The front door opened directly into the living room.
It was used only by guests.
REVISED SENTENCE WITH ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
The front door, which opened directly into the living
room, was used only by guests. [Subordinate idea
becomes adjective clause modifying door.]

TWO SENTENCES
The front door opened and closed just as easily as
the back door. Hardly anyone used the front door.
REVISED SENTENCE WITH ADVERB CLAUSE
Although the front door opened and closed just as
easily as the back door, hardly anyone used it. [Sub
ordinate idea becomes adverb clause modifying used.]

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 Unit 6 Revising

TWO SENTENCES
Carl Sandburg was not only a famous poet but also a
biographer of Abraham Lincoln. Only a few in the
class knew that.
REVISED SENTENCE WITH NOUN CLAUSE
Only a few in the class knew that Carl Sandburg was
not only a famous poet but also a biographer of
Abraham Lincoln. [Clause becomes object of verb
knew in revised sentence.]
3. Subordinate some sentences by converting them to phrases.
You may use participial phrases (page 51), appositive
phrases (page 48), absolute phrases (page 52), gerund
phrases (pages 53—54), and infinitive phrases (pages
55—56).
TWO SENTENCES
Sheila was awakened by a loud whirring noise. She
ran to the window.
REVISED SENTENCE WITH PARTICIPIAL PHRASE
Awakened by a loud whirring noise, Sheila ran to the
window. [Subordinate idea becomes participial phrase
modifying Sheila.]
TWO SENTENCES
Antoine Cartier visited our restaurant last night. He
is one of the world’s foremost writers on food.
REVISED SENTENCE WITH APPOSITIVE PHRASE
Antoine Cartier, one of the world’s foremost writers
on food, visited our restaurant last night. [Predicate
nominative becomes appositive identifying Antoine
Cartier.]
TWO SENTENCES
Its streets were bedecked with cheerful yellow jon
quils and forsythia. The town seemed to be greeting
spring.
REVISED SENTENCE WITH ABSOLUTE PHRASE
Its streets bedecked with cheerful yellow jonquils and
forsythia, the town seemed to be greeting spring.
[Subordinate idea becomes absolute phrase.]

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 6.2
Combining Sentences

TWO SENTENCES
Carmen watched the world darken during the eclipse.
It was an eerie but thrilling experience for her.

REVISED SENTENCE WITH GERUND PHRASE

Watching the world darken during the eclipse was an
eerie but thrilling experience for Carmen. [Activity of
original sentence changed to gerund which replaces it
as subject.1

TWO SENTENCES
They wanted to avoid rush-hour traffic. They would
leave early.

REVISED SENTENCE WITH INFINITIVE PHRASE

They would leave early to avoid rush-hour traffic.
[Subordinate idea becomes infinitive.)

E ercise 1 Revising: Combining Sentences On your

paper, combine each of the following groups of sentences into one
sentence. Coordinate or subordinate as indicated in parentheses. You
may adjust the wording of the revised sentence.
SAMPLE An exciting variety typifies New York City. Variety is
found in its food as well as in its inhabitants. There
fore, one can dine in almost any national style. (ad
verb clause; adjective clause)
ANSWER Because the exciting variety that typifies New York
City is found in its food as well as in its inhabitants,
one can dine in almost any national style.

1. Both native New Yorkers and visitors to the city enjoy eating different
kinds of food. That is obvious from the vast number and varied kinds
of restaurants. These restaurants thrive there. (noun clause; adjective
clause)
2. Just about every cuisine has developed its own version of meat or
vegetables. These are wrapped in dough. Just about every version,
therefore, can be found somewhere in New York. (adverb clause;
participial phrase)
3. Pita from the Middle East is a flat bread with a pocket. The pocket is
good for many kinds of sandwich fillings. (adjective clause)
tive clause)

287
Unit 6 Revising

4. You remain in a Middle Eastern mood. You fill your pita with a fried
mass of chickpeas and spices. This is known as falafel. (participial
phrase; participial phrase)
5. You want to try Greek cuisine. You stuff the pita with souvlaki.
Souvlaki is meat. The meat has been cooked slowly on a skewer.
(adverb clause; appositive phrase; participial phrase)
6. You know that samosa came to New York from India. Samosa is a
turnover. It is filled with meat or vegetables or both. You are not
surprised. You learn the following. The dish is highly spiced. (particip
ial phrase; appositive phrase; participial phrase; infinitive phrase;
noun clause)
7. In France you can put a filling in a folded pancake. Doing so produces
a crêpe. In Eastern Europe you can put a filling in a folded pancake.
Doing so produces a blintz. (gerund phrase; compound sentence;
gerund phrase)
8. Mexico has not only given us the taco, but it has also contributed the
enchilada. The taco is a toasted tortilla. The tortilla is stuffed with
ground meat or chicken and covered with chopped tomato, onion,
cheese, and lettuce. The enchilada is similar except that the tortilla is
soft and the cheese is melted. (adjective clause; participial phrase;
adjective clause)
9. Tacos, enchiladas, and empanadas come from the Caribbean, Mexico
and South America. They are often prepared with sauces. The sauces
range in spiciness from fiery to explosive. (adjective clause; participial
phrase)
10. Novices should taste these foods with care. They retain sensation in
their mouths. The novices wish that. (adverb clause; infinitive phrase)

Exercise 2 Revising: Combining Sentences On your

paper, write a paragraph based on each of the following sets of
sentences. Combine the sentences appropriately, using coordination
and subordination. You may adjust the wording as necessary to
produce a clear and smooth paragraph.
1. United States Forest Service experts can minimize the danger of
avalanches.
They try to predict and prevent avalanches.
Predicting avalanches requires careful observation.

288
 6.3
Variety

The following strategies will help you to revise your sentences

for variety.

Strategies
1. Vary the structure and length of your sentences by using
coordination and subordination (pages 284— 287). Often
you can say essentially the same thing in more than one
way. Choose the way that best expresses your intended
meaning and fits well with the surrounding sentences. The
following sentences state basically the same idea in a
variety of ways.
The attorney had directed the firm for twenty years and
was now retiring to raise horses. [simple sentence with
compound predicate]
Having directed the firm for twenty years, the attorney was
now retiring to raise horses. [simple sentence with verbal
phrase]
The attorney who had directed the firm for twenty years
was now retiring to raise horses. [complex sentence]
The attorney who had directed the firm for twenty years
was now retiring, for he wanted to raise horses.
[compound-complex sentence]
2. Begin some sentences with a modifier rather than with the
subject. If you place a modifier at the beginning of a
sentence, be sure that the modifier is still close to the word
that it modifies so that there is no confusion in meaning.
ADVERB
Surprisingly, the tulip did not originate in Holland
but in Turkey.
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
With flowers in window boxes, on streets, in stores,
and in lapels, the city seems to be built of flowers.
PARTICIPIAL PHRASE
Determined to retain its serenity, Haarlem prohibits
cars in its central areas.

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Unit 6 Revising

INFINITIVE PHRASE
To meet the demand for tulips, Haarlem residents~
devote much of their time to raising them.

ABSOLUTE PHRASE
Their colors exploding like a fireworks display, these
tulips attract sightseers from all over the world.
ADVERB CLAUSE
As if Haarlem were not already blessed with recogni
tion, it also has a museum devoted to the works of
the seventeenth-century painter Franz Hals.
3. Invert the normal word order of the sentence (page 38).
Among the guests were the governor and several of his
aides.

Exercise Revising: Variety On your paper, combine each of

the following sets of sentences into one sentence, coordinating and
subordinating ideas appropriately. Change wording as necessary, but
do not alter the original meaning. Then revise your sentence to vary
its structure or its beginning.
SAMPLE Community gardens are fast becoming a popular use
for vacant public land. The gardens are appearing
everywhere on patches of land. This land has been
given to the public. The land must be cultivated.
ANSWER Community gardens, fast becoming a popular use for
vacant public land, are appearing everywhere on
patches of land given to the public to be cultivated.
Community gardens are fast becoming a popular use
for public land, for they are appearing everywhere on
patches of land given to the public to be cultivated.
1. The gardens are thriving in cities and suburbs. People can be in touch
with nature. They can also eat well at the same time.
2. Spring comes. The sun is higher in the sky. You notice a crop of bent
backs. The backs sprout in the vacant lots of the city. The bent backs
sprout on rooftop gardens of apartment houses. They sprout on con
servation land in the suburbs.

292
 6.3
Variety

3. The bent backs belong to the community gardeners. The gardeners

are preparing the inhospitable soil of the city. They may be preparing
soil that is carried in to rooftops. Alternatively, they may be preparing
the more receptive ground of suburban land. The ground will nourish
a variety of vegetables.
4. They spend their days planting, weeding, and watering. The reason is
that the home-grown vegetables taste so much better. They are picked
and eaten fresh. They seem to be different species from the supermar
ket varieties.
5. Perhaps just as important as the quality of the vegetables is the
satisfaction. This satisfaction comes from having grown them.
6. The community garden in the suburb or the city offers people a
chance. They can feel somewhat self-sufficient in an urban society.

Assignment Revising On your paper, revise the following

passage to include sentences of different structures and lengths. You
may combine some sentences, and you may move some modifiers to
the beginnings. You do not need to change every sentence.
It was not so very long ago. The term recycling conjured up
images of scouts. They were collecting newspapers. Recycling is
being recognized as an economic and environmental necessity today.
It is becoming big business, furthermore. Factories buy old newspa
per, and they make more newspaper. Factories also transform glass,
aluminum cans, and scrap metal into usable items.
Scrap collection for reuse or resale is not new. Civilization has
produced scrap for a long time. Recycling in some form has proba
bly existed nearly as long. People born sixty or seventy years ago
certainly remember an earlier time. At that time little was thrown
away. Ashes became soap. Old clothes became patchwork quilts.
Bottles were returned. They became new bottles. Organized recy
cling reached its height during World War II. No self-respecting
citizens would throw away newspapers. They would not throw away
a piece of metal. They would not think of it. We have become adept
at many things since that time. We have, perhaps, become adept at
waste-making most of all.
The last few years have brought a heightened awareness.
There are serious problems being generated along with the prodi
gious amounts of trash. Problems arise from where to put the trash.
Problems also arise from how to pay for putting it there. There are

293
Unit 6 Revising

also problems resulting from shortages in energy and materials.

Recycling is a way to start reducing these problems. It reduces the
amount of trash.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignment for the following points:
1. Did you coordinate and subordinate sentences to vary the
structures and the lengths?
i# 2. Did you vary the beginnings of some sentences?
3. Did you leave unchanged the structure and length of some
sentences?

6 S
t e
When you revise your sentences, make sure that you use
parallel structure where necessary. A sentence has parallel struc
ture when similar parts of it are written in the same grammatical
form. That is, the conjunctions and, or, than and the correlative
conjunctions not only but (also) and either
. . . or and neither
. . .

nor must join two or more adjectives, phrases, clauses, or other

structures of the same type.
The parallel parts are in italic type in the following sentences:
In gas consumption what the car dealer claimed and how the car
performed were surprisingly close. [The parts joined by and are both
noun clauses.]
Chester has tried roller-skating, ice-skating, and riding a bicycle, but
he still prefers jogging for exercise. [The direct objects are all ger
unds or gerund phrases.]

Many times, sentences with faults in parallel structure can be

corrected in more than one way.
NOT PARALLEL
A good chair, a good book, and listening to good music are all
that Clarisse needs to be content.

294
 6.4

arallel Structure

REVISED
A good chair, a good book, and good music are all that
Clarisse needs to be content.
REVISED
Sitting in a good chair, reading a good book, and listening to
good music are all that Clarisse needs to be content.

You must use parallel structure with correlative conjunctions;

that is, you must follow each part of the correlative conjunction with
the same type of structure. Be sure that you place the two parts of the
conjunction immediately before the parallel parts.
NOT PARALLEL
As a rule, European trains run not only frequently but also
run on time. [Not only precedes an adverb; but also precedes
a verb.]
REVISED
As a rule, European trains not only run frequently but also
run on time. [Both not only and but also precede verbs.]

If you omit an article, a preposition, a pronoun, or the word to

in an infinitive from one part of a parallel structure, then you must
omit that word from every occurrence of that structure. Similarly, if
you include such a word in a parallel structure, you must include it
each time you use that structure.
NOT PARALLEL
He hoped that the price would be reasonable, the delivery
would be prompt, and that the products would work.
REVISED
He hoped that the price would be reasonable, the delivery
would be prompt, and the products would work.
RLVISED
He hoped that the price would be reasonable, that the deliv
ery would be prompt, and that the products would work.

Exercise I Revising: Parallel Structure On your paper,

revise the following sentences to give them parallel structure.

295
Unit 6 Revising

SAMPLE Mr. Marlowe did not like to fly kites, walk on jetties,
or playing checkers.
ANSWER Mr. Marlowe did not like to fly kites, walk on jetties,
or play checkers.

1. On that typewriter you can either use a regular fabric ribbon or a

carbon film ribbon.
2. The audience was composed of people who had positions at the bank,
people wl~o-were enrolled in training programs there, and whoever
~s interested in a bank job.
3. Almost everyone thought Jonathan to be wise, Elena to be witty, and
that Howard was both.
4. For her trip Ms. Russo plans to buy a pair of reflecting sunglasses,
large sun hat, and a big, bright beach towel.
5. Georgette was pleased with both the atmosphere of the restaurant and
how the food tasted.
6. To type well, to take shorthand, and knowing basic bookkeeping
techniques were the major requirements for the job.
7. In Carmel, California, the visitor not only finds a charming, flower-
bedecked town but also a breath-taking view of the Pacific.
8. Amazingly, not only could the cat roll over on command but also
come when called.
9. The photographer caught her subjects working at their jobs, compet
ing in a sport, or when they were just relaxing in their homes.
10. Detective McLeod suspects that the butler is guilty and he will con
fess.

Exercise 2 Revising: Parallel Structure On your paper,

rewrite each group of sentences as one sentence with parallel
structure.
SAMPLE Delighted with the new product, the research staff
supported the decision to expand production. The
sales force agreed. Both staffs were convinced that
the product would sell well.
ANSWER Delighted with the new product and convinced that it
would sell well, both the sales force and the research
staff supported the decision to expand production.

296
 6.4

Parallel Structure

1. Appearing unconcerned, L~ester Reilly walked out of his office. He

was actually concentrating on the challenge before him. He strode
determinedly down the corridor to the meeting room.
Appearing at a press conference was not a new experience for him.
Announcing a new product was also not new for Reilly, founder of
Reilly Technology, Inc. He was president of the firm as well.
3. Although Reilly did not dislike speaking to the press, he much pre
ferred to work alone in the laboratory. He did not mind appearing on
television occasionally. However, he preferred to discuss his research
with the younger scientists.
4. Nonetheless, Reilly realized the importance of public relations activi
ties. He always made sure to smile as he entered the board room. He
entered the conference room the same way.
Thinking of how little he had started out with made him smile. At the
same time, he was thinking of how much he had accomplished in
twenty years.

Assignment Revising Revise the following paragraph so that

the sentences have parallel structure where necessary.
Computers can solve mathematical problems both more accu
rately and do them more quickly than people. However, scientists
still are trying to program computers to master certain tasks and
skills that so far have required human intelligence. These tasks
include understanding language, to learn from experience, and pro
gram themselves. For tasks such as these, computers cannot be
programmed with step-by-step instructions as they are programmed
to solve mathematical problems. Instead, scientists must program
them with general strategies, similar to the thinking skills and pat
terns of human beings. Then the scientists test the computers’ suc
cess in responding to questions or in how they write new programs.
The computers pass the tests if either their answers make sense or
are similar to those that a person could give. Some computers can
perform one specific type of task very well, but so far no computer
has been programmed to do as well as people do in all tasks.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignment for the following points:
1. Did you make parallel the parts of sentences that serve similar
functions?

297
Unit 6 Revising

2. Did you place correlative conjunctions immediately before the

~..

parallel sentence parts?

v 3. Did you either repeat or omit introductory words in each part
of a parallel structure?

eviin ec
f c
6.5a Eliminating Wordiness

Concise writing is effective writing. Conciseness is not necessar

ily the use of the fewest possible words; it is the use of only words that
are needed. Wordiness, which is the use of more words than
necessary, weakens your writing. By using only necessary words and
by using shorter constructions, you can often improve the clarity and
power of your writing. The following strategies will guide you in
revising your writing for conciseness.

Strategies
1. Do not mistake flowery expressions and pretentious words
for good writing. Good writing is usually clear, simple, and
direct.
WORDY
Being desirous of remaining sanguine in the face of a
seemingly omnipotent adversary, the chess player
centralized his concentrative powers on the chess
board.
REVISED
Wanting to remain optimistic in the face of a power
ful opponent, the chess player focused his attention
on the chessboard.
2. Use direct expressions unless you have a good reason to use
less direct ones. Here are examples of indirect expressions,
together with concise replacements.

298
 6.5a
Eliminating Wordiness

CLAUSE TO PARTICIPIAL PHRASE

Because the caterpillars ate heartily, they left only
skeletons of the leaves.
Eating heartily, the caterpillars left only skeletons of
the leaves.
The trees, which have been strengthened by years of
good care, are surviving.
The trees, strengthened by years of good care, are
surviving.

CLAUSE TO GERUND PHRASE

Before the veterinarian examined the German shep
herd, she patted the dog.
Before examining the German shepherd, the veteri
narian patted the dog.

CLAUSE TO INFINITIVE PHRASE

Because he had a tight schedule that he had to follow,
Mr. Liu always hurried through lunch.
Because he had a tight schedule to follow, Mr. Liu
always hurried through lunch.

CLAUSE TO PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

After only a few minutes had passed, Carla put down
the book.
After only a few minutes, Carla put down the book.
CLAUSE TO APPOSITIVE PHRASE
Henriette Wyeth, who is the sister of the painter An
drew Wyeth, is also an accomplished artist.
Henriette Wyeth, the sister of the painter Andrew
Wyeth, is also an accomplished artist.

CLAUSE TO WORD
The chair that is broken belonged to my Aunt Sadie.
The broken chair belonged to my Aunt Sadie.
It is obvious that her taste in furniture was quite
different from mine.
Obviously, her taste in furniture was quite different
from mine.

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Unit 6 Revising

PHRASE TO WORD
Preston always had trouble opening the door to the
garage.
Preston always had trouble opening the garage door.

Exercise I Revising: Conciseness On your paper, revise

the following sentences to make them concise.

SAMPLE While it is certainly a true fact that journeys to dis

tant parts can be edifying and also recreational, it
happens also to be true that engaging in preparations
for such pilgrimages can be an exhausting experience.
ANSWER While long trips can be educational and fun, prepar
ing for them can be exhausting.
1. In the midst of the making of preparations for the journey on which
she was due to embark the following morning at 6:00 A.M., Heather
Hillman came to the realization that she had neglected to make the
purchase of an implement with which to perform dental hygiene.
2. This particular incident seemed to Heather to be just another incident
in a long succession of disastrous catastrophes that had occurred one
after another since the time when her plans for the trip had first been
formulated by her.
3. In point of fact, there had been no single moment in the period during
the past month at which preparations had seemed to be proceeding
with any degree of smoothness whatsoever.
4. The first unfortunate event that occurred had been that the original
dates first established for the trip had undergone an alteration as a
result of action by the charter service.
5. At that point in time, it was considered by Heather that she might
perhaps precipitate a change of plans with respect to the trip that she
was planning.
6. The next occurrence that followed was that it came to Heather’s
attention that her deposit of money had been misplaced somewhere by
the person functioning in the capacity of travel-arrangement coordina
tor, who, it would seem, neglected to make due written record of the
receipt of such deposit.
7. Perhaps it is possible that in and of themselves such things as these
would not have caused Heather to experience any significant degree of
misery, but the fact is that the catastrophes kept continuing on for
Heather.

302
 6.5b
Coherence

8. As far as Michele is concerned, she happens to believe that Heather is

to be admired for her tenacious persistence and for her resilient
buoyancy.
9. Just on this very day, as Heather was collecting her possessions
together that she intended to place in her suitcase, a triple tragedy
occurred simultaneously when three things went wrong all at the same
time: the timekeeping mechanism became inoperative in the bedroom,
the appliance that cleansed the laundry malfunctioned in the basement
under the house, and, in addition, the canine became ill in the living
room.
10. To make a long story short, after putting her hat on her head and her
gloves on her hands, Heather descended down the stairs carrying her
suitcases in her hands only to discover with her own eyes that a heavy
precipitation of snow had been coming down from the sky continuous
ly for the last few hours of time.

6. b Revising Sentences That Lack

Coherence and C arity

Sentences that include too many ideas may lack coherence as

well as conciseness. In such sentences the important ideas become
obscured and the relationships between ideas unclear. When revis
ing, rewrite long, overloaded sentences as direct, concise statements.
Use the following strategies to revise sentences that lack coherence.

Strategies
1. Divide the sentence into two or more sentences. Put the main
ideas in independent clauses and the less important ideas in
subordinate clauses and phrases.
2. Subordinate some ideas that have been coordinated. Subor
dination is often more precise than coordination. Use
subordinate elements to avoid overusing the common
coordinating words and and but.
3. Eliminate unnecessary words and details.
NOT COHERENT
The strange childishness of Emily Dickinson intrigues
Derek and so does her reclusiveness, and so he has

303
Unit 6 Revising

chosen her poetry as the subject of his essay, because

he wonders why she spent her life as she did, and he
cannot imagine how she could feel so much when she
lived so little, but perhaps an intense study of her
work will shed some light on these matters.
REVISED
Because the strange childishness and reclusiveness of
Emily Dickinson intrigue Derek, he has chosen her
poetry as the subject of his essay. Perhaps an intense
study of her work will shed some light on why she
spent her life as she did and on how she could feel so
much when she lived so little.

Exercise 2 Revising: Conciseness On your paper, revise

the following sentences, which lack coherence. Divide each one into
two or more shorter sentences and make other necessary changes.
SAMPLE Athough the trip to Greece that Mr. and Mrs.
Puopolo are considering taking offers round-trip air
transportation and first-class hotel rooms, and it also
provides baggage handling, transfers to and from the
hotels, and tours of the famous sights, as well as of
the countryside, they have not yet decided whether to
go because of the fact that the dates coincide with tax
time, and that time is the busiest time of year in their
office.
ANSWER The trip to Greece that Mr. and Mrs. Puopolo are
considering taking offers not only round-trip air
transportation and first-class hotel rooms, but also
baggage handling, transfers to and from the hotels,
and tours of the famous sights. They have not yet
decided whether to go, however, because the dates
coincide with tax time, the busiest time of year in
their office.

1. During the years of the late 1400s, as the two existing royal houses of
Britain, the House of York, which had adopted the pure white rose as
its representative emblem, and the House of Lancaster, which had
become identified with the crimson rose, clashed over the possession
of the English monarchy, their battles became known as the Wars of
the Roses.

304
 6.5b
Coherence

2. It had been suggested by Mrs. Nelson, her chemistry instructor, that

Rosa, who was desirous of a summer job, apply to the Parks and
Recreation Department for the position of lifeguard at the local swim
ming pool, which involved not only watching swimmers during the
afternoon and early evening hours, but also giving swimming lessons
to young children starting each and every weekday morning at 9:00
A.M.
3. Frances Perkins had become the first woman member of the Cabinet
in 1933 when President Franklin Roosevelt appointed her to be Secre
tary of Labor in which post she served until 1945.
4. One of the first bicycles, which was called a Draisine, was invented in
the early nineteenth century, in 1816, by Baron Karl von Drais of
Germany, who created a wooden scooterlike vehicle with a steering
bar connected to the front wheel.
5. Dan, who had learned to type when he took a typing course during
his high school years, found typing a very useful skill when he attend
ed an institution of higher learning and he was assigned papers and
lab reports, and even now, at the present time, since he has become a
sports reporter for the city newspaper.
6. The Anglins, who are our neighbors, drove in their car part way up
the mountain one bright Saturday and parked, and then they contin
ued together on foot to the top of Mount Charleston, where they had
an outdoor picnic lunch and enjoyed the beautiful day until the sun
began to set in the west at 5:00 P.M. in the afternoon.
Though the nineteenth century was, as a whole, an age of architectur
al revival, the English architect Sir Joseph Paxton created a brand-new
style and employed recently developed industrial materials, such as
wrought iron and glass, and new techniques when he designed the
Crystal Palace in London in the year 1851 for the Exhibition of the
Industry of All Nations, which attracted over six million visitors.
8. The plane was packed with business executives from all across the
entire country flying to the annual hardware convention, which was
held in Seattle every single year during the month of June.
9. In Tennessee Williams’s play The Glass Menagerie, Laura, the sister of
the narrator, Tom Wingfield, who recalls his past in St. Louis to form
the substance of this memory play, lives in a fantasy world centering
on her collection of tiny, miniature glass animals.
10. Pierre L’Enfant, a French engineer who was hired by George Wash
ington, who made the Capitol the center of Washington and who
established the city’s broad streets that radiate out from the Capitol,
created the plan for the city of Washington, D.C.

305
Unit 6 Revising

Assignment Revising On your paper, revise the following

paragraph to make it concise and direct.
Caricature is the art of satirical portraiture, and it is not new,
for it was used by the ancient Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks, and
Romans hundreds of years ago. In modern times today, with the
easy and widespread availability of printed materials, caricature has
become a popular form of satire, because many well-known famous
personalities are more readily identified with caricatures than with
serious paintings or photographs, although this is not always a fact
that pleases the subject, because a clever caricaturist going after a
vulnerable victim can be like an assassin attacking with a sharp eye
and a sharp pen. Although caricaturists search for the most minute
idiosyncrasy of their subject, and then they exploit it, transforming
an eyebrow, a lower lip, an earlobe, or a lock of hair into a
personality, the person in the arts must take care not to overdo too
much the exaggeration, for while an effective caricature must be
outrageous and witty, it must also be instantly recognizable. Because
of the fact that, with only a bold line here and a sharp angle there,
some of the finest drawings need only a few strokes of the pen, the
formula for fine caricature seems to be a mysterious mixture of
abbreviation and exaggeration.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignment for the following points:
1. Did you eliminate wordiness by using simple, direct, and
clear expressions?
t 2. Did you eliminate redundant words and expressions?
,. 3. Did you reduce clauses and phrases where appropriate?
4. Did you divide and adjust sentences that lack coherence?

vs f h .
Effective writing highlights the important ideas. Think carefully
about the ideas that you want to stress and the effect that you want
them to have. Then, in your writing, emphasize the important details
by using emphatic positions and emphatic structures. The following
strategies will help you to emphasize ideas in your writing.

306
 66
Emphasis

Strategies
1. Use the strong positions in a sentence. The strong positions
are the beginning and the end. Reserve these places for
important ideas. Place your most important ideas at the
end, for that is the most emphatic position of all. Weak
ideas at the end or at the beginning make your sentences
weak.
WEAK He discovered that he had one too many pearls
when he counted them. [weak idea at end]
EMPHATIC When he counted the pearls, he discovered that
he had one too many. [important idea at end]
WEAK After a trying day, Margaret was relieved to be
home from the office. [weak idea at end]
EMPHATIC After a trying day at the office, Margaret was
relieved to be home. [strong idea at end]
2. Use periodic sentences. Periodic sentences take advantage
of the emphatic position at the end of the sentence. In a
periodic sentence, you build up details to a climax, where
you finally state the main idea. The suspense created gives
the main idea added force. Like any dramatic technique,
periodic sentences should not be overused.
PERIODIC SENTENCES
With the score tied, the bases loaded, and two out,
Merrill confidently stepped up to bat.
Tiptoeing carefully to avoid the creaky places, the
candle cupped in his hand to direct the glow,
Marshall neared the gaping doorway.
3. Write balanced sentences. Balanced sentences emphasize
parallel ideas, particularly contrasting ideas. In a balanced
sentence, you use parallel structure to convey the effect of
equal but different.
BALANCED SENTENCES
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar

307
Unit 6 Revising

• ask not what your country can do for you; ask

. .

what you can do for your country.

John F. Kennedy, Inaugural address
Just as autumn follows summer, so does football fol
low baseball.
4. Subordinate less important ideas. Stress the more important
ideas by putting them in independent clauses. You can
change the emphasis and therefore the cue to the reader,
according to which idea you subordinate.
Chester Malcolm, who is a computer scientist, is giving the
seminar.
Chester Malcolm, who is giving the seminar, is a computer
scientist.
5. Repeat key words and phrases or key ideas. Pointless
repetition is wordy, but deliberate repetition can be power
ful and emphatic.
government of the people, by the people, and for the
people shall not perish from the earth.
Abraham Lincoln, Address at Gettysburg
John was a good man, an honest man, a hard-working man,
but not a cautious man.
6. Use voice effectively. The active voice is generally more
forceful than the passive.
WEAK PASSIVE
A strange sound was detected by Kristin. [passive]
MORE EMPHATIC
Kristin detected a strange sound. [active]
When the focus is on the receiver rather than on the
performer of the action, or when the performer is not
specified, the passive voice can be more emphatic than the
active voice.
WEAK ACTIVE
The group elected Sheridan president.
EMPHATIC PASSIVE
Sheridan was elected president.

308
 6.6
Emphasis

WEAK ACTIVE
Someone returned the book yesterday.
EMPHATIC PASSIVE
The book was returned yesterday.
7. Change sentence length. You can capture your reader’s
attention with a short sentence that follows or precedes a
group of longer sentences.
The furniture had been polished till it shone, and the floors
looked too clean to be stepped on. Not a trace could be
seen of a newspaper or a carelessly tossed magazine or a
pen set down and forgotten. The house was ready.

E ercise Revising: Emphasis On your paper, revise each

sentence or group of sentences to improve the emphasis. You may
separate the sentences or combine them.
SAMPLE The plant seemed to shrivel after a day or two.
ANSWER After a day or two, the plant seemed to shrivel.

1. Less interest has been shown in the hero’s movie adventures than has
been manifested in his real-life activities.
2. Because the garage has repaired Ms. Casazza’s car, she can drive us to
the softball game.
3. Mr. Stewart was determined not to drive. He bicycled all the way to
the construction site.
4. The chair was being sat in by Albert Whittingill.
5. It was embarrassingly obvious that Mr. Schoenberg had little knowl
edge of the problem from his comments.
6. The sun shone all day because Vanessa, dressed in an uncomfortable
plastic raincoat, had prepared for a torrent, her old boat moccasins
flapping on her feet, a plastic hat crushed into her purse, and an
umbrella on her arm.
7. No one will be allowed to enter the studio until the recording session
has been completed.
The rolling landscape shone after the rain, the air felt cleansed and
pure, and our nostrils were touched with the scent of new spring
growth. It was really true that at last we were home.
9. Mr. Pomorsky was not angry at Ida. He was not angry at the taxi
driver. He felt little fury at the reporter. He was angry at himself.

309
Unit 6 Revising

10. Jeremy’s ostensible purpose in attending the conference was to learn

what was new in the field. The real reason that he was there, howev
er, was to discover what jobs might be available to him.

Assignment Revising On your paper, revise the following

paragraph to emphasize important ideas.
Not many generations ago, every neighborhood had its gro
cery store, its drugstore, its shoemaker, its bank, and its ice-cream
parlor. Then, as technology advanced, the smaller stores were driv
en out of business by large firms, and automobiles allowed people to
move out of the neighborhoods. Small businesses became outdated
as people chose the security offered by large corporations over the
insecurities of their own businesses. Now the small business is mak
ing a comeback, however. People are going out on their own once
more because they have become frustrated by the impersonality, the
rules, and the procedures common in many large companies. The
corner variety store is making a reappearance, and other, more
novel, enterprises are being launched to meet the needs of our
changing society. Because many of those novice entrepreneurs are
often youthful and lacking in experience and financial resources,
they rely on imagination and on hard work. Obviously, becoming
your own employer is once again becoming fashionable.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignment for the following points:
t. 1. Did you put important ideas in strong positions in sentences?
2. Did you subordinate less important ideas?
i-’ 3. Did you use balanced sentences and periodic sentences where
appropriate?
~ 4. Did you use either the active or the passive voice for the proper
emphasis?
i 5. Did you occasionally change sentence length for emphasis?

e o
Completing Your Revision
Proofreading, the last stage in the revision process, is the
checking of a piece of writing for correct grammar, usage, spelling,
and punctuation. If you are unsure about the correctness of a word or

310
 6.7

Proofreading

a sentence structure, assume that it is incorrect. Then look up the

information in this book or in some other reference book.
You may use the proofreading symbols shown on pages 207—
208. After you have completed your revision, you can type or write
your finished copy.

An Example of Revising
and Proofreading
Here is a first draft of a paragraph. To the left of the draft are
notes indicating where revision is needed. After you have read the
draft and the notes, read the revised version that follows it, reviewing
one by one the changes that were made.
FIRST DRAFT
Emphasis missed The string instruments have their giant bass
Wordy fiddle. There are bass horns too. The low bass horns,
which are the horns known as tubas, play the low
Emphas s missed horn notes in a band or orchestra. People do not take
Relationship this brass giant seriously as an instrument. It has coils
unclear and a shiny bell-shaped top. “I am a tuba player”
Punctuation error does not usually elicit the same admiration as I am a
Not coherent violinist” or “I am a guitarist,” and the outlandish
Relationship appearance of the tuba is partly to blame for this.
unclear The tuba’s bell provides a fine place. Pepper and
Inconsistent tense flour were tossed in, which started the band sneezing,
Not parallel and the audience would laugh too. Comedians took
Sentence out advantage of the unwieldy size of the tuba to create a
of order medley of sight gags. The tuba player in a marching
band hardly had the snap and dash of the trumpeter.
Then, too, the relentless oom-pah-pah that is the
only music many people associate with the tuba does
Capitalization not conjure up images of Ballet Dancers or angels.
error Nevertheless, the tuba seems to be gaining new re
spect at last. It is gaining respect in jazz as well as in
pop and classical music. People do not regard it as a
riety needed joke. The tuba is viewed as a serious instrument
more and more, for it is the bass of the horns.

311
Unit 6 Revising

REVISED VERSION
Balanced sentence Just as the string instruments have their giant
bass fiddle, the horns have their bass horns. The bass
Concise horns, known as tubas, play the low horn notes in a
Ideas band or orchestra. This brass giant, with its coils and
subordinated shiny bell-shaped top, is not always taken seriously as

Punctuation an instrument. “I am a tuba player” does not usually

corrected elicit the same admiration as “I am a violinist” or “I
Sentence divided am a guitarist.” The outlandish appearance of the
Tense consistent tuba is partly to blame. Comedians take advantage of
Sentence moved its unwieldy size to create a medley of sight gags. The
Transition tuba’s bell, for example, provides a fine place in
Idea subordinated which to toss pepper or flour, which starts the band
Parallel structure sneezing and the audience laughing. The tuba player
Tense consistent in a marching band hardly has the snap and dash of
the trumpeter. Then, too, the relentless oom-pah-pah
Capitalization that is the only music most people associate with a
corrected tuba does not conjure up images of ballet dancers or
Sentences angels. Nevertheless, the tuba seems to be gaining
combined new respect at last, in jazz as well as in popular and
Adverbs to classical music. More and more, the tuba is being
beginning viewed not as a joke but as a serious instrument, the
Idea subordinated bass of the horns.

xercise Revising: The Paragraph On your paper, revise

and proofread the following passage. Use the notes as a guide.

Not parallel One of the world’s fastest sports takes place

Wordy not on a race track but an ice-covered rink. The fact
that ice hockey is played with such fast speed makes
Emphasis missed it an exciting game to watch, and it is an entertaining
Wordy game too. The skaters flash quickly across the ice.
Person Using wooden hockey sticks, you try to send the
inconsistent puck, a hard rubber disk, past the other team’s goalie
into their net. The puck is often slammed so hard
Wordy that it streaks across the ice at a rate of more than
Relationship 160 kilometers an hour. The game was developed in
unclear Canada, in the 1850s. The basic idea probably came
Emphasis missed from field hockey. Students at Montreal’s McGill

312
 6.7

Proofreading

University drew up the first formal rules in the 1870s,

and by the 1890s the game had become widespread.
Punctuation error The hockey players of those days who played a game
Not parallel that was far slower and played less roughly than the
game of today, did not need the protective padding
and helmets that now prevent so many injuries. The
Punctuation error faster more violent game that we know now is a
Wordy popular sport in many countries of the world. Like
Irrelevant detail soccer, it attracts millions of fans too.

Assignment Revising On your paper, revise and proofread

the following passage.
Ragtime is a kind of music. It is obviously not a time to
collect rags. It sets off a lively highly syncopated melody against a
strongly rhythmic accompaniment. The melody can be thought of as
teasing the accompaniment, and so the name may come from the
slang use of rag, meaning “to tease. His “Maple Leaf Rag” was the
first piece of ragtime. It is the case that people have applied the
term to early types of jazz, true ragtime first originated in the very
early years of the century with the piano playing of Scott Joplin.
The popularity of rags ends temporarily with Joplin’s death in
1917, but it is renewed again in the 1970s, and there was a recording
then of an album of Joplin’s rags and the making of a movie, The
Sting. The movie was based on the period and used Joplin’s music.
Joplin’s “The entertainer” then became a great hit. That happened
more than five decades after his death. His folk opera Treemonisha,
which no one would produce in his lifetime, was performed, and his
Collected Works sold thousands and thousands of copies.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignment for the following points:
i 1. Did you place ideas in the most effective order for coherence?
t 2. Did you combine some sentences to make clear the relation
ships between the ideas?
~ 3. Did you make the tense, voice, person, and tone consistent?
i 4. Did you make the passage direct and concise?
i 5. Did you give sentences parallel structure where necessary?
i 6. Did you emphasize important details?
* 7. Did you proofread for correct grammar, usage, spelling, and
punctuation?

313
 —— — W Ii~ VA ~

71’
/

Computers: What They Do, Why We Need Them

Situation: One issue of Sunday Magazine in your newspaper
is featuring computers. As a new assistant editor, you have
been asked to revise an article that has been submitted as a
brief overview of the uses of computers. The magazine editor
has reviewed the article and given you notes to improve the
emphasis and coherence of the article. As you work on the
article, keep in mind the following information.
Writer: you as assistant editor
Audience: readers of Sunday Magazine
Topic: uses of computers
Purpose: to revise an article for coherence and appropriate
emphasis

Directions: To revise the first draft, follow these steps.

Step 1. Read the first draft of the article on the facing
page. Then read the editor’s notes on page 316.
Step 2. Revise the article, sentence by sentence, accord
ing to the notes. Rewrite the sentences on a sepa
rate sheet of paper. Be sure to follow all the
instructions for each sentence.
Step 3. Proofread your revised article. Make sure that
your sentences flow smoothly and contain no
errors in grammar, spelling, or punctuation.

314
 Uses of Computers

(J.)’rhe new technology is fast becoming an integral

part of the business world. (a)How computers and computer
languages work, what computers do. and why we need them
are what interest people today. (3)You might think of a
computer as a worker capable of three tasks, any of which
it can perform easily. (~)Computers can process data, be
a controller, and a designer. (S)As designers, computers
can engineer and “test bridges for resistance to
earthquakes and wind. (6)A computer can even design a
piece of music and play it back. (7)Computers are
processors of information and they can handle large
volumes of material with accuracy and speed. (8) It can
transform basic information into more useful information
according to instructions. (~) Computers are used to
store, analyze, and process information for banks,
hospitals, educational institutions, and when we do
business. (1O)Colleges are being helped by computers that
keep track of students applying, enrolling, and
transferring. (iliComputers can take on such problems as
regulating the flow of the traffic out of the school
parking lot. (U)Computers as controllers are used in
small airports without control towers. (1.3)There they
monitor wind speed and direction, and, via radio, indicate
to pilots the proper runway for landing. (1.~)Computers
help us live, and these are just some of the ways we use
them.

0~

0
315
 Notes for revision

Sentence
1 Omit this sentence. The information is not
directly related to the limited topic.
2 Need stronger topic sentence. Write a question
that limits the topic to what computers do and
why we need them. Remove unnecessary words.
3 Emphasize the strong idea (‘three tasks’) by
having it at the end of the sentence. Omit
unnecessary information.
4 Make items parallel (three nouns in series).
5, 6 Discuss the items in the order used to introduce
them. Place Sentences 5 and 6 before Sentence
14 so that supporting details follow the order
introduced in Sentence 4.
7 Begin sentence with “As processors of
information” to emphasize the order of ideas in
the paragraph.. Make.compu.ters the subject of
the sentence.
8 Use third person plural pronoun as the subject.
The pronoun mu~t agree with the word computers
in the preceding. senten~e.
9 Insert introd~ictory transition~l phrase to
introduce examples. Make last item in series
parallel w.iLth other items.
10 Use the act-~ve vd~ice foi. emphasis.
11 To emphasize a key idea in the paragraph, repeat
the word controller; beg-in w•i~h the transitional
phrase “As cont-ro].J.ers.”
12, 13 Combine Sentences 12 and 13. Use the
preposit-iona-l phrase in 12 to begin the new.
sentence.- Use computens as it~he subject of £h’e’
sentence. Note,: Follow with sentences 5 and ~
here. .
14 For a strong conclusion., put the ~importañt idea
(“heip us. live”) at the end of-the ‘ser~tence. -

,,xxxxfl ,:x
• ~

*KKXUXflXK.
• ~oOOQ00O0O0~~

316
• 00ooc’r’°c~~~~°°°°°
Unit Assignments
Assignment 1 Select a paragraph that you have written for a
previous assignment. Use the information in this unit to revise your
paragraph. Then proofread it and make a finished copy.

Assignment 2 In your school or local newspaper, find an article

or a letter that you think can be improved. Use the information in this
unit to improve it. Then proofread your revised version. Submit the
original with your revised version.

A signment 3 Find a piece of writing that is wordy or overwrit

ten. You might look at editorials, copies of speeches or lectures, or
campaign literature. Revise the writing to make it direct, concise, and
forceful.

Assignment 4 Write a paragraph on a serious or controversial

topic. Your purposes are to inform and to express your opinion.
Establish a serious tone. Revise your paragraph, concentrating
especially on the tone. Proofread your revised version before submit
ting it.

Assignment 5 Step 1: Write a paragraph about your plans for the

next five years. Address it to an audience of your classmates. Step 2:
Rewrite your paragraph on another sheet of paper, making necessary
changes to adapt it for use with an application for college or for a job.
Step 3: Revise each paragraph, concentrating especially on correct
emphasis. Proofread your revised versions before submitting them.

evising Your Assignments

For help in revising your writing, consult the Checklist for
Revision on the last page of this book.

317
 Unit Tests
~ ~
~.r. ~

es
A. Number your paper from ito 5. Next to each number, write the
letter of the term that correctly completes the sentence. You will use
all but one of the items.
a. coherence d. emphasis
b. periodic sentence e. conciseness
c. revising f. consistency

1. _L is reorganizing and rewriting your work so that it expresses your

thoughts in a clear and effective manner.
2. A sentence has proper _L. when it highlights the important ideas.
3. A paragraph has _l_ when it has been developed and organized to
make clear the relationship among the ideas.
4. _L is the use of only words that are necessary.
5. In a _L, you build up details to a climax, where you finally state the
main idea.

Number your paper from 6 to 10. Next to each number, write

the letter of the item that correctly answers each question about the
following paragraph.
(1) The skills needed for a career in business are becoming
more complex, and competition for jobs in business is increasing.
(2) Therefore, high school students are preparing for careers in
business. (3) They take courses in accounting and typing. (4) The
Junior Achievement organization was founded in 1919 by a paper
manufacturer, and many students who want to get actual business
experience join it. (5) The members from the same community
form their own company. (6) They not only plan the company and
sell stock but also they market a service or a product. (7) For
example, some groups operate cleaning services, and other groups
make and sell radios. (8) Because of advances in technology, a
radio can be as small as a watch. (9) Running the companies is an
exciting, challenging way for each and every member to achieve the
desired goal of learning business skills that will be useful in the
business world.

318
6. Which sentence should be removed to unify the paragraph?
a. Sentence 2 c. Sentence 7
b. Sentence 5 d. Sentence 8
7. Which of the following is the best revision of Sentences 2 and 3?
a. Therefore, high school students are preparing for careers in busi
ness, and they take courses in accounting and typing.
b. Therefore, high school students are preparing for careers in busi
ness by taking courses in accounting and typing.
c. Therefore, high school students are preparing for careers in busi
ness in order to take courses in accounting and typing.
8. Which of the following is the strongest revision of Sentence 4?
a. Students who want to get actual business experience join the Junior
Achievement organization, which was founded in 1919 by a paper
manufacturer.
b. In 1919 a paper manufacturer founded the Junior Achievement
organization, which many students who want to get actual business
experience join.
c. Because the Junior Achievement organization was founded in 1919,
many sttudents who want to get actual business experience join it.
9. Which one of the following revisions gives Sentence 6 parallel struc
ture?
a. Not only do they plan the company and sell stock but also market a
service or a product.
b. They plan the company and sell stock as well as marketing a
service or a product.
c. They not only plan the company and sell stock but also market a
service or a product.
10. Which of the following sentences is wordy?
a. Sentence 1 c. Sentence 7
b. Sentence 5 d. Sentence 9

2
Choose one of the Unit Assignments or one suggested by your
teacher. Write and revise the assignment as directed and submit it to
your teacher.

319
Unit 7

‘‘‘vi

a a
ifI - JI~
I

Whenever you write, you use one of four modes, or forms,

of writing: exposition, description, narration, or persuasion.
Your purpose in writing determines which mode you use. If your
purpose is to inform or explain, you use exposition. If your
purpose is to convey an impression of a person, a place, or an
object, you use description. For the purpose of telling a story,
you use narration. To convince your reader that your opinion is
correct, you use persuasion. In this unit you will study the first
three modes. Persuasion is presented separately in Unit 8.
Each of the following passages illustrates one of the three
modes of writing that are covered in this unit.

Exposition When most people write letters or make

grocery lists, they do not realize that a complicat
ed process was used to produce the paper they
are using. There are four major steps in the
process of making paper: cutting wood intá
chips, cooking the chips into pulp, treating the
pulp, and drying and pressing the pulp into
paper.

Description Kay breezed into the kitchen with her arms

full of packages. All I could see over the packages
was her round, smiling face surrounded by her
curly, orange-red hair. Although she was short
and plump, she moved with the grace of a gym
nast. When she put down her load, I could see

320
 the yellow of her dress, the brightest color in the
room. Then, her green eyes shining, she made
me guess what she had purchased in town.

Narration My friend Hal and I arrived at the base of

Mt. Snow at two o’clock one Saturday afternoon
in October. Looking up at the bottom half of the
mountain, we chose the trail that we would fol
low on our hike to the top. It was a broad, grassy
trail dotted with large rocks. We slowly made our
way up the first part of the trail, stopping fre
quently to enjoy the view. By the time the sun
had set, we regretted the time that we had spent
just relaxing.

For Analysüs On your paper, answer the following questions

about the preceding paragraphs.
1. What is the writer’s purpose in the first paragraph?
2. What general impression of Kay is created in the descriptive
paragraph?
3. What setting and characters are introduced in the narrative para
graph?
4. What does the writer of the third paragraph hint will happen
later in the narrative?
In analyzing the passages of exposition, description, and
narration, you have considered some important features of the
three modes of writing. In this unit you will learn how to write
clear explanations, vivid descriptions, and lively narratives. As
you write, you will follow the three steps of the writing process:
prewriting, writing, and revising.

d i r s
an ece
Your purpose for writing may be to explain, to describe, or to
narrate. For example, you may want to explain how land is surveyed
or what services public libraries provide. On the other hand, you may

321
Unit 7 Three Modes of Writing

wish to describe the sounds and appearance of your old manual

typewriter or the stillness and fresh smells of a garden after a
rainstorm. You may wish to tell a story about your first day in a new
home or about Robert E. Peary’s journey to the North Pole. When
you begin to write, you must make sure that every sentence helps to
accomplish your purpose.
Sometimes you can combine modes in your writing. For exam
ple, in a narrative you may include descriptions of the major
characters, the setting, and important objects in the story. Also, you
may make an expository composition clearer and more interesting by
using a short narrative to introduce your explanation.
You should direct your writing to anyone who might be
interested in your topic. When you write for a general audience, you
may have to explain details that you would not have to explain to
someone who is familiar with your topic.
Some of your writing will be directed to a specialized audience.
When it is, you should include and emphasize details of particular
interest to that audience. For example, if you were writing a
description of a scene for members of a camera club, you might
include details about lighting and shadows that would be important to
a photographer.
The purpose of the following expository paragraph is to explain
why traveling by train in Mexico is enjoyable.

Model
If you are a train buff or simply prefer to see the countryside
through which you are traveling rather than the center line of a
highway, Mexico is the place for you. Mexico has fifteen thousand
miles of railroad lines connecting its mountains, coasts, and jungles.
You need only get to a station on time; after that, put your watch in
your pocket and relax. You may not get to your destination exactly
at the appointed hour, but you’ll have a marvelous time looking out
the window, eating food, and enjoying the comfort of the ride.
Stephen Birnbaum, Mexico 1982

The writer of the paragraph addresses a specialized audience,

people who enjoy traveling by train. He tells these people why they
would enjoy a trip in Mexico.

322
 7.1

Purpose and Audience

Exercise 1 Prewriting: Purpose On your paper, write

whether the purpose of each of the following topics is to explain, to
describe, or to narrate.
SAMPLE How an insulated container keeps foot hot
ANSWER To explain
1. The physical appearance of the space shuttle
2. Ways to prepare for a secretarial job
3. Looking for my first job
4. How computers control subway cars
5. How a childhood friend looked
6. Highway sounds
7. My first driving lesson
8. How my community will have changed by the year 2050
9. The seashore at dawn
10. The game that we almost won

Exercise 2 Prewriting: Audience On your paper, write one

or two sentences that describe the audience to whom the following
narrative paragraph seems to be directed.
I was excited by my family’s move to Key West, Florida,
because it would give me the opportunity to explore Florida’s coral
reefs, which are large offshore colonies of coral animals. On our first
free day after unpacking, my brother and I decided to investigate
the reefs near the shore. Because we would not be going into deep
water, we used only snorkels, short breathing tubes that extend from
divers’ mouths to the surface of the water.

Assignment I Prewriting Choose a topic that is related to a

job, a craft, or a sport that interests you. On your paper, list the
topic, a purpose for writing, and an audience for the topic. Then,
keeping your purpose and audience in mind, list details that you
could use to develop the topic in a single paragraph.

Assignment 2 Writing/Revising Using the topic, the pur

pose, the audience, and the list of details that you developed in

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Assignment 1, write a paragraph. When your paragraph is complete,

reread your work as if you were the intended audience. Make any
changes that would help you to understand the paragraph. Then
proofread the paragraph.

Assignment Checklist
Check your writing assignments for the following points:
1. Did you include only details that help to accomplish your
purpose?
~ 2. If you have a specialized audience, did you emphasize details
of special interest to it?
i 3. Did you proofread your work for correct grammar, usage,
spelling, and punctuation?

V •t•
7. a Writing a Expository Co position

Your purpose in expository writing is, as you have already

learned, to explain something to your reader or to inform your reader
about something. For example, you can tell your reader how a
printing press works, what causes a glacier to form, or what a
copyright is.

Selecting and Limiting a Topic

In a short expository composition, write on a topic that you can
cover fully in no more than five to seven paragraphs. A detailed
discussion of a limited topic is better than an incomplete discussion of
a general topic. Whether you choose your own topic or use one that
has been assigned, limit it by choosing a single aspect of it to write
about.
For example, the general topic “Energy” can be limited to the
topic “How automatic thermostats can save fuel.” The general topic
“Movies” can be narrowed to the manageable topic “Why musicals
became popular in the 1930s.”

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Selecting a Topic

Exercise 1 Prewriting: Selecting a Topic For each of the

following general topics, write on your paper a limited topic that
could be developed in a short expository composition.
1. Foreign countries 6. Radio
2. Magazines 7. Driving
3. Machines 8. Tests
4. Agriculture 9. Banking
5. Medical professions 10. Community organizations

Planning an Explanation
Your explanation will be clear to your reader if you plan it
carefully before you start to write. The following strategies will help
you to plan your composition.

Strategies
1. List the information that you want to include in your
explanation. If you are not familiar with the topic, you may
need to do research on it before completing the list.
2. Review your list. Add any important points that you may
have forgotten to list, and eliminate any unnecessary
information.
3. Organize the information in a logical way. For a composi
tion that explains how something works or how to do
something, use chronological order (page 255). For a
composition that explains the causes or effects of some
thing, use chronological order or order of importance (page
258). When you organize points in order of importance,
you usually move from the least important detail to the
most important detail. In any case, use one method of
organization consistently throughout your composition.
4. Analyze the information to see whether you can divide it into
two or more groups. If you can, you should place each
group of related points in a separate paragraph when you
write your composition.

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Unit 7 Three Modes of Writing

Writing an Explanation
When you have completed your plan, you will use it as a guide
for writing your explanation. The following strategies will help you to
write a clear explanation.

Strategies
1. Include a topic sentence in each paragraph. Although a
topic sentence usually is placed at the beginning of a
paragraph, you may place it wherever it is most effective.
The topic sentence of the first paragraph should present the
topic of the entire explanation.
2. Use transitional words to emphasize the relationships among
your ideas. Use such words and phrases as first, for
example, most important, and therefore to move from one
sentence or paragraph to the next.
3. Define all terms that may be unfamiliar to your reader. For
example, if you are explaining what types of bank accounts
exist, you probably will have to define the term time
deposit.
4. Write a concluding sentence. Your last sentence should let
your reader know that the explanation has come to an end.
A concluding sentence may summarize what you have
explained, or it may comment on the explanation.

The following paragraphs explain to the reader what tasks and

skills are associated with being a legal assistant. The transitional
words are printed in italic type.

Model
Overa I People who have the skills and training to be
topic sen ence legal assistants are almost assured of finding challeng
ing jobs. The demand for legal assistants has been
increasing yearly because it has become apparent that
there are not enough lawyers to do all of the legal
work that exists. Legal assistants help lawyers by
doing a wide range of tasks. For example, they inter

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 7.2a
Writing Explanations

view clients, prepare simple contracts and documents,

and do research for major cases.
Topic sentence People who hope to be legal assistants should
possess several traits. First, they should be interested
in working with people and in helping people to solve
Traits in problems. Next, they should be concerned with accu
~~r~nce racy; that is, they should be willing to work carefully
and to check their work to eliminate errors. In addi
tion, they should be able to keep track of small
details.
opicsenterlce People who have the traits needed to be good
h legal assistants also need training. Some law firms
provide on-the-job training. Most firms, however,
want applicants to have completed at least a two-year
training program at a junior college. In such a pro
gram, students learn how to do research and legal
Conclud ng writing, and they take introductory law courses. Once
sentence the students have completed the program, they are
ready for jobs as legal assistants.

The writer has divided the preceding explanation into three

paragraphs: one paragraph about the duties, one paragraph about the
traits needed, and one paragraph about the training needed. Each
paragraph has its own topic sentence, and the topic sentence of the
first paragraph serves as the topic sentence for the entire explanation.
The concluding sentence summarizes the explanation.

E ercise Writing/Revising: Exposition Write an exposi

tory paragraph that explains the causes of static. The following notes
contain all of the information that you will need for the composition.
Organize the notes before you begin to write, arranging the three
causes in order from least to most frequent. When your first draft is
complete, revise the paragraph.
Magnetic storms are a result of increased sunspot activity.
Lightning usually causes static.
Occasionally, magnetic storms cause static.
Motors or electrical appliances may cause static.

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Unit 7 Three Modes of Writing

Static is the crashing or popping noise heard on radios or television

sets.
It is difficult to eliminate static; therefore, people must endure it.
Appliances that have rotating motors, such as hair dryers, are espe
cially likely to cause static.
Lightning travels from clouds to earth, where it interferes with the
transmission of radio and television signals.

7.2 riting a Revie

A review is a type of expository writing in which you evaluate a

book, a play, a film, or a television program. A review is more than a
summary of the work or a statement of whether you like or dislike the
work. It explains the meaning of the work and the techniques that are
used to present that meaning. In a review you provide examples from
the work to support the statements that you make about the meaning
and techniques.
You should include five kinds of information in your review.
Usually, you present the information in the order suggested here, but
you may rearrange the order of information if necessary.
Introduction. Begin a book review by mentioning the author and
title of the book and by identifying the book as a particular type of
literature: a novel or a historical account, for example. Begin a play
review by identifying the author, the title, and the type of play: a
serious drama or a light musical, for example. For a television or film
review, give the title and the type of work: a documentary or a
comedy, for example. You may also include the name of the director,
particularly if he or she is well known. In the introduction to a review
of a play, a film, or a television program, you may also mention the
names of the important performers.
Brief Description. Describe the work in no more than a few
sentences so that your reader has an overview of it. Identify the
essential characters, the setting, and the situation. For example, you
might describe the play Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw in this
way: “In Pygmalion Shaw presents a professor of phonetics who
changes the life of a poor flower girl by teaching her a new way of
speaking.”

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Writing a Review

The Central Idea. Present the central idea, the intended mean
ing of the work. The central idea is not the same as the plot, or “what
happens.” For example, the plot of Shakespeare’s Macbeth concerns
a man who fights all those who challenge his power. The central idea
of Macbeth, however, concerns the corrupting forces that accompany
blind ambition.
Evaluation. In the evaluation section of a review, analyze how
successfully the central idea of the work has been presented to the
audience. In reviewing a book, for example, judge the effectiveness
of the author’s writing and the plot. In reviewing a film, judge the
effectiveness of the script, the directing, and the acting. In addition,
discuss any aspect of the work that is particularly important, such as
the use of symbolism, the set design, or the cinematography.
Referring to specific details will make your evaluation clearer.
The following passage is the evaluation from a film review.
Model
Without a doubt Citizen Kane is a true work of art. The
consolidation of new techniques and processes in it show that Orson
Welles is a genius. The film is a prime example of how visual effects
can be used to enhance the overall effect of the drama.
The film contains many symbols if the viewer is skilled enough
to catch them. Lighting plays a key role in communicating the
symbolism. Through the use of shadows, the makers of the film are
conveying hidden messages and subtleties. For example, contrasting
lighting is used to show the contrasts within Kane. Darkness is used
to show despair and possible death.
In addition to the unusual lighting effects, many camera angles
are skillfully employed, The argument on the staircase between
Kane and the political boss is viewed from a low angle. By looking
up at them, the viewer sees more clearly the power of the two men
in conflict.
The audience is also kept involved through the unraveling of
the mystery of “Rosebud,” Kane’s last word before his death. The
dramatic impact is great when the viewer finally discovers its mean
ing. The solution of the puzzle ties together the loose ends and helps
the audience to understand the type of person that Kane was.
(Adapted)
Ruel Tolman, Fayetteville-Manlius High School
Manlius, New York

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Unit 7 Three Modes of Writing

Notice that the writer analyzes how lighting, camera, and

dramatic techniques contribute to the effectiveness of the film. The
evaluation is particularly strong because the writer provides an
example to illustrate each point.
Conclusion. In your conclusion present your final comment on
what you feel the work achieves. State that comment briefly. The
following passage concludes a review of the novel The Rise and Fall of
Silas Lapham by William Dean Howells.
Model
Silas is a universal character who represents in some ways
every person who goes through life trying to reach maturity and
happiness. Each time that one reads Howells’s masterpiece, one will
find something new and interesting about self and life.
Kelleryn Wood, Deering High School
Portland, Maine

In this conclusion the writer summarizes what Silas represents

in the novel. She also explains why the novel is important and how a
person can benefit from reading the novel more than once.

Exercise 3 Prewriting: The Review Each of the following

numbered passages represents one of the five categories of informa
tion that appear in a review: introduction, brief description, central
idea, evaluation, and conclusion. Number your paper from 1 to 5.
Next to each number, write the category of the passage.
1. The film The Bicycle Thief follows the actions of a father and son who
try to get a bicycle for another man who needs it in order to work.
2. These are the elements in Lewis’s critique of society that made the
deepest impression on me. Babbitt is the profile of a trap—a trap to
be avoided at all costs.

Nancy Hammond, Asheboro High School

Asheboro, North Carolina
3. Wuthering Heights is a novel written by Emily Brontë in nineteenth
century England.
4. Some of the actors were miscast, or they played their parts poorly.
The actor playing Lysander was an example of miscasting. Because he

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Writing a Review

was much smaller than the actor playing Demetrius, the credibility of
their “evenly-matched” scuffles was stretched In another in
stance, Titania recited her lines with such a lack of vitality that the
hilarity of the scene was lost.
Jerry Deck, Santa Cruz High School
Santa Cruz, California
5. All of the characters and events in Bleak House are presented as a
criticism of two groups of people. Dickens satirizes lawyers who con
duct cases that devour all of the money and time of some people. He
also attacks people who merely pretend to help the poor.

Assignment I Prewriting/Wtiting/Revisiflg Think of a

situation that you would like to explain to your reader. For example,
you could explain what problems are caused by an inadequate bus
system, how renovations to a theater have made attending plays more
enjoyable, or how tax laws affect people in your town. Do whatever
research is necessary to find information on the topic. Then write
your explanation, making sure that each group of related points is
placed in its own paragraph. Using the Assignment Checklist that
follows, revise your explanation.

A signment 2 Writing/Revising Select a book, a play, a

film, or a television program to be the subject of a review. Write a
review, presenting information about the work as well as your
reaction to the work. Be sure to include all five parts of a review.
Then revise your review.

Assignment Checklist
Check your expository composition for the following points:
V 1. Did you select a topic that is limited enough so that you can
explain it thoroughly?
V 2. Did you present the points in your explanation in a logical
order?
V 3. Did you place each group of related points in its own
paragraph?
V 4. Did you include a topic sentence in each paragraph?
V 5. Did you use transitional words?

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 Unit 7 Three Modes of Writing

t 6. Did you write a concluding sentence for your explanation?

~ 7. Did you proofread your explanation for correct grammar,
usage, spelling, and punctuation?
Check your review for the following points:
8. Did you write an introduction in which you mention the
author and title of the work and identify the type of work?
~ 9. Did you provide a brief description of the work?
J- 10. Did you explain the central idea of the work?
11. Did you evaluate the effectiveness of the techniques used to
convey the central idea?
12. In the conclusion did you present your final comment on
what the work achieves?
I-’ 13. Did you proofread your review for correct grammar, usage,
spelling, and punctuation?

es i t rtn

In descriptive writing your purpose is to communicate to your

reader your impression of a person, a place, or an object. If you
combine careful observation with descriptive techniques that help
you to choose the most effective words, you can create a vivid
impression for your reader.

7.3a Selecting Sensory Details

Sensory details are the characteristics that you perceive with

your senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. You will create
a sharp impression of a person, a place, or an object if your
description includes not only details that you see but also details that
you perceive with your other senses. For example, if you describe
your room on a cold morning, you can include details about the
white, lacy patterns formed by the frost that you see on your window.
You can also include details about the harsh scraping of snowplows
that you hear on the street outside your window, the shocking chill of
the floorboards that you feel under your feet, and the fresh smell of
the cold air that stings the inside of your nose.

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 7.3a
Sensory Details

Begin by making a list of as many sensory details about your

subject as possible. Then, as you continue to plan your description,
select only the most important details to include in your writing.
Choose the details that show your subject as unique and that help to
create a sharp, unified impression of your subject.
The writer of the following description presents details that
make the kitchen unusual. All of the details, which come from the
senses of smell and sight, work together to show how comfortable
and lived-in the kitchen is.

Model
As I enter the spacious kitchen, the familiar smell greets me.
It is a combination of the kitchen and hall linoleum floors, the gas
heating coming from the musty basement, and dinner baking in the
oven. The old woodburning stove is at the kitchen’s end. It is white
porcelain with a black top and a fat smokestack that travels up to
the high ceiling. The pantry, next to the stove, is an indentation in
the wall filled with a sink, a counter, glass-paned cupboards, and a
cooler, which is a room that keeps everything cold—not as much as
a refrigerator, but cool enough so that food does not get moldy. In
the middle of the room stands the immense kitchen table, surround
ed by gray plastic chairs that slide easily over the yellow and blue
linoleum. The kitchen is the most-used room in the house.
Deborah Eisenstein, Mira Costa High School
Manhattan Beach, California

In addition to choosing details that create a unified impression

of a subject, you may choose details that create a mood, a certain
emotional response in the reader. For example, when you describe a
house in your neighborhood, you can convey the impression that it is
run-down and abandoned. As you convey that impression, you could
create a sad mood by emphasizing how unfortunate it is that no one
repairs the crumbling porch that once was a gathering place for the
family. On the other hand, you could create an eerie mood by
emphasizing how frightening the creaking doors and broken windows
seem.
The writer of the following description of stars creates a mood
of wonder by reciting the list of their strange names and by
mentioning their mythological connections.

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 Unit 7 Three Modes of Writing

Model
On a cool, clear night in the late winter, I stepped out on the
back porch and turned off the lights. As I looked up at the clear
sky, I began to see, one by one, the many stars of the winter sky
sinking slowly in the west. Betelgeuse, Bellatrix, Rigel, Procyon—
these were the stars whose names and histories I had spent so much
time learning. As I looked up, I saw not just points of light of
varying color and brightness, but whole groupings. Orion, the
mighty hunter of the sky, was battling the great bull Taurus, whose
baleful red eye, Aldebaran, stared fiercely down at me. The dogs of
Orion followed at his heels, with the great star Sirius glowing like a
jewel on the collar of the greater dog. Lepus, the hare, scampered
out from under the feet of Orion.
Mark Looper, Saint Charles High School
St. Charles, Missouri

Exercise 1 Prewritirig: Sensory Details On your paper,

list five of the following items. For each item write at least three
precise sensory details. Use all five senses to think of the details.
SAMPLE A street in winter
ANSWER Crunch of snow under people’s feet
Smell of wood smoke from chimneys
Piles of dirty snow on the side of the streets
1. A swamp 4. An ear of corn 7. A tree in spring
2. A chalkboard 5. A washing machine 8. A boat
3. A courtroom 6. A train or a subway car 9. A sandwich

7.3b Usin Descriptive Techniques

Effective Words
By choosing your words carefully, you can make your descrip
tive writing vivid and interesting. Use specific nouns and strong verbs
to help your reader create a strong mental picture of your subject.
For example, in the sentence “The building has many windows,”

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Effective Words

building is not a specific noun. Either house or skyscraper would give

the reader more information. Similarly, in the sentence “He got a
book,” got is not a strong verb. Either found or bought would be a
stronger verb to describe the action in the sentence.
In your descriptive writing, you will also use modifiers: adjec
tives, adverbs, and participles. A modifier may be a phrase, such as
“running down the hall,” as well as a single word. If you find yourself
using worn-out modifiers, use your dictionary or a dictionary of
synonyms to find more interesting replacements.
When you select descriptive words, you must consider not only
their denotative meanings, the dictionary definitions, but also their
connotative meanings, the emotions or ideas that are associated
with the words. Two words with nearly the same denotation may have
different connotations. For example, to bargain and to negotiate have
nearly the same denotation: “to try to reach agreement.” Their
connotations, however, are different. The word bargain usually
refers to trying to reach an agreement about the cost of products or
services. The word negotiate, however, usually refers to trying to
reach an agreement in a dispute, on a contract, or on an international
issue.
In the following paragraph, the writer uses effective language to
create a scene for the reader.

Model
Turning and looking west, I was immediately struck by the
simple beauty of the little town, its geometric, whitewashed houses
gleaming in the hot, bright sun. The town was perched atop a hill
directly underneath the jagged peaks of the coastal range. An old
road wound its way up the hillside and into the town, and faraway
little cars hurled like juggernauts around the steep, sharp curves.
Dan Staley, Woodrow Wilson High School
Long Beach, California

In the paragraph, the noun peaks is more specific than tops

would have been because it tells the reader that the mountaintops are
pointed, not rounded. The vivid modifier jagged further emphasizes
their sharpness. Perched is a stronger verb than located would have
been; it makes the town’s position seem precarious.

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 Unit 7 Three Modes of Writing

Similes and Metaphors

Using similes and metaphors is another way to make your
descriptions effective. In a simile you make a direct comparison
between two unlike things that share one striking characteristic. A
simile always contains the word like or as to emphasize the compari
son. A metaphor is an implied comparison that does not contain the
word like or as. In a metaphor you describe your subject as if it
actually is the thing to which you are comparing it.
The following description of a leopard contains both a simile
and a metaphor.

Model
He turned his head our way, the long white whiskers spread
ing out from his face like two thick fans, gave us an uneasy look,
and poured slowly head first off the log and down into some bushes.
Evelyn Ames, A Glimpse of Eden

In the simile, like is used in the comparison between the

whiskers and fans. In the metaphor, the leopard is described as a
thick liquid that pours from the log.
Overused metaphors and similes like “as sly as a fox” are called
clichés. You should avoid using them because they will not seem
fresh and interesting to your reader.

Overwriting
A carefully chosen modifier or an appropriate simile or meta
phor will make your writing clear and interesting. A long series of
modifiers or several similes in a row, however, will make your writing
confusing. In addition, a simile or a metaphor that is forced or
farfetched will not be effective. The following sentence contains these
problems; it is overwritten.
OVERWRITTEN The long, winding, narrow river coiled through the
town like a snake, a jump rope dropped by a child, a
strand of hair.

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 7.3b

Overwriting

The sentence contains too many modifiers for river and too many
similes. The more effective sentence that follows contains only one
simile.
EFFECTIVE The narrow river wound its way through the town
like a snake slithering through the grass.

When you write a description, use modifiers, similes, and

metaphors sparingly and effectively, as in the second example.

Exercise 2 riting: Effective Words On your paper, re

write the following sentences. Replace words that do not create a
sharp impression, and add modifiers where they would be effective.
Use specific nouns, strong verbs, and vivid modifiers.
SAMPLE The person put wood on the fire.
ANSWER The camper tossed pieces of kindling on the smolder
ing fire.
1. The food was good.
2. The man sat in the comfortable chair.
3. The animal was in front of the building.
4. The vehicle stopped at the traffic signal.
5. The person was happy to get the message from another person.
6. The machines made a loud noise.
7. The people went to the famous place.
8. The person returned from a long trip.
9. The big rain changed the ground.
10. The shelf held many jars.

E ercise 3 Writing: Similes and Metaphors Choose three

of the following items. Write a descriptive sentence about each
object. Include a simile or a metaphor in the sentence, and label the
sentence Simile or Metaphor.
SAMPLE Waves
ANSWER From a distance, the white caps of the waves looked
like sea gulls flying over the blue water.—Simile

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Unit 7 Three Modes of Writing

1. A telephone 4. A teapot
2. A rocking chair 5. A desk
3. The smell of dinner 6. A pond

7.3c Organizing and Writing a Description

To make your description of a person, a place, or an object

interesting, you must organize it well and write it clearly. The
following steps will help you to organize and write your description.

Strategies
1. Include a topic sentence that introduces the person, the
place, or the object and that, if possible, states your general
impression of the subject.
2. Use chronological order, spatial order, or order of impor
tance to present your sensory details (page 332). Use one
order consistently throughout your description.
3. Use transitional words and phrases, such as next, in the
middle, and most important, to emphasize the order of your
description.
4. Place each group of related details in a separate paragraph.
For example, if you were using spatial order to describe a
two-story building, you could place all of the details about
the first story in one paragraph and all of the details about
the second story in another paragraph.
5. Conclude with a sentence that restates your general impres
sion or in some other way indicates the end of your
description.

In the following paragraph, the writer arranges the details in

spatial order.

Model
We lighted our lamps in our miner’s helmets and started
downward into the cave. The entrance hall was filled with boulders,

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 7.3c
Writing Descriptions

piled together like children’s marbles. We stepped from one to

another, descending deeper and deeper into the earth. The vast
mouth of the cave diminished behind us until it looked no bigger
than a rathole. Then it vanished completely. We began feeling our
way down a great slope in complete darkness except for the puddles
of light from our headlamps.
Daniel P. Mannix, “Bat Quest”

The words downward, descending, deeper and deeper, behind,

and down emphasize the spatial order of the passage. Notice the
effective simile in the second sentence of the passage.

Exercise 4 Writing: Organizing Details Using the follow

ing topic sentence and details, write a brief description of Pam.
Present the details of her changing appearance in chronological
order. As you write, you may change the wording of the details.
Topic sentence: At each point on our hike last Saturday, my friend Pam’s
appearance reflected how tired she was.
Details:
One hour later, cheeks becoming red and hair falling in face
By the end of the trip, limping because of blister on right heel
As we started going up steep, rocky trail, walked briskly and
swung arms
Three hours later, slowing her pace and dragging her feet in
dirt on the trail
In beginning, dark hair neatly tied back
Near end of the trail, dirt smudges on face where she wiped it
with her hand

Assignment I Writing / Revising Write a description of the

most comfortable room in which you often spend time. Include
sensory details that create a mood of nostalgia or pleasure. Arrange
the details in spatial order or in order of importance. Using the
Assignment Checklist that follows, revise your description.

Assignment 2 Writing/Revising Write a description of

someone working at a job that you would like to have. Include
sensory details about any uniform or safety equipment that the

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Unit 7 Three Modes of Writing

person wears at work. Organize the details of your description in

order of importance, beginning with the most striking characteristic
and moving to the less striking characteristics. Then revise your
description.

Assignme t 3 Writing / Revising Write a description of an

object that you have had for a long time. Using chronological order,
present sensory details to show how the object has changed over
time. If possible, use a metaphor or a simile to make the description
of the object more vivid. Before you make a final copy of your
description, revise it.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
i- 1. Did you include sensory details that show the uniqueness of
the person, place, or object that you described?
2. Did you use specific nouns, strong verbs, and vivid modifiers?
i~ 3. Did you use a simile or a metaphor?
i- 4. Did you use words with appropriate connotations?
i- 5. Did you include a topic sentence that introduces your subject?
i 6. Did you present your sensory details in a logical order?
t-’ 7. If your description contains many details, did you place each
group of related details in a paragraph of its own?
~ 8. Did you proofread your description for correct grammar
usage, spelling, and punctuation?

.4 rr ti e ritn
Narrative writing presents a story, either nonfictional or
fictional. Nonfictional narratives include biographical and autobio
graphical writings. Fictional narratives include all short stories and
novels.

7.4a Planning a Narrative

You should plan a narrative carefully before you begin to write.

First choose a topic; then list and organize details about the topic.

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 7.4a

Planning a Narrative

Choosing a Topic
The first step in planning a narrative is choosing an event to
narrate. Choose an event that is short enough for you to present
completely in two to eight pages.
If you choose to narrate a true event, you will write about real
actions and the people who performed them. If you choose to narrate
a fictional event, you will invent the actions, the characters, or both.
Fictional actions and characters may be based on your experiences
or the experiences of others, which you narrate as fiction by changing
details as you wish. For example, if you see someone trying out for a
part in a community play, you may imagine what it would be like to
try out for a part in a Broadway play. You may also imagine another
incident in the life of the character in the play.

Organizing a Narrative
The next step in planning your narrative is listing the actions
that you wish to narrate. List the actions in chronological order and
include a conffict, a climax, and a conclusion.
Conflict. The actions of a narrative center on a conflict, a
situation or a problem that must be resolved at the end. The conffict
may occur between two people, between a person and a force of
nature, or within the mind and feelings of one person. For example, a
conffict may occur between a person who wants to build a store on a
piece of land and a person who wants to turn the land into a park.
Climax. The conflict in a narrative is greatest at the climax, or
high point. For example, in a story about the conflict that is
mentioned in the preceding paragraph, the climax may occur when
the two people meet to argue their cases in front of the city zoning
board.
Conclusion. The actions in a narrative lead from the climax to
the conclusion, in which the conifict usually is resolved. In the story
about the use of the land, the resolution of the conffict may come
when the two people and the members of the zoning board agree that
a store may be built if a small community park is built in front of it.

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 Unit 7 Three Modes of Writing

Exercise I Prewriting: Organizing a Narrative On your

paper, describe a conflict, a climax, and a conclusion that could
develop in each of the following situations.
SAMPLE Amy wants to be a newspaper reporter.
ANSWER Conflict: Amy wants to learn how to write newspaper
articles, but no school in her community teaches
journalism.
Climax: Amy applies for a job with a newspaper in a
nearby town and is turned down because she has no
experience.
Conclusion: She decides to save her money so that
she can go to a town where journalism is taught.
1. A bicyclist has twenty hilly miles to travel before reaching home.
2. A new task needs to be performed in an office.
3. A city has a water shortage.
4. Jeff has money to buy either a new coat or a new radio.
5. Two friends support different political candidates.

b Writing a Narrative

When you begin to write a narrative, consider which point of

view you will use, how you will start your narrative, how you will
present your characters, and how you will use description.

Establishing a Point of View

You can write a narrative from a first-person or a third-person
point of view. When you write a narrative using a first-person point
of view, you are the “I” who presents the actions. You write as a
participant in the action. When you write a narrative using a third-
person point of view, you usually do not write as a participant in
the action, and you refer to the characters as he, she, and they when
you do not use their names.
Use the first person when you write autobiographical narratives
and the third person when you write biographical narratives. You can
use either the first person or the third person when you write fictional
narratives.

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 74b
Point of View

The following examples illustrate the difference between first-

person and third-person narration.
FIRST-PERSON NARRATION
Usually I am nervous about speaking to a large group of
people, but I was so excited about my new plan for the
cafeteria that I spoke to the assembly without any fear.
THIRD-PERSON NARRATION
Usually she is nervous about speaking to a large group of
people, but she was so excited about her new plan for the
cafeteria that she spoke to the assembly without any fear.

The first-person point of view and the third-person point of

view may be either omniscient or limited. If your point of view is
omniscient, or all-seeing, you may reveal what all of your characters
are thinking and doing at all times, even when they are far away or
alone. If your point of view is limited, you may reveal what other
characters are thinking only when they express their thoughts, and
you may reveal what they are doing only if they are in sight. Of
course, you may speculate about what they are thinking or doing.
When you write a narrative, the characters and events will help you
to decide whether your point of view should be omniscient or limited.
For example, if your narrative contains many characters in different
places at the same time, using an omniscient point of view might
make their activities clearer to the reader.
Maintain one point of view throughout your narrative. If you
begin your narrative in the first person, use that form consistently.
Similarly, if you begin a narrative in the third person, use the
pronoun I only in direct quotations.

Exercise 2 Writing: Point of View The following paragraph

is written in the third person. On your paper, rewrite the passage,
changing the point of view from the third person to the first person.
For years, Craig had heard about his grandmother’s trips to an
antique auction on the first Monday of each month. Last month she
finally asked him to accompany her to the auction. He went, imagin
ing that the auction would be conducted quietly in a wood-paneled
room richly furnished with valuable antiques. When they drove up
to the auction building, he was surprised to see a one-story cement

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Unit 7 Three Modes of Writing

warehouse. Inside, he saw an enormous room filled with people

sitting on rows of metal folding chairs. Bidders called out loudly
from their seats to claim large, torn cardboard boxes. When he went
to the front of the room to get the boxes of items that his grand
mother bought, he discovered that the boxes were filled mainly with
old toys and broken dishes. Before they left, he and his grandmother
sorted through the boxes to pick out the real antiques for her store.
The rest he took back to the auctioneers. On the way home, he
thought about how the experience had been far different from what
he had expected.

Beginning a Narrative
The beginning of your narrative should indicate to your reader
what will appear in the rest of the story. To do that, establish the
point of view that you will use. Present the setting—the time and
location of the actions—and introduce the important characters.
When possible, suggest the conflict that will develop in the story.
Present all of the information in an interesting way so that your
reader will want to read further in your story.
The following paragraph is a strong beginning for a narrative.

Model
On the first Thursday of last March, I waited on a folding
chair in a dingy hallway above the music store as I had waited every
Thursday for the past three years. Soon the bulky shape of Mr.
Bednarek appeared in the doorway of a room down the hall, and he
called me in as usual to start my weekly classical guitar lesson. This
Thursday, however, he did not ask me to start plucking exercises
right away. Instead he began to explain how my playing had im
proved in the past six months. Then he said that, in order to get any
better, I would have to get a new guitar. I was stunned. I did not
see how I could manage to earn money for a new guitar.

The writer decided to use the first person to tell the story. The
setting of the action is presented clearly, and the two main characters
of the narrative are introduced. Finally, the writer indicates that the
conffict will concern finding a way to earn money for a new guitar.

344
 7.4b

Creating Characters

Creating Characters
Because they perform most of the actions, the characters are an
especially important part of a narrative. By describing your charac
ters clearly, explaining their motivations, and presenting their dia
logue, you can make your narrative come to life for your reader.
Description. To help your reader form a mental picture of your
characters, describe them precisely. Describe their physical charac
teristics: how tall they are, how heavy they are, and what colors their
eyes and hair are. Emphasize their outstanding or unusual features.
In addition, describe the clothing that the characters are wearing and
their expressions and movements. Use details about appearance to
eveal the personalities of the characters.
Motivation. Explain what situations and feelings motivate your
characters, or cause them to act as they do. For example, if a
character suddenly changes jobs, you should explain why. Did some
event make her unhappy with her old job? Did she finally get the job
that she had wanted for years?
Dialogue. Present not only the appearance and motivations of
your characters but also their conversations. You can present conver
sation indirectly, by summarizing what the characters say, or directly,
by giving their exact words. Dialogue—the exact words of your
characters—is more interesting to your reader than indirect reporting
of conversations; therefore, use dialogue unless the conversation of
the characters would be too long.
Dialogue can reveal the personalities, ages, and geographical
backgrounds of your characters. Because spoken language is more
informal than written language, dialogue often will be less formal
than the rest of your narration. It may even contain slang, contrac
tions, or sentence fragments (page 70).
In a narrative, you can use dialogue instead of just explaining
events and feelings. Rather than writing “Nick was worried” or
“Angela was brave,” you can use dialogue to show more vividly that
he was worried or that she was brave. In presenting the words of your
characters, you will need to add explanatory details, such as “Kim
stated calmly,” to tell which character is speaking and how he or she
is speaking.

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Unit 7 Three Modes of Writing

When you write dialogue, follow the rules for punctuating and
making paragraph divisions that are presented on pages 189—190.
In the following dialogue, the writer presents the exact words of
two young people. He also uses explanatory details such as “I
answered” and “she exclaimed in astonishment.” Notice the punctua
tion and paragraphing of the passage.
Model
“I was visiting Madge Reagan . . .she explained.
,“

“Where were you?”

“Oh, I was at work,” I answered.
“At work?” she exclaimed in astonishment. “Till this hour?”
“I have to work from eight to seven,” I said modestly.
“But aren’t they terrible hours?” she said.
“Ah, I’m only filling in time,” I explained lightly. “I don’t
expect to be there long.”
Frank O’Connor, “The Duke’s Children”

The writer uses dialogue to reveal the personalities of the

speakers. The girl seems friendly and concerned. The narrator is also
friendly, but he is defensive about the long hours that he has to work.
Personality. You may reveal the personalities of your characters
with their actions as well as with their words. For example, a football
player who claims not to care about doing well in a game may,
nevertheless, practice hard before every game. In that case, the
character’s actions reveal more about his feelings than his words do.
In addition, you may include direct comments about the personality
of a character. For example, you may write, “Even when he tried to
be stern, James could not hide his good humor.”

Using Description
As you have learned, you can bring your characters to life by
describing them for your reader. You can also use description to
make the settings, the objects, and the actions in your narrative more
interesting for your reader.
The following passage from a narrative contains effective
description.

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 7.4b

Writing a Narrative

Model
I sat on the front porch of the old makeshift cabin in the
evening mountain air. A cool, dry breeze carried off the nimble,
plucking sounds of my banjo with the hollow thuds and squeaks of
the rocking chair on the wooden porch. Gradually, these sounds
faded, and my attention drifted to some car lights on a neighboring
mountain. Because of the great distance, the cars seemed to move
along slowly in complete silence. Below, lights of the town shone
without a sound while the wind whispered occasionally through the
pines around me.
Eric Heywood, Mount Vernon High School
Mount Vernon, Iowa

Effective modifiers such as cool and plucking describe the

breeze and the noise of the banjo. Carefully chosen nouns and verbs
such as thuds and whispered describe the noise of the rocking chair
and the wind.

eveloping the Action

As you write your narrative, present the actions in chronologi
cal order, as they appear on your list. Place each group of related
actions in a paragraph of its own. Introduce the conifict and present
the actions leading up to the climax. Then resolve the conifict in your
conclusion. Your conclusion may come soon after the climax.

Finishing Your Narrative

When your draft is complete, revise it. Then select a brief title
that indicates the central issue or conffict but that does not reveal too
much about the actual events of the narrative.

Exe cise 3 Writing! Revising: Dialogue The following par

agraph contains information for a dialogue. Rewrite the passage
using dialogue. Use explanatory details where they are necessary.
Use punctuation and paragraphing as needed, and revise your
dialogue before making a final copy.

347
Unit 7 Three Modes of Writing

One hot day last August, I was visiting my cousin Sheryl in

Wisconsin. I complained that it was too hot to do anything. Sheryl
said that she knew a way to cool off. I asked her what her idea was.
She suggested that we go tubing. I said that I did not know what
tubing is. She said that tubing is floating down a river while sitting in
an inner tube. She said that we could go down the river that is one
mile from her house. I said that I was not sure that I could stay in
the inner tube. She said that it would be easy and fun. Reluctantly,
I said that I would go. Then we went into the garage to get inner
tubes for our trip down the river.

Exercise 4 Writing: Beginning a Narrative Use some or all

of the following information in a passage that could serve as a
beginning of a first-person narrative. In your beginning you should
introduce the setting and the characters and establish the conifict.
1. One-day trip to Bear Island
2. On island: small towns and country roads
3. Most of day uneventful
4. Drove to ferry
5. Took ferry to island
6. Took bicycles aboard ferry
7. Two-hour ferry ride
8. Rode around island all day
9. Dusk came
10. Real adventure began on way home
11. Went with friends Gene and Maryann
12. Went one Saturday last October

Assignment 1 Writing I Revising Write a narrative about an

event that you want to share with a reader. For example, you could
write about an event in which you performed well under pressure or
an event in which you were adventurous. Write your narrative so that
it has a strong beginning, a climax, and a conclusion. Use the
first-person point of view. Then, using the Assignment Checklist that
follows, revise your narrative.

348
 7.4b

Writing a Narrative

Assignment 2 Writing/Revising Imagine how one person

acted in a historical event that interests you. Write a fictional
narrative about that person’s role in the event. Invent the character’s
actions and words as necessary. Write from the third-person, omnis
cient point of view. Use correct punctuation and paragraphing for
dialogue. When your draft is complete, revise your narrative.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
~ 1. Did you present the actions of your narrative in chronological
order?
i 2. Did you place each group of related actions in its own
pa rag ra ph?
i- 3. Did you use one point of view consistently?
i. 4. Did you introduce the main characters and the setting early in
your narrative?
i 5. Did you develop a conflict in your narrative?
‘~ 6. Did you present the actions leading to the climax?
t 7. Did you resolve the conflict in your conclusion?
t. 8. Did you use description and dialogue to develop characters?
9. Did you make clear what motivates your characters?
~ 10. Did you proofread your narrative for correct grammar, usage,
spelling, and punctuation?

349
 —— ~ IIF~ WA

- I

Interesting Places:
Writing Descriptive and Narrative Paragraphs
Situation: The producer of the television series Interesting
Places has decided to feature in an upcoming show the histor
ic town hail in your community. As a research assistant for
the series, you have been asked to provide two paragraphs of
background information. in one paragraph you will describe
the town hall, and in the other you will narrate its history. You
will work from a photograph of the building and a list of notes
that you have made from historical records. As you plan and
write your paragraphs, you will keep in mind the following
information.
Writer: you as a research assistant for Interesting Places
Audience: viewers of Interesting Places
Topic: the historic town hall
Purpose: to describe the building and to narrate its history

Directions: To plan and write your paragraphs, follow these

steps.
Step 1. List sensory details about the striking features of
the town hail in the photograph on the facing
page. Arrange the details in spatial order. Then
review your list to make sure that all of the de
tails work together to create a unified impression
of the building.
Step 2. Using your list of details, write a descriptive para
graph. Use vivid and specific words to make your
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351
 description clear and interesting to your audi
ence.
Step 3. Read your historical notes on the facing page.
List the facts that you will use in your paragraph.
Then arrange the facts in chronological order.
Step 4. Using your list of facts, write a paragraph about
the history of the town hail. Use transitional
words to emphasize the chronological order of
the paragraph.
Step 5. Review your paragraphs. Check them for errors,
and revise them if necessary.

352
Unit Assignments
Assignment I Select a process to explain to a friend. For
example, you could explain how a jet engine works or how to find a
job. Do whatever research is necessary to find information on your
topic. Then write your explanation, defining all terms that your friend
may not know. When your draft is complete, revise the explanation.

Assignme t 2 Write a review of a film that you would like your

friends to see. Include the five parts of a review and make sure that
you provide information about the techniques used in the film as well
as your evaluation of the film. Then revise your review.

Assign ent 3 Recall a person whom you have seen recently

ho was clearly happy, angry, or tired. Write a description of that
person. Include sensory details about the person’s general appear
ance and specific details that show how the person was feeling.
Organize your description by spatial order or by order of importance,
and use vivid language. Finally, revise your description.

Assignment 4 Write a nonfictional narrative about an event in

which you depended on a friend for help or in which someone
depended on you. Present the actions in chronological order and
place each group of related actions in a paragraph of its own.

Assign e t 5 Write a fictional narrative about a person who

visits an unfamiliar community or about a person who tries to change
something in his or her own community. Base the characters and the
setting of your narrative on real people and a real place. Use vivid
description and write from a limited third-person point of view. Then
revise your narrative.

Revising Your Assignments

For help in revising expository, descriptive, or narrative writ
ing, consult the Checklist for Revision on the last page of this book.

353
Unit Tests

A. Number your paper from 1 to 5. Next to each number, write

True if the sentence is true or False if it is false.
1. When you write for a specialized audience, include details that are of
particular interest to that audience.
2. In a review provide a detailed description for people who are not
familiar with the work.
3. In a description you should present details from only one sense.
4. A metaphor is an implied comparison that does not contain like or as.
5. The conflict in a narrative may occur within the mind and feelings of
one person.

B. Number your paper from 6 to 10. Next to each number, write

the letter of the item that correctly completes the sentence. You will
not use one of the terms.
a. review d. limited
b. omniscient e. expository writing
c. mood f. sensory details

6. In i your purpose is to explain something to your reader or to

inform your reader about something.
7. A(n) 1 explains the meaning of a work and the techniques that are
used to present that meaning.
8. L are those characteristics that you perceive with your senses of
sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell.
9. When you create a(n) L. in a description, you create a certain
emotional response in your audience.
10. In a narrative written from the 1. point of view, you may reveal
what the characters are thinking and doing at all times.

Number your paper from 11 to 15. Next to each number, write

the letter of the item that correctly answers the question.
11. Which of the following is a transitional phrase that emphasizes spatial
order?
a. Later that day c. Most important
b. For example d. In the middle

354
12. Which of the following is a limited topic for the subject “Spaceships”?
a. The invention of airplanes
b. Navigation equipment in early spacecraft
c. How astronauts train on Earth
d. Qualifications for becoming an astronaut
13. Which of the following should not be introduced at the beginning of a
narrative?
a. Characters b. Setting c. Climax d. Conflict
14. Which of the following contains the most vivid description?
a. Making loud noises, the bird flew over the boat.
b. The sea gull flew over the fishing boat.
c. Screeching loudly, the sea gull circled the fishing boat.
d. The sea gull circled the boat.
15. Which of the following is from a third-person narrative?
a. “My guitar needs new strings,” Sandy explained to the salesperson.
b. “Erin ran in the race yesterday,” I explained.
c. I saw Jeff at the park this morning.
d. Last week we visited our friends in Austin, Texas.

t
Choose one of the Unit Assignments. Write the assignment as
directed and hand it in to your teacher.

355
lUnit 8

Your purpose in persuasive writing is to get other people to

accept an idea. The idea is your topic. The other people are your
audience, the readers whom you hope to influence. The follow
ing paragraph is an example of persuasive writing.

(1) Career-education courses should be part of the high

school curriculum. (2) Such courses acquaint students with the
various careers open to them, with the requirements and ad
vantages of each, and with the needs of the job market. (3) Too
often, high school graduates find themselves unprepared to
decide what to do after graduation. (4) As a result, some gradu
ates make poor choices of colleges or training programs and
eventually hold jobs that they do not like. (5) Graduates who
have had career-education courses, however, can make in
formed choices about satisfying careers. (6) Furthermore, grad
uates who make wise career choices contribute more fully to
society. (7) The result is that career education benefits society
as well as the student.

For Analysis Reread the paragraph and then, on your paper,

follow these directions.
1. Copy the number of the sentence stating the opinion that the
writer wants the audience to accept.
2. Explain the purpose of Sentence 2.
3. List the numbers of the sentences in which the writer gives
reasons that support the opinion expressed in Sentence 1.
4. Explain the purpose of Sentence 7.

356
 In analyzing the paragraph, you thought about the main
challenge of persuasive writing: getting an audience to accept
an idea and perhaps to take some sort of action. This unit will
give you some insight into the art of persuasion. It will also
explain techniques that you can use in writing a persuasive
paragraph or composition. As you learn to write persuasively,
you will follow the three steps of the writing process: prewrit
ing, writing, and revising.

- •I1 C

8. a Recognizing Opinions

Your topic in persuasive writing is an opinion that you want

readers to accept. An opinion is the statement of a view that is not
shared by everyone. Opinions differ from facts in that opinions are
subject to disagreement but facts are not. The following statements
are examples of opinions and facts.

OPINIONS FACTS
Spanish is a beautiful Spanish is a Romance
language. language.
The United States should France gave the Statue of
always strive to be a Liberty to the United States
land of opportunity for in 1884.
immigrants.
The world’s greatest The footballs used by the
spectator sport is American National Football League are
professional football, made of leather.

It is precisely because they are subject to disagreement that

opinions make suitable topics for persuasive writing. There are four
types of opinions that you can use.
EXPLANATION
Political anarchy was the real cause of the fall of the Roman
Empire.

357
Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

EVALUATION
The new film Revenge of the Catpeople is almost entirely
without merit.
PREDICTION
There will be a breakthrough in cancer research within the
next ten years.
ADVICE (“SHOULD” STATEMENTS)
Congress should revise the law on minimum wages.

Exercise I Prewriting: Opinions and Facts Two state

ments are made about each of the five subjects that follow. On your
paper, write Opinion next to the letter of any statement that is
subject to disagreement. Write Fact next to the letter of any
statement that either is clearly true or can easily be shown to be true.
1. a. Motorcycles are a fuel-efficient means of transportation.
b. Motorcycles should be banned because they make too much noise.
2. a. Hospital care will soon be so expensive that few people will be able
to afford it.
b. Hospital care is better in the United States than it is abroad.
3. a. Water is made up of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen.
b. Water boils at 1000 C.
4. a. Students in junior high school usually have poor study habits.
b. Students in junior high school are too young to start dating.
5. a. Farmers in the United States are among the world’s leaders in food
production.
b. Farmers in the United States have been reckless in their use of
water for irrigating arid regions.

8. b Selecting an Opinion as a Writing Topic

Before you begin writing about an opinion, consider whether it

is a suitable topic for persuasion. Keep in mind three points when you
choose a writing topic.
1. An opinion suitable for persuasive writing is based on more
than personal preference. You cannot expect readers to
accept opinions based only on your individual tastes.

358
 8.lb

Selecting an Opinion

UNSUITABLE
Colonial architecture is more attractive than Vic
torian architecture.

2. An opinion suitable for persuasive writing is based on a

logical idea rather than on a feeling or a hunch. You cannot
convince readers that an opinion is correct if it is based only
on intuition or guesswork.
UNSUITABLE
I have a feeling that people will support the club’s
blood-donor drive.

3. An opinion suitable for persuasive writing is specific and

clear. You cannot persuade readers to accept an opinion
that they find vague or general.
UNSUITABLE
Soccer is better than hockey.

The following opinions would make suitable topics for persua

sive writing.
SUITABLE Our trial system would be more efficient if juries
were made up of eight people rather than twelve.
No government should spend more in a year than it
takes in.

These two opinions are suitable for the following reasons: (1) They
do not simply state personal preferences. (2) They are based on
logical ideas, not on feelings or hunches. (3) They are specific and
clear.

Exe dee 2 Prewriting: Suitable Topics On your paper,

write Suitable or Unsuitable to indicate whether each of the following
opinions is an acceptable topic for persuasive writing. Each time you
classify a topic as Unsuitable, specify Personal preference, Hunch, or
Vague.
1. Green is a more relaxing color than blue.

359
 Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

2. Something tells me that science fiction movies are going to be the

wave of the future.
3. Civil service tests are unfair.
4. Every driver should take a course on how to make basic automobile
repairs.
5. There is no real craftsmanship these days.
6. Swimming in the ocean is more fun than swimming in a pooi.
7. Colorado is the most beautiful state in the country.
8. The value of automobile safety devices must be weighed against how
much they cost consumers.
9. The private ownership of property is a citizen’s most important right.
10. Automobile imports are a problem.

8.1 Suiting Your Topic to Your Audience

When you select a topic for persuasive writing, you usually have
a certain audience in mind. Before proceeding with the topic, weigh
your audience’s likely reaction to it. Ask yourself two questions.
1. Is my audience already likely to agree with the opinion? If
so, select another opinion that some of your readers will
disagree with. Of the two topics that follow, the second is
better because some persuasion would be needed to con
vince the audience of its merit.
AUDIENCE
A consumer group
POOR TOPIC
Grocery shoppers have a right to know the ingredi
ents of the items that they purchase.
BETTER TOPIC
Grocery-store items should be given a health-quality
rating based on their ingredients.
2. Is my audience likely to oppose the opinion very strongly? If
so, you would be setting yourself an impossible task. Unless
you hold your opinion so strongly that you do not want to

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 8.lc

Your Audience

modify it, or unless you enjoy defending an unpopular

view, consider selecting another opinion that your audience
could more readily be persuaded to accept. Of the two
topics that follow, the second is better than the first because
readers are more likely to be persuaded to accept it.
AUDIENCE
Scientists
POOR TOPIC
Modern science is entirely to blame for the existence
of the devastating weapons that threaten the world.
BETTER TOPIC
Modern science is partly responsible for the existence
of the devastating weapons that threaten the world.
Exercise Prewriting: Audience For each of the following
opinions, an audience is listed. On your paper, write Suitable if the
opinion would make a suitable writing topic for that audience; write
Unsuitable if it would not. If the opinion is unsuitable, explain why.
1. Opinion: Union workers provide the best labor available on the mar
ket. Audience: Union members
2. Opinion: The city rent commission should put a ceiling on the amount
of rent that landlords may charge. Audience: Renters
3. Opinion: Physical-fitness courses are a luxury that most high schools
can do without. Audience: High school administrators
4. Opinion: Home owners should not try to sell their homes without the
help of a real estate agent. Audience: Home owners
5. Opinion: The government should censor the political articles of news
papers during times of national crisis. Audience: Journalists

Assignment I Prewriting /Writing Write eight opinions of

your own that some of your classmates are likely to disagree with.
The opinions should be on a wide variety of subjects. Write two
explanations, two evaluations, two predictions, and two statements
that advise. Label each opinion.

Assignment 2 Prewriting Select four of the opinions that

you wrote for Assignment 1, and copy them on a separate sheet of

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Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

paper. Conduct a poll of at least ten classmates to find out whether

they agree or disagree with each opinion. (Some students may neither
agree nor disagree.) Based on the results of your poll, rank the four
opinions from the least controversial to the most controversial.

Continuing Assignment Prewriting/Writing Step 1: Se

lect and record on your paper an opinion that would make a good
topic for a persuasive composition of at least four paragraphs. If you
wish, choose from among the opinions that you used in Assignments
1 and 2. Step 2: Identify the audience for whom you will write the
composition. You may wish to choose one of the following: parents or
guardians, teachers, classmates, teen-agers in general, a specific
interest group (such as sports fans), or government representatives.
Save your paper.

Check your writing assignments for the following points:

1. Did you write opinions that are subject to disagreement?
i~ 2. Did you write opinions that explain, evaluate, predict, or
advise?
k 3. Did you base your opinions on logical ideas rather than on
feelings or personal preferences?
1 4• Did you make your statements of opinion clear and specific?
5. Did you take into account the probable reactions of your
audience?

Once you know your topic and audience, you must devise an
effective way of persuading that audience to accept your opinion. As
a writer, you have a variety of persuasive tools at your disposal: the
use of language that is forceful and moving; the flow and the strength
of your sentences; the use of clear images and effective comparisons;
the tone that you convey—your sincerity, fairness, and enthusiasm.
Even more important than your use of language is your use of sound
reasoning to support your opinion.
A persuasive paragraph is a series of logically connected
statements. It consists mainly of a position statement and supporting

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 8.2a
Recognizing Facts

sentences. The position statement is the opinion that you want

your audience to accept. The supporting sentences are the facts
and opinions that provide evidence, or reasons, for your position.
Study the following example.
POSITION STATEMENT
The city should mark off bicycle lanes on major streets.
SUPPORTING SENTENCES
More people in the city are using bikes for transportation.
Auto traffic is heavy on major streets.
The number of bike-car accidents is increasing.
On streets with bicycle lanes, bike-car accidents are very un
usual.

8.2a Recognizing Facts

To write persuasively, you must present evidence that readers

consider reliable. Facts are the most reliable evidence that you can
offer your audience.
A fact is something that is known to be true or that can be
shown to be true by observation, measurement, or research. Study
the types of verification suggested for the factual statements below.
FACT METHOD OF VERIFICATION
Calligraphy is the art of Look up calligraphy in
fine handwriting, a dictionary.
Aristotle was the tutor of Look up Aristotle or
Alexander the Great. Alexander the Great in
an encyclopedia.
Jane’s portrait was done Examine the portrait in
with luminous paints, the dark to see whether
it glows.
The winner of the 100-meter Consult an almanac.
dash in the 1900 Olympic
games was Francis Jervis.
The whole equals the sum No verification necessary.
of its parts. The truth of the statement
is universally accepted.

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 Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

The facts that you have just examined illustrate the various
kinds of factual statements. The first statement is a definition; the
second is the statement of something that happened. The third is an
observation, and the fourth is a statistic. The fifth is a truth so well
known that it needs no verification. If necessary, however, it could be
verified in a geometry textbook.

Exercise Prewriting: Facts Study the position statement

and supporting sentences that follow. On your paper, write the
numbers of the supporting sentences that express facts. Next to each
number, indicate a reliable way of verifying the fact.
Position statement: The United States Senate is right to limit the freedom
of its members to filibuster. -

1. To filibuster is to use lengthy speeches or other means to delay or

prevent a vote on a bill under consideration.
2. In 1975 the Senate ruled that debate on an issue can be ended by the
vote of three fifths of the Senate membership.
3. Without such a policy, a stubborn senator or a small group can
exercise unfair influence.
4. Before the ruling, filibusters lasting as long as seventy-five days were
not unheard of.
5. Since the ruling, the Senate has functioned much more smoothly and
efficiently.

8. Using Facts as Evidence

Facts make very convincing evidence. In the following para

graph, the writer uses four logically related factual statements to
support the position stated at the beginning.

Model
Astronauts have little or no chance of traveling
out among the stars in the foreseeable future. The
Fact — —j brightest star in the sky, and one of the nearest, is
I Sirius, located in the constellation Canis Major. Sirius

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 8.2b
Facts as Evidence

Fact I is approximately 8.7 light years, or 51 trillion miles,

Fact away from Earth. The fastest speed astronauts have
ever traveled is slightly less than 25,000 miles per
Fact hour. Even assuming that a ship capable of maintain
ing that top speed could be designed, it would take
the passengers more than 230,000 years to reach their
destination!

In gathering factual evidence to support your position, keep in

mind the following points.

Strategies
1. Use facts as evidence only if they help to show the correctness
of your position. In the paragraph about travel to the stars,
for example, each fact supports the idea that such travel
will be impossible in the foreseeable future. On the other
hand, a fact such as “Sirius is known as the Dog Star”
would not qualify as evidence. Although the fact relates to
the topic, it does not support the position statement.
2. Do not confuse statements of fact with statements that
combine fact and opinion. Study the following sentences.
FACT AND OPINION COMBINED
Mr. Kahn feels that new employees in a company
should start at the bottom and work their way up.
The referees insisted on enforcing every one of the
silly rules.
In the first sentence, it is a fact that Mr. Kahn feels the way
he does. What he feels, on the other hand, is an opinion.
Most of the second sentence is a factual report about the
referees. The word silly, however, presents an evaluation
and therefore expresses an opinion.
3. Indicate the source of your facts if you are presenting
unusual evidence. You may do so by including the source as
part of your persuasive paragraph or composition, or you
may choose to give the source in a footnote. (See Section
11.5a in Unit 11, “Writing a Research Paper.”)

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Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

If you keep in mind the guidelines that you have just read, you
will choose facts that form strong evidence for your opinion. You will
then have a good chance of persuading your audience to accept your
position.

Exercise 2 Prewriting: Facts as Evidence Study the posi

tion statement and list of factual statements that follow. On your
paper, write the numbers of those factual statements that provide
genuine evidence for the position.
Position statement: Tackle football in high schools and colleges is a some
what risky sport.
1. Every year more than a million high school and college students
compete in football.
2. One out of every five high school and college players incurs some type
of injury during a season.
3. In spite of the high rate of injury, football draws more spectators than
any other sport that schools offer.
4. Eight percent of students hurt playing football suffer a major injury
such as a fracture or severe concussion.
5. At some big-name universities, millions of dollars are spent annually
on the football program.
6. Broken bones and joint injuries occur more frequently in football than
in any other college or high school sport.

Exercise 3 Prewriting: Combination Statements All of

the supporting sentences below the following position statement
combine fact and opinion. On your paper, copy those words in each
supporting sentence that express opinion rather than fact.
Position statement: Perhaps the most accomplished actor of modern times
is Katharine Hepburn.
1. Hepburn made her theatrical debut in The Czarina in 1928, and she
has been one of our most talented actresses ever since.
2. In 1939 she won the New York Film Critics Award for her exciting
performance as Tracy Lord in The Philadelphia Story.
3. She has starred in dozens of first-rate plays and movies, and in none
of them has she ever given a mediocre performance.

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 8.3

Other Evidence

4. Hepburn has won more Academy Awards for acting (four) than any
other actor, and deservedly so.
5. Many of her fans think that her role opposite Humphrey Bogart in
The African Queen in 1952 was her best performance.
6. Hepburn’s superlative acting career has spanned more than half a
century; in that time she has set new standards of excellence for the
entire acting profession.

Assignment Writing Write a position statement about a

major event currently in the news. Then make a list of at least five
factual statements that support the position. Obtain your facts from
newspapers, magazines, and television news shows. Underneath each
fact, give its source.

Continuing Assignment Prewriting/Writing Take out

the paper on which you wrote the opinion that you will develop in a
persuasive composition (page 362). The opinion will be your position
statement. After doing any needed research, list at least eight facts
that support your position. Save your paper.

Check your assignments for the following points:

w 1. Did you write a position statement that expresses an opinion
clearly?
,. 2. Did you write supporting sentences that are entirely factual?
,.. 3. Did you write supporting sentences that relate directly to your
position?

8. Us’. es e
Although facts are the best support for a position, opinions can
also be useful as evidence. Among the opinions that you can use
effectively as evidence are the opinions of experts, opinions based on
common experience, and opinions arrived at through reasoning.

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Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

8.3a Opinions of Experts

An expert is a person with a high degree of skill or knowledge in

a certain area. Readers usually value the opinion of an expert. The
writer of the following persuasive paragraph uses the opinion of an
expert as evidence.

Model
Pesticides are not always an effective means of controlling
insects. As the biologist Rachel Carson states in her famous book
Silent Spring, “insects possess an effective counterweapon (resist
ance) to aggressive chemical attack. . . However rapidly tech
.

nology may invent new uses for insecticides and new ways of apply
ing them, it is likely to find the insects keeping a lap ahead.” The
main problem, according to Carson, is that pesticides cause insects
to develop immunities, thereby making the insects harder to destroy.
As a consequence, pesticide users find themselves on a never-ending
quest to discover progressively more potent chemicals.

When using an expert’s opinion as evidence, give your readers

specific information about the expert. In the paragraph on insecti
cides, for example, the writer identifies the expert, mentions her
occupation, gives a quotation from one of her books, and then
summarizes her views.
Keep two more points in mind when you use expert opinion as
evidence.

Strategies
1. Do not try to use the opinion of an expert as proof of your
position. That is, use the opinion as evidence for your
position, but do not suggest that the opinion proves the
position. An expert can be wrong. It is not uncommon for
experts in the same field to hold opposing opinions on a
subject. Clearly, they cannot all be correct.
2. Cite the opinion of an expert only if it is in the area of his or
her expertise. Experts often voice opinions on subjects that
are outside their specialized area of knowledge. Such
opinions are no more reliable than anyone else’s.

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 8.b
Common Experience

xercise 1 Prewriting: Expert Opinion Each position

statement is followed by a list of three persons. Identify the person in
the list who would best qualify as an expert on the subject of the
position statement.
1. More should be done to protect football players from injury. (An
orthopedic surgeon, a lawyer, a physical education instructor)
2. The exploration of outer space is well worth its cost. (A politician, an
astronomer, a stockbroker)
3. Inflation encourages people to spend, not to save, their money.
(A store manager, an economist, a consumer advocate)
4. A state should not enact laws that violate a person’s constitutional
rights. (A Supreme Court justice, a historian, a governor)
5. Citizen Kane is one of the ten greatest movies ever made. (A film
critic, a movie star, a theater owner)

8. b Opinions Based on Common Experience

Opinions based on common experience often make effective

evidence. The term common experience refers to experiences that
most people have had or have observed. Readers generally value the
evidence of experience, for it is knowledge that they themselves have
gained firsthand or that they can verify in their own lives. The
evidence given in the following persuasive paragraph consists of
opinions that are based on common experience.

Model
As a rule, you should avoid cramming before an examination.
If you are like most people, you have crammed for an exam at one
time or another. What kind of results did you achieve? Quite possi
bly you were not as alert during the test as you normally are
because your late-night efforts at studying left you feeling tired and
sluggish. Also, while answering the questions, you probably found it
difficult to keep information straight and to recall details. Worst of
all, within twenty-four hours of the exam you most likely forgot
nearly everything you learned while cramming. A moderate amount
of last-minute preparation can be helpful before an examination.
Trying to cram several months’ worth of study into a single night,
however, is usually a self-defeating task.

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Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

Arguing on the basis of experience is effective only if you show

your audience how the experience supports your position. In the
paragraph on cramming, the writer explains the ways in which
cramming affects most people.
Keep in mind these additional points when you use common
experience as evidence.

Strategies
1. Make sure that your opinions reflect the actual experiences
of your audience. You cannot expect readers to agree with
you on the basis of experiences that they have never had.
For example, if your readers have never done any scientific
research, the opinion “Scientific research is often tedious”
will not be useful as evidence.
2. Avoid overgeneralizing from your experience. If you have
had considerable experience with a certain type of activity,
for example, you may feel confident in stating a general
opinion about that activity. It is risky, however, to make a
general statement based on very little experience.

Exercise 2 Writing: Common Experience Write an opin

ion on each of the following topics. The opinion must be one that you
think most people would agree with on the basis of their experience.
1. The value of patience
2. The main problem with gossip
3. The true meaning of friendship
4. The best way to get ahead in life
5. The value of getting work experience as early as possible

8.3c Opinions Based on Reasoning

Opinions based on reasoning are yet another type of evidence

that you can use to support a position. Reasoning is the process of
drawing conclusions from statements that you know or believe to be

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 8.3c
Reasoning

true. A persuasive passage that is based on reasoning says, in effect,

“This position is correct because it follows from these other state
ments.” The writer of the following persuasive paragraph supports
the position statement by using opinions based on reasoning.

Model
People who abuse the rights of others forfeit their awn rights.
For instance, you can hardly complain about the loud music coming
from your neighbor’s house at 2:00 A.M. if you have been guilty of
the same offense. By ignoring your neighbor’s right to peace and
quiet, you have given your neighbor license to ignore your right to
peace and quiet. What is it that entitles you to a particular right in
the first place? If it is the fact that you are a citizen, then you must
acknowledge that all other citizens possess the right too. If it is the
fact that you are a human being, then you must grant the right to
every human being. Thus, in claiming a right for yourself, you also
grant it to your neighbor. What is more to the point, in denying a
right to your neighbor, you also deny it to yourself.

To argue effectively by using reasoning, present your thoughts

to readers in step-by-step fashion. Each step in your reasoning
process must move readers logically toward the opinion expressed in
your position statement.
Keep in mind these additional points when you use reasoning as
evidence.

Strategies
1. Be sure to include all major steps in your reasoning process.
Reasoning is like building a house. If you leave out an
important beam, the entire structure may collapse.
2. Do not support an opinion with other opinions that are even
more questionable than the first one. It does little good, for
example, to claim that one statement logically follows from
another if readers think that the first one is false. As far as
possible, show that your opinions follow from other very
reliable opinions—or better yet, from facts.

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Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

Exercise 3 Writing: Reasoning The blank in each of the

following persuasive passages indicates a step that has been left out of
the writer’s sequence of reasoning. In each passage supply a sentence
that would make the reasoning complete.
1. For a system of government to serve the people effectively, citizens
must have the authority to elect and to remove government leaders.
L. Thus, dictatorship is not an effective form of government.
2. Sid should not be appointed treasurer of the club. The club treasurer
should be good at math. _1_. Although Sid does well in math, he has
had no experience whatsoever in handling large sums of money.
3. Geometry is one of the most valuable subjects that a school can offer.
A major goal of education is to teach students how to think logically.
7

4. Judge Taylor should disqualify herself from hearing the Smith

Hernandez case. _L. A judge should maintain strict neutrality in a
trial. A judge may not be able to remain neutral if a trial involves a
relative.
5. The winner of the decathlon in the Olympic games deserves to be
considered one of the world’s finest athletes. Athletic excellence con
sists in being able to perform a great number of physical activities
well. 2_.

Assignment I Writing Step 1: Write a position statement that

you are prepared to support with an expert’s opinion. Step 2:
Underneath the position statement, identify the expert and state his
or her qualifications. Step 3: Copy at least one quotation that
expresses the expert’s support of your position. Identify the source of
the quotation.

Assignment 2 Writing Step 1: Select one of the following

subjects and copy it on your paper. Step 2: Write a brief paragraph
describing the experiences that you have had with the subject. Step 3:
Write a position statement that is based on the experiences that you
described. Step 4: State whether you think that most people would
agree with the position on the basis of their experience.
1. Waiting in line 3. Taking an important test
2. Following a diet 4. Learning a new skill

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 8.4

Writing an Argument

ssignme t 3 Writing Step 1: Write a position statement that

can be supported by reasoning. Step 2: Give the main reason that you
think the position is correct. This reason should be a statement of
opinion. Step 3: Give a second reason that justifies the first reason.
The second reason should be a statement of fact.

Contin ing Assignme t Prewriting/Writing To the list

of supporting facts that you wrote for the Continuing Assignment on
page 367, add at least three more pieces of evidence for your
position. Your new evidence should consist of experts’ opinions,
opinions based on common experience, or opinions arrived at
through reasoning. Make sure that each piece of evidence directly
supports your position. Save your paper.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
, 1. Did you write position statements that are clearly expressed?
i-’ 2. Did you provide evidence that consists of experts’ opinions,
opinions based on common experience, or opinions arrived at
through reasoning?

.4 •..i n ling

The impact that your persuasive paragraph or composition has

on readers depends finally on how well you write it. You must
organize the parts of your paragraph or composition so that the
progression of thought is clear. Occasionally you will need to provide
additional information for clarity and completeness.
The logically connected statements in a persuasive paragraph or
composition form an argument. An argument usually includes four
parts, two of which you have already studied. A full argument
contains (1) a position statement, (2) clarifying remarks, (3) support
ing sentences, and (4) concluding sentences. In this section you will
study each of the four parts of an argument in turn. You will also
learn how to expand your information into a persuasive composition
when you have too many ideas for one paragraph.

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Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

8.4a Writing a Position Statement

In persuasive writing you can almost always state your position

in one sentence. When you write a single paragraph, your position
statement is your topic sentence. Place it at the beginning so that your
audience knows from the outset what you want to show. When you
write a composition, state your position in the first paragraph
wherever it seems most appropriate.
To express your position effectively, follow these guidelines.

Strategies
1. Phrase your position as a statement, not as a question. If you
phrase your position as a question, your audience may not
be able to decide whether you are for or against the idea or
action being discussed.
NOT EFFECTIVE
Why should people be forced to retire because they
have reached a certain age?
EFFECTIVE
People should not be forced to retire because they
have reached a certain age.

2. Limit your position statement to one opinion. Different

opinions about a subject require separate supporting sen
tences.
NOT EFFECTIVE
We need more effective rent-control laws; in addi
tion, the existing rent-control laws should be enforced
more strictly.
EFFECTIVE
We need more effective rent-control laws.
EFFECTIVE
The present rent-control laws should be enforced
more strictly.

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 8.4b
Clarifying Remarks

3. Avoid using biased wording in your position statement.

Such wording weakens your argument.
NOT EFFECTIVE
The unfair parking regulations for the downtown area
should be changed.
EFFECTIVE
The parking regulations for the downtown area
should be changed.

Exercise I Revising: Position Statements Indicate which

of the following comments most accurately describes each position
statement. On your paper, write the letter of the appropriate
comment next to the number of the statement. Then rewrite the
statement to make it effective.
a. Position statement is phrased as a question rather than as a state
ment.
b. Position statement expresses two opinions.
c. Position statement contains biased wording.
1. Has the time come to re-evaluate the way in which business and labor
negotiate contracts?
2. Our lazy, irresponsible officers do not deserve re-election.
3. What about curbing some of the travel expenses of our elected repre
sentatives?
4. Congress should reject the ill-conceived proposal for pollution control
submitted by radical Representative Phillip Crosby.
5. Maintaining our natural resources is in the interest of all citizens, and
so is preserving our national heritage.

8. Writing Clarifying Remarks

Having stated your position, you should provide any informa

tion that your audience may need in order to understand the issue
involved or your position on it. In a paragraph your clarifying
remarks will be no more than one or two sentences. In a composition
you may devote most of the first paragraph to clarifying your position
statement.

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Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

There are at least four ways in which you can clarify a Position
statement.

Strategies
1. Clarify by defining or explaining a key term.
POSITION STATEMENT
The spoils system detracts from the integrity of our
democratic electoral process.
CLARIFYING REMARK
The spoils system is the postelection practice of
giving public offices to supporters of the winning
candidates.
2. Clarify by qualifying or limiting the position statement.
POSITION STATEMENT
The United States should provide economic assist
ance to some of the developing countries.
CLARIFYING REMARK
By “assistance” I do not mean unconditional grants
but, rather, long-term, low-interest loans that would
enable these countries to stand on their own.
3. Clarify by providing background information.
POSITION STATEMENT
The rapid-transit plan currently under study by the
Transportation Board should be approved without
delay.
CLARIFYING REMARK
The plan was first proposed two years ago but was
held up because of changes in the city’s zoning laws.
4. Clarify by giving an example or a specific application of the
position statement.
POSITION STATEMENT
Our local library should launch a fund-raising pro
gram to improve its facilities.

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 8.4c
Supporting Sentences

CLARIFYING REMARK
For example, donations should be sought so that
carrels for private study can be built.

Exercise 2 Writing: Clarifying Remarks Select one posi

tion statement from each of the following pairs. On your paper, write
a sentence or two providing the type of clarification specified. You
may need to use a dictionary, an encyclopedia, or another reference
work.
1. a. Canada’s most critical environmental problem is acid rain.
b. In today’s world, colonialism as an active policy of major govern
ments should be discouraged.
Clarification: Define or explain a key term.
2. a. Most families would probably get to know one another better if
they stopped watching television.
b. Thrift is as worthwhile a quality today as it was when Benjamin
Franklin wrote about it.
Clarification: Qualify or limit the position statement.
3. a. The Twenty-Sixth Amendment has proved to be a wise addition to
the law of the land.
b. The British Museum should return the famed Elgin Marbles to
Greece.
Clarification: Provide helpful background information.
4. a. Prompt action is needed if we are to save some of our endangered
species from extinction.
b. National holidays ought to be celebrated on the days on which they
occur, not on the nearest Monday.
Clarification: Give an example or specific application.

B.4c Writing Supporting Sentences

Once you have stated your position and clarified it, you are
ready to present your supporting evidence. In a persuasive para
graph, you express each point of evidence in one or two supporting
sentences. In a persuasive composition, you may write an entire
paragraph about a single point of evidence or several related points.

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Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

Alternatively, you may write a paragraph about each stage of your

reasoning process. The order to use in organizing your supporting
sentences depends on how they relate to one another.

Presenting Reasons
In some arguments your evidence will consist of three or more
independent reasons that support your position. These reasons may
have little to do with one another. If your reasons are of equal
importance, the order in which you present them does not matter.
Quite often, however, you can arrange independent reasons in the
order of least to most important, as the writer of the following
persuasive paragraph has.
Model
(1) Position (1) The softball team should play its games at
statement Lincoln Field rather than at school. (2) For one
(2) First reason thing, Lincoln Field is more attractive than the school
(3) Second reason field. (3) Then, too, the pitcher’s mound and base
paths of the school field are designed for hardball,
but Lincoln Field has a genuine softball diamond.
4) Third reason (4) More important, the Lincoln Field bleachers seat
two hundred more spectators than the school bleach-
5) Fourth reason ers do. (5) Finally, Lincoln Field is available on more
afternoons than the school field.

Exercise 3 Writing: Reasons Each of the following pairs of

sentences consists of a position statement and one supporting sen
tence. Copy the pairs of sentences on your paper. Underneath each
supporting sentence, write two more supporting sentences that are
different from the first one and are also independent of each other.
Number the three sentences to indicate the order of their impor
tance, making Number 1 the least important. Save your paper.
1. Position statement: If you have never learned to swim, you definitely
should consider taking swimming lessons.
Supporting sentence: Swimming is an excellent form of exercise be
cause it stretches arm, leg, back, and stomach muscles.
2. Position statement. If the opportunities are available, a student should
develop a working acquaintance with computers.

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 8.4c
Chain of Reasoning

Supporting sentence: The lack of a firsthand knowledge of computers

may prevent a young person from obtaining a desirable job.
3. Position statement: Students ought to think about possible careers as
early as their sophomore year.
Supporting sentence: In this way they have plenty of time to take the
courses that they need.

Presenting a Chain of Reasoning

Sometimes your evidence will consist not of independent rea
Sons grouped together but, rather, of thoughts that form a chain of
reasoning. In a chain of reasoning, the ideas are interrelated; each
statement is connected to the next one, with the position statement
representing the final link in the chain. To build a chain of reasoning,
you must be able to arrange your supporting sentences in their logical
sequence. Study the order of the links in the chain of reasoning given
in the following argument.

Model
(1) Position (1) The startling idea that the great continents
have drifted like logs in a pond was scoffed at for
many years, but recently a great deal of evidence has
(2) First link been found to support it. (2) It is known that when
certain kinds of rocks are formed, either by settling
sediment or cooling lava, magnetic particles in them
behave like compass needles, lining up with the
earth’s magnetic field, which for fundamental reasons
(3) Second link tends to point north and south. (3) This happened in
ancient rocks too, and if they had stayed in the same
position since their formation, their magnetism would
(4) Third link still point north and south. (4) In some cases it does,
but many ancient rocks have been found with fossil
(5) Fourth link magnetism pointing in other directions. (5) This is
taken to indicate that they have shifted position since
they were formed.
Carl Sagan and Jonathan Leonard, Planets
Notice how the fourth link in the argument leads into the
position stated at the beginning.

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Unit 8 Persuasive riting

xerc9se 4 Prewriting: Chain of Reasoning After the

following position statement are five supporting sentences that could
be organized into a chain of reasoning. On your paper, copy the
supporting sentences, arranging them in a logical sequence.
Position statement: In democratic decision-making, the majority should
always consider the feelings of the minority.
1. If the feelings of the minority are completely ignored now, what is
likely to be the minority’s attitude when it comes into power?
2. Today’s minority may well become tomorrow’s majority.
3. It is only prudent, therefore, that the majority treat the minority as it
would wish to be treated itself.
4. History shows us that no single party or group stays in power forever.
5. In all probability it will do just what the former majority did.

Arguing by Rebuttal
In some arguments you may present your opponents’ position
and evidence that supports it, and then show what is wrong with that
evidence by offering insights overlooked by the opposition. The
evidence that refutes opposing evidence is called a rebuttal. In an
argument that contains a rebuttal, order your supporting sentences in
either of two ways: (1) by presenting all of your opponents’ points
first and then your own or (2) by alternating individual points. The
writer of the following persuasive paragraph uses the first type of
rebuttal.

Model
(1) Position (1) For the average high school student, the
statement most desirable program is study of the liberal arts.
(2) Clarifying (2) A liberal arts education is a program of academic
remark courses, as distinguished from a technical or vocation
(3)(4) Evidence al program. (3) There are those who say that a liberal
supporting arts education is impractical because it does not train
opponents
position students to perform any particular job. (4) The stu
dents’ time, they say, would be more profitably spent

380
 8.4c

Rebuttal

in learning a trade or in acquiring other marketable

(5)(6)(7) skills. (5) These assertions are somewhat short
Rebduttal: sighted, however. (6) Though it is true that a liberal
countering arts education does not prepare students for a partic
oPPdo~nts ular job, it is equally true that people with wide
educational backgrounds find it easier to adapt to
changing opportunities in the job market. (7) Fur
thermore, the knowledge that students gain through a
liberal arts education often enables them to bring
fresh insights and approaches to the workplaces that
they ultimately enter.

In this section you have considered three kinds of supporting

sentences: independent reasons, a chain of reasoning, and rebuttal.
In a persuasive paragraph, you generally use only one kind of
supporting sentence. In a persuasive composition, you may use two
or three types, placing them in separate paragraphs, each with a
strong topic sentence.

xercise 5 Writing: Rebuttals The following sentences

begin five arguments. Select three and copy them on your paper.
Under each one write two or more objections that you could use as a
rebuttal in an argument of your own. Save your paper for later use.
1. Watching movies is a more enjoyable pastime than reading books,
because films maintain a faster pace, involve the audience to a greater
extent, and require little effort on the part of the viewer.
2. Organized sports have no place in school. Taxpayers support schools
so that young people can receive an education, not so that they can
play games or prepare to become professional athletes.
3. Teen-agers should be charged more for their automobile insurance
than adults. After all, teen-agers as a group are high-risk drivers.
4. It is no longer necessary for people to learn mathematics. In today’s
world all basic computations can be performed quite simply on con
venient, inexpensive calculators.
5. Politics is not a promising field for a conscientious person to enter.
There are too many possibilities for corruption.

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Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

8.4 Writing Concludi g Sentences

To strengthen your argument, end it with a formal conclusion.

You can write an effective conclusion for a paragraph in one or two
sentences. In a composition you may need a whole paragraph to
conclude your argument. There are three main ways to conclude an
argument.

Strategies
1. Conclude your argument by restating the position statement
in different words. Here is how you could restate the
position statement of the model paragraph on liberal arts
education (page 380).
POSITION STATEMENT
For the average high school student, the most desir
able program is study of the liberal arts.
RESTATEMENT
Clearly, the varied nature of a liberal arts education
makes it ideal for most students.
2. Conclude your argument by recommending an action based
on the position statement.
RECOMMENDATION
Students should avail themselves of the varied pro
gram of study that a liberal arts education offers.
3. Conclude your argument by stating a personal judgment that
is based on your position statement.
PERSONAL JUDGMENT
The complexity of today’s world makes the wide edu
cational experience of a liberal arts program more
valuable than ever.

You must always base your conclusion on what you have said in
your persuasive paragraph or composition.

382
 8.4d
Concluding Sentences

Exercise 6 Writing: Concluding Sentences Write two

concluding sentences for the model paragraph on Lincoln Field (page
378). Label each of your sentences Restatement, Recommendation, or
Personal judgment.

Assignment I Writing Write a persuasive paragraph, using

one position statement and three of the supporting sentences from
Exercise 3 on page 378. If necessary, include a clarifying remark.
Arrange your supporting sentences in order of increasing impor
tance. Conclude your paragraph by expressing the position statement
in different words.

Assignment 2 Writing Write a persuasive paragraph, using

one set of the rebuttal sentences that you developed for Exercise 5 on
page 381. Begin by stating and clarifying your own position (the
position opposing the one taken in the argument presented in
Exercise 5). Remember that you will need to present the opposing
point of view and reasons for it in order to show why you hold a
different position. Write a concluding sentence that recommends an
action based on your position statement.

Assignment 3 Writing Write a persuasive composition in

which you argue for or against (1) altering Social Security legislation
or (2) offshore drilling for oil and gas. Step 1. Place your position
statement and clarifying remarks in the first paragraph. Step 2: Group
related supporting sentences and place each group in a separate
paragraph. Step 3: Put your concluding sentences in a final para
graph.

Continuing Assignment Writing Using the material that

you compiled in the Continuing Assignments on pages 362, 367, and
373, write a persuasive composition of at least four paragraphs. Step
1: State your position in the first paragraph. Use the remainder of the
paragraph for clarifying remarks. Step 2: Organize your evidence into
two or more paragraphs. Present different types of supporting
sentences, such as independent reasons or rebuttal, in separate

383
Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

paragraphs. Step 3: Write a concluding paragraph in which you (1)

express your position statement in different words, (2) recommend an
action, or (3) state a personal judgment based on the position
statement. Save your paper.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
~.‘ 1. Did you write clear position statements?

~ 2. Did you write clarifying remarks that will help your readers to
understand your argument?
s,~ 3. Did you present your evidence in a well-organized senes of
supporting sentences?
4. Did you write conclusions that re-express the position state
ment, recommend an action, or offer a personal judgment?
~ 5. In a persuasive composition of more than one paragraph, did
you group the sentences in a logical, effective way?
6. Did you proofread your work for correct grammar, usage,
spelling, and punctuation?

et
Revision is especially important in persuasive writing because
the success of an argument can depend on a single statement. As you
revise your first draft, concentrate on moderation and logical devel
opment.

8.5a Revising for Moderation

You often hear opinions expressed as sweeping statements that

pertain to entire classes of people, objects, or actions. The following
opinions represent sweeping statements.
Everyone should follow a daily exercise routine.
All scientists are dedicated to their work.

Usually it is a mistake to make a sweeping statement, because a

single exception can disprove it. For instance, if your readers know

384
 8.5a
Moderation

just one person who has been forbidden by a doctor to exercise and
just one scientist who lacks dedication, they will reject both of the
preceding statements. A moderate statement, such as “Many scien
tists are dedicated to their work,” is easier to support with evidence.
In persuasive writing, both your position statement and your support
ing sentences should be moderate. The following strategies will help
you to turn sweeping statements into moderate statements.

Strategies
1. Replace superlatives, modifiers that end in -est or that are
preceded by the words most, best, least, or worst. In their
place, you can use the positive forms of the modifiers. For
example, you can replace most efficient with efficient.
Alternatively, you can insert a phrase such as one of the
before the superlative. The following statements show how
you can alter superlatives.
SWEEPING STATEMENT
The electronic-parts industry is the most competitive
business today.
MODERATE STATEMENTS
The electronic-parts industry is a competitive busi
ness today.
The electronic-parts industry is one of the most com
petitive businesses today.
2. Replace other absolute terms to limit sweeping statements.
Such words as all, always, anytime, completely, constantly,
every, everyone, invariably, never, no, and none often
appear in sweeping statements. To limit such statements,
use instead such words and phrases as many, most, often,
usually, sometimes, frequently, in most cases, for the most
part, some, rarely, and few. The following example shows
how sweeping statements can be limited.
SWEEPING STATEMENT
Projects that are rushed never turn out well.
MODERATE STATEMENT
Projects that are rushed often do not turn out well.

385
 Unit 8 Persuasive Writing
~1A ‘~
b ~ ~ .~ ~ ...

3. Add modifiers to limit sweeping statements. For example,

the sweeping statement “Basketball players are good long-
distance runners” implies “All basketball players are good
long-distance runners.” To limit a sweeping statement, add
a suitable modifier, such as some or many. “Some basket
ball players are good long-distance runners” is a moderate
statement.

When you revise a persuasive paragraph or a persuasive

composition, you may have to use one or more of these techniques
for making your statements more moderate.

Exercise 1 Revising: Moderation On your paper, list the

number of each sentence that makes a sweeping statement. Next to
the number, rewrite the sentence to make it a moderate statement of
opinion.
1. Choosing a career is always a difficult process.
2. Drilling for oil is the least imaginative solution to our long-range
energy problems.
3. The test for my driver’s license was difficult but fair.
4. The most famous romance of the ancient world was that of Julius
Caesar and Cleopatra.
5. Swimming is the best exercise for toning your muscles.
6. The publicity committee has presented an effective plan for advertis
ing the banquet.
7. Going to a museum is the only way to learn about art.
8. Emily Dickinson was one of America’s greatest poets.
9. Babe Didrikson Zaharias was an extremely gifted athlete.
10. Every adult wants to have a full-time job.

8.5 Revising for Logical Development

Effective Evidence
Review your argument to make sure that you have presented
effective evidence in your supporting sentences. Each piece of
evidence must clearly support your position statement. Eliminate any
unrelated evidence that would only distract your reader’s attention

386
 8.5b
Effective Evidence
1
from your position. Also, be sure that your evidence is complete.
Add any important pieces of evidence that are missing.
The following argument is not effective because it contains
unrelated evidence and because it lacks important evidence.
INEFFECTIVE ARGUMENT
Position statement Most people in the United States like the work
that they do. They have a favorable attitude toward
Evidence the positions that they hold. Most people would not
change their occupations even if they were given a
Unrelated chance to start over. In addition, most people would
nformation not move to other parts of the country if they could.
Because only a few people in the United States find
serious fault with their jobs, the work climate in this
country is favorable.

The information about people’s preference for the area in

which they currently live distracts the reader’s attention from the
remarks about people’s satisfaction with their work. Also, because
the writer does not present strong evidence to support the claim that
people are happy with their jobs, the argument seems weak. The
following revised argument is more effective.
EFFECTIVE ARGUMENT
Position Most people in the United States like the work
statemen that they do. A recent poll shows that four out of
Important every five people have a favorable attitude toward
evidence added their jobs. Forty-nine percent of those polled indi
cated that they were “highly satisfied” with their
Un~ated employment; another 46 percent said that they were
removed “satisfied” with what they do. Only 5 percent said
that they were “not satisfied” with their jobs. The
poll also revealed that most people would not change
their occupations if they were given a chance to start
over. Because relatively few people in the United
States find serious fault with their jobs, the work
climate in this country is favorable.

The revised argument is more effective because it contains no

unrelated information and because the evidence in it is complete.

387
 Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

Exercise 2 Revising: Evidence Some sentences in each of

the following lists give evidence for the position statement. Other
sentences are unrelated to the position statement. On your paper,
label each sentence Evidence or Unrelated.
1. Position statement. Most people do not spend enough of their leisure
time reading.
a. Reading is the favorite activity of some people.
b. Reading ranks far behind watching television and participating in
sports as a popular activity.
c. Reading is first taught in kindergarten or in first grade.
d. Three out of four people in the United States do not read even one
book each year.
e. Reading for pleasure helps a person to develop skills that are
valuable for many types of work.
2. Position statement: More people should use seatbelts and shoulder
harnesses when they ride in cars.
a. Only 20 percent of the people in the United States use seatbelts.
b. Seatbelts and shoulder harnesses fasten in a number of ways.
c. Safety experts believe that twelve to fourteen thousand people
could be saved each year if everyone used seatbelts and shoulder
harnesses.
d. New cars must be equipped with safety devices.
e. Only 15 percent of the people in the United States use both
seatbelts and shoulder harnesses.

Avoiding Fallacies
As the final step in revising your argument, you must eliminate
fallacies, or unsound reasoning. A reader who detects a fallacy in
your argument probably will not be persuaded to accept your
position. Among the fallacies that you should avoid are the following
six types.
Begging the Question. If you take for granted the point that
you should be proving, you beg the question. That is, you fail to
provide evidence to support your position and, instead, treat your
position as evidence. In the following passage, the writer begs the
question.

388
 8.5b

Fallacies

BEGGING THE QUESTION

Laurie Monson should receive this year’s Academy Award for
best documentary. Without a doubt, her film on Mt. Everest
was the best documentary this year.

Examination of the argument reveals that the writer has not

offered any evidence to support the position but has simply restated
the position. To argue effectively, the writer would need to establish,
with evidence, the specific elements of the documentary that make it
the best one of the year.
False Assumption. An argument is also faulty if you make a
false assumption and then make a prediction or draw a conclusion
based on that assumption. For example, you could reason, “There is
a large amount of extra money in the city budget; therefore, the city
can afford to pay for an arts center.” If there really is a large amount
of extra money in the city budget, then the reasoning is sound. If the
budget does not contain the extra money, however, the argument
contains a false assumption, an assumption that is not in accord with
the facts.
False Association Between a Cause and an Effect. In
many arguments you examine the cause of an effect or the effect of a
cause. In doing so, you must demonstrate that a cause-and-effect
relationship actually exists. You make a false association between a
cause and an effect if you conclude that because one event occurs
after another event, the first event must be the cause of the second
event. In the following passage, the writer does not demonstrate a
cause-and-effect relationship.
FALSE ASSOCIATION
A work crew dug a foundation for a new building next to the
store. Then a crack appeared in the south wall of the store.
The crack must have been caused by the construction work on
the foundation.

The writer ignores the possibility that other events or situations

may have caused the crack in the wall. For example, the wall may
have cracked because it was old or made of poor-quality plaster or
because the ground beneath it settled.

389
Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

False Choice. In an argument you often present solutions to a

problem. Presenting two solutions and stating that either one or the
other must be accepted is sound if there are only two solutions to the
problem. You present a false choice, however, if you indicate that
there are only two solutions to a problem that really has more than
two solutions. In the following passage, the writer presents only two
solutions although there are more.
FALSE CHOICE
Something must be done to conserve gasoline. Either we must
raise the gasoline tax to discourage drivers from buying gaso
line, or we must use coupons to ration gas.

The writer ignores other possibilities, such as drivers’ voluntary

conservation of gas or regulations permitting drivers to buy gas only
during limited hours.
False Analogy. Arguing by analogy is attempting to make a
point about something by comparing it to a similar item. You make a
false analogy if you compare two items in an area in which they are
not truly similar. The writer of the following passage makes a false
comparison.
FALSE ANALOGY
The food that we eat, like the air that we breathe, is vital to
our survival. No one would think of charging for the air that
we breathe. The same ought to be true of food.

The analogy is false because although air and food are both
necessary for human existence, they are different in an important
way. No one works and spends money to produce the air that we
breathe, but farmers must do both while producing food. The
dissimilar points of comparison make the argument faulty.

Argument from Character. In an argument you may decide to

evaluate the opinion of an expert on your topic. Such an opinion
should be judged by its content, not by the character or experience of
the expert. In the following passage, the writer makes a statement
about the motivation of an expert.

390
 8.5b
Fallacies

ARGUMENT FROM CHARACTER

Senator Farnsworth claims that the job-training program will
be successful. His opinion cannot be trusted because he is
simply seeking the youth vote in the next election.

Senator Farnsworth may or may not be seeking the youth vote.

Whether he is or not has nothing to do with the validity of his
statement about the job-training program. The only way to deter
mine the value of his position is to examine the position itself.

E ercise 3 Prewriting: Fallacies On your paper, evaluate

each group of sentences by writing Fallacy or No fallacy. Then
identify each fallacy as Begging the question, False assumption, False
association, False choice, False analogy, or Argument from character.
1. It never snows in Minnesota. Therefore, towns in Minnesota need not
include money for snow removal in their yearly budgets.
2. Riding on a Ferris wheel and parachuting produce similar sensations.
You need no special training to ride a Ferris wheel; therefore, you
need no special training to go parachuting.
3. Next month we voters will be asked to approve the mayor’s parking
plan. Because the plan has worked well in four nearby communities of
the same size, we should try it in our community.
4. The newspaper advertising campaign for Figel’s department store was
a success. Business increased after the advertisements were run, and
45 percent of the customers said that they were shopping at Figel’s
because of the advertisements.
5. I have not received the package that Paula mailed to me two weeks
ago. Either she addressed the package incorrectly, or the package has
been lost in the mail.
6. Our building superintendent claims that the carpet in the halls does
not need to be replaced. His opinion cannot be trusted because the
rugs in his apartment are in terrible condition.
7. You are not truly educated unless you have learned a second lan
guage. Being able to speak a second language is a sure sign that you
are well educated.
8. You will have a particularly enjoyable visit in a foreign country if you
know the language. You will be able to ask for exactly what you need,
and you will be able to travel to areas where people do not speak
your language.

391
Unit 8 Persuasive Writing

9. The new Congress deserves credit for the recent improvement in the
country’s economy. Before the new senators and representatives took
office, both inflation and unemployment were high. Now both are
down to their lowest levels in years.
10. When I arrived at the station on time, the train was not there. Either
it had left early, or it was late in arriving.

Exercise 4 Revising: Fallacies On your paper, rewrite the

following groups of sentences in order to eliminate the fallacies in
them. You may have to add evidence or facts so that each group of
sentences presents effective evidence.
1. A controversial solution to the problem of unemployment has been
suggested by Miles Everett, a noted economist and author. However,
his solution cannot be taken seriously because he is just trying to
increase sales of his most recent book.
2. Last year scientists experimented with cloud seeding in our region.
This spring we were plagued by hail and rainstorms. It is obvious that
the cloud seeding caused our violent weather this year.
3. All young children should have easy access to play areas. Either more
public land must be turned into playgrounds, or communities should
provide transportation to existing playgrounds.
4. Marathon runners, much like tennis players, must practice and train.
Because both athletic pursuits require some discipline and skill, the
same training and practice regimens should be followed for them.
5. Wood sculptors should use ebony in order to create stunning works of
art. Ebony is a beautiful type of wood to use in sculpture.

Assign ent Revising Rewrite the following paragraph. Re

vise it by making sweeping statements more moderate, by removing
unrelated evidence, and by correcting unsound reasoning.
Computer science is the most valuable field of study that
anyone can explore in school or college. First, if you learn about
computers, you will definitely get a job. Computers are being used
in increasingly more companies, and employers need people to
build, program, and operate them. Gene Gifford, a computer ana
lyst, claims that the number of computer-related jobs will more than

392
 8.5b
Fallacies

double in the next ten years. He should know because he accurately

predicted who would win this year’s World Series. Also, computers
will become more common in people’s homes because more people
will have computers in their homes. You will need to know how to
operate a computer in order to live in a modern home. You also
may have to adjust to such inventions as solar heating. Either you
will learn about computers or you will not be able to cope with the
future.

Continuing Assignment Revising Revise the persuasive

composition that you wrote for the Continuing Assignment on page
383. Concentrate on moderation, effectiveness, and sound reasoning.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
V 1. Did you revise sweeping statements to make them moderate?
V 2. Did you eliminate points that do not relate to your position
statement?
~ 3. Did you add any important pieces of evidence that were
missing from your argument?
V 4. Did you eliminate fallacies from your argument?
V 5. Did you proofread your argument for correct grammar, usage,
spelling, and punctuation?

393
 — —WIiF~WA

~lIj~4/, - 7j_~.’

Help Wanted: A Persuasive Notice for a Bulletin Board

Situation As committee head of Students for a Youth Cen
ter, you have asked about the possibility of using the base
ment of City Hall for a youth center. In a letter, shown on the
facing page, city administrators have agreed to allow students
to use the basement, on the condition that the students clear
everything out of the basement and clean it thoroughly. The
secretary of your committee has typed some notes about
reasons for having the center and also about details of the
clean-up work. You want to write a notice for the school
bulletin board that will persuade students to volunteer their
time. As you write the notice, you will keep in mind the
following information.
Writer: you as the project coordinator
Audience: fellow students
Topic: the work needed for the proposed youth center
Purpose: to persuade students to help with the project
Directions: To plan and write your notice, follow these steps.
Step 1. Read the letter and the notes on the following
pages.
Step 2. On a sheet of paper, organize relevant informa
tion from the letter and from the sheet of notes.
Arrange the information in two categories:
(1) what is offered and (2) what is needed.
Step 3. Consider your audience, fellow students who may
not want to give up their Saturday to work. Make
a list of reasons that explain why it would be in
their interest to participate in this project.

(Continue on page 396.)

394
 • Las~Lomas City Hall
> 1200 Suuer Avi,~ue.
Las Lomas, ~a1if~,rnja9280J

March l2,~ l9_

To Students for a~YouthCente~: . .

The City Council has considered yotir .req~aes~t for a youth

center to be housed in the basement of City Hall.
M.sthough we are not certain how. many young people in the
neighborhood will use the center., we ar~ willi~ng to donate
the space rather than see i’tgo unused’. ‘ f
At presen.t.,~ however~, the basemeLnt is fi~lled with •the
accumui:ated rubb)e of fifty years and ñeeds to’ be cleared
out and cleaned thoroughly. Cosmq.Cart•ing ~ompany has’
agz~eedto dispose of the mater.ial,onc~.it has been remo~ed
~from the building. ‘ Neither th~ey nOr w~e have ~he time or
staff to clear out the basement The work will have to be
done by the students themselves O~a~Saturday in order not
to interfere with the regular operation of c’ity
departments .Wlieh. your group~ ,rëady to. begii~i th~ work,
we suggest that you call .Ms.Jane4Hkrdy at City Hall., who
~w•il~l give you keys and show you. around the basement,,
Si•ncei~ly, - .

•Thomas Kane .

City Council Secretary

Notes of the Students for a Youth Center Committee:

~n~S c~s~t0

—Room is also full of papers. pamphlets, and

other trash.
—Room must be cleared, swept.
—Floors and walls must be washed.
—Once removed from basement, trash must be
placed neatly on curb.
—The clearing and cleaning work can be done in
one day, this Saturday, Marc
—For one day s work ‘ we lecanwill
begin
use a for
permanent
many years.
center that young peoP
_Basement has its own (continued
entrance. on the next page)

395
 Step 4. Write a position statement.
Step 5. Write the introductory paragraph of your three-
paragraph notice. Begin with a sentence or a
question that will engage your readers’ attention.
Use you and we to set the tone; for example,
“We have been offered . . or “Wouldn’t you
.“

like . ?“ Explain the situation briefly and in

. .

clude your position statement.

Step 6. In the second paragraph, stress the long-term
benefits (you might quote the opinion of an ex
pert) and the small amount of work required. Try
to meet possible objections (Example: students
have home responsibilities and jobs).
Step 7. In the final paragraph, make a strong restatement
of your position and conclude with a recommen
dation for action.
Step 8. Reread your draft and revise it. To do so, ask
yourself these questions: Did I state my position
clearly? Did I present my reasons logically and
convincingly? Did I write a strong conclusion?
Step 9. Make a final copy of the notice.

—Brooms, rags, buckets, mops, cleaning supplies

will be provided by City Hall maintenance crew.
—Get key from Ms. Hardy.
—Remind volunteers ~o br.ing lunch.
—Bring radio? P’eo~le like to work to music.
—Organize volunteets into crews for light and
heavy work.
—At least f4fteen~students are needed.
—Work will take the whoJe day.
—Interior designer Roberta Thompson says, ‘It’s
a large, open space that can accommodate’ a
number of act”iv:ities at the same time,.
—Student Council President I~eslie Higgins says,
“We could hold m~etings, dances, craf~t fairs,
and dramatic.productions. The space is perfect.’
Pat Halsey, secretary

396
Unit Assignments
Assignment 1 Write a persuasive paragraph on the effectiveness
of a consumer organization, a club, or a service organization that you
know about. Give examples to support your position, and present
your strongest evidence last. Revise your argument to eliminate
errors in reasoning.

Assignment 2 Write a persuasive paragraph in which you pre

sent the benefits of learning a certain skill or participating in a certain
sport. Write for an audience of your friends. Use more than one type
of evidence to support your position.

Assignment 3 Select an issue relating to the type of work that

you would like to do or the type of work that someone in your family
does. Write a persuasive paragraph that expresses your position on
that issue. Direct your argument to people who are unfamiliar with
the type of work that you are discussing.

Assignment 4 Write a persuasive composition about a sport

with which you are familiar. In your position statement, make a
prediction about the future of the sport or the future of a particular
team or player. Provide facts to support your opinion and, if possible,
include the opinion of an expert on the sport.

Assignment 5 In the editorial section of a newspaper, find a

letter to the editor that expresses an opinion with which you disagree.
Write a persuasive composition directed to the writer of the letter.
Explain not only why you hold your position but also what you think
is wrong with the author’s argument.

Assignment 6 Take a position on the issue of returnable bottles

and cans. Write a persuasive paragraph or composition about your
topic. Follow your position statement with clarifying remarks. After
presenting your evidence, conclude by restating your position or by
recommending some particular action.

Revising Your Assignments

For help in revising a persuasive paragraph or composition,
consult the Checklist for Revision on the last page of this book.

397
Unit Tests

esi
A. Number your paper from 1 to 5. Next to each number, write
True if the sentence is true or False is it is false.
1. Facts make suitable topics for persuasive writing because they are not
subject to disagreement.
2. An opinion suitable as a topic for persuasive writing may be based on
a personal preference.
3. Supporting sentences present evidence, or reasons, for your position.
4. You must explain the source of any unusual facts in your argument.
5. You may include one or two pieces of unrelated evidence in your
argument if you make them brief.

B. Number your paper from 6 to 10. Next to each number, write

the letter of the term that correctly completes the sentence. You will
use all but one of the terms.
a. opinion d. fallacy
b. reasoning e. position statement
c. rebuttal f. clarifying remarks

6. A(n) 1. is the statement of a view that is not shared by everyone.

7. A(n) 2 presents the opinion that you would like your audience to
accept.
8. 2 is the process of drawing conclusions from statements that you
know or believe to be true.
9. A(n) L is the evidence that you use to refute opposing evidence.
10. A(n) L is a piece of unsound reasoning.

C. Number your paper from 11 to 15. Next to each number, write

the letter of the item that correctly answers the question.
11. Which of the following opinions is suitable for persuasive writing?
a. Walking along the lakefront is more enjoyable than shopping.
b. I just know that a corporation or a developer will buy the land
along the lakefront.
c. We should limit the number of businesses that can be built along
the lakefront.
d. Should we protect the lakefront?

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12. Which of the following statements contains both an opinion and a
fact?
a. Three candidates have entered this year’s mayoral race.
b. Because the company was established one hundred years ago, it is
the best in its field.
c. Electric cars cause less pollution than cars with gasoline engines do.
d. Broiling food is more healthful than baking it.
13. Which of the following would be the best person to provide an expert
opinion about how safe an appliance is?
a. Someone who uses the appliance often
b. Someone who sells the appliance
c. Someone who designed another appliance
d. Someone who tests appliances
14. Which of the following is not a way to clarify a position statement?
a. Recommend an action
b. Define or explain a key term
c. Provide background information
d. Give an example or a specific application
15. Which of the following does not contain a fallacy?
a. Because no building in New York City is more than two stories
high, the city’s fire department does not need trucks with ladders
that can reach higher floors.
b. Because I have found several errors in the first part of the mayor’s
budget, I do not trust the rest of the figures.
c. Either you take a long trip during a vacation or you stay home and
do nothing.
d. I do not support Dana Helm’s recommendation to the school board
because she has never been nice to me.

t2
Choose one of the Unit Assignments. Write the assignment as
directed and hand it in to your teacher.

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Unit 9

7//
~- -~__

When you write an essay, you present an idea, an observa

tion, an opinion, or an event to your audience. Your essay may
be expository, descriptive, narrative, or persuasive. If neces
sary, you may read about your topic before you plan and write
your essay, but you should present your own ideas in the essay.
The topics of essays vary widely, but the form does not.
Every essay has an introductory paragraph that presents the
topic, body paragraphs that develop the topic, and a concluding
paragraph that summarizes or presents a final idea about the
topic. The tone of an essay can range from serious to light, and
the style of an essay can range from formal to informal.
The following paragraph is the introductory paragraph of
an essay.

The baseball stories that one sees on the evening news

today are grim reminders of the sorry state that major league
baseball is in. The headlines in today’s sports pages shout out
more depressing news about the faltering game—multi
millionaire players threatening to strike for more money, ticket
prices soaring in order to pay the huge payroll of these prima
donnas of the summer. It is disheartening to think back to a
time when baseball was fun and innocent, a time when players
were heroes who played for the love of the game, not for the
sky-rocketing profits that can be made in baseball today.
Thomas Scott Busbee, Druid Hills High School
Decatur, Georgia

400
 or Analysis On your paper, answer the following questions
about the preceding paragraph.
1. What is the topic of the essay?
2. What is the writer’s purpose?
3. What information would you expect the writer to present in the
following paragraphs?
4. Is the tone of the paragraph serious or light?

In analyzing the topic, the purpose, and the tone of one

essay, you have prepared yourself for selecting a topic, a
purpose, and a tone for the essay that you will prepare as you
read this unit. As you work on your essay, you will follow the
three steps of the writing process: prewriting, writing, and
revising.

9. eeci V aTpc
Selecting a Topic
Choose the topic for your essay carefully; select one that
interests you. You are likely to write a clear and interesting essay if
you enjoy your topic. Your ideas for essay topics will probably come
from two sources: your own experiences and your observations of the
world around you. Although your essay may include information that
you have found in your reading, the main ideas in your essay should
be your own. A composition based mostly on information found by
reading is a research paper, which is considered in Unit 11.
If you cannot think of a topic easily, ask yourself the following
questions. The answers to these questions can help you to choose a
writing topic.
1. What do I know most about?
Possible answer: Computers
2. What do I care about that might interest a reader?
Possible answer: Working on the school newspaper

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3. What have I seen or experienced that I would like to present

to a reader?
Possible answer: Sailing on the ocean
4. Which of my experiences has given me an idea of the kind of
future that I would like to have?
Possible answer: My summer job as a camp counselor
5. Who have been the most important people in my life?
Possible answer: My music teacher
6. What issues and situations do I feel strongly about?
Possible answer: The energy shortage
7. What is important in life?
Possible answer: Good nutrition

Limiting a Topic
When you have chosen a topic, decide whether you can develop
it fully in two to six pages. If you cannot, your topic is too general.
You should limit a general topic to make it more specific.
The following examples show how four of the general topics
that were found by answering the preceding questions can be limited.
General topic: Computers
Limited topic: The first time that I operated a computer by myself
General topic: Working on the school newspaper
Limited topic: How working on a school newspaper taught me to
organize my time
General topic: Sailing on the ocean
Limited topic: The sights, sounds, and smells of the ocean
General topic: Good nutrition
Limited topic: People in the United States should eat more vege
tables and grains

Identifying a Writing Purpose

You can develop your topic by exposition, description, narra
tion, or persuasion. That is, your purpose may be to explain; to
present sensory details about a person, a place, or an object; to tell

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 91

Purpose

about an experience; or to persuade someone that your opinion on an

issue is correct. You may combine more than one purpose in an essay.
For example, you may include description of people and places in a
narrative essay. Most successful essays, however, contain a principal,
or main, writing purpose.
When you decide on a limited topic, you usually determine the
purpose for writing at the same time. Study the following examples of
limited topics and principal writing purposes that may be associated
with them.
Limited topic: The first time that I operated a computer by myself
Purpose: To narrate
Limited topic: What I learned about organizing my time while work
ing on a school newspaper
Purpose: To explain
Limited topic: The sights, sounds, and smells of the ocean
Purpose: To describe
Limited topic: People in the United States should eat more vege
tables and grains.
Purpose: To persuade

A writing purpose helps to focus an essay. As you develop your

essay, keep in mind that every sentence must help to carry out your
principal writing purpose.

xercise I Prewriting: Essay Topics Read the following

list of topics. For each topic write Suitable if it is suitable for an essay
or Unsuitable if it is not.
1. What I would like to be doing fifteen years from now
2. The history of choral music
3. The techniques that geologists use to locate new water supplies
4. What I learned on a one-week bicycle trip
5. The first time that I gave a speech
6. The first environmental legislation in the United States
7. The early development of modern dance

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Unit 9 Writing an Essay

8. How to make money by doing typing

9. The effects of weightlessness on humans
10. The beauty of the Catskill Mountains

E ercise 2 Prewriting: Limiting Topics Read the following

list of general topics. On your paper, write a limited topic and a
principal writing purpose for each general topic.
SAMPLE Rivers
ANSWER Limited topic: How I learned to canoe through rapids
in a river
Purpose: To narrate
1. Films 6. Machines
2. Architecture 7. Wildlife
3. How the world could be improved 8. Loyalty
4. Travel 9. Businesses
5. Saving money 10. Art

Assiignment Prewriting List four essay topics that interest

you. Then limit each topic so that it could be developed fully in two to
six pages. Write the four limited topics and a principal writing
purpose for each limited topic.

Conti uing Assignment Prewriting List five topics that

you would enjoy writing about in an essay of two to six pages. Limit
the topics as needed and list the limited topics on your paper. List a
principal writing purpose for each limited topic. Then put a check
mark beside the topic that interests you most. Save your paper.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
i 1. Did you choose essay topics to which you can bring your own
experience?
s. 2. Did you limit your topics so that they can be developed fully in
two to six pages?
t 3. Did you list a principal writing purpose for each topic?

404
 9.2a
Audience

.2 ‘- r ece,
VI
You must determine the audience for which you are writing as
well as the purpose of your writing. Then you can adopt a tone and a
style that are appropriate for your audience and purpose.

• a Identifying the udience

In most essays you should address a general audience of anyone

who might be interested in your topic. At times, however, you may
write for a special audience, such as an employer or the admissions
committee of a college. As you write, address the special interests of
that audience. For example, if you are writing an essay for your local
consumer interest group, the members probably will be interested in
details about businesses in your community rather than facts about
businesses in some distant town.
The following introductory paragraph of an essay illustrates
how a writer can choose details and language to appeal to a particular
audience.

Model
I have long thought that there is no atmosphere quite like that
of a concert hall before a performance. Beyond the apron of the
stage, a hum comes from the stream of people that floods the doors
outside the auditorium and trickles in past unobtrusive blue-
uniformed ushers. This persistent sound, however, is barely audible
to those on stage. Here, there is murmuring, laughter. I smile a
little when I hear an edge of nervousness in the voice of one of the
music students as he anticipates his first performance. My smile is
sympathetic: I have played in this orchestra for almost two years
now, and yet my heart still pounds with nervousness when I join the
crowd on stage.
Becky MacDougall, Burns Laboratory High School
Muncie, Indiana

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Unit 9 Writing an Essay

The writer addresses an audience of people who have never

waited on stage for a performance to begin. She tells her audience
how the concert hall seems to the people on stage and how the
performers feel.

E ercise I Prewriting: Audience The following paragraph

begins an essay. On your paper, write one or two sentences to
describe the audience that the writer of the following paragraph is
addressing.
Down in the southern hemisphere, off the coast of Ecuador,
lies a place that has been called a biologist’s paradise. Its name is
Galapagos, a group of small islands yet untouched by people’s
destructive forces and teeming with unique animal life. My father, a
biology teacher, for years had the dream of visiting the Galapagos.
On August 2 last year, this dream became a reality.
Andrea Easter, Newark High School
Newark, Ohio

.2b Selecting the Tone

Tone is the attitude that a writer conveys about a topic and an

audience. Audience, purpose, and tone must work together. In the
paragraph about the concert hail (page 405), the purpose is to
describe performers’ feelings when they are on stage before a
performance, and the tone is suitably nostalgic and affectionate.
You may choose from a wide variety of tones: serious, ironic,
affectionate, critical, nostalgic, humorous, persuasive, and many
more. Whatever tone you choose must be appropriate for your
subject.
Your tone is affected by the point of view (pages 342—343) that
you choose. You create a personal tone, a close relationship with the
reader, by using a first-person point of view. In contrast, you create a
more distant tone by using a third-person point of view. The distant
tone emphasizes the subject rather than your personality. No matter
which tone you select, use one tone consistently throughout your
essay to avoid confusing your audience.

406
 9.2b
Tone

E ercise 2 Prewriting: Tone Each of the following para

graphs is from an essay. For each paragraph, write one or two
sentences that describe the tone and the point of view.
PARAGRAPH 1
The town had a peculiar, enchanting atmosphere. Depending
on which street one was on, it would seem now like a typical
timeless Spanish village, now like an international artists’ colony.
Mingling among the veiled, black-garbed old Spanish widows were
English writers and French artists and a number of drifters of
dubious nationality. Walking down the cobblestoned alleys between
rows of tall whitewashed houses, one could see a dark old Spanish
store selling nothing but bread and milk located directly across from
a small French café. These contrasts made the town fascinating.
Dan Staley, Woodrow Wilson High School
Long Beach, California

PARAGRAPH 2
At one time, I thought that my cow and I had an understand
ing: I would be nice to her, and she would be nice to me. Maybe I
should have written a contract with her. Her name was Rose (Indian
Creek Fargo Rose, if one bothered to read her registration papers).
Last fall I was preparing her for the cattle show at the state fair
when she decided to breach our agreement.
Todd Nichols, Saluda High School
Saluda, South Carolina

PARAGRAPH 3
I find jigsaw puzzles challenging. Although a large number of
my acquaintances look upon this pastime as a form of boredom, I
fully enjoy tinkering with the hundreds of small pieces, turning them
this way and that in an attempt to make a box full of precut chaos
into a lovely Alpine scene. Perhaps the most satisfying part of
constructing jigsaw puzzles is that single instant of enlightenment
when the right piece fits in the right place and you know just where
the rest of those temperamental pieces should go. Short, squatty
pieces splotched with yellow magically click together to form an
elegant patch of jonquils; uncooperative bearers of blue and scarlet
bands interlock to form a July twilight.
Christine Andresen, Central High School
St. Joseph, Missouri

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Unit 9 Writing an Essay

9. Considering the Style

Style in writing is the unique way in which a person expresses

his or her ideas in words. Your style is a result of choices made—
consciously or unconsciously—as you write. You choose particular
words and arrange them in a particular order. Since style is the
cumulative result of many choices, it is something that you can
control by making the choices purposefully.

Diction
Diction, the choice of words to express your thoughts, is one
aspect of style. In choosing any word, consider its connotations, the
ideas associated with the word, as well as its denotations, or its
literal meanings. Consider the different connotations of shy and
aloof, for example. Although both are used to describe a person who
is reserved, shy suggests timidity and bashfulness, and aloof suggests
snobbery and condescension. Choose your words carefully because a
word with unsuitable connotations can ruin the effectiveness of a
sentence or a paragraph.
The level of your diction—its degree of formality—should be
consistent throughout an essay. You may choose among three levels
of diction.
Casual. This level of diction contains contractions, words labeled
by a dictionary as informal or colloquial (such as beat meaning
“tired”), and slang. Because casual diction resembles informal
speech, it is appropriate only for writing letters to friends or for
writing dialogue in a narrative.
Informal. Most writing is informal. This level of diction contains
both simple and complex words. It includes only a few contractions,
little slang, and only a few words labeled by a dictionary as informal
or colloquial. As a rule, you should use such words in informal
writing only when no other words convey the meaning as well.
Formal. This level of diction contains many words that are more
common in writing than in speech. The vocabulary is large. Formal
diction includes no words that are labeled by a dictionary as informal

408
 9.2c
Style

or colloquial, no slang, and only a few contractions. You should use

formal diction for research papers, literary essays and other serious
essays, some business reports, and some persuasive writing.
When you use formal diction, do not allow your language to
become unnecessarily or artificially formal. Stilted language is always
inappropriate. Choose the most precise word, not the biggest word,
to express an idea. Direct, unaffected language is appropriate even in
the most formal situations. Overwritten, stilted language not only
seems awkward and even comical but also is difficult for the reader to
understand.
In your school writing assignments, you should aim for a level
of diction in the range between formal and informal. By including or
omitting contractions and colloquial phrases, you can adjust the
formality to suit a particular writing situation.

Sentence Len th and Complexity

The length and complexity of your sentence structure, the other
part of your writing style, should vary according to the formality of
your writing. Generally, informal writing calls for short and medium-
length sentences that may be simple, compound, or complex (pages
67—69). In the following example, the simplicity of the sentences
suits the simple personal experience that is described.

Model
The sun shines warmly on my back. I bend over and place yet
another seed in the rich, brown soil. Wiggling my toes in the moist
and cool edrth reminds me of many other times that I have done
this. I feel secure, knowing that this is one thing that doesn’t
change. No matter how many times I do this, I feel a sense of
purpose.
Judy Gunn, Dublin High School
Dublin, Georgia

In contrast, a more formal style is created by longer sentences

that are mainly compound or complex. The following paragraph is
written in a formal style.

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Unit 9 Writing an Essay

Model
It is important for parents to monitor the commercials as well
as the programs that their children watch. The underlying messages
that are communicated in the commercials should be analyzed and
discussed with even young children who watch television. Because
these messages imply certain things about how we judge ourselves
and others, it is essential that children be made aware of them.

The length and complexity of the sentences in the preceding

paragraph contribute to its formal style. Although the language is
formal, it is not stilted or overwritten. You will find that the shifts
from brief to lengthy sentences and from simple to intricate ones will
occur almost naturally when you begin to write about a topic that you
treat formally.

Exercise 3 Prewriting: Style On your paper, write Casual,

Informal, or Formal to identify the style of each of the following
passages. Then for each paragraph write a sentence to explain why
you chose the answer.
PARAGRAPH 1
Let Canada become not a melting pot, but a massive syner
gism. Canadians must strive to attain an ideal balance between an
undesirable homogenization and an equally unwanted separation of
the ethnic groups in Canada. The differing cultures must be respect
ed, but no culture must dominate or overshadow another. In a
multicultural society, the contrasting lifestyles should be preserved
rather than changed to conform to a single monotonous pattern of
behavior. Human beings are not and cannot be made into a uniform
species.
(Adapted)
Suzanne Dowse, Park View Education Centre
Bridgewater, Nova Scotia

PARAGRAPH 2
In rhythm, rhyme, and general structure, poetry and songs
share characteristics. However, a songwriter works with what may
be called an advantage over the poet—music. You may doubt my
use of the word advantage because song melodies aren’t always the

410
 9.2c

Style

easiest thing to write. An experienced songwriter, however, knows

how to combine words and music to create a mood within the
listener.
Dana Lundy, North High School
Torrance, California

Exercise 4 Writing: Tone Write three sentences about politics

or business. Make one sentence serious, one humorous, and one
sarcastic. Then rewrite each of the sentences using another tone. You
may have to make changes in point of view to emphasize the changes
in tone.

Exercise 5 Revising: Style Rewrite the following casual pas

sage so that it is informal. You will have to make changes in the level
of diction, in the sentence length, and in the sentence structure.
I think that all cars should be kicked off Main Street. That
way, shoppers could hang out in the street. Cars just hassle shoppers
and smell up the air anyway. It wouldn’t be a big deal for drivers to
park on another Street and walk a couple of blocks to a store. Then
downtown wouldn’t be a bad place for everyone. And people would
think that it was neat to buy stuff there. That would really make the
store owners happy. The city could even fork over money to make a
park in the middle of the Street.

Assignment 1 Prewriting /Writing Select one of the follow

ing topics and its accompanying audiences. Write two separate
paragraphs on the topic, one for the first audience and one for the
second audience. Both paragraphs should include almost the same
information, but they should differ in the way in which the informa
tion is presented to each audience.
1. Why you liked or disliked an event that you attended recently
Audience A. others who attended the event
Audience B. people who did not attend the event
2. A new law or rule
Audience A: those who are affected by the law or rule
Audience B: those who are not affected by the law or rule

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Unit 9 Writing an Essay

3. A perfect means of entertaining out-of-town guests

Audience A: people interested in outdoor activities
Audience B: people interested in indoor activities

Assignment 2 Prewriting /Writing Write two separate par

agraphs on one of the following topics. One paragraph should have a
serious tone, and the other should have a light tone.
1. Preparing a nutritious breakfast
2. Returning defective merchandise to a store
3. Curing a cold
4. Making the most of a vacation

Assi nment 3 Prewriting/Writing Using an informal style,

write a paragraph on one of the following topics. Then rewrite the
paragraph using a formal style. For each paragraph, use appropriate
diction, sentence length, and sentence structure.
1. An adventure that you had with a friend
2. Competition for a role, a position, or an office
3. A simple change that would improve your school
4. The qualities that a leader should possess

Continuing Assignment Prewriting Take out the paper on

which you listed your essay topic and its writing purpose for the
Continuing Assignment on page 404. Add the following information
to your paper.
1. The audience to which the essay is directed
2. The tone that is appropriate for that audience, for your topic, and for
your purpose
3. The point of view that you plan to use in the essay
4. The level of diction that you plan to use in the essay

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
1. Did you address your audience?

412
 9.3a
Listing Ideas

2. Did you choose a tone and a point of view that are appropriate
i..’

for the topic, purpose, and audience?

~‘ 3. Did you consider the style: the level of diction and the length

and structure of your sentences?

~ 4. Did you proofread your writing for correct grammar, usage,
spelling, and punctuation?

Before you begin to write, you must plan your essay carefully.
You must analyze your topic to determine the clearest and most
interesting way to present it to your reader.

.3a Listing and Organizing the Ideas

First, list ideas that are related to your topic. You may use
either phrases or complete sentences to express your ideas. Then
review your list to choose which ideas you will include in your essay.
Eliminate any ideas that are not directly related to your topic.
Next, organize the ideas on your list. Begin by dividing them
into main ideas and supporting details, which are ideas that further
explain a main idea. Then arrange the groups of main ideas and their
supporting details in a logical order. Your topic and purpose will help
you to choose an order. You may use one or more of the following
organizations, just as you do when you organize the details of a single
paragraph.
Chronological Order. When you use chronological order, you
present details or events in the order in which they occurred. This is
the usual organization of a narrative essay.
Spatial Order. When you use spatial order, you present details
or objects in the order in which you see them—top to bottom, side to
side, or front to back. This order is often used in a descriptive essay.
Order of Importance. When you use order of importance, you
usually list the least important ideas first and progress to the most
important ideas. Sometimes, however, you can present the most

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Unit 9 Writing an Essay

important idea first for special emphasis. This order works well for
listing the points of an expository or persuasive essay.
Other Methods of Organization. You also may write an essay
in which you compare and contrast aspects of a topic or in which you
explain causes or effects.
1. Comparison and Contrast. When you use comparison and
contrast, you make clear the similarities and differences
between two subjects. For example, you might compare
and contrast the way that you think about an issue and the
way that the governor thinks about the same issue. You
might discuss the similarities in one paragraph and the
differences in another paragraph, or you might discuss one
point at a time, noting how the items are similar and
different in regard to each point. With either method, you
could further arrange the similarities and differences in the
order of their importance.
2. Causes or Effects. When you use a cause-or-effect pattern of
development, you explain the causes or the effects of an
event or a situation. For example, you could discuss the
causes of a low voter-turnout for a particular election. You
could use chronological order by listing the effects in the
order in which they occurred, or you could use order of
importance by listing the least important effect first and
then progressing to the most important effect.

Exercise I Prewriting: Choosing Details Read the follow

ing topic and list of details. On your paper, write the numbers of the
details that are relevant to the topic. Then arrange the relevant
details in chronological order.
Topic: Starting my own house-painting business
Details:
1. By the end of July, many people had called to ask if I could do
painting jobs for them.
2. Our neighbor needed her basement painted, and I offered to do it.

414
 9.3b
Thess Statement

3. After I finished the basement, word spread throughout e neighbor

hood about the good job that I had done.
4. House painting is an art, not just a job.
5. In the middle of June, I was looking for a summer job.
6. Paint must be applied to a house when the weather is dry and
moderately warm.
7. When I could not find a job by the beginning of July, my father
suggested thinking of services that the neighbors might use.
8. By mid-August I was working every day, ten hours a day.

.3 Writing a Thesis Statement

Once you have organized your main ideas and supporting

details, you need to write a thesis statement, the statement in the
first paragraph that presents the topic and purpose of your essay.
Because the thesis statement tells your reader what you will discuss in
the essay, it must be precise. The following example shows how to
improve a vague thesis statement by making it precise.
VAGUE THESIS STATEMENT
Playing in a band taught me a lot.
PRECISE THESIS STATEMENT
Playing in a band taught me the importance of cooperation.

In addition to helping your reader by making the subject and

direction of your essay clear from the beginning, a thesis statement
also helps you to focus the essay, making it easier to plan and write.
When you plan an essay, you may formulate a preliminary
thesis statement early in the prewriting process. You can use it as a
guide when you list your ideas. Then, when you are preparing your
outline or writing your introductory paragraph, you can write the
final version of the thesis statement.

Exercise 2 Prewriting: Thesis Statements Rate each of

the following thesis statements by writing Precise or Vague on your
paper. If a thesis statement is vague, revise it to be more precise.

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Unit 9 Writing an Essay

SAMPLE Going camping can be rough.

ANSWER Vague—Although I planned carefully, my first camp
ing trip was a disaster.
1. Visiting my grandparents last summer gave me an opportunity to learn
about my family history.
2. My town contains some unusual and interesting places.
3. Part-time jobs can be interesting.
4. All citizens should spend five hours each month doing volunteer work
for the community.
5. Brothers and sisters can teach one another many important things.

9 3c Outlining the Essay

The last step in planning your essay is preparing an outline to

use as a guide when you write the essay. An outline shows the
sequence of ideas in your essay and their importance.
The most common type of outline is a topic outline. In a topic
outline the main ideas become main headings, and the supporting
details become subheadings. You do not write either type of heading
in complete sentences. Place Roman numerals at the beginning of
main headings and capital letters at the beginning of subheadings.
Use the Roman numeral I for the introduction and the last Roman
numeral for the conclusion. Also, use at least two subheadings for
each main heading that you wish to explain further. See Section 11.4
in Unit 11 for a sample topic outline and for more information about
outlining.
A sentence outline is similar to a topic outline except that the
headings are written in complete sentences. Often a rough outline, a
simple list of main points, is sufficient for a short essay, particularly a
narrative or descriptive essay. In all types of outlines, you usually
write the thesis statement at the top of the page.

Exercise 3 Prewriting: Outlining Prepare a topic outline by

arranging the following subheadings under the main headings that
have been provided. Under each main heading you may vary the
order of the subheadings as you wish. The finished outline should
include all of the headings.

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 9.3c

Outlining the Essay

Thesis statement: You can change your home and your habits in order to
save money on your heating bill.
Main headings:
Introduction
Improving efficiency of old materials
Installing new equipment
Changing your habits
Conclusion

Subheadings:
Turning down thermostat at night
Filling in cracks around doors and windows
Installing quilted window shades
Increasing amount of insulation on attic floor
Buying an energy-saving thermostat
Turning down heat when you leave your home
Installing a wood-burning or coal-burning stove
Dressing warmly to be comfortable at lower temperaures

Assignment Prewriting List ideas for a brief essay about

something that you learned from a friend. Choose the ideas that you
wish to use in your essay. Divide your ideas into main ideas and
supporting details and then arrange them in a logical order. Write an
appropriate thesis statement. Finally, prepare an outline for the
essay. You will use the outline as the basis for a brief practice essay
that you will write as you study the remaining sections of this unit.
Save your paper.

Contnuing Assi nment Prewriting List ideas for the essay

topic that you analyzed for the Continuing Assignments on pages 404
and 412. Divide the ideas into main ideas and supporting details, and
arrange them in a logical order. Then write a thesis statement. Using
the list of ideas, prepare an outline for the main essay that you will
write as you study this unit. Save your paper.

417
Unit 9 Writing an Essay

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
i 1. Did you list ideas that are related to your topic?
2. Did you divide your ideas into main ideas and supporting
details?
~ 3. Did you arrange your ideas in a logical order?
4. Did you write a thesis statement that expresses precisely the
topic and purpose of your essay?
i~ 5. Did you prepare an outline showing the order in which your
ideas will appear in your essay?
~ 6. Did you place your thesis statement at the top of your outline?

- Yo f

When you have planned your essay, you are ready to write your
first draft. As you write the draft, present your ideas in the same
order in which they appear in your outline. As you write, do not
spend a long time searching for the best word or sentence structure
because you will do that when you revise the draft.

9. a Writing the Introductory Paragraph

Although an introduction is brief, it is important because it

creates your reader’s first impression. A reader who is bored or
confused by an introductory paragraph will not want to read further
in the essay. In your introduction, you should accomplish the
following goals.

Strategies
1. Establish the topic and purpose of your essay. In your thesis
statement, present your topic clearly and indicate what
your principal writing purpose is. You may place your thesis
statement anywhere in the introductory paragraph; how
ever, the end of the paragraph is the usual place for it.

418
 9.4a

Introduction

2. Establish the tone of your essay. Choose a tone that suits

your topic, your purpose, and your audience. Make sure
that you will be able to maintain that tone throughout the
essay. Begin to use the point of view that you will use
throughout the essay.
3. Capture your reader’s interest. You can capture a reader’s
interest in several ways. For example, you can use a
quotation or an example, or you can raise a question that
you will answer in the body of the essay. Alternatively, you
can simply preview the essay by briefly suggesting the main
points. If you are narrating a personal experience, you can
create interest by making it clear that the experience was
unusual, humorous, or important to you.

The following paragraph is the introductory paragraph of a

narrative essay.

Model
The four of us were standing, sitting, and crouching in a
darkened hail on the lowest level of Canby High School at eight-
thirty in the morning. We were waiting our turns to compete in our
first-ever speech tournament. Sometime in the next twenty minutes,
all of us would be obliged to speak for a maximum of five minutes
on a topic chosen from two subjects, having roughly ten seconds to
prepare for the ordeal.
Philip Bornkamp, Sunset High School
Beaverton, Oregon

The writer interests the reader by briefly suggesting what will

happen in the rest of the essay. The writer also captures the reader’s
interest by stating how intimidating the experience was.

Exercise 1 Writing: The Introductory Paragraph Write

an introductory paragraph based on the following thesis statement
and the main headings of the following outline. Use a serious tone
and the third-person point of view.

419
Unit 9 Writing an Essay

Thesis statement: The city should allow a movie theater to open in the old
Franklin Street bank building.
I. Introduction
II. Need for evening entertainment in the community
III. Benefits for nearby restaurants and stores
IV. Conclusion

9.4 Writing the Body Paragraphs

In the body paragraphs, the main part of the essay, you develop
the topic that you have presented in the introductory paragraph. You
must write and organize the sentences so that they present your topic
clearly and systematically.

Following the Outline

As you write the body paragraphs, follow your outline. Decide
how much attention you will give to each main heading of the outline.
In most essays, you can include in a single paragraph all of the
information about a main heading and its subheadings. If a main
heading has many subheadings, however, you may need to devote
two or three paragraphs to that main heading. The idea of the main
heading usually is expressed in the topic sentence of the paragraph
that first mentions it.

Transitional Devices
Each sentence in your essay should flow smoothly from the
preceding sentence. In addition, the opening sentence of a paragraph
should indicate how that paragraph is related to the preceding
paragraph. To achieve coherence in your essay, use the following
transitional techniques.

Strategies
1. Repeat a key word or phrase from the previous sentence or
paragraph.
2. Use a pronoun to refer to aperson or an idea in the previous
sentence.

420
 9.4b
Transitional Devices

3. Use transitional words and phrases such as first, next, then,

and most important.

The following passage is a body paragraph from an essay in

which the writer analyzes the changes in the appearance of cars.
Notice how the writer uses transitional devices.

Model
Consumers’ desires to save money and fuel have also affected
the look of American automobiles. For example, they are smaller
than earlier models because smaller cars consume less gasoline. In
addition, the shape of cars has been changed to increase their
aerodynamic efficiency, enabling them to use less fuel. Even though
the cars are small, their designers tried to create a feeling of spa
ciousness in them. For example, the trunk space of many cars was
decreased or eliminated to allow more space for seats and more
space between seats.

The writer repeats the word smaller to emphasize the major

change in the cars and uses the pronouns their and them to refer to the
cars. The writer also uses transitional words such as for example and
in addition to emphasize the flow of the sentences.

Exercise 2 Writing: Body Paragraphs Write two body par

agraphs based on the following thesis statement and outline. Use tran
sitional devices to indicate the flow of the ideas in the paragraphs.
Thesis statement: Whenever I have the time, I prefer to make a long
journey by bus rather than by plane or car.
I. Introduction
II. Able to see more
A. Can go almost anywhere by bus
B. Can see areas when traveling through them
C. Can get off bus to spend time in interesting places
III. Able to relax during long, slow journey
A. Can talk with others on the bus
B. Can catch up on reading
C. Can nap throughout the ride
IV. Conclusion

421
Unit 9 Writing an Essay

c Writing the Concluding Paragraph

Your concluding paragraph should make your essay seem

complete and should help your reader to understand the full meaning
of your essay. Write a concluding paragraph that accomplishes these
tasks by using one or more of the following methods.
1. Summary. Present a summary of the main points that you
made in the body of the essay. If you return to the main
ideas that you have presented in the introduction, approach
the idea from the larger perspective offered in the body of
the essay.
2. Final Idea. Present a final idea that is closely related to your
topic.
3. Personal Reaction. Present your reaction to the topic of
your essay. In an essay about a personal experience, you
can make clear what the experience meant to you.
4. Suggested Solution. Suggest a solution to the problem or
issue that you discussed in your essay. Your solution may
ask your audience to take some kind of action.

Some descriptive and narrative essays do not need a concluding

paragraph because the descriptions or recounted experiences are
complete in themselves. In those essays, the final point of a descrip
tion or the final incident of an experience may serve as a conclusion.
The following paragraph is the concluding paragraph of an
essay about the writer’s experience as a violinist in a quartet.
Model
We played the quartet smoothly and confidently, each drawing
strength from the others. At times one of us rose above the rest,
carrying the melody and being borne aloft by the support of the
others. Even before the performance ended, I felt an enormous
sense of completion. I suspect that we all did. Each person had
made the sacrifice of individualism but had emerged with greater
strength and meaning as an inseparable part of a miniature musical
community.
Jonathan Rosen, New Rochelle High School
New Rochelle, New York

422
 9.4c
Conclusion

The writer ends the essay with his personal reaction to playing
in the quartet. He also adds a final idea about what the members of
the quartet gained by sacrificing individuality.

ercise 3 Prewriting: Concluding Paragraphs On your

paper, write Summary, Final idea, Personal reaction, or Suggested
solution to describe the method used in each of the following
concluding paragraphs.
PARAGRAPH 1
As I stood there for so long just watching the stars, I realized
what I truly want to do. The stars helped to show me my interest in
science and space. True, I may never live near Alpha Centauri, but
I may live in a space colony on the moon, and I fully intend to.
Robert Hurt, Western Guilford High School
Greensboro, North Carolina

PARAGRAPH 2
Thus, only the legislature can ensure that the Highland Forest
will be preserved. All voters in the county should send their sena
tors and representatives letters and telegrams urging them to pass
the necessary conservation legislation. With the help of everyone,
we can save one of the last wildlife areas in the state.

PARAGRAPH 3
Thus, the varied types of work and the large number of
positions that are now available make computer science one of the
most rapidly expanding fields. There are many opportunities for
people who are willing to acquire the training that is required.

xercise 4 Prewriting: The Essay Read the following brief

essay about a personal experience. Then write the answers to the
following questions.
1. What is the thesis statement?
2. What is the tone?
3. What is the principal writing purpose of the essay? Does the writer
include other purposes for writing?
4. How does the writer conclude the essay?

423
Unit 9 Writing an Essay

I have always loved the seashore. I love its variability: it’s

loud and then quiet; it’s still and then very much alive. Last summer
in a moment of stillness at the seashore, I made a special discovery.
I was standing at the water’s edge on a fresh July morning. It
was early, not yet six o’clock, and I was all alone on the expanse of
sand and seashells. As I looked over the water towards the eastern
horizon, I saw a few crimson streaks stretching towards me as the
sun began to crawl out from under the sea. I stood for a moment,
listening and seeing and feeling, lost in introspection. I felt somehow
related to the ocean, to the sun, to the earth beneath my sandals.
In that fleeting, quiet moment, I knew that humans were as
much a part of nature as the sand dollar and the sea gull. Everyone
learns this in elementary school biology. Yet, as I stood there, I felt
its truth for the first time.
(Adapted)
Kendra Sisserson, Rockledge High School
Rockledge, Florida

Assignme t Writing Take out the paper on which you wrote a

thesis statement an and outline for your practice essay about some
thing that you learned from a friend (page 417). Write the first draft
of the essay. In your introductory paragraph, try to capture the
interest of your audience. Follow your outline as you write the body
paragraphs, and conclude the essay with a summary, a final idea, a
personal reaction, or a possible solution. Save your paper.

Continuing Assignment Writing Write the first draft of the

main essay that you planned and outlined for the Continuing
Assignment on page 418. Follow your outline and, as you write, keep
in mind your thesis statement, your principal writing purpose, and
your audience. Save your paper.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
1. Did you write an introductory paragraph that includes a thesis
statement, establishes the tone of your essay, and introduces
the topic in an interesting way?

424
 9.5
Revising

i” 2. Did you write body paragraphs that fully develop the ideas in
the order in which they appear on your outline?
t.” 3. Did you write a concluding paragraph that makes clear the
meaning of your essay?
1-’ 4. Did you use transitional devices to emphasize the order of your
essay?

v•s• ••sI S V

Once you have completed the first draft of your essay, you will
probably need to revise it. When you revise an essay, you do far more
than correcting spelling and punctuation errors. You look at your
essay as a reader would so that you can see whether the main ideas
are presented clearly. You also review your word choice and sentence
structure. That is, you reconsider and improve both the content and
the style of your essay.
If possible, wait a day or two before you revise your essay so
that you will have a fresh outlook. Then it will be easier to be critical
of your own writing.

Reviewing the Content

To make sure that your ideas are presented clearly and com
pletely, review your essay for the following points.

Strategies
1. Introductory Paragraph. Make sure that your topic is
established clearly in the thesis statement and that your
introduction indicates your purpose and will capture the
interest of the audience that you are addressing.
2. Body Paragraphs. Check for coherence. Be sure that your
ideas are arranged logically and that transitional words and
phrases are used to indicate that order.
3. Concluding Paragraph. Review your conclusion to make
sure that it will help your reader to understand your main
idea.

425
Unit 9 Writing an Essay

4. Unity. Make sure that the idea presented in the thesis

statement is developed throughout the essay (pages 277—
278). Remove or rewrite sentences that have little or
nothing to do with the topic.
5. Completeness. Check to see whether there are any passages
that need additional details or examples. If there are, add
material to existing sentences or add new sentences.

Reviewing the Style

The next step in revising your essay is reviewing the way in
which you expressed your ideas. Make sure that your tone is
consistent throughout the essay and that you have maintained a single
point of view. Then use the following methods to improve your style.

Strategies
1. Check the length and complexity of your sentences. Rewrite
sentences that are so complicated that your reader may not
understand their meaning. A long sentence can often be
divided into two or more effective sentences. Also, revise
any sections that contain several short sentences close
together: such sentences can often be combined (pages
283—287).
2. Check your level of diction. Make sure that you have used a
consistent level of diction throughout your essay and that
the level of diction is appropriate for your topic, your
purpose, and your audience.
3. Examine your word choice. Replace any words that do not
have appropriate denotations and connotations.

Proofreading
As the final step in revising your essay, proofread it for errors.
First, check your essay for correct grammar and usage. For example,
be sure that all of your verbs agree with their subjects. Then, check

426
 9.5
The Finished Paper

your essay for correct punctuation, capitalization, and spelling. For

example, make sure that your essay contains no sentences that are
joined by commas rather than semicolons or colons and that all
proper nouns are capitalized.

Choosing a Title
When you have revised the first draft of your essay, select a title
for it. Your title should indicate the topic of your essay, and it should
be interesting to your reader. For example, as a title for the essay
about the speech contest that is introduced on page 421, the title
“Speech Contest” would not be interesting. The title “Quick Think
ing” would arouse the curiosity of the reader and also indicate the
skill that the writer needed to do well in the contest. A title should
not be so unusual, however, that it sounds odd.

Preparing the Finished Paper

After you have revised your essay, prepare the finished paper.
On pages 208—209 you will find guidelines for preparing a final
manuscript. Use them, making any changes that your teacher sug
gests. As you copy the essay, remember that accuracy and neatness
will make your essay easier to read and will make a positive
impression on your reader. Proofread your finished essay to correct
any errors made in copying.

Exe cise Revising: The Essay Rewrite the following brief

essay. Revise it for content by removing any details that are not
directly related to the thesis statement. Revise it for style by (1)
making the point of view consistent, (2) revising diction that is not
consistent with the rest of the essay, (3) replacing incorrect words, (4)
dividing sentences that are too long, and (5) combining short, choppy
sentences.
For years I had wondered what I would do when I completed
high school. Last fall I attended career-counseling sessions at school
and read books containing job descriptions. None of the jobs, how

427
Unit 9 Writing an Essay

ever, seemed right for one, and I remained condensed. Then sud
denly, when I was doing a favor for my mother, my confusion
cleared.
My father works for a company that makes film and photo
graphic paper. My mother runs a sales company out of her house.
When one becomes very busy, she neglects to keep her books, to
update her inventory, and to do her filing. When I looked in her
office one Saturday last month, papers were scattered across tables
and chairs, and I asked her if I could help her to get organized
again, and she gave me permanence, and I went to work.
Hours later, I realized that I had been enjoying myself so
much that I had worked past my usual lunch time. My brother often
does that when he is reading a book. In fact, I got such a kick out
of messing around with my mother’s records and files that I decided
I should try a career in business. This fall I plan to enroll in business
school. I will learn more. I will discover what aspect of business
interests me most.

Assignment Revising Revise the first draft of the practice

essay that you completed for the Assignment on page 424. Revise
both the content and the style of the essay. Then prepare a final copy
of the essay and proofread it.

Continuing Assignment Revising Revise the first draft of

the main essay that you have been writing for the Continuing
Assignments throughout the unit. Revise both the content and the
style. Copy or type the finished paper and then proofread it.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
1. Did you revise your introductory paragraph to make it more
interesting and to introduce your topic and your purpose
more clearly?
2. Did you revise your concluding paragraph to make the end of
your essay more effective?
~.w 3. Did you add details where needed and remove sentences that
were not related to your topic?

428
 9.5

The Finished Paper

~ 4. Did you make revisions to improve the coherence of your

essay?
,..~ 5. Did you revise your sentences to make their length and

structure appropriate for your topic and purpose?

~..i 6. Did you revise your sentences so that their level of diction is
consistent throughout the essay?
~ 7. Did you replace any words that had inappropriate denota
tions or connotations?
~ 8. Did you revise your essay to make its tone and point of view
consistent?
,, 9. Did you proofread your final draft for correct grammar,
usage, spelling, and punctuation?
,.~ 10. Did you choose a suitable title?
~..w 11. Did you prepare a final copy and proofread it?

429
 —— —— V Ii~~ v~ ~

llIj~\1 - A

Qualifications for a Job: Writing an Essay

Situation You are a twenty-year-old looking for a new job.
In last Sunday’s newspaper, you saw an interesting advertise
ment for a job asa management trainee at a department
store. To apply for the job, you must write a short essay
explaining why you are qualified for the position. As you plan
and write your essay, you will keep in mind the following
information.
Writer: you as a twenty-year-old applying for a new job
Audience: the personnel director of a department store
Topic: your qualifications for the job
Purpose: to explain your qualifications in an essay of no
more than three hundred words

Directions. To plan and write your essay, follow these steps:

Step 1. Read the advertisement on the facing page. Then
read the personal history inventory that you
made recently to prepare you for seeking a new
job.
Step 2. Write a thesis statement that indicates your topic
and your purpose. You may want to begin, “I
believe that I am well qualified for the manage
ment trainee program at Emerson’s because. . .

Step 3. Prepare an outline for your essay. Plan to write

three body paragraphs; each will develop one of
the sections of your personal inventory.
Step 4. Write your essay. Include a strong opening state
ment, and write a concluding paragraph in which
you summarize your main points or present a
final idea.

430
r~ ~anagement Trainee .~
at Emerson’s and~ enjoy
Join the ~anagemet5t enS in our friendly, fast~
the challenge of manage We offer good salaricS~
~

ties for advancement 0~i~s are available

Trainees must have ~OO

• . wo ears’ work expeflen~.
minimUm Id ènd a brief essay cx-
Qualified applica~o~~n. ~ffl~~50fls ~5nsgemeflt
plainiflg why they Write jo Philip ~Otero, Personnel
trainee program. d~’s Street.
Director, Emerson s, 565 ic,.

Personal inventor~y

• ~Education ‘. ~ .

•‘—Gradua-ted f’rom Jefferson High School two years ago with a

3.O~avérige ,. :.

• —Fa~orite subjectswere English, history, arid computer

programming ., . ‘

_Current1y enroll’êd in .the evening business program at

Frank~nCómmun-i~ty CaihIege; presently~tak-ing courses in
marketing and a’~cdoun•t•ing

Emplpyñ~ent History ‘• . ,

.~ —During last ~wo years of high school, worked in the

Reliable Pharmacy; e~rentually given some responsibility
for order,ing stock - •..
—For two ~ummer,s worked at the Community Daycare Center
teichi~ng .swimming,an~. g~rmnasta’cs’t
—For past t~o ~e~s~,wo~ked for lAnder.son’s Furniture Store
• fu~l’]~t~ime; assistant ,to the buyer of ~at•io and outdoor
furni•ture • . - • ‘ .

Interests ax~d A~hievements

-Was in charge of advertising fori~iy high school yearbook
—Was elected to Student Council in twelfth grade
—Was member o.f• the ñim team and’ the gyrnnastics team in
lfi~h scho~l~; ~won ~sevé~ra’1~. events .

• —Play cl~r,inet inldcalband

431
Unit Assignments

Assignment I Write two separate paragraphs about coping with

the weather or about being disorganized. The first paragraph should
be serious in tone and directed to a general audience. The second
paragraph should be humorous in tone and directed to any particular
audience that you wish. At the top of your paper, identify the
audience that you have selected. In each paragraph, include details
that are suited to the audience that you are addressing.

Assignment 2 Write a brief essay in which you present your view

of the role that television should play in people’s lives or your view of
the ways that people can improve television programming. Address a
specific audience; in your introductory paragraph try to capture the
attention of that audience; Present a summary or a personal reaction
in your concluding paragraph.

Assignment 3 Write a brief essay in which you tell your reader

about an experience that helped you to decide what you would like to
do in the future. Address an audience of your friends, and choose a
tone, a level of diction, and sentence structures that are appropriate
for your audience and purpose.

Assignment 4 Write a brief essay that explains the benefits of

having a part-time job or of learning to do a task such as carpentry,
sewing, or auto repair. Arrange the benefits from least to most
important, and use transitional devices that contribute to the coher
ence of the essay.

Assignment 5 Write an essay in which you try to persuade your

audience to accept a change that you would like to see made in your
community or throughout the country. Address an audience that
would be affected by the change and choose a level of diction that
would appeal to that audience. In your concluding paragraph,
present the action that you would like your audience to take.

Assigment 6 Write a brief essay in which you explain the benefits

of participating in a team sport. Address an audience that does not

432
participate in team sports. Use a light tone, and try to capture the
attention of your audience in the introductory paragraph.

Assignment 7 Write a brief essay in which you tell your audi

ence about a challenge that you faced successfully. For example, you
could tell about hiking to the top of a mountain or learning a foreign
language well enough to converse with native speakers. Present the
details of the challenge in chronological order, and use transitional
devices that emphasize that order. Present a personal reaction in your
concluding paragraph.

ssignment 8 Write an essay in which you try to persuade your

audience that voting is an important responsibility of every citizen,
Write for readers who are eligible to vote but have never voted. Use a
serious tone and the third-person point of view. Present a summary
of your important points in the concluding paragraph.

Revising Your Assignments

For help in revising your essays, consult the Checklist for
Revision on the last page of this book.

433
Unit Tests
es
A. Number your paper from 1 to 5. Next to each number, write
True if the sentence is true or False if it is false.
1. The tone of an essay must always be serious.
2. Although you may combine more than one purpose in an essay, you
should have a principal writing purpose for each essay.
3. Always address a general audience whenever you write an essay.
4. Your thesis statement must be the first sentence in the introductory
paragraph.
5. Your concluding paragraph may present a summary, a final idea, a
personal reaction, or a suggested solution.

Number your paper from 6 to 10. Next to each number, write

the letter of the item that correctly completes the sentence. You will
use all but one of the items.
a. style d. denotations
b. connotations e. thesis statement
c. tone f. essay

6. In a(n) 2 you present your experiences or your observations of the

world around you.
7. i. is the attitude that a writer conveys about a topic and an audi
ence.
8. 1 is the unique way in which a person expresses his or her ideas in
words.
9. i are the ideas associated with a word.
10. A(n) i. presents the topic of your essay.

C. Number your paper from 11 to 15. Next to each number, write

the letter of the item that correctly answers the question.
11. Which of the following has a formal level of diction?
a. Concerned about halting inflation, the economists debated about
the new policies for several hours.
b. She slaved over her work so that it wouldn’t be a pain during the
weekend.

434
 c. Rushing to beat the crowds to the beach, we took off without our
lunch.
d. If he can’t leave right away, he doesn’t want to go at all.
12. Which of the following is a suitable topic for an essay?
a. The history of the income tax in the United States
b. Why I think that the tax laws should be changed
c. The difference between progressive and proportional income taxes
d. How tax returns are processed
13. Which of the following is a precise thesis statement?
a. Someone is doing something about pollution in our country.
b. Camping is fun.
c. I understood my grandparents better when I visited Finland, their
native land.
d. Sometimes when I travel, I see beautiful scenes and interesting
people.
14. Which of the following is not a transitional device?
a. Using sentences of appropriate length and complexity
b. Repeating a key word from a previous sentence or paragraph
c. Using a word or a phrase such as first or more important that
emphasizes the order of the essay
d. Using a pronoun to refer to a person or an idea in the previous
sentence
15. Which of the following contains no incorrect words?
a. The politician’s speech perspired us to join his campaign.
b. After school on Thursdays, I insist a veterinarian with her work.
c. I believe that good commotional skills are important in all jobs.
d. Before building a wall, a bricklayer makes careful measurements.

T
Choose one of the Unit Assignments. Write the assignment as
directed and hand it in to your teacher.

435
Unit 10
JJ,
• •
-~ ~A A ~-

e
Writing about literature can greatly enhance your apprecia
tion of what you read. It helps you to read sensitively, to focus
on the author’s meaning, and to be aware of the writer’s
techniques. In an essay about literature, you do not simply
report what happens in a work; instead, you present an interpre
tation of one aspect of the work. You may explain how an author
develops the theme of a short story or how a poet uses imagery.
In a literary essay, you must present evidence from the work to
support your interpretation.
The following paragraphs begin a literary essay.

Theodore Dreiser’s novel Sister Carrie, written in the era

of literary realism, depicts a naive, small-town girl adapting to
life in a metropolis. Through the actions and ambitions of the
various characters in the novel, Dreiser comments on many
facets of life and society as a whole. His view of people’s
concern for money is especially pervasive and is one of the
underlying themes in the novel. Dreiser shows that the preoc
cupation with money can ultimately cause one to lead an un
happy life or, more often, cause one to lead a dissatisfied life.
The first characters whom Dreiser uses to illustrate this
point are Minnie and Sven Hanson, the two people with whom
Carrie lives upon moving to Chicago. Although the Hansons do
not have an excessive desire for wealth, they tend to be ex
tremely frugal. Almost immediately upon moving in, Carrie
senses that there is “disapproval of the doing of those things

436
 which involve the expenditure of money” (34). The Hansons
rarely, if ever, spend money on entertainment or pleasure, and
thus they lead a very routine, tedious existence. To emphasize
the boredom of the Hansons’ lives, Dreiser contrasts the dull
routine of Minnie and Sven with the eager anticipation of
Carrie, who has just moved to a lively urban area.
Paul Langer, Glenbrook South High School
Glenview, Illinois

r Analysis Reread the paragraphs from the essay about

Sister Carrie. Then, on your paper, write the answers to the
following questions.
1. In which sentence does the writer introduce the aspect of the
novel that he will analyze? In which sentence does he state the
main idea that he will develop in the essay?
2. What is the writer’s first point in the body of the essay?
3. What evidence does he give to support this point?
4. What do you think the rest of the second paragraph will be
about?
By analyzing two paragraphs from an essay about Sister
Carrie, you have begun to explore the techniques of writing
about literature. In this unit, you will learn what to look for when
you read a literary work, how to choose a suitable topic, and
how to gather evidence from the work to support your ideas.
Then you will learn how to plan and write a literary essay. As
you write your essay, you will follow the three steps of the
writing process: prewriting, writing, and revising.

i a s
Purpose and Audience
Purpose. When you write a literary essay, your purposes are to
analyze, to interpret, and, perhaps, to evaluate the work. A literary
essay may also be called a critical essay, an interpretive essay, a
literary analysis, or a literary paper. Whatever its name, the literary
essay is entirely different from a report that recounts an author’s life,

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Unit 10 Writing About Literature

discusses a literary period, or summarizes the plot of a novel. When

you write a literary essay, you must demonstrate that you have
thought about what you have read. You must base your interpreta
tion on the details, ideas, and characters presented by the author. In
a literary essay, you will do one or more of the following:
1. Explore the theme, or central meaning, of the work.
2. Explore a technique that the author uses to develop that
meaning.
3. Make some judgment about the quality and the impact of
the work.
Audience. When you write a literary essay, address an audience
that includes anyone who might be interested in your view of the
work that you discuss. Assume that most of your readers have read
the work, but provide enough information to refresh their memories.

Tone, Point of View, and Tense

When you write a literary essay, you must observe certain
conventions. The appropriate tone, point of view, and tense are
illustrated in the following excerpt.

Model
Human beings have always known fear. Some fears are ac
quired. They stem from childhood experiences, such as falling from
a tree or nearly drowning. But other fears—fears of the unknown or
of darkness—seem to be inborn. These primeval instincts are
universal—almost a genetic curse. After all, what child is not afraid
of the dark? Two poems recount the terror of the unknown. Both
Hart Crane’s “Fear” and Rudyard Kipling’s “Song of the Little
Hunter” illustrate humanity’s attempts to come to grips with their
fears.
The attempt to conquer fear is illustrated by the striking
differences between these two similar poems. In “Fear” the reader is
pacified by a brilliant fire and a pleasant meal. In “Song of the Little
Hunter,” it seems that no danger lurks because no warning is
found. . .

James Bauerschmidt, Caro High School

Caro, Michigan

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 10.1

The Literary Essay

Tone. The tone of any writing is the attitude that the author
conveys about the topic and the audience. (For more information
about tone, see page 406.) The tone of a literary essay should be
serious, in keeping with your approach to the work that you are
discussing. The preceding excerpt is rather formal, appropriate for a
serious discussion of a serious subject.
Point of View. Use the third-person point of view (page 358) in a
literary essay. It is not correct to write in the first person, as in “I
believe . . or “It is my opinion.
. “ . .The excerpt illustrates how
.“

using the third person avoids a repetitious use of the pronoun I. Using
the third person also keeps the focus of your essay on the author and
the work.
Tense. Use the present tense when you refer to the characters, the
actions, or the author’s techniques or subject matter. For example,
you might write, “Two poems recount the terror of the unknown.”

Exercise I Prewriting: The Literary Essay Decide whether

each of the following sentences is more appropriate for a literary
essay or for a report. On your paper, write Literary essay or Report
after the number of each sentence.
1. Beowulf, the famous epic poem, was composed more than 1200 years
ago by an unknown British author.
2. William Shakespeare’s Macbeth shows himself to be a true tragic hero
by the greatness of his emotional depth and his moral potential.
Brian Henry Cheu, Aragon High School
San Mateo, California
3. The traits of the three main characters in Faust, by Johann Wolfgang
von Goethe, and The Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne, are
strikingly simiiar.
4. Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” in
1798.
5. Daniel Defoe, in Robinson Crusoe, was one of the first British writers
to create characters who spoke realistic dialogue.

Exercise 2 Revising: Tone The tone of the following passage

is not appropriate for a literary essay. On your paper, write an
improved version.

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Unit 10 Writing About Literature

Geoffrey Chaucer wrote something called Tfle Canterbury

Tales. He wrote it in a language with funny spellings called Middle
English, the way folks wrote and talked in England in the fourteenth
century. The story is pretty good. It’s about a bunch of people who
go together on a pilgrimage from London to visit the shrine of the
famous English martyr Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. They tell
these stories on the way.

Assignment Revising The following passage fails to observe

two conventions of the literary essay. Identify the problems; then, on
your paper, revise the passage.
I think that in Gulliver’s Travels Jonathan Swift criticized the
real world in which he lived. I read Book IV, which is about the
land of the Houyhnhnms, thoughtful horselilce creatures, and the
Yahoos, their slaves, who were senseless beasts that looked like
humans. It seemed to me that Swift was rejecting both extremes of
behavior.

ontinuing Assignment Prewriting Begin to read a liter

ary work of your own choice or one that is assigned by your teacher.
You will be writing about it as you study this unit.

Assignment Checklist
Check your revising assignment for the following points:
1. Did you rewrite the passage from an appropriate point of
view?
,.ø 2. Did you use the most appropriate tense in your revision?

F’

Getting ready to write a literary essay will require almost as

much of your attention as the writing itself. First, you will have to
read much more carefully than when you read solely for pleasure.
Then, as you choose a topic, you will also have to form your
interpretation of it. Finally, you will want to find specific incidents or
statements from the work that support the interpretation.

440
 10.2

Careful Reading

Reading the Work Carefully

If you know in advance that you will be writing an essay about a
literary work, keep the essay in mind as you read. If you are asked to
write about a work that you have already read, reread the work
thoughtfully. As you read, ask yourself the following questions. In
your literature course, you have probably studied most of the
concepts that appear in the questions.
QUESTIONS TO ASK ABOUT A WORK OF FICTION
What is the main plot of the work?
Who are the central characters?
From what point of view is the story told—first person, or
third person? Is the point of view omniscient or limited?
What is the setting? Does the work have a certain atmosphere
or mood?
What is the central conflict?
What is the climax?
How is the conifict resolved?
What is the theme, or main idea, of the work?
What is distinctive about the author’s style?

The reading of poetry raises special questions, such as the ones

that follow. Later in this unit, beginning on page 464, you will find a
special section on writing an explication, or explanation, of a poem.
QUESTIONS TO ASK ABOUT A POEM
On a literal level, what is the situation in the poem?
Is there a persona (speaker) in the poem? What can you
deduce about the persona? Does the speaker have a reaction
to the situation?
What images does the poem contain? Does one or more of the
images seem to be a symbol—that is, does it stand for some
thing larger than itself?
Is the poem written in a particular form, such as an ode or a
sonnet?
What patterns of sound—such as rhyme, alliteration, asso
nance, rhythm, or meter—does the poem contain? Does the
pattern of sound help to convey the meaning?

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Unit 10 Writing About Literature

What figurative language—such as metaphors, similes, and

personification—does the poem contain? How does the figura
tive language help to convey the meaning?
What is the tone of the poem?
Does the poem suggest anything beyond the literal situation?
What is the theme of the poem?

Choosing a Topic and an Approach

If your teacher does not assign a topic, take the time to choose
your own topic carefully. It should develop logically and naturally
from your reactions to the work. You will probably want to choose
one of the following approaches to a literary work.
1. Interpreting the meaning of the work. By providing evidence
from the work, you can explain how the theme is devel
oped. For example, Gulliver’s Travels, by Jonathan Swift,
can be understood on two levels: as a fantasy of adventure
and as a social and political satire.
2. Analyzing a character. Another approach is showing how a
character is changed by his or her experiences—that is, how
the character matures or develops. For example, you can
explain how Jerry, in Doris Lessing’s “The Tunnel,” ma
tures as a result of his experience.
3. Analyzing a technique. You can also investigate an aspect of
the writer’s craft, such as symbolism, imagery, poetic
sound, characterization, or creation of setting. For exam
ple, you can explain how Dylan Thomas, in “Do not go
gentle into that good night,” effectively and movingly uses
the verse form called the villanelle.
4. Comparing an element in two works. Another approach is
to compare the same element in two works. For example,
you can discuss how Shakespeare, in his sonnet “That time
of year thou mayst in me behold,” and Christina Rossetti,
in her poem “Song,” express different views of the immor
tality of love. You can also compare two characters in a
single work or in two works.

442
 10.2

Thesis Statement

Writing a Preliminary
Thesis Statement
Writing a preliminary thesis statement—the statement of what
you intend to prove in your essay—will help you to focus your
attention as you search for evidence to support it. If you can find
evidence to support your interpretation, the statement will become
the main idea, and the final thesis statement, of your literary essay. If
ou cannot find sufficient evidence, you must be willing to revise or
abandon that thesis statement.
A thesis statement should be precise and clear. The following
are examples of suitable topics and preliminary thesis statements for
literary essays.
TOPIC
The theme of “The Eve of St. Agnes,” by John Keats
PRELIMINARY THESIS STATEMENT
Keats highlights the uncertainty of first love by filling “The
Eve of St. Agnes” with contrasts.

TOPIC
The use of poetic sound in “The Lake Isle of Innisfree,” by
William Butler Yeats
PRELIMINARY THESIS STATEMENT
In “The Lake Isle of Innisfree,” Yeats’s use of poetic sound
helps to convey the sense of peace that the speaker hopes to
find in this ideal place.

TOPIC
The theme of “Rappaccini’s Daughter,” by Nathaniel
Hawthorne
PRELIMINARY THESIS STATEMENT
The main theme of “Rappaccini’s Daughter” is that when
human beings, in their cleverness, tamper with nature, the
result is disastrous.

xercise Prewriting: Thesis Statements Number your

paper from1 to 5. After each number write Appropriate if the

443
Unit 10 Writing About Literature

corresponding sentence is appropriate as the thesis statement for a

literary essay. Write Not appropriate if it is not acceptable as a thesis
statement.
1. The Stranger, by Albert Camus, does not indicate that there is a
divine meaning and goal in life, but it does show that there is a
harmony and a freedom in life that each individual can attain.
Nancy Woodruff, Prospect High School
Mount Prospect, Illinois
2. Although Alexander Pope was plagued by poor health all his life, he
devoted his enormous energies to his literary career and lived to be
fifty-six years old.
3. In Billy Budd Melville considers the reaction of society to the conflict
between good and evil.
4. Herman Melville’s “Bartleby the Scrivener” is narrated by the Wall
Street lawyer who is Bartleby’s employer.
5. Some of the most famous words in Middle English are the opening
lines of the Prologue to The Canterbury Tales, by Geoffrey Chaucer.

Assignment Prewriting Reread a short story or a poem that

you enjoy. Ask yourself questions about the work in order to choose
an essay topic. Then write the topic and a preliminary thesis
statement. Save your paper for use in an assignment on page 461.

Continuing Assignment Prewriting If you have not al

ready done so, finish reading the work that you started for the
Continuing Assignment on page 440. Select a topic for a literary
essay of three to five pages. Write a preliminary thesis statement.
Save it for later use.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
,~.— 1. Did you limit your topic to one element of the work?
,— 2. Did you choose a topic that interprets this element of the work?
, 3. Did you write a preliminary thesis statement that summarizes
your interpretation in one sentence?

444
 10.3

Taking Notes

T es
Now you can begin to test your interpretation. Reread the work
or any details that can be used to support your preliminary thesis
statement. For example, if your topic is the poet’s use of sound in
‘The Lake Isle of Innisfree,” look carefully at the rhythm and the
letter sounds in the words of the poem.

Gathering Evidence from the Work

Take notes on the details that you find. Perhaps the simplest
way to take notes is to use three-by-five-inch or four-by-six-inch note
cards, placing one piece of evidence on each card (so that you can
easily rearrange them for outlining). Each note card should include a
subject heading at the top and, at the bottom, the number of the page
on which the evidence appears in the work. When you take notes,
record only the essential details of a passage. You need not write in
complete sentences or connect one point with another, as the notes
on the following excerpt from Doris Lessing’s “A Sunrise on the
Veld” show.
PASSAGE FROM “A SUNRISE ON THE VELD”
Suddenly it all rose in him: it was unbearable. He leapt up
into the air, shouting and yelling wild, unrecognizable noises. Then
he began to run, not carefully, as he had before, but madly, like a
wild thing. He was clean crazy, yelling mad with the joy of living
and a superfluity of youth. He rushed down the vlei under a tumult
of crimson and gold, while all the birds of the world sang about him.
He ran in great leaping strides, and shouted as he ran, feeling his
body rise into the crisp rushing air and fall back surely onto sure
feet; and thought briefly, not believing that such a thing could
happen to him, that he could break his ankle any moment, in this
thick tangled grass. He cleared bushes like a duiker, leapt over
rocks; and finally came to a dead stop at a place where the ground
fell abruptly away below him to the river. It had been a two-mile-
long dash through waist-high growth, and he was breathing hoarsely
and could no longer sing. But he poised on a rock and looked down
at stretches of water that gleamed through stooping trees, and
thought suddenly, I am fifteen! Fifteen! The words came new to

445
Unit 10 Writing About Literature

him; so that he kept repeating them wonderingly, with swelling

excitement; and he felt the years of his life with his hands, as if he
were counting marbles, each one hard and separate and compact,
each one a wonderful shining thing. That was what he was: fifteen
years of this rich soil, and this slow-moving water, and air that smelt
like a challenge whether it was warm and sultry at noon, or as brisk
as cold water, like it was now.

NOTES ON PASSAGE
Boy’s feeling of exuberant freedom
Leaps, then shouts
Rushes down vlei for two miles
Sits on rock and thinks of his age
Repeats “Fifteen” wonderingly, excitedly
Rejoices at the years that have constituted his life
pp. 122—123

There are three special types of notes: direct quotation, para

phrase, and summary.
Direct quotation. If you find a particularly memorable state
ment or description, copy it exactly as it appears in the work and
enclose it in quotation marks. The following example is from Jane
Austen’s Pride and Prejudice.
Elizabeth’s response to Darcy
“From the very beginning, from the first moment I may almost say,
of my acquaintance with you, your manners impressing me with the
fullest belief of your arrogance, your conceit, and your selfish dis
dain of the feelings of others, were such as to form that ground
work of disapprobation, on which succeeding events have built so
immoveable a dislike; and I had not known you a month before I
felt that you were the last man in the world whom I could ever be
prevailed on to marry.”
p. 145

Paraphrase. A paraphrase is the expression of an author’s idea

in your own words. A paraphrase may be almost as long as the
original passage, but it allows you to write in your own words in order

446
 10.3

Secondary Sources

to avoid too long or too frequent direct quotations. A paraphrase

must be written in complete sentences. The quotation in the preced
ing example is paraphrased here.
Elizabeth’s response to Darcy
Elizabeth asserts that from the beginning she has considered Mr.
Darcy arrogant, conceited, and disdainful. Events increased her dis
approval and dislike to the extent that a month after meeting him,
Elizabeth knew that Mr. Darcy was the last man on earth she would
ever wish to marry.
p. 145

Summary. A summary, like a paraphrase, is the expression of

the author’s ideas in your own words. It, too, is written in complete
sentences. However, in a summary, the author’s narration and
dialogue are condensed to essential details. In the following example,
the passage from Lessing’s “A Sunrise on the Veld” (pages 445—446)
is summarized in three sentences.
Boy’s feeling of exuberant freedom
Leaping, shouting, the boy rushes down the vlei for two miles.
Sitting on a rock, he thinks of his age and repeats “Fifteen” won
deringly, excitedly. He rejoices at the years that have constituted his
life.
pp. 122—123

Using Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are books or essays written by scholars
who specialize in interpreting literature. This kind of information can
be helpful in presenting you with other views of the work that you will
discuss. However, a secondary source should not be regarded as a
replacement for your own reading and interpretation of the work. In
fact, many teachers prefer an interpretation to be based solely on a
student’s own reactions to a work. If you do use secondary sources,
you can treat an idea or a quotation from the work as an additional
piece of evidence to support your thesis statement.
When reading secondary sources, take notes just as you would
for the work itself. At the top right of each note card, place the

447
Unit 10 Writing About Literature

author’s last name, so that you will know the work from which the
information came. For each source, be sure to fill out a separate
bibliography card that lists the author, title, publisher, and place and
date of publication. (See Section 11.2b in Unit 11.) You will need this
information when you write footnotes and a bibliography.

E ercise I Prewriting: Evidence Read the following pre

liminary thesis statement and its accompanying evidence. On your
paper, list the numbers of the sentences that support the thesis
statement.
Thesis statement: Unlike ghosts in other Shakespearean plays, the ghost in
Hamlet is important to the development of the drama.
1. Hamlet is the Prince of Denmark.
2. The ghost’s words lead to Hamlet’s actions against Claudius.
3. Hamlet is distressed that his mother has married so soon after his
father’s death.
4. People of Shakespeare’s time believed wholeheartedly in ghosts.
5. To Hamlet the ghost reveals that Claudius is the murderer.
6. The ghost gives Hamlet the duty of avenging his murder.
7. This Shakespearean ghost speaks eloquently.
8. Hamlet hates Claudius.

Exercise 2 Prewriting: Note Taking Read the following

passage from pages 1385— 1386 of a secondary source about James
Joyce. Without quoting, take notes on this background information
as if you were going to use the notes for a literary essay. Give your
notes a heading.
Joyce’s almost life-long exile from his native Ireland has some
thing paradoxical about it. No writer has ever been more soaked in
Dublin, its atmosphere, its history, its topography; in spite of doing
most of his writing in Trieste, Zurich, and Paris, he wrote only and
always about Dublin. He devised ways of expanding his accounts of
Dublin, however, so that they became microcosms, small-scale mod
els, of all human life, of all history and all geography. Indeed, that
was his life’s work: to write about Dublin in such a way that he was
writing about all of human experience.
M. H. Abrams

448
 10.4

Organizing Ideas

E ercise 3 Prewriting: Paraphrase Reread the passage in

Exercise 2 and write a paraphrase that you could use in a literary
essay.

A signment Prewriting At the library find a secondary

source about the author or the work that you have been reading for
your literary essay. Read it and take notes on information that you
ould use to support your thesis statement.

C ntinuing Assignment Prewriting Reread the work that

you will discuss in your essay. Take notes on evidence to support your
preliminary thesis statement. Save them for later use.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
J~ 1. Did you take careful notes as you gathered evidence?
J~ 2. Did you place quotation marks around the direct quotations on
the note cards?
‘~ 3. Did you include subject headings and page numbers on all
note cards?
W 4. When you used a secondary source, did you record, on a
separate card, the publication information needed for foot
notes and a bibliography?

• •anizi I ea

Revising the Preliminary

Thesis Statement
After studying a literary work, you will often find that your first
impression of it has changed to some degree. Before you begin to
organize your notes, look critically at your preliminary thesis state
ment. Does your evidence support it? Is the statement clear and
concise? Revise the preliminary thesis statement if necessary.

449
Unit 10 Writing About Literature

Outlining the Essay

Prepare an outline of your essay so that you will have a logical
plan for presenting your ideas and supporting evidence. The process
of outlining and writing a literary essay will be illustrated by a student
essay that analyzes the theme of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s short story
“Rappaccini’s Daughter.” This model typifies the kind of literary
essay that is based entirely on the original work, with no interpreta
tions from secondary sources. In the essay the writer develops three
points to support a thesis statement about the disaster that results
when people tamper with nature. The points are presented in the
order in which they appear in the story.
1. Rappaccini has tampered with nature in his garden.
2. Beatrice is like the beautiful but poisonous plants.
3. The love of Giovanni and Beatrice is not allowed to grow
naturally.

These three points become the three main headings, indicated

by Roman numerals, in a sentence outline of the essay. Supporting
evidence for each main heading is listed under it as subheadings,
indicated by capital letters. The introductory and concluding para
graphs are identified by Roman numerals but do not need to be
outlined. (For information about other kinds of outlines, see Section
11.4 in Unit 11.)

Thesis statement: The main theme of “Rappaccini’s Daughter” is

that when human beings, in their assumed cleverness, tamper with
nature, the result is disastrous.
I. Introduction
II. Rappaccini has tampered with nature in his garden.
A. Beautiful plants are poisonous.
B. Medicines made from these plants have harmed patients.
C. Rappaccini has enough knowledge to influence nature but
not enough knowledge to avoid mistakes.
D. Only the water in the fountain has not been harmed by
Rappaccini.
III. Beatrice is like the beautiful but poisonous plants—in particu
lar, like the flowering shrub.

450
 10.4

Outlining the Essay

A. They share a common essence of poisonous beauty.

B. The shrub must be cared for by Beatrice alone.
C. Her very touch sears Giovanni’s hand; it is evidence of her
power.
D. Neither she nor the shrub is naturally evil; both have been
corrupted by Rappaccini.
IV. The love of Giovanni and Beatrice is not allowed to grow
naturally.
A. Beatrice loves Giovanni sincerely.
B. He loves her beauty but cannot surrender his heart because
he does not trust her.
C. When Giovanni discovers the poisonous powers that
Beatrice has given him, he accuses Beatrice of poisoning
him.
D. As a result, their love is destroyed and Beatrice dies.
V. Conclusion

To prepare the outline of your essay, assemble your note cards

and follow these steps.

Strategies
1. Sort your note cards into several groups according to their
subject headings. Each group will form one main heading of
the outline.
2. Place the main-heading groups in a logical order. Use order
of importance or chronological order (in this case, follow
ing the order of the work)—whichever will enable you to
present your evidence most clearly.
3. Within the main-heading groups, choose the cards that will
form the subheadings of the outline. Select only those cards
that provide strong evidence for your points. Put the other
cards aside.
4. Arrange the cards for the subheadings in a logical order.
Your purpose is to make your discussion of each point easy
to follow.
5. Write the main headings and subheadings in outline form.
Place the thesis statement at the top of the outline. Add
headings for the introduction and conclusion.

451
Unit 10 Writing About Literature

If your note cards contain a great deal of supporting informa

tion, you may wish to use a third order of headings. This order
consists of numbered sentences or phrases. The sample outline
requires only two orders of headings.

Exercise Prewriting: Outlining Use the following list of

headings and subheadings to prepare an outline for a paper support
ing the thesis statement that is given. You will have to determine
which items on the list are headings and which are subheadings.
There is no one correct order for the main headings or for the
subheadings under each heading.
Thesis statement: In “Neighbor Rosicky,” Willa Cather effectively
uses techniques of characterization to create a realistic portrait of
the main character.
Rosicky’s actions
Rosicky’s special gift for loving
“To be a landless man was to be . a slave
. . . .to be nothing.”
.

Other characters’ observations of Rosicky

Refuses to sell cream because children can use extra nourishment
Conclusion
Rosicky’s family happy to care for him
Big cities “built you in from the earth itself, cemented you away
from any contact with the ground.”
Arranges for his daughter-in-law to get to town more often
Introduction
Rosicky’s attitudes

Assignment Outlining The first three paragraphs of a literary

essay follow. Copy its thesis statement and write a sentence outline of
the passage. The introduction should form the first main heading, and
each of the other paragraphs should form another main heading and
its accompanying subheadings.
John Steinbeck’s novel The Pearl is set against the vivid back
drop of the California Gulf region. To create this setting, Steinbeck
relies largely on descriptions of the wildlife of the area. Ants in

452
 10.4

Outlining the Essay

particular appear frequently, and Steinbeck goes into great detail

about seemingly unimportant episodes in theft existence. Despite
their apparent insignificance, these episodes actually play an impor
tant role, expressing some of the story’s more subtle themes and
qualities.
The most important of these episodes occurs early in the
opening passages of the story. In these passages, Steinbeck describes
the main character, Kino, awakening and going about his morning
routine. In the midst of this routine, Kino looks down at the dirt
floor of his hut and watches, in Steinbeck’s words, “with the detach
ment of God,” as an ant struggles to escape the sand trap of an ant
lion. The image of this trap comes to mind readily: a small crater in
the sand with the ant lion occupying a hole in the center and the ant
desperately attempting to climb up the sides. Each time the ant
nears the lip of the crater, the ant lion pushes more sand into his
hole, causing both sand and ant to cascade back toward the center.
Although the reader does not yet understand the analogy, this scene
represents the theme of the story. Kino, like the ant, is trying to
escape a trap; in Kino’s case this trap is poverty.
Under normal circumstances, Kino would have no hope of
climbing out of his trap. In the story, however, Kino is suddenly
given an opportunity; he finds a giant pearl. If he can sell the pearl,
he can buy his family the things needed for a better life. He is on
the brink of escaping, on the lip of the crater. However, the society
in which Kino lives does not allow people to run. It prevents Kino
from being able to protect himself against others who wish the
wealth of the pearl for themselves. Consequently, he is unable to
sell the pearl, and his family never realizes the dream of a better life
that the pearl puts within reach. Kino, like the ant, makes it only to
the lip of the crater; society, like the ant lion, pulls the sand out
from under him just before he makes it all the way. Thus, the
eventual hopelessness of Kino’s struggle is expressed beforehand
through the struggle of the ant.
Anthony Steimle, Leland High School
San Jose, California

Continuing Assignment Look over your preliminary thesis

statement and the notes that you took for the Continuing Assign
ments on pages 444 and 449. Revise your thesis statement if
necessary. Then prepare a sentence outline for your essay. If you

453
Unit 10 Writing About Literature

prefer, prepare a topic outline—an outline in which the headings are

not expressed in complete sentences.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignment for the following points:
t-~ 1. Did you identify the thesis statement and copy it at the top of
your outline?
L 2. Did you prepare a sentence outline that shows the relation
ships of the ideas in the second and third paragraphs?
Check your Continuing Assignment for the following points:
‘- 3. Did you write a final thesis statement that can be adequately
supported by the evidence gathered from the literary work?
~ 4. Did you sort your note cards by their subject headings?
b 5. Did you prepare a logically organized outline that includes all
the important points?

e ra

Follow your outline as you write your first draft, making

adjustments as you write. Your task is to work your evidence into the
essay in such a way that the sequence of ideas is logical and the
writing is smooth. As you compose the essay, remember that your
purpose is to interpret the literary work, not to explain your own
philosophy to the reader.

The Title
Give your essay a specific title. The title must indicate the
aspect of the work with which your essay deals: for example,
“Symbolism in Steinbeck’s The Pearl” or “The Theme of D. H.
Lawrence’s ‘The Rocking-Horse Winner.’”

The Introductory Paragraph

Your introductory paragraph is an overview of the essay. In it
include the author and the title of the work, any brief description of

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The Conclusion

the work that will help the reader understand your interpretation,
and the thesis statement. At the same time, you should also attempt
to interest the reader in what you have to say. The following
introductory paragraph meets all of these requirements.

Model
From the beginning to the end of his novel The
Grapes of Wrath, John Steinbeck paints a portrait of
a dispossessed people. Beginning in the dusty Okla
homa fields and finishing in the rain-sodden Califor
nia farm lands, Steinbeck’s novel portrays a people
who are stripped and cheated of their belongings,
who set out and search for a new life, who are
unwanted and harassed by society, and who endure
and never give up. Throughout the book human lives
are constantly being tested by the hostilities and
hesis hardships imposed on them. However, Steinbeck
atement shows that human life will persist despite the hostili
ties of nature and of society so long as people unite
in their struggles and help one another.
Jim Labrenz, Thousand Oaks High School
Thousand Oaks, California

The Body Paragraphs

As you write the body paragraphs, you should consult your
outline as you incorporate the specific evidence from your note cards
into the body of the essay. Be careful not to use too many quotations.
An excessive use of quotations may suggest that you have not thought
enough about the ideas in the work to be able to put them into your
own words. The body paragraphs should consist primarily of summa
rized and paraphrased evidence that is clearly related to your thesis
statement.

The Concluding Paragraph

In a concluding paragraph, you close the essay by summarizing
what has been shown. You also establish how and why the aspect of

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Unit 10 Writing About Literature

the work that you have discussed is important to the work as a whole.
The following paragraph concludes an essay in which the writer
discusses the theme of a short story.

Model
“The Garden Party,” by Katherine Mansfield, deals with the
recognition that frocks, pastries, garden parties, and—on a larger
scale—class distinctions are made meaningless by death. Mansfield
portrays a great awakening in this young woman. Realizing that life
is not always a garden party for everyone, Laura Sheridan gains a
clearer perspective on class relations. Her earlier ideas are changed
during her experience down the lane; Laura perceives that class
distinctions are absurd at a final point—in death.
Lisa Foderaro, Rumson-Fair Haven Regional High School
Rumson, New Jersey

Quotations
Short Prose Quotations. When you decide to quote a particu
larly memorable passage, you should copy it in your essay exactly as it
appears in the work. The proper way of incorporating a quotation in
an essay depends on its length. Short quotations of no more than four
lines are written or typed as part of the paragraph. They are enclosed
in quotation marks and followed by the number of the page on which
the quoted passage appears in the original work. In the following
example, from an essay about Pride and Prejudice, notice that the
final punctuation mark comes after the page reference.
When Lady Catherine tries to dissuade Elizabeth from marrying Mr.
Darcy, Elizabeth replies that even if the Darcy family resented the
marriage, “it would not give me a moment’s concern” (267—268).

Long Prose Quotations. Quotations of five or more lines are

made easier to read by setting them off from the text: they are
indented five spaces on both sides and single-spaced. For quotations
that are set off in this manner, it is not necessary to use quotation
marks. The following quotation from Pride and Prejudice is long
enough to be set off from the text of the essay in which it appears. In
this kind of quotation, the page reference follows the final punctua
tion mark.

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 10.5

Documentation

The fact is, that you were sick of civility, of deference, of officious
attention. You were disgusted with the women who were always
speaking and looking, and thinking for your approbation alone.
I. . interested you, because I was so unlike them. Had you not
.

been really amiable you would have hated me for it; but in spite of
the pains you took to disguise yourself, your feelings were noble and
just. (284)
. . .

The preceding quotation illustrates the way in which a long

quotation may be shortened by the use of ellipsis points ( . ) to
. .

indicate the omitted words. Use three points in the middle of a

sentence, and use three points plus a period at the end of a sentence.
When you shorten a quotation, you sometimes need to supply words
that are not part of the original text but are needed for sense. Enclose
such words and phrases in brackets.
Poetry Quotations. Quotations of up to three lines may be
enclosed in quotation marks and run in with the text. The end of a
line is indicated by a slash (I) with a space before and after it.
Coleridge’s lines “It is an ancient Mariner, / And he stoppeth one of
three” are among the most famous opening lines in British poetry.

When four or more lines of a poem are quoted, they are single-spaced
and set off from the text just as a prose quotation is. No quotation
marks are used.

Documentation
To document an essay is to supply information about the
original works from which you copied the quotations in the essay. As
you have seen, you must follow each quotation with a reference, in
parentheses, to the page on which it appears in the original work. In
an essay about a long poem, use line numbers instead; in an essay
about a Shakespearean play, use the numbers of the act, scene, and
line (such as III.i.56 —65). Then, in a bibliography page at the end of
the essay, list the complete information in a standard entry. For a
full-length prose work, the following form is correct.
Woolf, Virginia. A Room of One’s Own. New York: Harcourt
Brace, 1963.

457
Unit 10 Writing About Literature

The forms vary for other kinds of works, such as a cQllected edition of
an author’s works. For additional information about bibliographies,
see Section 11.5 in Unit 11.
Your teacher may prefer that you use another way of citing the
work from which your quotations come. The first time you quote
from the work, place an explanatory footnote at the bottom of the
page or on a separate footnotes page. In either case, the correct form
is as follows.
Virginia Woolf, A Room of One’s Own (New York: Harcourt
Brace, 1963), P. 45. Subsequent references are to this edition.

The remaining quotations in the essay are followed by page numbers

in parentheses; the standard bibliography page is optional.
The preceding information applies only to literary essays that
are based entirely on the original work. If an essay also includes
references to secondary sources (pages 447—448), you must give a
footnote for the first reference to the original work; you may include
with the text other references to the work. References to quotations
or ideas from secondary sources appear as footnotes, and the
bibliography includes entries for each secondary source and for the
original work. For additional information about documenting a
paper, see Section 11.5 in Unit 11.

A Model Literary Essay

The literary essay referred to in this unit is given on the
following pages as a model for reference and study.

Model
The Theme of “Rappaccini’s Daughter,” by Hawthorne
The short story can achieve many ends; a short story may
reveal human character, illustrate the society in which the author
lives, or illuminate a timeless universal truth. Nathaniel Hawthorne
often uses his short stories to reveal some idea about humankind,
and such is the case with “Rappaccini’s Daughter.” This story is
filled with symbols and allusions. The main theme of “Rappaccini’s
Daughter,” however, is that when human beings, in their assumed
cleverness, tamper with nature, the result is disastrous.

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 10.5

Model Literary Essay

An example of nature that has been made terrible through

human intervention is Signor Rappaccini and his garden. The garden
is resplendent with vegetation, much of which is beautiful, and it is
this beauty that initially attracts Signor Giovanni Guasconti, a stu
dent at the University of Padua, whose lodgings overlook the
garden. The flowers that flourish within the walls of Rappaccini’s
garden are, however, actually poisons “more horribly deleterious
than Nature, without the assistance of this learned person, would
ever have plagued the world withal” (1048). Signor Rappaccini, a
physician, distills the plants to create potent medicines, and he
administers these medicines to patients of his, sometimes with ill
results—a fact alluded to by Professor Baglioni in a discussion be
tween Giovanni and the professor.
Thus, Rappaccini has managed to modify nature; yet despite
his knowledge of botany, his patients pay a penalty. Rappaccini has
enough knowledge to influence nature, but not enough to under
stand it fully. The only thing in the garden that Rappaccini has not
changed is the water in the fountain—the water that “continued to
gush and sparkle into the sunbeams as cheerfully as ever . as if
. .

the fountain were an immortal spirit that sung its song unceasingly
and without heeding the vicissitudes around it. . .(1045). While
“

the fountain, once a great work of human art, now crumbles, the
pure water, nature’s creation, continues to flow.
Perhaps the best example of humans doing harm to nature is
Rappaccini’s daughter, Beatrice. To Giovanni, she is strikingly simi
lar to the flowers in the garden:
for the impression which the fair stranger made upon him was
as if here were another flower, the human sister of those
vegetable ones, as beautiful as they, more beautiful than the
richest of them, but still to be touched only with a glove, nor
to be approached without a mask. (1046)
Beatrice is like a certain flowering shrub that, according to Gio
vanni, is the most beautiful of all the plants in the garden. Beatrice
says that this plant germinated on the day she was born; although
different in physical form, the shrub and the young woman share a
common essence. Both the shrub and Beatrice are physically beauti
ful, and yet both are highly poisonous. The plant is so lethal that
even Signor Rappaccini dares not touch it. Instead, the plant must
be cared for by Beatrice, who suffers no harm. Beatrice’s powers are
revealed to Giovanni when Beatrice prevents him from touching the
poisonous shrub. Earlier observations by Giovanni have suggested

459
Unit 10 Writing About Literature

that Beatrice may possess terrible powers, but the fact that her mere
touch sears the hand of Giovanni is concrete evidence that
Rappaccini’s daughter is indeed endowed with an extraordinary po
tency. Remarkably, Giovanni’s burned hand is a deep purple color,
similar to the color of the blossoms of the powerful shrub.
Yet, despite their power, neither the shrub nor the woman is
naturally evil; rather, they have become dangerous through the
constant effort of Signor Rappaccini. Indeed, both are innocuous by
nature. The shrub, which grows in the midst of the fountain, draws
its nourishment from the pure, clear water therein, and Beatrice,
isolated from the world by her physical malady, has remained as
innocent as a child, without acquiring the cynicism or the evil of
humankind. Like the garden in which she lives, Beatrice is naturally
wholesome, yet she has been corrupted through the knowledge—not
the wisdom—of Rappaccini.
The relationship between Giovanni and Beatrice is still anoth
er testimony to the results of human interference with natural proc
esses. There can be little doubt that Beatrice loves Giovanni. She
tells him, “I dreamed only to love thee, and be with thee . .

(1063). Whether Giovanni really loves Beatrice is less clear, and

herein lies the impediment that determines the ultimate fate of their
romance. Although Giovanni is enthralled by her beauty, he will not
completely surrender his heart to Beatrice. He cannot decide wheth
er she is lovely and innocent or horribly powerful. His doubt comes
from the displays of Beatrice’s powers that he has witnessed, as well
as from his talks with Professor Baglioni, who tries to dissuade
Giovanni from seeing her.
When Giovanni discovers that he himself now has awful pow
ers of death, he immediately accuses Beatrice of poisoning him.
Once Giovanni has made this accusation, their relationship is irrepa
rably damaged. Beatrice dies soon thereafter. She tellingly places
the blame for their failure in love when she says to Giovanni as she
is dying, “Oh, was there not, from the first, more poison in thy
nature than in mine?” (1065).
Ironically, “Rappaccini’s Daughter” could easily have been a
pleasant story: a beautiful girl who lives in a verdant garden meets a
handsome boy, and they fall in love. However, Hawthorne conveys
a meaning in “Rappaccini’s Daughter” beyond the actual story he
relates: human beings often bring harm to themselves by the ill use
of their knowledge and intelligence. Indeed, all three male
characters—Dr. Rappaccini, Professor Baglioni, and Giovanni—are
very intelligent, yet they all lack the wisdom to use their intelligence

460
 10.5

Model Literary Essay

beneficially. The only character who uses her heart more than her
mind is, sadly, the one who suffers most from the misdirected efforts
of human beings to outwit nature.

Bibliography
Hawthorne, Nathaniel. “Rappaccini’s Daughter.” In The Novels
and Tales of Nathaniel Hawthorne. Ed. Norman Holmes
Pearson. New York: Random House, 1937, pp. 1043-1065.

(Adapted)
Jay Geistlinger, Glenbrook South High School
Glenview, Illinois

E ercise Prewriting: The Bibliography Entry Given the

following information about a book, write a bibliography entry for it.
Use the bibliography entry on page 457 as a guide.
Title: Summoned by Bells
Author: John Betjeman
Date of publication: 1960
Publisher: Houghton Muffin
Place of publication: Boston

Assignment Writing Take out the paper on which you wrote a

topic and a thesis statement for a literary essay about a short story or
poem (page 444). Write an introductory paragraph for the essay. Be
sure to give the author and title of the work and to include your thesis
statement. Save your paper.

Continui g Assignment Writing Using the note cards and

the outline that you prepared for the Continuing Assignments on
pages 449 and 453, write the first draft of your literary essay.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
1. Did you include the author and title of the work that you are
discussing?

461
Unit 10 Writing About Literature

2. Did you include a clear thesis statement in your introductory

paragraph?
Check your Continuing Assignment for these additional points:
j 3. Did you give your essay a title that indicates the aspect of the
work that you are analyzing?
i. 4. Did you present your evidence clearly in the body of the essay?
5. Did you write a concluding paragraph that summarizes what
you have shown?
.i-’ 6. Did you use the proper form for quotations, and did you
document them correctly?

.6 eiin s
If possible, begin your revision a day or so after you have
finished writing your first draft. In this way you will have a more
objective view of your writing. Revision is far more than proofread
ing. It is the reworking and polishing of the entire essay, both the
content and the style. You will probably need to rewrite some
passages and attach them to the appropriate portion of the first draft.
In a thorough revision, you should observe the following guidelines.

Strategies
1. Check the draft against the outline. Be sure that you covered
all of the points in the right order. Add any sentences that
seem needed.
2. Make sure that each piece of evidence supports your thesis
statement. Eliminate any sentences that give unnecessary
information.
3. Make sure that the ideas flow coherently. Rearrange them if
they do not, using transitional words as needed.
4. Change wording where necessary to make your choice of
words more precise or to make the sentence structure
smoother.

462
 10.6

Revising the Essay

5. Make sure that the tone of your essay is consistent. It should

be serious and formal.
6. Make sure that you have used the third-person point of view
consistently.
7. Make sure that you have used the present tense when you
refer to the characters, the action, and the author’s tech
niques or subject matter.
8. Proofread the essay. Correct errors in grammar, usage,
spelling, and punctuation. Make sure that you copied the
quotations and page references accurately.

For more information about revising an essay, see pages

425—427. For general information about revision, see Unit 6, which
begins on page 276.
When you are satisfied that your essay is as good as you can
make it, you have a final draft. Copy it on 81/2-by-11-inch paper,
following accepted manuscript guidelines (pages 208—209) with any
alterations that your teacher recommends. Proofread the finished
paper carefully.

E ercise Revising: The Literary Essay Revise the follow

ing portion of a first draft. Pay special attention to tense, point of
view, and the form used for quotations.
In The House of Mirth, Edith Wharton wrote about a young
woman’s struggle to keep her place in the elite society of New York
at the beginning of the century. Lily Bart, the heroine, had little
money of her own. I think she believed that she could keep her
social position if she married a wealthy man, however. The principal
conflict in the novel is between Lily’s pride and her awareness of her
precarious position.
At the beginning of the novel, Lily Bart was portrayed as an
attractive, well-dressed young woman who was spending the week
end at the country estate of wealthy friends:
Everything about her was at once vigorous and
exquisite, at once strong and fine. (47)
Apparently, she maintained her friendship with these people and
with others as a way of living fashionably and searching for a

463
Unit 10 Writing About Literature

husband. I think that Lily worried about the future: “Under her
dark hat and veil she regained the girlish smoothness, the purity of
tint, that she was beginning to lose after eleven years of late hours
and indefatigable dancing. . . Had she indeed reached the nine-
.

and-twentieth birthday with which her rivals credited her?” (4).

Assignment Revising Revise the introductory paragraph that

you wrote for the Assignment on page 461.

ontinuing Assignment Revising Revise the first draft that

you prepared for the Continuing Assignment on page 461. Before
you make revisions, review all of the information in this section.
Then copy or type the finished paper and proofread it carefully.
Submit your outline with the finished paper.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
~.— 1. Did you revise the first draft to make the tense, tone, and point
of view consistent?
,.~ 2. When necessary, did you correctthe form used for quotations?
~— 3. Did you add any needed sentences?
j 4. Did you eliminate any unnecessary sentences?
~ 5. Did you revise the draft to make it more coherent?
,~— 6. Did you revise the draft to improve word choices and the
phrasing of sentences?
j. 7. Did you proofread the final draft for correct grammar, usage,
spelling, and punctuation?
,.— 8. Did you prepare the finished paper according to your teacher’s

quidelines and proofread it carefully?

ti ica of e
Robert Frost observed that “poetry provides the one permissi
ble way of saying one thing and meaning another.” A poem is
compressed communication and, as such, offers the reader layers of

464
 10.7

Writing About a Poem

meaning that lie beneath the surface of the poem’s words. In fact, it
sometimes takes several paragraphs of prose to explain fully just a
few lines of poetry.
The depth and richness .of poetic meaning make writing about
poetry somewhat different from writing about novels and short
stories. Like a prose work, a poem should be read several times, but
at least one reading should be aloud, so that you can experience the
sound of the poem as well as the meaning.
In this section you will consider one form of writing about
poetry: the explication. An explication of a poem is a detailed
explanation of the work. An explication includes a line-by-line
investigation of the poem and shows how the various aspects of the
poet’s craft contribute to the total meaning. Poetic techniques include
imagery, figurative language (including similes, metaphors, and
personification), and symbolism. They include, in addition, the
various aspects of poetic sound: rhyme, repetition, alliteration,
assonance, meter, and rhythm. When appropriate, an explication
also includes some commentary about the form of the poem: whether
it is a sonnet or a villanelle, for example. In your literature courses,
you have probably examined both the forms and the techniques of
poetry. If you need to review any of the preceding terms, consult a
literature textbook, a literary handbook, or a book about poetry.
As you prepare an explication of a poem, analyze the tech
niques in the work as well as its form. Look up the definitions of
unfamiliar words, historical and mythological references, and literary
allusions.
This sonnet by William Wordsworth is followed by an explica
tion. Notice that in each paragraph the writer discusses an aspect of
the poem. The quotations and references to particular lines make the
explication specific.

Composed upon Westminster Bridge

Earth has not anything to show more fair:
Dull would he be of soul who could pass by
A sight so touching in its majesty:
This City now doth, like a garment, wear
The beauty of the morning; silent, bare, 5
Ships, towers, domes, theatres, and temples lie
Open unto the fields, and to the sky;

465
Unit 10 Writing About Literature

All bright and glittering in the smokeless air.

Never did sun more beautifully steep
In his first splendour, valley, rock, or hill;
Ne’er saw I, never felt, a calm so deep!
The river glideth at his own sweet will:
Dear God! the very houses seem asleep;
And all that mighty heart is lying still!

William Wordsworth

Model
Situation “Composed upon Westminster Bridge,” by
~iescribed William Wordsworth, presents a view of the majesty
of London in the early morning. The city, seen from
Westminster Bridge, is described as if glimpsed for
the first time. In lines 1—3 the persona feels that few
people could ignore such a view and that nothing else
the earth possesses is more beautiful. Struck with
awe at the sight, the persona exclaims in line 9,
“Never did sun more beautifully steep,” or bathe, the
features of the city. This scene produces a sense of
calm in the persona.
Figurative Although London usually bustles with activity,
~c~r~~ery the quiet city now appears vulnerable, approachable,
and more human. The persona describes London
wearing a cloak of beauty in the simile in line 4. The
image of a garment spread across the city makes
London seem like a sleeping person. The persona
conveys a sharp impression of the “Ships, towers,
domes, theatres, and temples” of London in line 8.
This imagery suggests London’s beautiful skyline,
which is “bright and glittering.” In line 12 the image
of the river further illustrates the calm of the scene.
The river glides rather than rushes by, at “his own
• . . will.” In line 13 the persona personifies the hous

es of London sleeping. Finally, in line 14 the perso

na’s unique view is expressed through the main meta
phor of the “mighty heart” of the city. At sunrise its
heart is still. This figurative language and imagery

466
 10.7

Writing About a Poem

illustrate how London sleeps, almost like a giant,

“Open unto the fields, and to the sky.”
orm of poem “Composed upon Westminster Bridge” is an
Italian, or Petrarchan, sonnet. The first eight lines
make up one sentence, with a rhyme scheme of abba
abba. This section describes London and its features,
the dawn, and the feelings this sight evokes. The final
six lines, with a rhyme scheme of cdcdcd, form a
resolution, or final statement. The persona compares
the beauty of London with the natural beauty of
“valley, rock, or hill” and states that the city at this
hour is more lovely.
Poet’s use There is some alliteration in lines 9—10 (sun,
of sound steep, splendour) and some assonance in line 12
(river, his, will). However, the sense of calm, quiet,
and beauty in the poem comes principally from the
rhyme. The rhyming words sound simple and
soothing—steep, deep, asleep; hill, will, still.
Overall meaning This striking sonnet by Wordsworth suggests
of poem that even a busy, crowded, and dirty city can be as
beautiful as anything viewed in nature. London, “All
bright and glittering in the smokeless air,” captured
by the poet in a meditative moment, exhibits serenity
and loveliness.

Like all explications, the model begins with a consideration of

the situation described in the poem and concludes with a paragraph
about the overall meaning of the poem. In the concluding paragraph,
the writer summarizes the total meaning in light of the various aspects
of the poem that have been analyzed: the figurative language and
imagery, the form of the poem, and the way in which sound
reinforces meaning.
There is no set sequence for the paragraphs about these three
aspects of a poem. You may use any order that seems appropriate for
the work that you explicate.
Writing an explication is an excellent way of examining and
appreciating a poem fully. It is also an excellent preparation for
writing other kinds of literary essays about poetry.

467
Unit 10 Writing About Literature

Exercise I Prewriting: Analyzing Poetry Read the fol

lowing poem. Look up any words that you do not understand. Then,
on your paper, list the poem’s images, giving the line number of each.
SAMPLE Ivory, line 3

Cargoes
Quinquireme of Nineveh from distant Ophir
Rowing home to haven in sunny Palestine,
With a cargo of ivory,
And apes and peacocks,
Sandalwood, cedarwood, and sweet white wine. 5

Stately Spanish galleon coming from the Isthmus,

Dipping through the Tropics by the palm-green shores,
With a cargo of diamonds,
Emeralds, amethysts,
Topazes, and cinnamon, and gold moidores. 10

Dirty British coaster with a salt-caked smoke stack

Butting through the Channel in the mad March days,
With a cargo of Tyne coal,
Road-rails, pig-lead,
Firewood, iron-ware, and cheap tin trays. 15
John Masefield

E ercise Prewriting: Analyzing Poetry Read the fol

lowing poem. On your paper, give the rhyme scheme of the poem
and list each instance of alliteration, assonance, and repetition. Give
line numbers.

Sonnet 30
When to the sessions of sweet silent thought
I summon up remembrance of things past,
I sigh the lack of many a thing I sought,
And with old woes new wail my dear time’s waste;
Then can I drown an eye (unus’d to flow) 5
For precious friends hid in death’s dateless night,
And weep afresh love’s long since cancell’d woe,

468
 10.7

Writing About a Poem

And moan th’ expense of many a vanish’d sight;

Then can I grieve at grievances foregone,
And heavily from woe to woe tell o’er 10
The sad account of fore-bemoaned moan,
Which I new pay as if not paid before:
But if the while I think on thee, dear friend,
All losses are restor’d, and sorrows end.
William Shakespeare

Assig ment I Writing/Revising Write an explication of one

of the poems in the preceding exercises. Using the Assignment
Checklist, revise your work.

Assignment 2 Writing/Revising Write an explication of one

of the following poems: “Ozymandias,” by Percy Bysshe Shelley;
Sonnet XIX (“When I consider how my light is spent”), by John
Milton; “A narrow Fellow in the Grass,” by Emily Dickinson; “A
Noiseless Patient Spider,” by Walt Whitman. Revise your work
before making a final copy.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
1. Did you explain the situation described in the poem?
a.0 2. Did you examine the poem’s imagery (and symbols, if any)?
a 3. Did you examine the poem’s figurative language?
a.0 4. Did you examine the poet’s use of sound?
a.0 5. Did you examine the form of the poem?
a.0 6. Did you explain the total meaning of the poem?
a- 7. Did you proofread your explication for correct grammar,
usage, spelling, and punctuation?

469
 —— ~W IiF~ WA

Personification: Writing About Poetry

ituation: You are a member of the Emerson Club, a club
devoted to studying the life and works of Ralph Waldo Emer
son. You have been asked to write an essay about one of
Emerson’s poems. The essay will appear in The Emersonian,
a bulletii-i that all members of the club receive. You have
decided to write about Emerson’s use of personification in
“The Snow-Storm.” As you write your essay, you will keep in
mind the following information.
Writer: you as a contributor to The Emerson/an
Audience: members of the Emerson Club
Topic: Emerson’s use of personification in “The Snow
Storm”
Purpose: to analyze the poem in a literary essay of no
more than six hundred words

Directions: To plan and write your essay, follow these steps.

Step 1. Read the poem on the facing page, consulting a
dictionary for the meanings of any unfamiliar
words. Be certain that you understand the mean
ing of each line.
Step 2. Reread the poem, paying special attention to
Emerson’s use of personification. Notice the fig
ure of the storm as a driver in the first stanza, the
figure of the north wind in the second stanza,
and, at the end, the figure of Art. Observe how
these figures develop the meaning of the poem.
Step 3. Take notes on each instance of personification

(Continue on page 472.)

470
 The Snow-Storm

Announced by all the trumpets of the sky,

Arrives the snow, and, driving o’er the fields,
Seems nowhere to alight: the whited air
Hides hills and woods, the river, and the heaven,
- .~‘ And veils the farm-house at the garden’s end. 5

The sled and traveller stopped, the courier’s feet

Delayed, all friends shut out, the housemates sit
Around the radiant fireplace, enclosed
In a tumultuous privacy of storm.
Come see the north wind’s masonry. 10
Out of an unseen quarry evermore
Furnished with tile, the fierce artificer
Curves his white bastions with projected roof
Round every windward stake, or tree, or door.
Speeding, the myriad-handed, his wild work 15
So fanciful, so savage, nought cares he
For numbei or proportion. Mockingly,
On coop or kennel he hangs Parian wreaths;
A swan-like form invests the hidden thorn;
Fills up thefarmer’s lane from wall to wall, 20
Maugre the farmer’s sighs; and at the gate
A tapering turret overtops the work.
And when his hours’are numbered; and the world
Is all his own, retiring, as he were not,
Leaves, ~.‘henthe sun~p~ea~s; astbnished Art 25
-, To mimic in slow structh~es, Stone by stone~
Built in an age the mad wind~s night work
The frolic architèctureof.the snow.
‘S

Ralph Waldo Emerson

fl ‘ . . ~ ,.

471
 and select quotations that you will want to in
clude in your essay.
Step 4. Write a thesis statement. Then, using your notes,
prepare an outline of your essay.
Step 5. Write the first draft of your essay: an introduc
tory paragraph, one or more body paragraphs,
and a concluding paragraph. Be sure to write in
the third person, to use the present tense, and to
cite quotations correctly.
Step 6. Read over your first draft and make any neces
sary revisions.
Step Z Make a final copy of your essay and proofread it
carefully.

472
Unit Assi nments
Assignment 1 Discuss the importance of setting in one of the
following short stories.
1. “The Three Strangers,” by Thomas Hardy
2. “The Return of Imray,” by Rudyard Kipling
3. “The Lagoon,” by Joseph Conrad

Assignment 2 Write an explication of one of the following

poems.
1. “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning,” by John Donne
2. Sonnet XLIII (“How do I love thee? Let me count the ways”), by
Elizabeth Barrett Browning
3. Sonnet 18 (“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”), by William
Shakespeare

Assignment 3 Discuss the conifict experienced by the main

character in one of the following works.
1. “Guests of the Nation,” by Frank O’Connor
2. A Doll’s House, by Henrik Ibsen
3. Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, by James Joyce

Assignment 4 Discuss the relation of poetic sound and meaning

in one of the following poems.
1. “Kubla Khan,” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
2. “Break, Break, Break,” by Alfred, Lord Tennyson
3. “All Day I Hear,” by James Joyce

Ass~gnment 5 Compare and contrast two of the following

Shakespearean heroes. Consider how their actions, words, and
feelings are similar or different.
1. Macbeth 4. Shylock
2. Hamlet 5. Lear
3. Othello 6. Richard III
(Continue on the next page.)

473
 Unit Assignments (continued)

t ~
.:7? ~
~
7
Ass~gnment 6 E31”scuss one of the following topics.
1. The theme of “The Unknown Citizen,” by W. H. Auden
2. The character of the persona as it emerges in “Ulysses,” by Alfred,
Lord Tennyson
3. The use of metaphor in “Ode: Intimations of Immortality,” by
William Wordsworth

Assignment 7 Discuss an aspect of one of the following literary

works.
1. The Canterbury Tales, by Geoffrey Chaucer
2. Riders to the Sea, by John Millington Synge
3. The Diary, by Samuel Pepys

Assignment 8 Discuss the imagery in one of the following

poems.
1. “The Tiger,” by William Blake
2. “Dover Beach,” by Matthew Arnold
3. “Ode to the West Wind,” by Percy Bysshe Shelly

Assignment 9 Discuss one of the following characters in Pyg

malion, by George Bernard Shaw. Consider whether the character
changes.
1. Liza
2. Higgins
3. Doolittle

Assignment 10 Discuss one of the following topics.

1. The use of symbolism in “The Metamorphosis,” by Franz Kafka
2. The use of irony in “The Verger,” by Somerset Maugham
3. The theme of “The Rocking-Horse Winner,” by D. H. Lawrence

Assignment 1 1 Analyze a character in one of the following

works.

474
1. A novel by Charles Dickens
2. A novel by Jane Austen
a
3. A novel by George Eliot

Assignment 12 Discuss an aspect of one of the following works.

1. Antigone, by Sophocles
2. Medea, by Euripides
3. Murder in the Cathedral, by T. S. Eliot

Revising Your Assignments

For help in revising a literary essay or an explication, consult the
Checklist for Revision on the last page of this book.

475
Unit Tests

A. Number your paper from 1 to 5. Next to each number, write

True if the sentence is true or False if it is false.
1. When used in a literary essay, prose quotations of five or more lines
are written or typed as part of a paragraph.
2. In writing a literary essay, you should use the third-person point of
view.
3. Direct quotations, paraphrases, and summaries are different types of
notes.
4. A suitable topic for a literary essay is an examination of some aspect
of a literary period.
5. Your reading of secondary sources should be the basis of a literary
essay.

Number your paper from 6 to 10. Next to each number, write

the letter of the term that correctly completes the sentence. You will
use all but one of the items.
a. documentation d. explication
b. tone e. bibliography
c. thesis statement f. point of view

6. A(n) L is a detailed explanation of a poem.

7. Information about the works from which you copied quotations is
known as 2.
8. You must include your 2 in the introductory paragraph of a literary
essay.
9. If you use secondary sources in writing a literary essay, you must list
them in a separate i.
10. The 1. of a literary essay should be serious, in keeping with your
approach to the work that you are discussing.

C. Number your paper from 11 to 15. Next to each number, write

the letter of the item that correctly answers the question.
11. Which of the following topics would be suitable for an essay focusing
primarily on interpreting the meaning of a literary work?

476
 a. The view of mortality in “Thanatopsis”
b. Mood in Katherine Mansfield’s “The Voyage”
c. The character of Othello
d. How Oscar Wilde created suspense in The Picture of Dorian Gray
12. With which of the following should you begin an explication of a
poem?
a. A summary of the total meaning of the poem
b. An explanation of the situation in the poem
c. An analysis of the figurative language and imagery
d. An analysis of the poet’s use of sound
13. Which of the following is a suitable topic for a literary essay?
a. Joseph Conrad’s life
b. The plot of “The Secret Sharer,” by Joseph Conrad
c. Naturalism in literature
d. The character of Leggatt in “The Secret Sharer”
14. Which of the following topics would be appropriate for an essay that
compares elements in a literary work?
a. Fate in Romeo and Juliet
b. The theme of Romeo and Juliet
c. The roles of the Nurse and Friar Laurence in Romeo and Juliet
d. The character of Tybalt in Romeo and Juliet
15. Which of the following is not an appropriate question to ask about a
prose work that you plan to write about?
a. From what point of view is the story told?
b. What is the central conflict?
c. What other books has the author written?
d. What is the setting?

Choose one of the Unit Assignments. Write the assignment as

directed and hand it in to your teacher.

477
Unit 11

?1dea44~ ?a,o~t~

A research paper is a formal written presentation, in

twenty-five hundred to three thousand words, of information
gathered and conclusions reached through your research. In
your introductory paragraph include a thesis statement, a
statement that points out what you intend to prove in your
paper. The body of your paper is coherent, well-organized
evidence that supports your thesis statement.
The following paragraphs are from the beginning of a
research paper on alternative sources of energy.

Introduction As the world’s supply of fossil fuels dimin

ishes, there is increasing interest on both national
and local levels in the feasibility of using renewa
Thesis ble energy sources. The use of such renewable
statement energy sources as solar energy, wind power, and
geothermal energy can avert a worldwide energy
shortage.
Body Solar energy, currently the most widely
used of the renewable sources, is energy given
off by the sun. Scientists assert that approximate
ly 47 percent of the sun’s energy reaches the
earth’s surface. Using the unit of measure known
as a kilowatt, scientists have also determined that
in approximately forty minutes the earth receives
as much solar energy as humans will use in a
year.

478
Fo Analysis Write answers to the following questions about
the preceding paragraphs.
1. What does the writer intend to prove in this research paper?
2. What is the topic of the second paragraph?

In this unit you will follow the development of a research

paper about the increasing use of biomechanics, from selecting
and limiting the topic, through research and note taking, to
preparation of the final paper. In addition, you will workthrough
the steps of researching, planning, and writing your own paper,
following the three steps of prewriting, writing, and revising.

• I e r
• a Selecting and Limiting a Topic

Your first task in writing a research paper is selecting and

limiting a topic. Choose a topic that interests you and that you can
research in the facilities available to you.
Make sure also that your topic is one that you can adequately
explore in a research paper. A general topic, such as the practice of
medicine in the twentieth century, is too broad, but it can be limited
to a variety of narrower topics. Look at the following examples.
Internal medicine Sports medicine Geriatrics
Out-patient clinics Health-care training Surgery
Preventive medicine Medical research Pediatrics

These subjects are still too broad to be used as topics for a

research paper. They can be narrowed even further, however, as the
following examples show.
SUBJECT Surgery
TOPICS Corrective surgery, Cosmetic surgery, Surgical proce
dures

479
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

SUBJECT Sports medicine

TOPICS Sports counseling, Biomechanics, Sports injuries

SUBJECT Preventive medicine

TOPICS Holistic health, Nutrition, Weight control

SUBJECT Out-patient clinics

TOPICS Clinic locations, Cost factors, Quality care

Exercise I Prewriting: Research-Paper Topics On your

paper, write three possible research-paper topics for five of the
following subjects.
SAMPLE American Revolution
ANSWER Economic factors leading to the American Revolu
tion, Important Revolutionary leaders, France’s role
in the American Revolution
1. Art 9. Electricity 17. Mythology
2. Astronomy 10. Environment 18. Nutrition
3. Automobiles 11. Furniture 19. Photography
4. Botany 12. Industry 20. Physics
5. Childhood 13. Mathematics 21. Psychology
6. Colonial days 14. Money 22. Railroads
7. Communications 15. Movies 23. Television
8. Criminology 16. Music 24. Voting

1 .1 W iting a Preliminary Thesis Statement

After you have selected a topic for your research paper, you
must write a preliminary thesis statement. The thesis statement
is a sentence in which you express your position on the topic; it
summarizes what you intend to prove in your paper. Your prelimi
nary thesis statement will serve as a guide for selecting the most
useful information for supporting your position. As your research

480
 11.lb

hesis Statement

progresses, you will probably change your preliminary thesis state

ment to reflect additional information.
The following list demonstrates how to move from a general
subject to a preliminary thesis statement.
Subject: Surgery
Topic: Cosmetic surgery
Thesis statement: Victims of disfiguring accidents can find new hope
through cosmetic surgery.
Subject: Sports medicine
Topic: Biomechanics
Thesis statement: Biomechanics will soon become an important as
pect of our daily lives.
Subject: Out-patient clinics
Topic: Cost factors
Thesis statement: Wider use of out-patient clinics can dramatically
reduce the costs of health care.

Use the following procedure to develop a preliminary thesis

statement for your research paper.

Procedure
1. Read a few articles on your topic. Skim several books, or try
to discuss the topic with someone who is knowledgeable
about it.
2. Write down ideas, questions, suggestions, or comparisons
that you find or that come to mind as you investigate the
topic.
3. Use the ideas to develop a position that you can sUpport
through your research. Write a preliminary thesis statement
that summarizes your position.

Keep the following points in mind as you develop your prelimi

nary thesis statement.
1. The thesis statement establishes your position on the topic.
2. The position in your thesis statement must be one that can
be supported by research. Because the evidence in your

481
 Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

research paper must support your position, your thesis

statement cannot be one of the following.
a. A well-known fact that is unarguable and is generally
known to be true, such as “Public games, forerunners of
the modern Olympics, were played in ancient Greece
and Rome.”
b. A biographical statement, such as “John Adams and
Thomas Jefferson, important figures in American histo
ry, both died on July 4, 1826.”
c. A biased opinion that can have no proof, such as “There
will never be a more popular sport than baseball.”
d. A personal statement that can be supported only from
ybur own knowledge, such as “All of my recollections of
our neighbor Ezra Peterson prove that he was a remark
ably good-humored man.”

Exercise 2 Prewriting: Thesis Statements On your

paper, explain why each of the following sentences is not a satisfacto
ry thesis statement. Revise five of them to make them good thesis
statements.
SAMPLE Benjamin Franklin was a famous American.
ANSWER Statement is simply a well-known fact.
Revised: Although Benjamin Franklin is best known
as a printer and inventor, his most significant contri
butions to this country were his political and diplo
matic accomplishments.
1. Fossils are petrified remnants of ancient life.
2. Outer space is the last frontier.
3. I have found interesting old tools in the attic in our house.
4. The Industrial Revolution was an important event.
,~ ~. Paul Bunyan is a favorite character in American folklore.
Julius Caesar was a famous Roman.
~ There is too much violence on daytime television.
~ My father runs a successful small business.
9. Some people are model-railroad enthusiasts.’~
10. Water pollution is a serious problem.

482
 11.lc
Rough Outline

Exe cise 3 Prewriting: Thesis Statements On your

paper, limit five of the following subjects so that they are suitable
topics for research papers. Then write a thesis statement for each of
the five topics.
SAMPLE Industry
ANSWER Topic: Recent developments in the printing industry
Thesis statement: Modern printing practices are being
revolutionized by the introduction of electronic
equipment.
1. History of science 6. Cartoons
2. Lasers 7. American history
3. Mass media 8. Shopping malls
4. Modern sculptors 9. Space program
5. Photography 10. Women artists

I . c Making a Rough Outline

As you do your research, prepare a rough outline to guide you.

This outline will be your research plan and will help you to identify
the research findings that you can use to support your thesis
statement.
Prepare your rough outline from the main ideas that you have
gathered from your research. These main ideas will serve as the main
headings in your outline. Later, when you have completed all of your
research, you may change the order or contents of your rough
outline, as well as your preliminary thesis statement. You will also
develop a complete outline later, before you begin to write your
paper.
The rough outline that follows is the research plan for the paper
developed in this unit on the growing use of biomechanics in our daily
lives.
I. Biomechanics in athletic training
II. Technology involved
III. Medical uses
IV. Business and industrial uses

483
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

ercise 4 Prewriting: Rough Outline On your paper,

copy the following three thesis statements, allowing space for several
headings under each. Under each, list the headings that belong with
it. Then arrange the headings so that they form a rough outline for
each topic.
1. To safeguard life on Earth, we must observe ecological principles.
2. Although the science of ecology is relatively new, some basic laws of
ecology have been discovered.
3. Ecologists are often asked to help solve environmental problems.
~ ~cplo~ists suggested preventing flooding in Ohio with dams
and planting
Climate should not be changed accidentally
Vegetation patterns are influenced by soil and climate
Rangeland must be preserved
Members of ecological communities sometimes cooperate
Ecologists stopped building of airport in Everglades
Natural communities of wildlife must be preserved
Plants and animals live only where certain environmental
conditions prevail
Wastes from technology should not be allowed to destroy
environment
Ecojogists restored Dust Bowl by stabilizing dunes
Ecologists move endangered animals to new environments
Land should be classified and used appropriately
Plants and animals live in communities
Ponds and lakes must be protected from silt build-up
Competition is part of life in all communities
Communities change over time
Ecologists helped stop use of DDT
Ecologists suggest laws for hunting
Overused land should be restored
An ecosystem is a system of living and nonliving things
Ecologists suggest changes in land use to control pests

Assignment Prewriting Make a list of five subjects that

interest you and that are suitable for research. Limit three of them to
manageable topics, and write preliminary thesis statements for those
three.

484
 11.2a
Card Catalog

Continuing Assignment Prewriting Step 1: Select and

limit a topic for your research paper. Step 2: Write a preliminary
thesis statement that tells what you plan to prove. Step 3: Make a
rough outline of the major points that you plan to cover. Save your
preliminary thesis statement and your rough outline.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
‘- 1. Did you select topics that you can research?
I- 2. Did you limit the topics so that you can cover them thoroughly
in twenty-five hundred to three thousand words?
i’ 3.~Did you write preliminary thesis statements in which you
establish your position on the topics?
Check your Continuing Assignment for this additional point:
4. Did you make a rough outline of the ideas that you think you
will use to support your thesis statement?

1. es
.2a Using a Library

You will do most of the research for your paper in a library.

Because libraries differ in the resources that they have available, it is
important for you to use the best library to which you have access.
Now that you have a rough outline to direct your research, your
task is to find the books, magazine and newspaper articles, and other
materials that will provide support for your thesis statement.

The Card Catalog

Start your search for information by consulting the card catalog.
Books are alphabetically indexed in the card catalog in three ways: by
author, by title, and by subject. Each card records the name(s) of the
author(s), the complete title, the subject, the publisher, the publica
tion date, the number of pages, and the call number—the number

485
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

that tells you where to find the book on the library shelves.
Illustrations, maps, bibliographies, and any special features are also
listed on the card.
The following are examples of catalog cards.

551.5 METEOROL. Y
868 Bowdilch. Nathaniel.
Waves. wind and vs ealhcr ‘eL-tied front America,, practical
nov igalvir Ntt)tari,el liviss ditch Nesv York: McKay. 1977.
‘5 ltiSp ill

551 5 Wn7,es. wind and weather

B68 Bomdilch. Nathaniel.
V..is es. vs ted and s~ eather selected rote American practical
navigator Nathaniel llr,ss ditch. New \‘i,rk: McKay. 977

Subject CS ~ N
Card 551 5
B68 Boadilch. Nathaniel.
V. a’ es. ssrnd turd vs collier : selected Irvin, American praclical
nasigator Nathaniel Bowditch . New York: McKay. 977.
II “ci
Title V

Card

I Ic
Author /
Card Q I

If you know the author or the title of a book, you~c~n easily find
out if the library has that book by looking up the author or title card.
In doing-research on your topic, however, you will probably find
subject cards more useful. For common subjects such as radio,
geology, railroads, and medicine, you will find subject cards when•
you look in the card catalog. For other subjects, you may find a
cross-reference card directing you to another subject heading in the
catalog. For example, the cross-reference for “Timber” directs you to
“See Forestry.” Sometimes you will see a “See also” reference
directing you to other subject headings for additional books related
to the topic. You may need to try several key words in your topic
before you find references in the card catalog.
To find books on a library shelf, you need the call numbers.
Nonfiction books are arranged on the shelves according to their call

486
 11.2a

Reference Works

numbers. The call numbers follow the classification system used by

the library, either the Dewey decimal system or the Library of
Congress classification. The Dewey decimal system divides all
branches of knowledge into ten parts numbered 000 through 999.
The Dewey Decimal System

000—099 General Works 500—599 Science

100! 199 Philosophy 600—699 Technology
200—299 Religion 700—799 Fine Arts
300—399 Social Sciences 800—899 Literature
400—499 Language 900—999 History

The Library of Congress System divides all branches of knowl

edge into twenty lettered groups.
The Library of Congress Classification

A General Works M Music

B Philosophy, Psychology, N Fine Arts
and Religion P Language and
C History—Auxiliary Sciences Literature
D History (except American) Q Science
E, F American History R Medicine
G Geography, Anthropology, and S Agriculture
Sports T Technology
H Social Sciences U Military Science
J Political Science V Naval Science
K Law Z Bibliography
L Education

General Reference Works

Your research will be easier and more efficient if you know how
to use general reference works. Some reference works give you
information, while others direct you to other sources.
For a general overview of your topic, consult an encyclopedia.
Within a given article or in the index volume, you may find useful
cross-references to related topics; some articles will also provide
short bibliographies. Most libraries have general encyclopedias such
as The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, The Encyclopedia Americana,
and The World Book Encyclopedia.

487
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

Specialized encyclopedias may also be useful to you. Most large

libraries will have several specialized encyclopedias including the
Encyclopedia of World Art, Van Nostrand’s Scientific Encyclopedia,
and Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia.
Other references that you should be aware of are almanacs and
yearbooks, atlases, and gazetteers. When you need biographical
information, consult biographical references, such as Who’s Who in
America, Who’s Who in the World, and Current Biography.

Periodical Indexes
Periodical indexes list articles in magazines, newspapers, jour
nals, and other publications. You will often find the most current
ideas and research about a subject in a periodical rather than in
reference books. If your paper requires up-to-date information,
begin your research by using periodical indexes. Most indexes are
issued monthly or quarterly, with cumulative volumes published each
year. At the front of each index is a list of abbreviations for the
periodicals listed in that index. Authors and subjects are arranged in
one alphabetical listing.
The most commonly used periodical index is the Readers’ Guide
to Periodical Literature, an index of popular and nontechnical
magazines. There are other indexes that list articles in scholarly
publications and specialized magazines. Other periodical indexes
found in most large libraries include The New York Times Index,
General Science Index, and the Art Index.
All periodical index entries are similar to the following one
from the Readers’ Guide.
JEROME, J.
The biomechanical effect. ii Esquire 93:116-117
Ap ‘80

This entry contains the following information:

TITLE “The Biomechanical Effect”
AUTHOR J. Jerome
PERIODICAL Esquire, volume 93
PAGES 116—117

DATE April 1980

488
 11.2b
Working Bibliography

xercise I Prewriting: Library Resources On your paper,

list which of the following sources you could use to find general
infodnation on each topic that follows the list.
a. The New York Times Index
b. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica
c. Van Nostrand’s Scientific Encyclopedia
d. Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature
e. Information Please Almanac
f. General Science Index
g. Encyclopedia of World Art
SAMPLE Accomplishments of the French artist Georges
Braque
ANSWER a, b, d, g
1. Discovery of subatomic particles
2. Marco Polo’s travels
3. Diabetes research
4. Aztec pyramids
5. Indira Gandhi’s political life
6. Work of Albert Schweitzer
7. Exploration of the Nile in the nineteenth century
8. Irrigation techniques

Making a Wo king Bbliography

Begin your research by preparing a working bibliography. A

bibliography is a list of books, magazines, and other sources used in
preparing a research paper. A working bibliography is the list you
make at the beginning of your research of the sources that you intend
to use. A working bibliography will help you to determine whether
the library that you plan to use has sufficient information on your
topic. Prepare your working bibliography by consulting the card
catalog, indexes to periodical literature, and other references. If you
find insufficient information on your topic, you will need to choose
another topic.

489
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

Bibliography Cards
Use three-by-five-inch index cards to record information about
books, articles, pamphlets, and other sources that you select. These
cards will help you in two ways. First, when you are ready to take
notes, you will be able to locate the source more easily. Second, when
you prepare the footnotes and the bibliography for your research
paper, you will have all the necessary information already recorded
on the cards. On each card, include the call number of the source and
th library where you found it, if you are using more than one library.
Record the author, title, and publication information; using the
following forms:
BOOK WITH ONE AUTHOR
Thompson, Clem W. Manual of Structural Kinesiology.
8th ed. St. Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, 1977.
BOOK WITH TWO AUTHORS
Logan, Gene A., and Wayne C. McKinney. Kinesiology.
Illus. Philip J. Van Voorst. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C.
Brown Company Publishers, 1970.
BOOK COMPILED BY AN EDITOR
Burke, Edmund J., ed. Toward an Understanding of
Human Performance. Ithaca, N.Y.: Mouvement
Publications, 1977.
ARTICLE IN A COLLECTION
Lockhart, Aileene S. “The Motor Learning of Children.”
In A Textbook of Motor Development. Ed. Charles
B. Corbin. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm C. Brown Com
pany Publishers, 1973, pp. 151-157.
ARTICLE IN A MAGAZINE
Stuller, Jay. “Sports Scientists Train Athletes to Defy Old
Limits.” Smithsonian, July 1980, pp. 66-70.
UNATTRIBUTED NEWSPAPER ARTICLE
“Bill Rodgers Wins 10-Kilometer Atlanta Regional
Race.” New York Times, 3 May 1981, Sec. 5, p. 16,
col. 4.
INTERVIEW
Humez, Alex. Personal interview. 9 April 1982.

490
 11.2b
Bibliography Cards

TELEVISION TRANSCRIPT
“Race for Gold.” Narr. Hal Douglas. Writ., prod., and
dir. Paula S. Apsell. Nova. 1979.
ARTICLE IN AN ENCYCLOPEDIA
“Biomechanics.” McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science
and Technology. 1977 ed.
PAMPHLET
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce.
Current Population Reports: Demographic Aspects
of Aging and the Older Population in the United
States. (Special Studies, Series P 22, No. 59) Wash
ington, D.C.: GPO, 1976.
The following is a sample bibliography card.
Bibliography Card

Author
Title
Place of
publication
Publishing
company
Date of
publication
Call number
Library

Exercise 2 Prewriting: Bibliography Entries On your

paper, write bibliography listings on the following information.
AUTHOR - TITLE PUBLICATION FACTS
Books
1. Alfred Leslie Windsor Castle Putnam
Rowse in the History New York, New York
of England 1974
2. Richard Ellrnan, The New Oxford Oxford University Press
editor Book of American New York, New York
Verse 1976

491
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

Articles
3. Samuel Eliot “Abigail Adams” The Patriots
Morison Virginius Dabney,
editor
Atheneum
New York, New York
1975, PP. 66—67
4. J. Wierzbicki “Contemporary High Fidelity and
Experimental Musical America
Music” November 1979
pp. 28—29
5. Not given “Tapping Heavy Science News
Crude: A For- June 16, 1979
gotten Resource” pp. 387—388
6. J. Castro “The Battle in Time
Network News” March 15, 1982
pp. 52—53
7. Not given “Various Artists New York Times
Comment on June 22, 1980
Reactions to Picasso Sec. 2, p. 1, col. 3
and Retrospective
of His Art”
8. Bill Barnhart “Tax Bill Means Boston Globe
Changes in September 6, 1982
Pension Strategy” p. 41, cols. 2—5
p. 42, cols. 1—2
Reference Books
9. Not given “Benjamin Encyclopaedia
Disraeli” Britannica, 1975 ed.
Television Transcript
10. Cecil Avery, Westward Ho! Public Broadcasting
author and System
producer January 8, 1980

Assignment Prewriting Prepare a working bibliography of at

least five sources for research on one of the following topics.
Meteorology History of ffight
Cable television Computers in medicine

492
 11.3a
Evaluating Sources

Conti uing Assignment Prewriting Prepare a working

bibliography for the topic that you selected and limited in the
Continuing Assignment on page 485. Use the card catalog, periodical
indexes, and other reference works. Make a bibliography card for
each source that you can consult for your research. Save your
working bibliography.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
~ 1. Did you use the card catalog, reference works, and periodical
indexes to prepare your working bibliographies?
~ 2. Did you make a separate card for each source?
~ 3. Does each card contain complete bibliographical information
as well as the call number, if the source is a book, and the
name of the library where you found the source?
4. Did you write the bibliographical information in the correct
form?

11. es
You are now ready to locate the sources on your working
bibliography, to evaluate each source, and to take notes on informa
tion that will help you to support your thesis statement.

.3a Evaluating Sources

Evaluate each source carefully. Sometimes a source is not as

helpful in providing useful information as you expected it to be.
Follow the strategies listed below to evaluate a source before deciding
whether to read it.

Strategies
1. Examine the table of contents and the index of each book to
see whether it contains information directly related to your
topic.

493
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

2. Check the publication dates of books and articles. If you

plan to discuss recent developments, your sources should
be up to date.
3. Skim chapters or articles for information that supports your
preliminary thesis statement. Examine headings, subhead
ings, illustrations, charts, and tables as well as the text.
4. Choose sources by authors who are well known and highly
regarded in their fields. If you do not know enough about an
author to make such a decision, ask your teacher or
librarian.

Exercise 1 Prewriting: Evaluating Sources On your

paper, indicate whether each source would provide useful informa
tion in support of the given thesis statement. Give a reason for each
answer.
SAMPLE Thesis statement: Two hundred years ago, the United
States was a wilderness, and pioneer life was very
difficult.
Sources:
a. Heroines of the American Frontier, 1969
b. “America Becomes an Industrial Nation,” in Mod
ern History
ANSWER a. Useful. The book deals with the relevant period
in United States history and probably describes
some of the hardships faced by the pioneers.
b. Not useful. This chapter concerns a later period
in history and a subject that is not relevant to
the thesis statement.

1. Thesis statement: Although Johann Gutenberg usually receives credit

for inventing the printing press in the fifteenth century, neither mov
able type nor printing was actually invented by Gutenberg.
Sources:
a. “Eleventh-Century Chinese Printing,” in History of Printing
b. Johann Gutenberg: Fifteenth-Century Printer
c. “Modern T~ipesetting Trends,” in Graphic Arts Monthly
d. Incunabula: Books Printed Before 1500

494
 11.3b
Taking Notes

e. “Japanese Wood-Block Printing Before A.D. 1200,” article in Japa

nese Art News
f. “A Study of Egyptian Hieroglyphics,” in Archaeology Today
g. “How to Make Intaglio Prints,” article in Modern Arts and Crafts
2. Thesis statement: Much of the religious and political life of the ancient
Aztecs of Mexico was characterized by sun worship.
Sources:
a. “Mexico City: A Modern Metropolis,” in Life magazine
b. “Pre-Columbian Archaeological Finds,” Chapter 6 in Mexico: A
Social History
c. “Excavation of Tenochtitlan, Seat of the Aztec Empire,” in
National Geographic
d. “Economics and Politics in Transition,” Chapter 7 in Ni~tive North
Americans: The Nineteenth Century
e. “Early Rulers,” Chapter 2 in The Aztecs
f. “Crisis in Mexico,” article in The Wall Street Journal
g. “On the Government of the Ancient Mexicans,” an article in a
professional journal

1.3 How to Take Notes

Once you have decided that a source contains useful informa

tion, you are ready to take notes on its contents. Record your notes
on three-by-five-inch or four-by-six-inch index cards. Use the follow
ing strategies for your note taking. These strategies will make it easier
for you to record the information that you need as you are writing
your paper.

Strategies
1. Refer to your preliminary thesis statement and your rough
outline as you work. Read each source all the way through
for understanding. Then read it a second time, taking notes
on the ideas, facts, statistics, quotations, or other informa
tion that will help to support your thesis statement.

495
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

2. Write a subject heading on the top line of each card, as a way

of identifying the subject of the note. Refer to headings of
your rough outline. Some of the subject headings on your
note cards will be the same as your outline headings; others
will be more specific. These subject headings will be useful
when you prepare a detailed outline for your paper. You
will use many of them as the headings and subheadings.
3. Write the last name of the author and an abbreviated title to
the right of the subject heading.
4. Write only on the front of the card. It is easy to overlook
information that is written on the back. If necessary, use a
second card to complete your record.
5. Write only one idea on each card. This strategy will allow
you to arrange the cards later so that you can organize ideas
and information that belong together into useful groups in
preparation for outlining and writing your paper.
6. Write on the bottom of the card the numbers of the pages
from which you took the information. You will need to
record these page numbers in your footnotes.

There are several methods of taking notes: recording direct

quotations, writing a paraphrase, writing a summary, or using a
combination of these methods. Choose the method that is best suited
to the source from which you are taking notes.

Direct Quotation
A direct quotation is the exact words of your source. Record a
direct quotation when the author has made a point in an unusual or
significant way and when the exact wording gives the best support to
your thesis statement. When you want to record a direct quotation,
copy the exact words from the source and enclose the passage in
quotation marks. You may leave out some words from a quoted
passage, if you wish. In that case, use ellipsis points (three spaced
periods) to show that words have been omitted.

496
 11.3b
Paraphrase

Direct Quotation

Subject heading
Author and
abbreviated title

Note

Page reference

Paraphrase
A paraphrase restates in your own words the ideas in a
passage. Write a paraphrase note when you want to use material from
a source but do not need to quote the exact words of the author.
When you write a paraphrase, be careful to retain the author’s
intended meaning even though you are not quoting his or her words
directly.
One method for writing a paraphrase note is to read the
material carefully and then write the information or ideas in your own
words without looking at the source. Check the source again to make
sure that your paraphrase is accurate and that it still retains the
author’s meaning.
The following passage from a magazine article is the basis of the
paraphrase note on the following page.
Muscles are composed of two kinds of fibers—sprint and en
durance fibers. No individual is all one or the other but rather a
combination of types. The greater the precentage of sprint fibers,
the better you are at stop-and-start sports. The greater the percent
age of endurance fibers, the better you are at sports requiring a
sustained level of activity.
Use the Vertical Jump Test to determine your predominant
muscle-fiber type. The higher you can jump, the more sprint fibers
you have.
“Does Your Sport Suit Your Body?” Glamour, p. 94

497
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

Paraphrase

Subject heading
Source and
abbreviated ttle

Note

Page reference

Summary
A summary is a condensed form of a passage. Write a
summary in your own words, including only the main points and the
most important supporting details. Writing a summary is a good way
of taking notes when you are doing research for a paper. A summary
is especially useful when you are recording ideas, facts, statistics, and
other information from long passages. When you write a summary,
look for key words in the passage and include them in your summary.
The following passage is the basis of the summary note on the
following page.
“We see the body as a mechanical system,” says mechanical
engineer Ali Seireg. “Therefore we should be able to describe
human motions as a series of equations, feed those equations into a
computer, and get useful information about how humans move and
how to help them when they cannot move correctly.” Dr. Seireg is
most enthusiastic, however, about the simulated surgery he can
perform using the model. Sitting at a video terminal, he is able to
alter hypothetical bones and muscles and then see how such tinker
ing affects a patient’s walk. This will aid surgeons when they remove
pieces of bone to correct such conditions as knock-knees. In fact,
Seireg has already conducted predictive surgery for a physician pre
paring to perform a difficult operation on a child in Milwaukee.
“A Study in Motion,” Science Digest, p. 97

498
 11.3b

Summary

Summary

Sub ect heading I S&~~€

Source ~:- ~
Title ~ -~

A~O~ ~ ~ ~ ~ A~st~t~
,cA~ ~tt~LeE~ ~ ~
Note
1~ S~ i~ta~ ~

~ ~ a~ t~
x.&~ t~I
~ ~ ~

Page reference -p. T7

Exercise 2 Prewriting: Taking otes

You are writing a
research paper about customs in ancient Greek theater. You want to
take notes on the information in the following passage. Using the
subject heading “Audience response,” write on your paper one note
that is a direct quotation. Using the same subject heading, write
another note that is a paraphrase.
Performances began at dawn, and wealthy citizens often sent
their slaves ahead of them to hold seats. The less wealthy members
of the audience came, often in the hours of darkness before dawn,
and milled about the entrances for vantage points from which to get
the seats they wished when they were allowed to enter the theater.
Everyone was in a festive mood, and there was much quarreling
over particularly advantageous locations. The spectators wore gar
lands on their heads and brought lunch, and sometimes sunhats and
cushions, for it would be a long day. The audience was critical and
was not slow in letting its opinion be known. Unpopular play~ were
often hooted from the theater, and unpopular actors pelted with
figs, olives, nuts, and even stones. The actor Aeschines nearly lost
his life in such a stone barrage, it is said, and thereafter retired from
the theater permanently. Applause was as much in order then as
now, and it is difficult to conceive that the judges were not influ
enced by the public reception of the various productions.
Vera Mowry Roberts, On Stage, p. 25

499
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

ercise 3 Prewriting: Writing a Summary You are writ

ing a research paper about modern agriculture. You want to take
notes on the information in the following passage. Using the heading
“Potato—industrial uses,” write on your paper a note that summariz
es the following passage.
The potato is one of the most important crops grown in the
world today. On a yearly basis, over 10 billion bushels are produced
by the potato-growing regions around the world. Most potatoes are
grown as food, and while potatoes are not as nutritious as rice, they
do have substantial food value. Almost 20 percent of the potato is
carbohydrate, 2 percent is protein, and 78 percent is water. In
Europe potatoes are grown for human and animal consumption
both, while in America, only a small percentage of the potato crop
is used for animal feed. In both Europe and America, potatoes are
used in industry. Potato starch is used as sizing on paper and
textiles. Dextrin, a product made from potato starch, is used as a
coating for photographic film and as a paste. Potato starch can also
be chemically converted into butyl and ethyl alcohols valuable to
industry.
Fillmore, Agriculture, pp. 23—24

Assignment Prewriting Find a short article in a magazine or

newspaper. Read the article and write four note cards based on it.
Make one note a direct quotation, one a paraphrase, one a summary,
and one a combination by using a direct quotation in either a
summary or a paraphrase. Give each note card a subject heading.

Continuing Assignment Prewriting In the Continuing As

signment on page 493, you prepared a working bibliography. Using
those sources, take notes for each part of your rough outline. Use the
type of note that is most appropriate for the information that you are
recording. Save your note cards.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
1. Did you record information from your sources on note cards,
using direct quotations, paraphrases, and summaries?

500
 11.4

Detailed Outline

2. Did you include on each card a subject heading, the author’s

last name, an abbreviated title, and a page reference?
3. Did you copy quotations exactly?
t- 4. Did you put quotation marks around all direct quotations?
i-’ 5. Did you write the paraphrases entirely in your own words?
W 6. Did you write summaries that cover the key points that interest
you?

Revising Your Preliminary

Thesis Statement
Now that you have gathered information from your sources,
you may need to revise your preliminary thesis statement so that it
accurately reflects the information and the conclusions that you are
about to present. Review your notes carefully and compare your
preliminary thesis statement with your research findings.
Your thesis statement must be expressed precisely because your
entire paper will be developed from it. The following example shows
the revision of the preliminary thesis statement for the research paper
on biomechanics.
Preliminary thesis statement: Biomechanics will soon become an im
portant aspect of our daily lives.
Revised thesis statement: Because of the rapid advances made in this
science, biomechanics will someday affect the lives of everyone,
athlete and nonathlete alike.

Making a Detailed Outline

The next step in preparing to write your research paper is to
organize your ideas into a detailed outline such as the one on page
503. Use the following procedure in preparing your detailed outline.

Procedure
1. Sort your cards according to their subject headings. Keep
together the cards having the same or similar subject
headings.

501
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

2. Use the subject headings on your groups of note cards to

determine the main headings of your outline. Review your
rough outline. If some of the headings on your rough
outline do not support your revised thesis statement,
eliminate them. Using your note-card headings, add new
main headings that support your thesis statement. Then
arrange your headings in chronological order, in order of
importance, or by cause and effect. Choose the arrange
ment that is best suited to your topic and your thesis
statement.
3. Add subheadings under each main heading, using the
information on your note cards. Note that you may not be
able to use all the notes that you have taken. Use only the
ones that support your thesis statement, and eliminate the
others.
4. Assign a Roman numeral to each main heading. Use I for
the introduction, and number the conclusion as well.
Assign a capital letter to each subheading. If the outline
contains further details under the subheading, assign Ara
bic numerals to those details. If the details in Arabic
numerals require subheadings, assign small letters to them.
5. Write all corresponding headings in parallel grammatical
form. For example, in a topic outline, such as the one on
the facing page, if the heading for A is a phrase, the
headings for B, C, and D should be the same kind of
phrase. If you are preparing a sentence outline, write each
heading as a complete sentence.
6. Subdivide a topic into at least two sections, or else eliminate
it or make it part of another group. Do not have an A
without a B, or a 1 without a 2.

After you have organized your research findings, you should

have a thesis statement and a detailed outline similar to those on the
facing page. The outline is a plan for the model research paper on
pages 521—534.

502
 11.4

Detailed Outline

Thesis statement: Because of the rapid advances made in this sci

ence, biomechanics will someday affect the lives of everyone, athlete
and nonathlete alike.
I. Introduction
II. Uses of biomechanics in sports training
A. Traditional approach to training
1. Exercises for long jumpers
2. Training for baseball players
B. Biomechanical discoveries about training
C. Implications for training
III. Technology involved in biomechanics
A. Tests that measure performance and efficiency
1. Oxygen consumption
2. Weight distribution
3. Traits for running
B. Photography and light technology
C. Computers for diagnosis and prediction
1. Mac Wilkins’s improved performance
2. Terry Albritton’s improved performance
IV. Medical uses of biomechanics
A. Recreational counseling
B. Rehabilitative programs
1. Surgery
2. Medical products
V. Business and industrial uses
A. Sports equipment and clothing
B. Industrial robots
VI. Conclusion

Taking Additional otes

Your outline enables you to check the sequence of your ideas
and to rearrange the order, if necessary. Your outline also shows you
the amount of support that you have for each major point. It is not
necessary to give equal support to each heading, but if some topics
need additional development, continue your research until you have
enough information. It will be easier for you to write your paper once
you have adequate support and a clear outline of your ideas.

503
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

E ercise Prewriting: Outlining Prepare an outline for

each thesis statement and set of note-card headings. Arrange the
subheadings under the appropriate main headings. Arrange the main
headings and subheadings in a logical order.
1. Thesis statement: Methods of trying persons accused of crimes have
changed drastically through the centuries.
HEADINGS
How trial by jury is different now
Trials in the eleventh and twelfth centuries
Other forms of Anglo-Saxon trials
SUBHEADINGS
Anglo-Saxon trial by ordeal
Jury a step in formation of representative government
Norman “inquests,” or trials, after 1066
Anglo-Saxon trial by compurgation (neighbors swear to a person’s
innocence)
In jury trial evidence, reason replaces superstition, force, luck
Twelfth-century trials—case decided by testimony of witnesses
Anglo-Saxon trial by combat

2. Thesis statement: Thousands of years before steel was invented, people

learned to make useful tools and weapons from iron.
HEADINGS
End of Iron Age, 1500—1850
Iron-making in the Middle Ages, 500—1500
Iron-making before A.D. 500
SUBHEADINGS
Production of iron in China 4500 years ago
Steel Age begins mid-nineteenth century
Middle Ages iron used for nails, tools, plows, armor
Better furnaces developed A.D. 1200
Iron from meteorites used in making tools 6000 years ago
Catalan furnace invented 400 B.C.
Roman legions used iron weapons 2000 years ago

Exercise Prewriting: Outlining Prepare a topic outline

that develops the thesis statement. Use the note cards provided. The

504
 11.4

Detailed Outline

outline following the thesis statement shows the number of main

headings, subheadings, and details that you will need. Provide for an
ntroduction and a conclusion. Notice the subject headings of the
note cards (Major parts of the eye, Eye and brain, The mind’s eye);
these are the three main headings II through IV. Supply the
subheadings and details from the information in the notes.
Thesis statement: Our sense of sight depends as much on the brain as
on the eye.
I. Introduction
II. L

1.2
2. ?
B. 2_

2. 2_
C. _L
1.2
2. 2_
3.2
III. 2
A.2_

2. _i_
B. 2_
Iv. _L
A.2_
B. 1_
1.2
2. _i_
V. Conclusion

NOTE 1

Major parts of the eye Henderson, Anatomy

The outer layers of the eyeball are the cornea and the aqueous
humor: together they form an outer lens through which light passes.
p.45

(Continue on the next page.)

505
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

NOTE 2

Major parts of the eye Mackey and Janson, Vision

A colored ring (iris) and a black center spot ~pupil) lie just behind
the aqueous humor in the human eye. Light passes through the pupil
(but not the iris) to the lens. These are middle structures in the eye.
p.78

NOTE 3

Major parts of the eye G. Peterson, Visual Perception

The lens and ciliary muscle act together. The lens is a double convex
lens that acts like a magnifying glass. The ciliary muscle holds the
lens in place and changes its shape to make it possible to focus on
objects at different distances from the viewer. “Young children can
see objects clearly at 2’ 2 inches, but older people must hold objects
farther and farther from the eye in order to see them clearly be
cause the lens becomes less elastic as one gets older.”
p. 329

NOTE 4

Eye and brain Forman, Eye Disorders

The act of seeing begins with the multi-layered retina, which covers
the inner back part of the eyeball.
p. 56

NOTE 5

Eye and brain G. Peterson, Visual Perception

One layer in the retina is the layer of rods and cones. Cones (about
6 million) detect fine lines and points and possibly color. Rods
(about 115 million) detect light and dark shades. Rods and cones
transmit impulses (not light) to the optic nerve.
p. 128

506
 11.4

Detailed Outline

NOTE 6

Eye and brain Franklin, The Nervous System

The optic nerve transmits nerve impulses to the “visual center” of
the brain where the image is perceived. The brain also sends signals
back to the muscles that control eye movement.
p.92

NOTE 7

The mind’s eye L. Peterson, Visual Disorders

It is in the brain that the image of what is seen is perceived. “The
brain must learn to interpret the impulses received from the eye.”
This is visual perception.
p. 34

NOTE 8

The mind’s eye Mackey and Janson, Vision

Images are received by the brain upside-down. The brain must learn
that what appears to be at the lower part of the retina is actually the
upper part of the object. The brain interprets distance of an object
by comparing the images received from each eye. If the object is
very close to the eye, the images are quite different. If the object is
far away, the images are similar.
p. 106

Assignment Prewriting Write five factors that contributed to

a historical event with which you are familiar. Outline those factors in
a logical order, using related data, such as causes, effects, major
leaders, and so on, as subheadings. Write a thesis statement and
place it at the top of your outline.

Continuing Assignment Prewriting Step 1: Read through

the note cards that you prepared for the Continuing Assignment on
page 500. If necessary, revise your thesis statement. Step 2: Separate
your note cards according to subject headings. Use your rough
outline and your note cards to write a detailed topic outline for your

507
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

paper. Step 3: Examine your note cards and your revised outline. If
any parts of the outline do not have sufficient support, find additional
sources and take notes to complete your research.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignment for the following points:
,. 1. Did you arrange the headings in a logical order?
s. 2. Did you fully consider causes, effects, and other elements that
could be listed as subheadings on your outline?
i 3. Did you write a thesis statement and place it at the beginning
of your outline?
Check your Continuing Assignment for these points:
i 4. Did you revise your thesis statement if your new information
helped you to focus it?
5. Did you separate your note cards by subject headings?
i..’ 6. Did you write a topic outline that is well organized and includes
all major and supporting points?
, 7. Did you take additional notes if you did not have enough
supporting information for a point?

1.~ • I.
Yo P

..5a Writing Your First Draft

Once you have prepared the detailed outline and have arranged
your note cards in an order corresponding to your outline, you are
ready to write the first draft of your paper. Plan to write the
paragraphs for each Roman numeral section in one sitting. Doing so
will help you to focus on the topic of that section.
Your main purpose in your first draft is to write down all of your
major points and supporting information in a logical order. Write the
first draft carefully, but remember that it is only a first draft. You can
improve your word choice and sentence structure when you revise
the paper.

508
 11.5b

Footnotes

Write your draft on every other line and only on one side of the
paper. This procedure will make it easier for you to revise. Number
each page.
The Introduction. Write one or two paragraphs of introduction
to explain the purpose and the scope of the paper. Include the thesis
statement and enough background information to make it clear. Use
the introduction also to capture your reader’s interest, to explain the
significance of the topic, to define terms, and to tell how the paper is
organized.
The Body. In the body of the paper, develop each heading on the
outline, using the information on your note cards. Keep in mind that
your objective is to support or prove your thesis statement by setting
out in a logical way the information that you have gathered.
Where direct words from a source are important in making a
point, use direct quotations, being careful to copy the words exactly.
Use transitional words to incorporate the quotations into your paper.
The Conclusion. Write a concluding paragraph that reviews all
of your main points and shows that you have proved your thesis
statement.

.5 Do umentation

You have included in your first draft the ideas and direct
quotations that you recorded on your note cards. You must now
document this information. Documentation is the process by which
you acknowledge the sources of the information used in your
research. Documentation includes footnotes and a bibliography.

ootnotes
A footnote gives the author and publication from which you
have taken information. Whenever you use information that is not
your own, footnote it. To do so, place a superscript, or raised
number, in the text above the line at the end of the information. In
the corresponding footnote, give the author and publication informa
tion. The following rules will help you to know when to use
footnotes.

509
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

ule Footnote your source when you quote an author’s exact

words. Use direct quotations only when the author’s wording is
important or when the exact phrasing strengthens the point that
you are making.
“Before the model, we really had no way to determine what kinds
of stresses were put on an injured joint,” explains Dr. Murray.
“Now we’ll be able to develop rehabilitative exercises.”

Rule Footnote your source when you use an author’s idea,

even though you have not used the author’s exact words.
Ariel also showed that, for baseball pitchers, training the wrist is
useless, since the speed of the wrist movement is a result of a whip
action of the legs, back, and shoulders, not a muscle contraction of
the forearm.2

Rule Footnote your source when you give figures or statistics.

By following Ariel’s advice, Wilkins increased his throw from 219

feet 1 inch to 232 feet 6 inches, broke the world record in discus
throwing, and won an Olympic gold medal.3

You do not need to footnote information that is commonly

known even though you did not previously know that information
yourself. Information is considered to be commonly known if it
appears in several sources. Try to avoid having too many footnotes in
your paper. Remember to document all of your sources in order to
avoid plagiarism, which is using someone else’s words or ideas as if
they were your own.
Footnote Forms. Use the following forms to footnote various
types of sources, unless your teacher suggests other styles of acknowl
edgment. Notice that you do not include the word The at the
beginning of the title of a magazine, a newspaper, or an encyclope
dia. Notice also that subtitles are not included in footnotes.
BOOK WITH ONE AUTHOR
1C. W. Thompson, Manual of Structural Kinesiology, 8th
ed. (St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Company, 1977), p. 87.

510
 11.5b

Footnotes

BOOK WITH TWO AUTHORS

2John Piscopo and James A. Baley, Kinesiology (New
York: John Wiley and Sons, 1981), p. 274.
BOOK COMPILED BY AN EDITOR
3Edmund J. Burke, ed., Toward an Understanding of
Human Performance (Ithaca, N.Y.: Mouvement Publications,
1977), p. 17.
ARTICLE IN A COLLECTION
4Aileene S. Lockhart, “The Motor Learning of Chil
dren,” in A Textbook of Motor Development, ed. Charles B.
Corgin (Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown, 1973), pp.
96—97.
UNATTRIBUTED NEWSPAPER ARTICLE
5”Bill Rodgers Wins 10-Kilometer Atlanta Regional
Race,” New York Times, 3 May 1981, Sec. 5, p. 16, col. 4.
PERSONAL INTERVIEW
6Personal interview with Alex Humez, 9 April 1982.
MAGAZINE ARTICLE
7Jay Stuller, “Sports Scientists Train Athletes to Defy
Old Limits,” Smithsonian, July 1980, p. 67.
TELEVISION TRANSCRIPT
8”Race for Gold,” narr. Hal Douglas; writ., prod., and
dir. Paula S. Aspell, Nova, 1979.
ENCYCLOPEDIA ARTICLE
9”Biomechanics,” McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science
and Technology, 1977 ed.

PAMPHLET
‘°U.S. Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce,
Current Population Reports, Special Studies, Series P 22, No.
59 (Washington D.C.: GPO, 1976), p. 1.

You may have to refer to a particular source more than once in

your paper. Give complete information in the footnote for the first
reference. In later references, called subsequent references, you need

511
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

only identify the author (or the title if no author is given) and the
page number, as shown here:
5Thompson, p. 106.

If you refer to more than one work by the same author, use a
shortened form of the title to identify the particular work.
‘°Piscopo, Clues to Safety, p. 52.

Footnote Placement. You may place your footnotes in either of

the following positions. First, you may place the footnotes that go
with the material on a particular page at the bottom of that page.
Leave three blank lines between the text and the footnotes and
single-space the footnotes. Second, you may place all the footnotes
for the paper on a separate page at the end. Put Notes at the top of
the page, and place the page before the bibliography. Double-space
the footnotes and indent the first line of each one. Your teacher will
tell you which placement to use.

Bibliography
The last page of your paper is the bibliography. It includes all
the works listed in the footnotes. It may include the works that you
read as general background before the writing but did not use as
sources of specific ideas, facts, or direct quotations. Check with your
teacher to see if you are to include such works in your bibliography.
Arrange in alphabetical order the bibliography cards that you pre
pared when you were planning and researching your paper. (See page
490.) Make an entry for each card, using the following procedure.

Procedure
1. Alphabetize bibliography entries by the authors’ last names.
If a source does not have an author, alphabetize the entry
by the first word in the title, omitting A, An, and The.
2. Begin the first line of each entry at the left margin. Indent the
succeeding lines five spaces.

512
 11.5b

Bibliography

3. Separate the parts of the entry with periods.

4. Include the subtitle if a source has one.
5. Give the author’s name only in the first entry if there are two
or more works by the same author. In subsequent entries,
use ten hyphens instead of the author’s name, put a period
after the last hyphen, and continue with the rest of the
entry.
Fulmer, Robert M. Management and Organization.
New York: Harper and Row, 1980.
.The New Management. New York:
Macmillan, 1982.

6. Do not number the entries.

7. Alphabetize the entries by book titles when you are using
more than one book by an author.

ercise Writing: Footnotes On your paper, write foot

notes for the following information. Use the item numbers as
footnote numbers. Be sure to use correct punctuation.
AUTHOR TITLE PUBLICATION FACTS
Books
1. Pierre Cabanne Pablo Picasso New York, New York
Morrow 1977
2. Francoise Gilot Life with New York, New York
and Canton Lake Picasso McGraw-Hill
1964, p. 231
Article in a Book
3. Meyer Shapiro “Picasso’s Modern Art:
‘Woman with 19th & 20th
a Fan” Centuries:
Selected Papers
New York, New York
George Braziller
1979, pp.114—115

513
 Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

Periodicals
4. M. Stevens “Picasso’s Newsweek
Picassos” Oct. 22, 1979
pp. 126—127
5. Not given “Nine New Yorker
Gatherings June 2, 1980
in a Mind” pp. 32—33
6. D. Trustman “Ordeal of New York Times
Picasso’s Magazine
Heirs” April 20, 1980
pp. 42—46
Reference Book
7. Not given “Pablo Picasso” Oxford Companion
to Art
pp. 866—867

E ercise 2 Writing: Subsequent Footnotes On your

paper, write subsequent footnote entries using the information in
Sources 1 through 5 in Exercise 1.

E ercise 3 Writing: Bibliography On your paper, prepare

a bibliography from the information in Exercise 1. Be sure to use
correct punctuation and to alphabetize the entries.

Assignment Writing Using the note cards given and the out
line that you prepared for Exercise 2 on page 504, write a first draft of
two paragraphs for the body of a paper. Include one direct quotation.

Continuing Assignment Writing Step 1: Using the outline

and the note cards that you prepared for the Continuing Assignments
on pages 500 and 5~7, write a first draft of your research paper. Begin
with an introduction that includes your thesis statement. Then write
one section of your paper at a time. Write a conclusion that
summarizes your main points. Step 2: Write your footnotes on a
separate page, unless your teacher tells you to do otherwise. Step 3:
Prepare a bibliography.

514
 11.6a
Revising

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignment for the following points:
i. 1. Is the main idea of each paragraph clear?
L’ 2. Did you follow your outline, using the supporting information
listed under each heading?
3. Did you correctly use direct quotations as needed?
i~ 4. Did you place a raised number after direct quotations?
5. Did you place a raised number after other information that
you needed to footnote?
Check your Continuing Assignment for these additional points:
, 6. Did you write an introduction that includes your thesis state
ment?
w 7. Did you follow your outline, presenting your ideas in a logical
way?
.i~ 8. Did you write accurate footnotes for all of the quotations and
ideas that you borrowed from sources?
9. Did you write a conclusion that summarizes the main points
in the body of your paper?
10. Did you prepare the bibliography correctly?

1. un e
After you have finished the first draft of your paper, put it aside
for a while before beginning your revision. Doing so will make it
easier for you to see where you need to improve organization, word
choice, and sentence structure; to correct errors; and, in general, to
make your paper more convincing and readable.

11. a A Guide to Revising

Read through your draft carefully several times. Concentrate

on one of the following points each time that you read, and make the
necessary changes.
Organization. Refer to your outline and check to see that you
have all of its points in correct order. It is not too late to reorganize or

515
 Unit 11 riting a Research Paper

change sequence if doing so would improve your paper. If you do

move a section, check to see that you have also moved any footnotes
for that section. You must also change your outline to reflect the
change in the paper.
Unity and Completeness. Check each section for unity. Each
supporting detail should clearly relate to the point being made in the
section. In turn, each point being made should support or prove the
thesis statement. Delete or rewrite any section that does not clearly
relate to the point being made.
Be sure that there is enough information in each section to
support each point. Use facts, examples, and quotations to show the
reader what you mean.
Transitions. Make your paper coherent by using transitional
words and phrases. When you wrote the first draft, you concentrated
on writing one section at a time. As you revise the paper, add
appropriate transitions to lead the reader from one idea to the next.
Use the following strategies to make smooth transitions.

Strategies
1. Use transitional words and phrases.
TO SHOW TIME RELATIONSHIPS
after, at the same time, finally, later, meanwhile, next,
soon, then, until
TO PRESENT EXAMPLES
for example, for instance, one, another, to illustrate
TO SHOW RESULTS
as a result, consequently, for this reason, therefore
TO SHOW LOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
accordingly, also, because, however, in addition to, in
fact, nevertheless, yet
2. Use a pronoun that refers to a person or an idea just
mentioned in the preceding sentence or paragraph.
Long jumpers appear to rise on their toes as they push off
from the board. Traditionally they have trained by carrying
heavy weights while rising on their toes.

516
 11.6a
Revising

3. Repeat a key word or an idea from the last sentence of a

paragraph in the first sentence of the next paragraph.
Indeed, the more we know about biomechanics and the
more sophisticated the technology, the more possibilities
for its application occur to us.
Perhaps the application most closely allied to sports is
in the field of recreational counseling.
Words and Sentences. Check to see that you have chosen the
best words to express your ideas. Define any specialized terms that
you have used.
To make your sentences effective, avoid wordiness. Combine
short, choppy sentences into a single clear sentence. Separate long,
confusing sentences into shorter, clearer ones. Use a variety of
sentence structures and lengths to make your writing interesting.
Check to see that you are consistent in point of view and in use of
verb tense.
Proofreading. Read your paper once more to correct any errors
in grammar, usage, spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. Make
sure that your footnotes and bibliography are correct.
When you have completed all of the revisions and corrections,
you will have a final draft. Choose a title that reflects the topic of your
paper and will attract your readers’ interest. Now you are ready to
write or type your finished paper. The next section tells you how to
do that.

E ercise I Revising: Sentences The following excerpt from

a research paper needs revision. On your paper, write the letter of
the suggested revision for the numbered sentence that you think
would best improve the draft. If you think that a sentence is effective
as it stands, write the letter that indicates Make no change.
(1) The material on which the ancient Egyptian scribes wrote
was papyrus. (2) Papyrus was made from a sedge (a grasslike herb)
native to the Nile River region. (3) Papyrus was once available in
great quantities but is now almost extinct.
(4) Pliny, the Roman historian, describes the manufacture of
papyrus sheets. (5) First the stalks were cut into lengths of about
sixteen inches. (6) Then the marrow (inner part of the stalk) was

517
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

cut into strips. (7) The strips were laid down in a row side by
side. (8) Another layer of strips was placed on top of the first,
perpendicular to it. (9) Both layers were saturated with a gum
solution and pressed and pounded until a smooth surface was
formed. (10) The resulting sheets were about twelve inches long
and sixteen inches wide. 11( These were glued together at the
sides to form a scroll. (12) Sometimes the scrolls were cut in half
lengthwise (making a scroll six inches high), and sometimes they
were cut into quarters (making a scroll three inches high). (13) Of
course, the smaller scrolls were easier to carry, so they were less
likely to be damaged.’
(14) Papyrus was a good material for paper-making because
the surface could be made smooth and it was available in large
quantities. (15) When papyrus dried out, it was also easily damaged
by rain or dampness. (16) Most papyrus scrolls that have been
found by archaeologists were preserved in dry, airtight Egyptian
tombs.
‘Nancy Amanda Kellerman, History of Printing (New York:
Mark David Publishing Company, 1982), pp. 32—33.
1. Sentences 1 and 2
a. Make no change.
b. Combine the sentences to read: “The material on which the ancient
Egyptian scribes wrote was made of papyrus, a dge (grasslike
herb) native to the Nile River region.”
c. Eliminate Sentence 2.
2. Sentence 3
a. Eliminate the sentence.
b. Make no change.
c. Eliminate the sentence and the paragraph break.
3. Sentences 4 and 5
a. Replace with “The manufacture of papyrus sheets began when the
stalks were cut into lengths of about sixteen inches.”
b. Eliminate “First” at the beginning of Sentence 5.
c. Make no change.
4. Sentences 6 and 7
a. Make no change.
b. Combine the sentences.
c. Eliminate the parenthetical phrase in Sentence 6.

518
 11.6a
Revising

5. Sentences 8 and 9
a. Add “Next” at the beginning of Sentence 8.
b. Combine the sentences.
c. Make no change.
6. Sentences 10 and 11
a. Replace with “The resulting sheets, twelve inches high and sixteen
inches wide, were glued together at the sides to form a scroll.”
b. Make no change.
c. Replace with “The resulting sheets were twelve inches high and
sixteen inches wide, and were glued together to form a scroll.”
7. Sentences 12 and 13
a. Make no change.
b. Replace with “Since shorter scrolls were easier to handle and less
likely to be damaged, the twelve-inch high scrolls were sometimes
halved or quartered.1”
c. Eliminate the footnote number.
8. Sentence 14
a. Replace with “Papyrus was available in large quantities, so it was a
good material for paper-making.”
b. Make no change.
c. Add a footnote number.
9. Sentence 15
a. Add “However,” after the introductory clause.
b. Combine with Sentence 14, using a comma and “and.”
c. Make no change.
10. Sentence 16
a. Add the phrase “It is not surprising that” at the beginning.
b. Eliminate the sentence.
c. Make no change.

Exercise 2 Revising: Footnotes Number your paper from 1

to 5. For each number, tell what is wrong with the corresponding
footnote. Each footnote has one error or omission.
SAMPLE ‘Georges Duthuit and Madeleine Carson,
Twentieth-Century Painting (New York: 1982), p. 29.
ANSWER Name of publishing company is missing.

519
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

‘Katherine Bethune and Wanda Hopkins, eds., A Pictorial History

of Railroading (Chicago: Mandrake Publishers, Inc.), pp. 56—59.
2Frank Lester, “Stocks and Bonds,” 9 November 1982, Sec. C, p. 3,
col. 3.
3Piet Mondrian: Life and Work (Boston: Houghton Mifffin Compa
ny, 1981), P. 67.
4Bruce Berenstein, “Vincent van Gogh: A Retrospective,” Burling
ton Magazine, June 1974.
5The Changing Universe, dir. Marcy Davids, NBC Special.

Exercise 3 Revising: Bibliography Entries On your paper,

tell what is wrong with the following bibliography entries. Each entry
has one error or omission.
SAMPLE Wheeler, Michael. French Graphic Art. New York:
1978, Dover Publications, Inc.
ANSWER Date and name of publishing company are reversed.
1. Peter Legros. “Looking at the Economy.” Atlantic Monthly,
February 1968, pp. 92—100.
2. Wilson, Edward, and Abigail Schuster. Higher Education in
the United States. New York: Harcourt.
3. Mathematical Theory by Henry Meyer. Washington, D.C.: Mt.
Vernon Press, 1979.
4. Thule, Maria, and Robert Vasta, eds. A Critical Anthology of
Short Stories. Chicago, 1980.
5. Gelfand, Margaret. African Heritage. 2nd ed. Paris: Lomat,
1970, pp. 34—56.

1.6 The Finished P per

Your finished paper should include the following parts arranged

in this order, unless your teacher has suggested an alternate format:
1. Title page
2. Outline
3. The written or typed paper
4. Notes (if you put your footnotes on a separate page)
5. Bibliography

520
 11.6b
The Finished Paper

Type your paper, if possible. If not, write it legibly, following

the guidelines in Unit 3, “Mechanics,” pages 208—209.
To prepare a title page, center the title halfway down the page.
Capitalize the first word and all other words except articles, conjunc
tions, and prepositions of fewer than five letters. Do not underline
the title or put quotation marks around it. Center the word by under
the title and center your name under that. In the lower right section
of the page, write your teacher’s name, the name of the course, and
the date.
A model research paper follows. (The outline is on page 503.)

Th Increasing Use of’ Biomechan

by

Joyce Wilson

Mr. Casey

English IV

May 3, 19

In recent years many athletes and their coaches have

used the principles of biomechanics to increase the quality

of athletic performance. Biomechanics, a science that

explores athletic movement, is not widely known outside the

world of athletics. Soon, however, the term should be known

to everyone. Because of the rapid advances made in this

science, biomechanics will someday affect the lives of

everyone, athlete and nonathlete alike.

One of the pioneers in the study of biomechanics is

Peter Cavanagh, of the Biomechanics Laboratory at

521
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

Pennsylvania State University. He defines biomechanics as

‘the use of objective techniques to analyze patterns of body

movement, the timing of body movements, and the forces that

1
create or result from movement.” Mr. Cavanagh’s studies

and the studies of many of his colleagues have done much to

advance athletic training and to improve performance.

In the past, coaches planned training and exercise

programs based solely on the type of skill and the amount of

strength required for a particular sport. As a result, all

athletes engaged in the same sport followed the same

program. The programs used for training in different sports

were based on coaches’ and sports physicians’ best judgment

2
about what produces excellent performance.

Training programs were also frequently based on

tradition. For example, long jumpers trained by rising on

their toes while holding heavy weights. The purpose of this

exercise was to strengthen the calf muscles, thereby giving

3
the jumper a better push from the board. It was believed

that the stronger the push, the greater the distance that

the jumper could cover.

Similarly, baseball pitchers traditionally trained to

increase the strength of their forearm muscles on the

assumption that a stronger forearm would mean a stronger

wrist, which would enable the pitcher to throw harder.

Biomechanjcs now shows that both the long jumper and the

baseball pitcher were using ineffective training techniques.

522
 11.6b

The Finished Paper

Studies performed by Dr. Gideon Ariel of the University

of Massachusetts. Amherst, proved the ineffectiveness of

these snd other trsining sethods. Dr. Ariel, professor of

exercise science, is s leading expert in the field of

biosechsnics. He showed that long juspers do not point

their toes until the pushing foot is already two feet off

the ground. Therefore the exercise to strengthen the calf

muscles is probably irrelevant to a successful jump. Dr.

Ariel further showed that for baseball pitchers, training

the wrist is useless, since the force of the wrist movement

is a result of a whip action of the legs, back, and

4
shoulders, not a muscle contraction in the forearm.

These and other findings have greatly influenced the

training of athletes. Since the early l970s, when

biomechanics began to grow as a science, coaches have

stressed individual training programs for athletes. Since

the human eye alone cannot determine how well an athlete

performs or what errors he or she makes, coaches are using

the technology of biomechanics to plan training prograss

that will lead to athletic excellence.

The technology used in biomechanics involves three

major types of apparatus. First are the treadsill and other

endurance—test mechanisms that measure performance and

efficiency. Second are still cameras and movie cameras that

record movement. Third are computers that aid in analysis

and prediction.

523
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

The treadmill and other endurance—test mechanisms are

used to test and measure lung capacity, heart—lung

efficiency, motor ability, and flexibility. The purpose of

these tests is to determine whether an athlete has the

physical traits and the abilities needed for success in a

given sport.

A few years ago, Dr. David Costill, a sports

physiologist at Ball State University, was asked to perform

a series of tests on Bill Rodgers, the famous marathon

runner from Boston. Dr. Costill used the treadmill to test

Rodgers’s suitability for long—distance running. The

treadmill measures an athlete’s oxygen consumption, a

crucial factor in endurance sports. Rodgers’s test results

5
showed an unusually high capacity for taking in oxygen.

Another simple testing device, used by Peter Cavanagh

at Penn State, assesses weight distribution on the feet,

indicating potential problems in posture and balance that

could lead to inappropriate reactions in an athlete’s

movements. Cavanagh, too, tested Bill Rodgers, who had

been told that a swinging motion of one of his arms was an

energy—wasting motion. However, tests showed that the arm

motion was necessary to offset an imbalance caused by a

slight difference in the length of Rodgers’s legs. Without

that test, Rodgers might have been persuaded to do away with

this awkward arm movement, with possibly disastrous effects

6
on his running style.

524
 liMb
The Finished Paper

At the University of Denver. Dr. Marvin Clein, head of

the Physical Education and Sports Science Department, uses a

variety of simple tests and machines to evaluate the

performance level of athletes. Dr. Clein looks not only at

biomechanical traits, but also at the muscle—nerve and

heart—blood vessel functions, as well as the psychological

factors needed to make a successful athlete. Dne of his

most interesting stories concerns Leslie Covillo, a

fourteen—year—old girl who wanted desperately to be a track

star. Except for her long legs, however, Leslie appeared to

have few of the physical traits needed for success in track.

After careful testing of balance, reflex time, and body

proportion, Dr. Clein discovered that “she had the things

that give her a mechanical advantage on the track: a great

7
nervous system and the perfect body build for running.”

Further testing showed that Leslie also had good

psychological traits, as well as physiological ones, that

could be developed through a carefully prescribed training

program. All of the testing paid off: in her first year on

the junior high track team, Leslie Covillo set five records
8
and qualified for the Junior Olympics in three events.

The technology of biomechanics also includes still

cameras, movie cameras, and other uses of light. In the

nineteenth century, it was discovered that cameras with

fast—acting shutters could freeze the image of small

segments of motion on film. Later, new high—speed cameras

525
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

produced slow—motion action that showed the patterns of

motion in Successful athletic activity. These and other

advances in light technology were important forerunners in

biomechanical technology because they made possible the

first study of individual movement.

In addition to slow—motion photography, there are

special cameras, called photocyclographs, that can record a

panoramic view of a course of motion. There are also

stroboscopes, electronic flashes that light up a moving

object on a screen with frequent flashes of light and have

the effect of extending the time over which a particular

motion can be seen.

Finally, when lights are attached to a hand, an arm, a

leg, or a foot, a camera can be used to make a light trace

of a motion. In other words, the track of the movement is

9
recorded, or traced, by the camera. All of these uses of

the camera make it possible to see individual movements with

great clarity and detail.

The relationships between an athletes many moving

parts are so complex that they cannot be adequately analyzed

10
simply by looking at the slowest of motion pictures. Nor

can they be assessed by closely examining still photographs.

Computer analyses of’ photographs provide detailed outlines

of an athlete’s strengths and weaknesses, suggesting ways in

which he or she can improve. Dr. Ariel often uses a

526
 11.6b
The Finished Paper

digitizer pen to trace joints that appear as stick figures

11
on a computer display terminal. The computer can show how

an action as minor as moving a foot a few inches can

drastically alter an athletes performance.

Mac Wilkins. a discus thrower, is one of several

athletes who have benefited from Dr. Ariel’s analysis. Dr.

Ariel studied photographs of Wilkins in action and then fed

that visual record into a computer. At the time, Wilkins’s

record for discus throwing was 2199’ . The world record

was 226’8’ ‘ . According to Dr. Ariel’s analysis, not only

could Wilkins match the world record, but he could even

surpass it. The analysis showed that by altering a leg

movement that was limiting his throw, Wilkins was capable of

throwing the discus two hundred and fifty feet. By altering

his stance. Wilkins went on to reach 232’6’

breaking the
‘ ,

12
world record and winning an Olympic gold medal.

Gideon Ariel, Marvin Clein, and Peter Cavanagh are only

three of a fast—growing number of scientists and coaches

throughout the world who are devoting their professional

lives to the study and application of biomechanics. Their

work is directly responsible for improved performances by

both amateur and professional athletes. The application of

biomechanics is not limited to achievement in athletic

performance, however. As knowledge of biomechanics

increases. so do the possibilities for its use.

527
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

One increasing use of biomechanics is in the field of

recreational counseling. Many people interested in physical

fitness like to engage in recreational sports but may not

know the sports for which they are best suited. Although a

persons choice of recreational sport does not have to be

determined solely by the potential for success,

participating in a sport at which a person is successful

makes exercising more pleasant and rewarding.

Dr. Robert Arnot, a sports physiologist, has created a

set of tests simple enough to be performed at home. The

results can be used to indicate which sports are compatible

with a persons body traits. One test shows whether

muscle fibers indicate success in sprint or endurance

sports. A person having more sprint fibers is better suited

to the hundred—yard dash, high jumping, or a game such as

volleyball, all of which require short bursts of activity.

A person with more endurance fibers is better suited to a

sport such as distance running or cross—country biking.

According to Dr. Arnot, the higher one can jump vertically,

the better one should be at stop—and—start sports requiring

13
sprint fibers.

The medical profession is also making use of the

science of biomechanics. Dr. Au Seireg and his students at

the University of Wisconsin worked for over ten years on

finding ways to improve physical rehabilitation. As a

528
 11.6b
The Finished Paper

result of their efforts, they now have a cosputerized model

14
of every human movement, from walking to chewing.

Using these models, Dr. Patricia Murray of the Veterans

Administration Hospital in Milwaukee has been able to

identify the best way to help a patient with an injured hip

learn to walk again. From data on the patient’s size,

weight, and injury, the computer produces information,

including the best way for the patient to use a cane.

“Before, we really had no way to determine what kinds of

stress were put on an injured joint,” explains Dr. Murray.

“Now we’ll be able to develop the most advantageous

15
rehabilitative exercises.” Dr. Seireg has also used his

computerized models to simulate the effects of orthopedic

surgery. By altering the placement of bones and muscles on

his computer model, he is able to predict the results of

surgery on real patients.

There is growing evidence that biomechanics will soon

be applied to an increasing number of commonplace activities

in daily life. Popular and specialized magazines frequently

contain articles informing readers about the potential role

of biomechanics in achieving grace, efficiency, and comfort

in such activities as dancing, sitting, carrying groceries,

preparing meals, and dressing. Dne such article, in

Mademoiselle magazine, shows how to put on shoes while

standing, without losing one’s balance. The key is to lean

forward slightly and to bring the knee straight up. Doing

529
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

so places one’s weight on the ball of the other foot and

16
reduces the chance of falling.

Business and industry also reflect the increasing

interest in biomechanics. A natural outgrowth of the study

of athletic performance has been the development of sports

equipment and clothing designed to enhance athletic

performance. Track shoes, tennis balls, tennis racquets,

javelins, poles used in pole vaulting, and exercise machines

designed for home use are examples of the many items that

have been redesigned as a result of increased knowledge of

17
biomechanics.

In industry, knowledge in the field of the science of

motion has also fostered significant improvements in the

construction of industrial robots that have begun to take

over some of the work of humans. For example, engineers who

design robots have studied how muscles work to make the

fingers move. They can now construct robots that move their

fingers’ in the same way. Engineers simply use rods,

wires, pulleys, motors, and a microprocessor in place of

18
bones, muscles, and brains.

Clearly the science of biomechanics has had increasing

influence on many aspects of daily life. Its possible uses

seem endless With further studies and further advances in

technology, biomechanics may someday influence every move a

person makes.

530
 11.6b
The Finished Paper

Notes

1
John Jerome. “The Biomechanical Effect,” Esquire,

April 1980, p. 116.

2
Kenny Moore, “Gideon Ariel and His Magic Machine,”

Sports Illustrated, 22 August 1977, pp. 56—57.

3
Moore, p. 56.
4
“Race for Gold,” narr. Hal Douglas; writ., prod., and

dir. Paula S. Aspell, Nova. 1979, pp. 8—12.

5
“Race for Gold.” p. 14.
6
Jay Stuller, “Sports Scientists Train Athletes to Defy

Old Limits,” Smithsonian, July 1980, p. 69.

7
Stuller, pp. 69—70.
8
J. Wartenweiler, “Status Report on Biomechanics,” in

Medicine and 5 ort: Vol. 8, Biomechanics III, (Basel:

Karger, 1973), p. 67.

9
Moore, p. 55.
10
“Shape—up Now.” Vogue, February 1980, p. 135.
11
Moore. p. 56.
12
Moore, p. 56.
13
“Does Your Sport Suit Your Body?” Glamour, May 1982.

p. 94.
14
John Piscopo and James A. Baley, Kinesiology (New

York: John Wiley and Sons, 1981), pp. 94—105.

15
“A Study in Motion.” Science Digest, March 1982, p. 97.

531
Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper

16
“The Right Way to Move,” Mademoiselle, October 1979.

p. 165.
17
“A Study in Motion,” p. 97.
18
Moore, pp. 56 57, 59.

Bibliography

Ariel, G. “Use of Computers to Analyze Human Movement.”

People, 24 September 1979, pp. 80—82.

“Bill Rodgers Wins 10 Kilometer Atlanta Regional Race.” New

York Times, 3 May 1981, Sec. 5, p. 16, col. 4.

“Biomechanics.” McGraw—Hill Encyclopedia of Science and

Technology. 1977 ed.

Burke, Edmund, J., ed. Toward an Understanding of Human

Performance. Ithaca, N.Y.: Mouvement Publications,

1977.

“Does Your Sport Suit Your Body?” Glamour. May 1982, pp.

94—95.

Frolich, Cliff. “The Physics of Somersaulting and

Twisting.” Scientific American, March 1980. pp.

154—158.

Garfinkel, Perry. “Computer Readout Translates Body

Language into Skills.” Science Digest, March 1977,

pp. 12—14.
Humez, Alex. Personal interview. 9 April 1982.

Jerome, John. “The Biomechanical Effect.” Esquire, April

1980, pp. 116—117.

532
 11.6b
The Finished Paper

Lockhart, Aileene S. ‘The Motor Learning of Children.’ In

A Textbook of Motor Development. Ed. Charles B.

Corbin. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company

Publishers, 1973, pp. 151—157.

Logan. Gene A., and Wayne C. McKinney. Kinesiology.

Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers. 1970.

Moore, Kenny. “Gideon Ariel and His Magic Machine.”

Sports Illustrated, 22 August 1977. pp. 52—60.

Muybridge, Eadweard. Animals in Motion. Ed. Lewis S.

Brown. New York: Dover Publications, 1957.

Piscopo, John, and James A. Baley. Kinesiology: The

Science of Movement. New York: John Wiley and Sons,

1981.

‘Race for Gold.” Narr. Hal Douglas. Writ., prod., and dir.

Paula S. Aspell, Nova. 1979.

Rasch, Philip J., and Roger K. Burke. Kinesiology and

Applied Anatomy: The Science of Human Movement, 5th

ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Feibiger, 1975.

“The Right Way to Move.” Mademoiselle, October 1979. pp.

164—169.

“Shape—up Now.” Vogue, February 1980, p. 135.

“A Study in Motion.” Science Digest, March 1982. p. 97.

Stuller, Jay. “Sports Scientists Train Athletes to Defy Old

Limits.” Smithsonian, July 1980. pp. 66—75.

Thompson, Clem W Manual f Structural Kinesiolo 8th

ed. St. Lo 1 V Mosby Company. 1979.

533
 Unit 11 Writing a Research Paper
. .~...

ç~4~ .j .fl~?,,ç, Lt”~1

U.S. Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce. Current

Population Reports: Demographic Aspects of Aging and

the Older Population in the United States, (Special

Studies, Series P 22. No. 59) Washington. D.C.: GPO, 1976.

Walker, Jean. “The Amateur Scientists: In Judo aod Aikido

Application of the Physics of Forces Makes the Weak

Equal the Strong.” Scientific American, July 1980,

pp. 150—159.

Wartenweiler, J. “Status Report on Biomechanics.” In

Medicine and S ort: Volume 8, Biomechanics III.

Basel: Karger, 1973, pp. 65—72.

Wells, Katharine F. Kinesiology, 4th ed. Philadelphia:

W.B. Saunders Company, 1966.

Welsh, Raymond. “The Limits of Movement: What Kinesiology

Can Teach the Dancer.” Dance Magazine, January 1980,

p. 86.

ercise 4 Revising: Analyzing a Research Paper Write

answers to the following questions about the model research paper.
1. In the thesis statement, the writer says that biomechanics has had
increasing influence in many aspects of daily life. In what aspects of
daily life, outside of athletics, are those influences seen?
2. Copy the topic sentences of two paragraphs that contain examples.
3. What point in the introduction is reinforced in the conclusion?
4. List five examples of transitional words or phrases used to relate
sentences.
5. List five examples of transitional words or phrases used to relate
paragraphs.

534
 11.6b
The Finished Paper

Assignment Revising Revise the first draft of the paragraphs

a
that you wrote for the Assignment on page 514. Be sure that the
paragraphs are clear and complete and that you have made a
transition between them.

Continuing Assignment Revising Step 1: Revise the draft

that you prepared for the Continuing Assignment on page 514. Go
over your draft as many times as you need to in order to improve
your paper as much as you can. Step 2: Prepare your finished research
paper. Follow the manuscript form given on pages 208—209, or
follow your teacher’s specific guidelines. Make a final copy of your
notes page and bibliography page. Be sure to proofread your finished
paper for correct spelling, punctuation, and capitalization.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignment for the following points:
i-0 1. Did you develop each paragraph sufficiently?
2. Did you revise your paper to make all paragraphs unified?
3. Did you make clear transitions between paragraphs?
Check your Continuing Assignment for these additional points:
4. Did you check the organization of your draft against your
outline?
5. Do all the points in your paper support the thesis statement?
~ 6. Is each point clearly stated and developed?
~ 7. Is your paper unified?
~ 8. Did you connect your ideas with transitions?
i- 9. Is your finished paper neat and free of errors?

535
 — — —— V Ii~’~ WA

iij~), -

Puritans and Progress: A Research Paper

Situation: Colonial Heritage Quarterly is preparing a special
issue on factors in America’s heritage that have had a great
impact on American life. As a staff writer, you have been
asked to answer the question, “What effect did the Puritans
have on the cultural life of New England?” You want to give
the editor a thesis statement and two sample paragraphs
from the article that you are preparing. As you write, you will
keep in mind the following information.
Writer: you as a magazine staff writer
Audience: editor and readers of the magazine
Topic: the Puritans’ effect on the cultural life of New
England
Purpose: to investigate the topic and to present your
findings
Directions: To plan and write your paper, follow these steps.
Step 1. Read the memo from your editor and the notes
from your preliminary research in the library,
which are on the following pages.
Step 2. Use the following model to construct a thesis
statement:
The Puritans influenced (what areas? litera
ture? art?) and were a (major/minor) factor
in the cultural life of New England.
Step 3. Expand in outline form the first topic (literature)
mentioned in the editor’s memo. Use your library
notes to find three main points and the support
ing details that fully illustrate them.

(Continue on page 538.)

536
Notes from Library Sources
Puritanism, A Factor in Colonial America,” by Frank Weber, in
Liberty Magazine, Vol. X, No. 2, Sept. 1982.
—Puritanism: “that philosophy of life. t~iat code of values, that
religious point of view carried to New England from Great
Britain in the first part of the seventeenth century.”
—Force of Puritanism inspired traits that have persisted until
today.
—Any discussion of the elements that went into the making of the
mind.o•f the early New Englander. must begin with Puritanism.
—Puritans contributed great’ly to moral codes, social modes,
education, speech, and literature.
—Puritan “zeal” for recor~.ing everything.
—Great number of histories, journa’ls, diaries, from.the colonial
period. . . ..

—Their language had a “clarity, directness, and trace that became

the basis for all American literature.” (p. 12)
—Puritans emphasized “the f.ru-itf.wlnëss of the land and the
goodness of God’s protection.” (ip ‘12) .‘
—Books include William Wood’s New England’s Prospect; John
Winthrop’s Journal, William Bradford~Us Of Plimouth P,lantation,
and Cotton MaUier’s The Ecclesiastical. History of New.En~l~nd. ~
-—Puritans ~‘roduced more poetry than other colonists.
—Like their prose, the Puritans’ ‘poetry was dedicated to serious
matters (instructing people how .to live a purposeful life).
—Poetry volumes were popularand abundant, including The Whole,’
Book of Psalms (written by the ministers Richard Mather, John
Eliot, Thomas We’lde); Anne Bradstreet’s The Tenth Muse Lately
Sprung ~p in America; Michael Wigglesw.orth’s Day of Doom.

Main Currents in American Thought, Vernon Louis Parrington, New

York, 1954, Vol. 1. - -

—Puritan New England was the source of “such ideal~s afid

institutions as have come to be regarded as trad’itionall~y
American.” (p. 3)
(continued on the next page)

Memo from Editor

RE: Article on the Puritans
Include the following areas in your article, and
let me see your introductory paragraph and a
paragraph developing one of the items.~elow.
I. Overall effect of Puritans on cul~tur’a1 life
in New England - ~,,

II. Notable areas of contribution -

A. Literature - D. Sciönce r
B. Education E. Government’
C. Art and architecture

537
 Step 4. Write an introductory paragraph that explains the
purpose and scope of your article. Include your
thesis statement. Capture the reader’s interest
with a quotation that emphasizes the significance
of the topic. Define Puritanism, and cite the areas
that you will discuss. Footnote direct quotations.
Step 5. Using your outline, write the paragraph on the
first topic. Footnote direct quotations. Use such
transitional words and phrases as in fact or also.
Step 6. Read over the two paragraphs. Are they well or
ganized? Does each sentence flow smoothly into
the next? Proofread for errors in spelling, punctu
ation, and grammar.

Perry Miller and’ Thomas H. Johnson, eds. The Puritans: A

Sourcebook 61 Theii’ Writers, New York, 1963, Vol. 1.
—Miller: Pr~ose was the vehicle for their finest thought and
promoted “the spread of the powerful idiom for all men to
use .~ “

________ of the American Colonies, by Louis B. Wright.

New Y6r-k, l~57.
—Purita’n New’~En’gland ‘~produhe.d more histories ... and persona1~
ipurnais than aU’ th~ rest of Brit~sh America.” (p. 164)
—The Puri.tans em~hasizéd “the importance of writing history to
reoord Go~d’.s .partioular favor.to his people of New England.
This,attitude helps to exjlain.the Puritans’ zeal for
recordlng ~very act and deed that concerned them, and it lies
behind ~ succession of histories written during the colonial
period.”(~. 159)

• . ,. . . . •

538
Unit Assignments
Assignment 1 Write a research paper on a significant period in
the history of art, music, or dance. For example, you might discuss
the growth, development, and importance of modern dance. You
may want to include persons who have made significant contributions
to modern dance.

Assignment 2 Write a research paper on a topic related to

medical science. For example, you might prepare a paper on human
sleep patterns. Narrow your topic to some aspect of sleep, such as
dreaming or sleepwalking. Include up-to-date sources in your re
search.

ssigriment 3 Write a research paper on an issue of current

political interest. Consider, for example, possible changes in the
electoral college system of electing the President and Vice President
or in the primary election system of choosing presidential candidates.

Assignment 4 Write a research paper on a historic or contempo

rary person whose accomplishments you admire. You might choose
Frederick Law Olmstead, for example, and prepare a paper on his
contributions to modern landscape architecture.

Assignment 5 Prepare a research paper on a topic of particular

interest to high-school students. For example, you might discuss
strategies for choosing a career, how to start a small business, or a
law that affects teen-agers. Be sure that your paper is well organized
and properly documented.

Revising Your Assignments

For help in revising a research paper, consult the Checklist for
Revision on the last page of this book.

539
 ni Tests
Ts
A. Number your paper from 1 to 5. Next to each number, write
True if the sentence is true or False if it is false.
1. The thesis statement for a research paper is a sentence that states
what you intend to prove in the paper.
2. You should prepare a working bibliography for your research after
you have written a topic outline of your ideas.
3. Only the most important direct quotations need to be enclosed in
quotation marks.
4. After you have completed your rough outline, you should write a first
draft of your paper.
5. In your bibliography you need not include sources that you acknowl
edge in footnotes.

Number your paper from 6 to 10. Next to each number, write

the letter of the term that correctly completes the sentence. You will
use all but one of the items.
a. bibliography d. Dewey decimal system
b. footnote e. thesis statement
c. card catalog f. periodical indexes

6. You can find sources of information in newspapers and magazines in

7

7. An alphabetical list of the books, magazines, and other sources used

in preparing a research paper is called a L.
8. You should begin your research by consulting the i to see what
works are available on your topic.
9. In some libraries, books are arranged according to the i.
10. When you borrow information from a source, as in a direct quotation,
you must document that information by writing a i.

C. Number your paper from 11 to 15. Next to each number, write

the letter of the item that correctly answers the question.
11. Which of the following is specific enough for a research-paper topic?
a. Modem art c. How people paint
b. Museums d. Van Gogh’s style of painting

540
12. Which of the following is a satisfactory thesis statement for a research
paper?
a. Le Corbusier designed Chandigarh, a famous building in India.
b. My visit to Ronchamp, a chapel designed by Le Corbusier, was one
of the most important experiences of my life.
c. All of Le Corbusier’s work shows his concern with the human, as
opposed to the technological, aspects of modern society.
d. In the Venice Hospital, constructed in 1965, Le Corbusier created
a building in which each patient bed was in a separate cell, or
cubicle.
13. Which of the following information should not be included in a foot
note?
a. Author’s name c. Page reference
b. Publication facts d. Subject heading
14. Which of the following references would you not consult for informa
tion on veterinary medicine?
a. The Readers’ Guide
b. Current Biography
c. The New York Times Index
d. Van Nostrand’s Scientific Encyclopedia
15. Which of the following is not part of revising a research paper?
a. Checking for errors in spelling, capitalization, and punctuation
b. Checking for errors in grammar, usage, and sentence structure
c. Checking footnotes and bibliography for proper form
d. Checking your note cards against your outline to make sure that
you have sufficient information to support your thesis statement

Te
Choose one of the Unit Assignments or a topic suggested by
your teacher. Write the assignment as directed and hand it in to your
teacher.

541
Unit 12

‘I

If you have ever described an object, written instructions,

or reported, with or without diagrams, the results of a scientific
experiment, you are familiar with technical writing. The purpose
of technical writing is to present facts, data, or other information
to describe and explain a mechanical operation or scientific
process. Technical writing can vary from an explanation of one
or two paragraphs based on your own observations to a
carefully researched paper of several pages or more.
The following paragraphs are an example of technical
writing.

The cooling system of a car is designed to dispel the heat

generated by the internal-combustion engine. Although some
cars have air-cooled engines, most have water-cooled engines.
The water-cooled system consists of a radiator, a fan and
a fan belt, radiator hoses, a water pump, a thermostat, and
water jacks around each cylinder in the engine block. Propelled
by the water pump, water mixed with antifreeze circulates
through the engine block and flows through hoses to the radia
tor, where it is cooled. In the radiator, water flows through
tubes cooled by air drawn through the radiator by the fan. A
fan belt passes through pulleys on the crankshaft and the fan,
rotating the fan, which in turn operates the water pump. The
thermostat controls the water temperature; it opens a valve
that lets water pass through the cooling system once the water
in the engine block has reached a set temperature.

542
 The Cooling System

radiator cap thermostat engine

For Analysis On your paper, answer the following questions

about the example.
1. What is the topic of the example?
2. What is the writer’s purpose?
3. How would you describe the tone of the example?
4. In what way does the diagram clarify the description of the
cooling system?
Analyzing the topic, the purpose, and the tone of the
example will help you to understand what technical writing is
and how it differs from other forms of writing. As you learn how
to write about technical subjects, you will follow the three steps
of the writing process: prewriting, writing, and revising.

f
Technical writing, which uses description and exposition to
present factual information, has characteristics that distinguish it
from other forms of writing. One distinguishing feature of technical
writing is its objectivity, or total emphasis on its subject. Unlike types
of writing that may include the author’s thoughts and experiences,
technical writing is devoid of the author’s opinions and experiences.

543
Unit 12 Technical Writing

Topics for Technical Writing

Another important distinguishing feature of technical writing is
its subject matter, which includes the sciences, engineering, the
mechanical arts, and all branches of technology. Any topic that is not
scientific or technical is inappropriate. However, not all topics related
to science or technology are suitable for technical writing. Only those
topics about which you can write objectively are appropriate. For
example, if you were writing about computers, you could write a
technical explanation of a computer language. You would not write a
technical explanation about why you want a home computer. The
latter explanation is subjective, not objective, because it reflects
personal opinions and experience. Suppose that you wanted to write
a report on some aspect of the study of birds. You might write about
the aerodynamics of bird flight, the construction of a bird’s wing, or
migration patterns. You could also explain how to build a birdhouse.
You would not use technical writing to write about your pet canary,
the time that you watched a bird learn to fly, or the reason that bird
watching is your hobby.
The following lists should guide you in determining what topics
are suitable for technical writing.
Suitable Topics.
1. An explanation of how a camera lens works
2. How to read a navigational chart
3. The function of enzymes in human digestion
4. The purpose and function of a fish’s gills
5. The use of robots in industry
Unsuitable Topics:
1. How to do a swan dive
2. Painting a portrait
3. Raising orchids as a hobby
4. Why we should vote in every election
5. Raising money for a worthy cause

Writing a Technical Explanation

Use technical writing to present facts that your audience will
need in order to solve a technical problem, perform a mechanical

544
 12.1

Writing Explanations

task, or understand an operation or a scientific process. Consider all

of the following elements before beginning any piece of technical
writing.
Audience. As with any kind of writing, you need to think about
who your audience is and how much your readers need to know about
your topic. Adjust your writing to suit your audience, whether the
audience is your classmates, members of your family, or someone
else who needs the information that you are providing.
Occasionally, your readers may have specialized knowledge.
For example, you may write for an audience with some knowledge of
auto mechanics and its specialized vocabulary. Usually, however, you
should assume that your readers have little or no specialized knowl
edge of the mechanism or the process that you are explaining.
Consequently, define all necessary words, including technical terms.
For instance, you can assume that your readers know what a
computer is; however, you should not assume that they know what a
byte is.
Tone and Point of View. The tone (page 406) of all technical
writing should be serious and impersonal. Remember that you are
not expressing an opinion or attempting to persuade your reader to
adopt some belief or to take some action; nor are you attempting to
be humorous or entertaining. You are simply relating facts in an
unbiased and unembellished way.
Use the third-person point of view (pages 342—343) in order to
maintain an impersonal tone. Use of the third person focuses on the
subject, not on the writer.
APPROPRIATE Use a tripod to steady the camera when using a
slow shutter speed.
INAPPROPRIATE I have always found a tripod useful when I am
using a slow shutter speed.
The second sentence is inappropriate because it shifts the
reader’s attention from the use of the tripod to the author’s experi
ence as a photographer.
Style. Style (pages 408—410) is the manner in which you express
your ideas. In technical writing your style should be formal. Avoid
using colloquial expressions, slang, and contractions.

545
Unit 12 Technical Writing

APPROPRIATE For photographing sunsets, a clean lens reduces

the chance of lens flare.
INAPPROPRIATE When you are photographing sunsets, there’s a
pretty good chance you won’t get any lens flare if
your lens is clean.

The second sentence is inappropriate for technical writing

because the slang, informal language, and contractions detract from
the importance of the information. The sentence sounds conversa
tional, rather than formal.
Technical writing requires precise, specific language. Imprecise
words and expressions such as some, later, and a few can mislead or
confuse the reader. Use precise language such as one liter, three
hours, or 612 pounds.
Technical writing must also be concise and straightforward.
Avoid words and phrases that detract from the clarity and fluency of
your writing. For example, do not say “after no less than fifteen
minutes” when you mean “after fifteen minutes.” See Unit 6,
“Revising” for further guidelines in writing concisely.
Writing Numbers. Technical writing often requires the use of
numbers. The following guidelines will help you to know when to
write out numbers and when to express them in Arabic numerals.
Write out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words,
such as fourteen, sixty-three, and ten million. Use Arabic numerals for
all others, including fractions. Use numerals also to express percents,
decimals, page numbers, monetary units, and exact measurements,
as in the following examples: 11 percent, 51.6, page 109, $355, and 45
acres.
Using Abbreviations. Although not accepted in most forms of
writing, some abbreviations are permitted in technical writing,
especially for expressing units of measurement. When referring to
units of measurement, always spell the word out the first time it
appears and use abbreviations, without periods (except for in.), in
subsequent references. Use the same abbreviation for both singular
and plural references. Consult the following chart for correct abbre
viations of units of measurement.

546
 12.1

Writing Explanations

A ampere km kilometer
bbl barrel kmlh kilometers per hour
C Celsius kw kilowatt
cal calorie kW~h kilowatt hour
cm centimeter L liter
dB decibel lb pound
doz dozen m meter
F Fahrenheit mL milliliter
fi oz fluid ounce mm millimeter
ft foot oz ounce
ft2 square foot qt quart
ft3 cubic foot s second
gal gallon t ton
g gram temp temperature
h hour tol tolerance
hp horsepower v volt
in. inch W watt
kg kilogram yd yard

Using Illustrations. Unlike other forms of writing, technical

writing sometimes needs detailed diagrams or sketches or numbered
steps to assist the reader in understanding complex explanations or
instructions. However, with or without accompanying diagrams, you
must present a clear, verbal picture of what an object looks like and
how it operates. Diagrams are only an aid; they should not be a
substitute for clear writing.

Exercise I Prewriting: Technical Writing Topics Read

the following list of topics. On your paper, write Suitable if the topic
is suitable for technical writing. Write Unsuitable for each topic that is
unsuitable, and explain why it is unsuitable.
1. How to install a home intercom system
2. Features of the newest calculators
3. Why I do not like to develop film
4. The beauty of the Painted Desert at sunset
5. How to provide good nutrition for pets
6. The adventure of traveling in Peru
7. How to operate a video camera

547
Unit 12 Technical Writing

8. My experiences using a compass

9. One way to measure the depth of a lake
10. How I fixed my car when it broke down

E ercise 2 Writing: Style and Tone Read the following

sentences. On your paper, write Suitable for those sentences that are
suitable for technical writing and Unsuitable for those that are not
suitable.
1. First, whatever else you do, cut off the electric current at its source;
don’t you dare forget that.
2. To reduce air resistance, most gliders have smooth surfaces of alumi
num, fiber glass, or wood.
3. I think that making exact drawings of discoveries is the most impor
tant task for an archeologist.
4. Mold may begin to grow when a spore lands on a damp surface.
5. The first step in making glass is mixing a bunch of powders in a
gigantic container.
6. Vitamins cause important chemical reactions to take place in the
body.
7. I can tell you all sorts of things about the operation of a hydrophone.
8. To clear a hurdle, a runner must approach it correctly.
9. Although blood usually clots within seven minutes, the clotting proc
ess is complicated.
10. A stereo system is made of a lot of parts that do different things.

Assignment Prewriting On your paper, list ten topics that

are suitable for technical writing.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignment for the following points:
1. Did you choose scientific or technical topics?
~ 2. Did you choose topics about which you can write objectively?
3. Did you choose topics for which you can provide factual
information?
i..’ 4. Did you choose topics for which you can provide illustrations if
necessary?

548
 122a
Mechanisms

A mechanism is any device designed to accomplish a certain

task or to serve a particular function. Some familiar mechanisms are
elevators, television antennas, calculators, cash registers, faucets,
and so forth.
In this section you will learn to do two kinds of technical
writing: describing a mechanism and explaining how a mechanism
works. You will present facts, interpret information, and give instruc
tions. You will use description (pages 332—339) td communicate to
your reader what a mechanism is. For example, if writing about an
abacus, you will describe it before explaining its operation through
the use of exposition (pages 324—327).

a Describing a Mechanism

Your purpose in describing a mechanism is to make it and its

operation clear to your readers.

Defining Terms
Begin your description by defining the mechanism that you are
about to describe. Your definition should consist of three parts: (1)
the name of the item defined, (2) the specific group or class to which
it belongs, and (3) the features that distinguish it from other items in
its class. Study the following chart.
ITEM SPECIFIC GROUP FEATURES
piton a metal spike fitted at one end
with a ring through which
to pass a rope; used in
mountain climbing
dew point a temperature at which air becomes
saturated and produces dew
asthma a respiratory disease often caused by allergies
and accompanied by coughing
and labored breathing
subpoena a legal document requiring one’s presence
in court to give testimony

549
Unit 12 Technical Writing

Even with all three parts, a definition can still be inaccurate or

confusing. Avoid writing circular definitions, in which you define a
word by repeating it in a different form. For example, if you define
thrombosis as “the presence or formation of a thrombus,” your
reader will need further explanation.
Also avoid using one specialized word to define another. Do
not, for instance, define a logic branch as a “binary option” unless
you are certain that your reader will know what a binary option is.

Organizing Your Description

After you have defined the mechanism, you are ready to
describe it, concentrating on its individual parts. Spatial order is the
best method to describe most mechanisms; it allows you to describe
from top to bottom, left to right, outside to inside, or inside to
outside. Choose the spatial order best suited to the mechanism.
Conclude your description by naming the function of the mechanism.
The following questions will help you to plan your description.
1. What is the mechanism? (definition)
2. What are its appearance, size, and weight? (description)
3. What parts does it have? (description)
4. What is it used for? (function)
The following description of a claw hammer is based on the
preceding questions.

Model
Definition A claw hammer is a tool used to drive nails or
Description to remove them. Measuring 10 to 14 inches in length
and weighing 12 to 16 ounces, it is made of steel and
wood, plastic, or fiber glass. A claw hammer has two
parts: a handle approximately 12 inches long and
made of either a wood, such as ash, or plastic or fiber
glass, and a head made of hardened steel and at
tached to one end of the handle. At one end of the
Function head is a striking force (called a face) for driving
nails. At the other end is a claw shaped like a V for
removing nails.

550
 12.2a

Mechanisms

Use the following strategies when describing a mechanism.

Strategies
1. Define all the necessary terms. Unless you are sure that your
reader has specialized knowledge, provide clear definitions
of all technical or scientific terms.
2. Use the third-person point of view and maintain a serious
formal tone. Avoid personal experiences and opinions.
3. Use precise, clear, and straightforward language. Avoid
words and phrases that detract from the clarity and preci
sion of your explanation.
4. Use spatial order to develop your description.
5. Use words that indicate direction or relative position. Such
words as above, below, behind, left, right, adjacent, abut
ting, overlapping, horizontal, vertical, lateral, and parallel
help your reader to visualize the mechanism.

xercise I Writing: Definitions On your paper, define each

of the following terms. Be sure that your definition consists of three
parts: the item, its class, and its distinguishing features. Use a
dictionary to check your answers.
SAMPLE Combine
ANSWER A combine is a harvesting machine that cuts and
thrashes grain.
1. Barometer 6. Hearing aid
2. Pestle 7. Meteorite
3. Radar 8. Pedometer
4. Contact lens 9. Derrick
5. Circuit breaker 10. Parachute

ercise 2 Revising: Definitions On your paper, rewrite

the definitions on the following page making corrections and adding
any missing parts. Make sure that your definition includes the three
necessary parts.

551
Unit 12 Technical Writing

SAMPLE Malachite is green.

ANSWER Malachite is a green mineral that is used to make
copper.
1. A seismograph is an instrument that makes seismograms.
2. A cipher is a cryptogram.
3. A beaker is used in a laboratory.
4. A synthesizer is a machine that synthesizes music.
5. An antenna can be found on a car.
6. A lathe is a thing on which an item is spun while being shaped by a
cutting or abrading tool.
7. Crampons are worn on the shoes of mountain climbers.
8. A crow’s nest is a small platform.
9. A blueprint is a thing that shows the design of a building or a
machine.
10. A spark plug is an engine part that makes a spark.

.2 Explaining How a Mechanism Works

Technical writing also includes explaining how a particular

mechanism operates. In writing this type of explanation, you will use
some of the steps that you used in describing a mechanism.

Defining and Describing

Before explaining how a mechanism operates, explain what it is.
If, for example, you are explaining how a stethoscope works, do not
assume that your reader already knows what a stethoscope is. First,
define it as follows:
A stethoscope is a medical instrument used for listening to sounds
produced in the body’s chest cavity.

Next, include a brief physical description of the mechanism.

Because the emphasis in this kind of technical writing is on how a
mechanism operates, do not make either the definition or the
description any longer than necessary. Your description of a stetho
scope can be as brief as the following:

552
 12.2b
How Mechanisms Work

The stethoscope is Y-shaped, with a flat disc at the bottom of the Y

attached to rubber-and-metal tubing that branches and joins two ear
pieces.

Method of Development
The best method to describe the operation of most mechanisms
is a combination of chronological order and cause-and-effect order.
Chronological order allows you to explain in sequence the individual
steps in an operation. However, in most operations, one step is the
cause of a subsequent step or steps; thus you will need to use
cause-and-effect development as well. The following model combines
chronological order and cause-and-effect development to explain the
operation of a spirit level.

Model
Definition and A spirit level is an instrument used to deter-
Description mine whether a surface is level. It is a glass tube

Development filled with a liquid, usually alcohol, that contains an

air bubble.
The center of the glass tube, marked by a verti
cal line, has a slight upward curve. Holding the spirit
level horizontally causes the center of the glass tube
to become the highest point, making the air bubble
rise to the center of the tube. Placing the spirit level
on a surface that is not horizontal causes the air
bubble to move to the left or the right of the center
line.

Exercise 3 Revising: Explaining an Operation On your

paper, revise the following explanation of the operation of a smoke
detector. Place all the sentences in correct sequence and add
transitional words where needed. Delete or revise any sentences that
are inappropriate in technical writing.

I want to tell you about an ionization smoke detector, a small

device that warns people of the presence of smoke from a fire. The
detector is housed in a small plastic box that usually is attached to

553
Unit 12 Technical Writing

the ceiling, the place where smoke first collects. Most alarms that I
have seen are white.
When smoke reaches the alarm, particles in the smoke break
that electrical current. An ionization detector contains a small
amount of a radioactive substance, usually americium 241. The
radioactive material is used to create an electrical current between
two electrodes. The broken circuit causes a battery-powered buzzer
to sound, warning people about the smoke. The detector is a simple
mechanism that performs a valuable service.

Exercise 4 Writing: Explaining an Operation On your

paper, write an explanation of the operation of a dry-chemical fire
extinguisher. Use the following information to write your explana
tion. Begin with a definition; then place all the sentences of the
explanation in sequential order. Revise your sentences as necessary.
The extinguisher is used to put out fires started with gasoline,
grease, or electrical equipment.
The gas is forced out of the nozzle in the container.
The extinguisher contains a container of gas and a chemical powder.
When a valve is opened by a fire fighter, the container of gas is
punctured.
The dry chemical reacts with the heat of the fire to become carbon
dioxide.
The gas is put into the container of the extinguisher under pressure.
The carbon dioxide smothers the fire.
As the gas is forced out of the nozzle, it pushes the dry chemical out
with it.

Assignment I Writing On your paper, write a description of

a mechanism. Begin your description with a definition of the mecha
nism; then add as many descriptive sentences as necessary. Conclude
with a sentence that states the purpose of the mechanism.

Assignment 2 Writing On your paper, write an explanation

of the operation of a mechanism. Begin by defining and describing
the mechanism. Then explain its operation, using chronological order
and cause-and-effect development.

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 1.3a
Operator

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
i~’1. Did you define the mechanism?
i~ 2. Did you explain how the mechanism works?
i 3. Did you combine chronological order and cause-and-effect
development in your explanation?
~“ 4. Did you use appropriate words to indicate location?
i 5. Did you use the third-person point of view?
,.~6. Did you avoid colloquial expressions, slang, and contractions?
~. 7. Did you maintain a serious tone and a formal style?
w 8. Did you proofread your paragraphs for correct grammar,
usage, spelling, and punctuation?

ii e
A process is a series of actions, changes, or operations that
bring about a product or a result. In technical writing you will
describe processes that need an operator and processes that do not.

.3 A Process with an Operator

A process that requires an operator is one in which a person

must carry out a series of steps. Such a process may be as simple as
changing a fuse or as complex as performing a scientific experiment.
In this kind of technical writing, you explain causes and effects. Such
writing must permit your reader to follow a series of steps (causes)
and thereby achieve a result (effect) that matches the one described.

Considering Your Audience

A person reads an explanation of a process with an operator to
learn how to make or do something. Your responsibility as writer is to
include all the needed information in a clear sequence.
In explaining a process that is unfamiliar to your audience, put
yourself in your reader’s position. Ask yourself, “What do I, the
reader, need to know?” Then supply only that information, using
clear, precise, and straightforward language.

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Unit 12 Technical Writing

Organizing Your Explanation

Begin your explanation with a list of any materials that your
reader needs. Then write your explanation of the process in chrono
logical order. To complete a process, your reader needs to know the
exact sequence of steps to follow. Therefore, if you were explaining
how to change a light switch, for example, you would begin with
“First, shut off the electric current at the main fuse box or circuit
breaker.”
If the process is complex or has more than five steps, writing the
explanation as a numbered list, rather than as a series of paragraphs,
will assist your reader in following the sequence.
Study the following example that explains a process that needs
an operator.

Model
How to Repair a Bicycle Tire
To repair a punctured tube in a bicycle tire, you will need the
following equipment:
wrench tire patch kit (containing
set of tire irons perforated metal strip or
pen sandpaper, patches, and
talc vulcanizing fluid)
hand air pump
1. First, examine the tire carefully to locate the puncture. It may
be necessary to remove the wheel from the bicycle to repair the
flat. If so, free the wheel from the bicycle, using the wrench.
2. When you have found the puncture, remove the valve cap from
the valve core on the rim of the wheel, and push down on the
core to release the air from the tire. Then insert the tire irons
under the rim of the tire near the punctured part to free that
portion of the tire from the rim. Pull out the punctured part of
the tube from the tire.
3. Inflate the tube slightly, using the hand pump to locate the point
where the air is escaping from the tube. Make an X on the spot
with the pen.
4. Before proceeding further, choose a patch of an appropriate size
to cover the puncture. Then roughen the area around the punc

556
 12.3a
Operator

ture with either the perforated metal strip or the sandpaper.

Remove the dust created by the abrasive.
5. Next, apply the vulcanizing fluid to the surface, spreading it
slightly beyond the area to be covered by the patch. Let the
fluid dry until it is no longer tacky.
6. Remove the metal foil from the patch and center the patch over
the puncture, pressing firmly for five to ten seconds. Pull off the
cover foil from the patch, and sprinkle talc over the area to
absorb any remaining fluid.
7. With the puncture now repaired, replace the tube inside the tire
and carefully work the tire back into the rim with your hands.
Inflate the tire and reattach the wheel to the bicycle if neces
sary.
Use the following strategies when explaining a process with an
operator.

Strategies
1. Use the active voice and the imperative mood to give
authority and clarity to your explanation.
APPROPRIATE Sand the wood until it is smooth.
INAPPROPRIATE The wood should be sanded until it is
smooth.
2. List the steps of the process in chronological order.
3. Define all necessary terms for an audience lacking a techni
cal background. For example, a reader unfamiliar with
carpentry might need a definition of joist. However, you
could assume that the same reader would not need an
explanation of the difference between hand tools and
power tools, a difference that is common knowledge.
4. List any special equipment necessary for the process.
5. Use transitional words and phrases to make the chronology
clear. Examples of such words include first, then, next, the
next day, after, and so forth.
6. Use numbered steps to explain a lengthy or a complex
process.

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Unit 12 Technical Writing

7. Avoid personal opinions, experiences, and other extraneous

wording.

As a final check to see that your explanation is clear, complete

the steps in the process yourself. If you have any difficulty, revise
your explanation.

Exercise I Writing: Process with an Operator On your

paper, explain how to take a person’s blood pressure by placing the
following steps in correct chronological order. Add transitional
words, where necessary. Include any necessary definitions.
Many people must have their blood pressure checked regular
ly. Checking someone’s blood pressure requires only two pieces of
equipment: a sphygmomanometer and a stethoscope. Mastering the
process, however, does require practice.
Wrap the cuff around the person’s arm just above the elbow.
Inflate the cuff by gently squeezing the hollow rubber ball attached
to the cuff. Slowly release air from the cuff and listen for the sound
to start again. Place the stethoscope below the cuff on the person’s
arm. You will hear the sound of the blood pulsing. When you first
hear the noise, note the number shown on the glass meter attached
to the cuff. That is the person’s systolic blood pressure. Note the
number on the meter. That second number is the person’s diastolic
pressure. Keep listening until the sound becomes muffled. With
practice, you can perform the process easily and accurately.

Exercise 2 Revising: Process with an Operator On

your paper, revise the following explanation of how to replace a
washer. Using appropriate transitional words, place the steps in
correct chronological order. Add any necessary definitions. Revise
any sentences containing personal opinions or unnecessary wording.
If a faucet drips when it is tightly turned off, the washer
probably needs to be replaced. If you follow my directions, you will
need only a new washer, a screwdriver, a wrench, and a knife to do
the task. Once the faucet handle is off, you will see a nut, which
must be loosened with a wrench and taken off. Loosen the screw on
the top of the faucet handle and remove the handle. Under the nut,

558
 12.3b

No Operator

there is a stem assembly, a metal cylinder. Remove it by firmly

pulling it up. You will see a screw on the bottom of the assembly.
Use a screwdriver to loosen it. I recommend that if the top of the
screw is too worn to use a screwdriver on it, you should use a pair
of pliers to loosen the screw. Use an old knife to pry out the
washer, which is right under the screw. The flat side of the new
washer should be next to the assembly. Once the old washer is out,
use the knife to push in the new washer. Replace the screw in the
stem assembly. Put the stem assembly back on the faucet, and
reassemble the rest of the handle. If you did exactly what I have
directed, the leak should be fixed.

A Process Without an Operator

If you were to write an explanation of how spontaneous

combustion occurs or how coal is formed, you would be explaining a
process without an operator. In this type of technical writing,
sometimes called process analysis, you show how something hap
pens by breaking down a process into its separate steps. Your analysis
of a process will be clear to your reader if you divide your analysis
into two parts: an introduction and a body.
Introduction. Begin your process analysis with a brief introduc
tion in which you define the process and explain where it occurs.
Include any other background information that will help your reader.
If your topic is photosynthesis, for example, your reader will better
understand your analysis if you explain what photosynthesis is before
telling how it happens.
Body. The body of your analysis is a step-by-step explanation of
the process. Depending on the complexity of your topic, you may
need to explain each major step in a separate paragraph.
Include diagrams whenever they will help your reader. Remem
ber, however, that diagrams are not a substitute for clear writing.
The following example explains a process without an operator.

Model
Crystallization is a process by which nonliving matter grows
into crystals, solid compounds of atoms arranged in an orderly

559
Unit 12 Technical Writing

pattern. Crystals can form from vapors, solutions, or molten materi

als called melts. Lowered temperature or pressure or evaporation
cause certain atoms in such substances to grow close together and
join. Most often they do so on a crystallization nucleus, an impurity
made up of a particle or a cluster of atoms. The atoms collect on
the nucleus in structural units called unit cells to form a crystalline
solid. Additional atoms forming on an expanding network of cells
causes the crystals to increase in size.

Use the following strategies when explaining a process without

an operator.

Strategies

1. Define the process in your introduction.

2. Define additional key terms in the body of your explanation.
3. Use chronological order to explain the steps that occur in the
process.
4. Use transitional words and phrases to indicate time se
quence. Examples are next, meanwhile, finally, before, and
so forth.
5. Use directional words when necessary. Examples include
left, right, up, down, and parallel.

E ercise 3 Prewriting: A Process Read the following list of

processes. On your paper, write Operator beside the number of each
process requiring an operator. Write No operator next to those
processes that do not require an operator.
1. Thrning an old television set into a computer terminal
2. How a cell subdivides
3. How a desert forms
4. How an electric eye works
5. Implanting an artificial hip
6. How to analyze the chemicals in drinking water
7. How volcanic ash causes changes in the weather
8. Replacing a frayed cord on a lamp

560
 12.3b

No Operator

Exerc.se 4 Writing I Revising: A Process On your paper,

revise the following explanation of the use of windmills to pump
water by placing the sentences in correct sequence. Include transi
tional words and definitions where they are needed. Eliminate
personal opinions and unnecessary sentences.
For years, windmills have been used to supply water for farms.
Wind turns a large wheel of blades at the top of a windmill. My
grandparents’ farm has a windmill. As the wheel turns, it causes
small gears to turn with it. The large gears are attached to long rods
that move up and down as the gears turn. The small gears mesh
with large gears and cause them to turn too. Those rods go into a
cylinder in a pump. Each time that the rods move down, they push
air out of the cylinder. When the rods move back up, a vacuum is
created. The downward stroke of the rods pushes the water out of
the pump. The vacuum pulls water up from the ground to fill the
cylinder. Thus, I think that it is amazing that water is pumped
without using expensive electricity or human labor.

Assignment Writing On your paper, write one or two

paragraphs explaining a process with an operator. If possible, write
about a process that you already know about. If not, consult library
sources. Use chronological order to explain the process. Include a
diagram if it will aid your readers.
Assignment Writing On your paper, write an explanation
in at least two paragraphs of a process without an operator. You may
have to do library research before you begin to write. Include
diagrams as needed.
Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
s. 1. Did you explain one process with an operator and one without
an operator?
i- 2. Did you define all important or unfamiliar terms?
~ 3. Did you use chronological order?
i 4. Did you use transitional words and phrases?
5. Did you use th’e third-person point of view?
V 6. Did you maintain a serious tone and a formal style?
i.”7. Did you proofread your explanations for correct grammar,
usage, spelling, and punctuation?

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Unit 12 Technical Writing

1. Tc ic Pr
Sometimes you have to combine the kinds of technical writing
that you have just learned when you write a technical report.

a T e Purpose of a Technical Report

A technical report is an analysis of data about a product, a
process, or a proposal; it is an analysis undertaken to answer a
question or solve a problem. A technical report differs in purpose
from other types of writing. For instance, in an essay (Unit 9), you
present your own point of view on a subject to inform or to entertain
your reader. In a research paper (Unit 11), you inform or enlighten
your reader with the results of your investigation. In neither case do
you expect the reader to take any action based solely on what you
have written. In a technical report, however, your purpose is to
provide the information to help the reader solve a problem or make a
decision leading to an action.
In other forms of technical writing, you use your own knowl
edge and observation as a basis for your writing. In describing a
mechanism, for example, often you need only to observe the
mechanism closely in order to describe it. In writing a technical
report, you cannot rely entirely on your own knowledge and observa
tion; instead, you must rely on facts that you discover through
research.
Suppose you were asked to provide information to be used in
deciding which copying machine to purchase. The steps that you
would follow are the same that you would follow in preparing any
technical report: gather data, interpret the data, and make recom
mendations.
Gathering Data. Data include facts, figures, statistics, and
endorsements. Before starting to gather data, you must decide what
to include in your report. Prepare a list of questions based on your
reader’s needs to guide your research. Suppose that preparing a
report on copying machines, the choices had been narrowed to the
Belle XIII, the Nathan-Jervis BX, and the Whitney 600. What,
besides the initial cost, would your reader need to know? The
following list of questions should guide your research.

562
 12.4

Technical Report

1. What is the initial cost of each machine?

2. What are the basic features of each, including size?
3. What optional features are available? At what cost?
4. What is the cost of repairs?
5. What is the availability of service personnel?
6. What has been consumer response to each machine?
Once you have compiled a list of questions, begin your research
by consulting any library references, including periodicals, that have
information on your topic. (See pages 485—488 for a review of library
sources and how to use them.) Your research will not end in the
library. Gather data by interviewing persons who have information
that you need. For a report on copying machines, for example, you
could interview persons who have used each machine over a long
time. Request brochures and other related information directly from
manufacturers or sales representatives.
Interpreting Data. A technical report requires that you do
more than simply list the data that you have gathered; often you will
need to interpret the data for your reader. For example, suppose that
you found that the purchase price of the Nathan-Jervis copier is
significantly higher than the price of the other two. Suppose also that
the Nathan-Jervis costs considerably less per year to operate. You
must interpret for your reader the fact that the Nathan-Jervis may
ultimately be the least expensive of the three.
Making Recommendations. When you have gathered and
interpreted all data, make a recommendation in the conclusion of
your technical report. Make sure that your recommendation is
consistent with the facts that you have presented. Your recommenda
tion should be one that, given the same data, anyone else would have
made. Remember to write in the third person. Do not write “I
recommend that we purchase the Nathan-Jervis BX”; instead, write
“The facts suggest that the Nathan-Jervis BX is the most economical
purchase.”

Exercise I Prewriting: Technical-Report Topics On your

paper, write Suitable for each topic on the following page that is
appropriate for a technical report and Unsuitable for each topic that
is inappropriate.

563
Unit 12 Technical Writing

1. Why a helicopter stays in the air

2. The best way to improve the acoustics of an auditorium
3. Procedures that should be used to transport gasoline safely
4. The types of microscopes that exist
5. The most efficient locations for heating vents in a house
6. How recent changes in the inflation rate have affected me
7. An exercise program that is helpful for people with arthritis
8. How highways are resurfaced
9. A comfortable type of office chair
10. A method to decrease air pollution in a city

Parts of a Technical Report

A technical report contains parts arranged as follows: a title

page, a table of contents, an abstract, a list of illustrations, an
introduction, the body of the report, a conclusion, a glossary, an
appendix, a list of footnotes, and a bibliography. You will study the
parts of a technical report in the order in which you will write them.

Major Parts of the Report

Once you have gathered and analyzed data, you are ready to
write the major parts of the report: the body, the conclusion, the
abstract, and the introduction.
The Body. The body of your report contains the results of your
research. Because it is also the source of information to be included
in the other major parts, you must write the body first.
Read the following portion of the body of a technical report on
natural breads. Notice the objective presentation of the material.
CHOICE OF FLOURS

Until 1874 flour was milled by grinding wheat between

rotating stone discs; friction thereby reduced the grain to

a fine powder. In 1874, however, the milling process

564
 12.4b

Parts of a Report

changed radically with the introduction of the steel rolling

mill, which crushed, rather than ground, the wheat. The

wheat germ and bran were then sifted from the flour to

produce a highly stable product that could be stored for

long periods without spoiling. Modern analysis reveals that

the removal of the wheat germ and bran also removes as many
5
as twenty—two nutrients.

Sidney Margoulius, author of Health Foods: Facts and

Fakes, concedes that “criticism of white bread and other

products baked from white flour is one issue that finds

S
orthodox nutritionists and health foodists in agreement.”

There is no question that steel—roller milling of flour

removes high—quality proteins, such as lysine and

tryptophan. as well as unsaturated fatty acids and vitamin

E. In addition, minerals are removed from the wheat in

approximately the following percentages: manganese, 89

percent; iron, 80 percent; magnesium. 75 percent; and

phosphorus. 70 percent.

Illustrations. Illustrations help your reader to understand com

plex material that may require several paragraphs of explanation. Use
diagrams to illustrate technical data or to show a cross section of a
mechanism. Use a table to present statistical data and other types of
numerical information in tabular form. Use graphs to present data
that extend over a period or to show comparisons.
The table on the following page shows a comparison of the
nutrients in honey and molasses.

565
Unit 12 Technical riting

FIGURE 1
1
NUTRIENTS IN HONEY AND MOLASSES

Nutrient (p~~ (mg) Molasses (mg)

Riboflavin 0.04 0.12

Niacin 0.3 1.2

Iron 0.5 6.0

Calcium 5.0 290.0

Vitamin B 0.02 0.2

Pantothenic acid 0.2 0.35

1
Adapted from R. S. Harris and E. Karmas, eds.
Nutritional Evaluation of Food Processing, second edition
(Westport, Connecticut: The Avi Publishing Company, Inc.,
1975), p.382.

Use the following strategies when preparing illustrations.

Strategies
1. Refer to all illustrations as Figure 1, Figure 2, and so forth,
consecutively throughout your report.
2. Include a brief explanation of the illustration in the body of
your report.
3. Include a footnote at the bottom of each illustration, unless
the illustration is one that you devised yourself.
4. Make your illustrations large enough to be legible and label
them clearly.
5. Make sure that all illustrations are relevant and necessary.
Conclusion. The conclusion is a succinct presentation of your
findings, with a recommendation for any action that the facts

566
 12.4b

Major Parts

warrant. To prepare your conclusion, look again at the findings that

you detailed in the body of your report. Restate them briefly, but be
sure to include enough information to make them clear. Make sure
that your conclusion is an accurate reflection of the contents of your
report. Also make sure that any recommendations that you make are
consistent with the facts that you have reported.
Read the following example conclusion. Notice the conciseness
and objectivity.

CONCLUSION

Although the analysis of ingredients used in four

brands of new natural breads shows that these breads are

overall more nutritious than white bread, the consumer

should be aware that natural breads oan be improved. Of the

four brands whose ingredients were analyzed. Willson Mills’

Sprouted Wheat proved to be the consumer’s best choice

because it is made of 100—percent stone—ground whole—wheat

flour and many added nutrients.

All four of the brands analyzed would be improved if

they were made with stone—ground flour and unhydrogenated

vegetable oil.

Introduction. The purposes of an introduction are to provide

background for your reader and to explain what you intend to do in
your report. State clearly the subject and the purpose of your report.
By writing the introduction after you have completed the body of
your report, you will not inadvertently refer to material that you have
deleted or changed.
Read the introduction from the technical report on natural
breads that appears on the next page. Notice that the objectives of
the report are itemized to make them more easily seen.

567
Unit 12 Technical Writing

INTRODUCTION

Since the early l900s, consumer dissatisfaction with

commercially prepared bread made of white flour has been

widespread. In 1911, referring to methods of milling flour,

the British medical journal The Lancet commented that “real

bread has been taken out of our mouths by modern methods of

1
impoverishment.” During World War I and at intervals

thereafter, the governments of the United States and Great

Britain tried to improve the low nutritional value of white

bread. Their efforts were not entirely successful. In 1951

Food and Drug Commissioner Paul B. Dunbar agreed that

commercial bread had degraded to the point of resembling

2
“cotton fluff wrapped up in a skin.”

In recent years, however, the food industry has begun

to respond to consumer demand by introducing natural breads

into the market. The purpose of this paper is to examine

the nutritional benefits of these new products.

This report has three objectives:

1. To explore recent improvements in mass—marketed

commercial breads

2. To analyze ingredients common to the new natural loaves

3. To suggest further modifications in current bread—making

processes and practices

The report uses examples of four widely available wheat

breads recommended by a best—selling natural—foods guide.

Choice of basic ingredients such as flours, sweeteners,

568
 1.4b
Major Parts

shortenings, and yeast are discussed, as well as the use of

optional ingredients such as monoglycerides and diglycerides

and yeast nutrients.

Information in this report is from a variety of

sources, including works by nutritionists, microbiologists,

and members of government regulatory agencies, as well as

from interviews with consumer representatives and

natural—food advocates.

Abstract. An abstract is a brief summary of the main points in

your report. Its purpose is to provide an overview for the reader who
wants to know only the key points or who may not have time to read
the full report. Therefore, to be effective, an abstract should be able
to stand on its own as a separate document. In it, define any terms
that you think necessary, even if they are later defined in the body or
the glossary (page 570). Do not use illustrations and do not use any
information that you have not included in your report.
Writing an abstract is one way to check the accuracy and
completeness of your report. If you cannot summarize your report
briefly, you may need to do more research or revising.
Read the following example from the abstract for the technical
report on natural bread. Notice how it differs in content from the
conclusion and the introduction.

ABSTRACT

Four examples of the new natural mass—marketed breads

were analyzed for nutritional value. The samples were Real

Grains Natural; Real Grain’s Bran Country Oat; Wilison

Mills Sprouted Wheat; and Willson Mills’ Cracked Wheat.

Choices of flours, fats, sweeteners, and other ingredients

were examined.

Findings show that the new natural loaves are more

569
Unit 12 Technical Writing

nutritious than the mass—marketed white bread. Two major

faults were found in natural loaves. The first is the use

of unbleached enriched wheat flour as a main ingredient.

The second is the use of partially hydrogenated vegetable oil.

The report concludes with the recommendation that the

consumer buy Willson Mills Sprouted Wheat. Its

ingredients——lOO—percent stone—ground whole—wheat flour,

honey, wheat germ, wheat kernels, sesame seeds, and sunflower

seeds——make it the most nutritious of the loaves analyzed.

Concluding Parts of the Report

The concluding parts of a technical report include the glossary,
an appendix, footnotes, and the bibliography.
Glossary. A glossary is an alphabetical list of terms with their
definitions; its purpose is to explain technical or specialized terms for
nontechnical readers. Place the glossary at the end of your report,
just after the conclusion. To determine whether you need a glossary,
make note of all technical or specialized terms that you think should
be defined. If you have over five such terms, prepare a glossary. If
you have fewer than five, define each term when it first appears in the
body of the report.
Whether in the glossary or in the body of the report, define a
term by giving its class and features (pages 549—550). When a term
from the glossary first appears in the text, use a parenthetical note to
refer your reader to the glossary, such as (See “Glossary,” page 17).
The following example is a portion of the glossary for the
technical report on natural bread.

~yceride: a compound that occurs naturally as fat or fatty

oil; can also be made synthetically.

Hydrogenation: the process of adding hydrogen to harden an

oil into a fat.

Lysine: a basic amino acid essential in human nutrition.

570
 12.4b

Introductory Parts

An Appendix. An appendix provides further information on

points discussed in your report. Not all technical reports require the
kinds of information found in appendixes: sample questionnaires and
responses, maps, photographs, formulas, statistical data, details of an
experiment, and so forth.
If you must include an appendix, refer to it in the introduction
and at appropriate places in the body of your report; use a parenthet
ical reference such as (See Appendix A). Label each appendix
separately with a title such as “Appendix A: A Chart Showing
Population Shifts in Essex County, 1965—1980.”

Footnotes. Use footnotes to document all references that you

consulted in gathering data for your report. Place footnotes on a
separate page after the glossary, instead of at the bottom of each
page, unless you have other instructions. For correct footnote forms,
see pages 509—512 in Unit 11, “Writing a Research Paper.”

ibliography. The last section of your report is the bibliography.

Use the format presented in Unit 11, “Writing a Research Paper,”
pages 512—513.

Introductory Parts of the Report

Once the major and concluding parts of your report are
complete, you are ready to write the introductory parts: the list of
illustrations, the table of contents, and the title page.

List of Illustrations. On a page that will follow the abstract, list

each numbered illustration in order with a brief description and a
page reference. Study the following example that refers to the figure
shown on page 566.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS page

Figure 1: Nutrients in Honey and Molasses 4

Table of Contents. The table of contents lists in sequence all

parts of your report. Study the example of a portion of a table of
contents that appears on the following page.

571
Unit 12 Technical Writing

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract

List of Illustrations vii

INTRODUCTION 1

CHOICE OF FLOURS 3

CHOICE OF FATS 6

Follow this procedure when preparing a table of cqntents.

Procedure
1. Type “Table of Contents” in all capital letters.
2. List the abstract and the list of illustrations with lower-case
Roman numerals to identify their page numbers. The title
page, although not numbered, is considered page i. The
table of contents is page ii, the abstract, page iii.
3. List all other items with Arabic numerals for page numbers.
4. Write “Abstract” and “List of Illustrations” using capital
and lower-case letters as shown in the example. Write the
remaining sections in all capital letters.
5. Use a horizontal row of dots to connect section titles with
their page numbers, unless you receive other instructions.
Title Page. After completing all other sections of your technical
report, prepare the title page. Include the following information: the
report title, the reader’s name, your name, and the date. Center the
report title on the page. Leave two lines; then center your teacher’s
name below the report title. Center your name two lines below your
teacher’s name, and place the date on the line immediately below
your name. Study the following example.

Commercial Breads of the 1980s:

An Analysis of Ingredients in the New Natural Loaves

J. R. Samuels

Denise Kolek
December 4, 19

572
 12.4b

Introductory Parts

Exe cise 2 Writing: The Body of the Report Read the

following notes for a technical report on an analysis of sites for a new
shopping center. On your paper, write two paragraphs using the
notes for the body of the report.
Two sites are available for a shopping center: one in Gilbert’s field
and one in the old Taft schoolyard
GILBERT’S FIELD SCHOOLYARD
No gas lines in immediate area Flat, dry land
One grocery store within one- Residents want center if
mile radius a small park is built
Two ponds on land—would have outside of it.
to be filled in Limited parking space
Room for large parking area Gas lines and electric
Would have to install sewage wires nearby
system Blacktop must be torn up.
Low taxes Two grocery stores, three
Would have to enlarge road to clothing stores, and a dry-
property cleaning store in a six-
block area
Residents want stores nearby but
are worried about increased Moderately high taxes
traffic in area. Town sewage lines on
Electric lines run next to property
property. Residents upset about noise
and dirt during
construction

xercüse 3 Writing: The Glossary Read the following para

graphs from a technical report on an analysis of computers. On your
paper, list and define words to be included in a glossary. Select words
that are likely to be unfamiliar to readers without a technical
background.

The next factor to consider in deciding whether to buy a large

computer or to rent computer time from another company is the
cost of employees. In either case programmers will be needed. If
buying a computer, consider the need to hire an operator and enter

573
Unit 12 Technical Writing

into a contract with a service engineer. If renting computer time, the

cost of the services of those people will be included in the rental
fee.
In addition, consider the cost of the special facilities that are
needed for a large computer. First, in order to ensure a proper
working environment and to maintain the necessary security, the
computer must be installed in a separate room. Because the central
processing unit generates heat, air conditioning must run in the
computer room at all times. Also, a raised floor must be installed to
cover the many cables that join the components of the computer.
Finally, the electrical wiring to the computer room may have to be
changed to ensure that it can provide the necessary voltage and
current for the machine to operate.

Exercise 4 Writing/Revising: The Conclusion On your

paper, rewrite the following paragraphs from the conclusion of a
technical report, omitting those sentences that are inappropriate.
Revise the remaining sentences for correct style and tone.
When excess water must be released from the river to prevent
it from flooding all along its banks, I don’t think that there is any
good place to drain the water. Releasing the water in the farmlands
at the top of the river will destroy valuable crops and may even
cause some farmers to go out of business. My Uncle Bill would not
like that. Releasing the water in the valley would cause parts of five
towns to be flooded, damaging thousands of houses and businesses.
There sure aren’t many people who would go for that. Further
downstream, the excess water would flood parts of the O’Brien
Wildlife Refuge and destroy the habitat of many wild animals. There
are many beautiful animals in the refuge, and you can see them
there on any weekend. The effects of the third option would be less
devastating and less long-term than the effects of the first two.
Therefore, I think that you had better accept that solution.
It is important, however, that the communities along the river
join together to help the animals in the refuge. Before the water is
released, the animals should be fenced away from the lowland, and
food should be provided to replace the food covered by the water.
In fact, if you are really interested in animals, you should become a
member of one of the many organizations devoted to the preserva
tion of wildlife.

574
 12.4c
Revising a Report

12. c Revising the Technical Report

When you have completed the first draft of your technical

report, review each section of it carefully. Base your revision on the
following points.
Contents. Revise the body, the conclusion, the introduction,
and the abstract to see that each contains only necessary information.
Use these strategies to help you revise.

Strategies
1. Make sure that the body presents your findings accurately,
concisely, and objectively.
2. Make certain that the conclusion summarizes your findings
and gives your recommendations clearly.
3. Be certain that the introduction contains all the necessary
background information.
4. Make sure that the abstract contains only the major points
from the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. Do not
include information not found in other sections of your
report.

Style and Tone. Review all parts of your report to see that your
style and tone are appropriate. Remove any references to personal
experiences and opinions. Make sure that you have used the third-
person point of view throughout.
Words and Sentences. Review your report again for vague or
imprecise language. Substitute precise, specific words for vague
expressions; delete any unnecessary words and sentences. Make sure
that you have included appropriate transitional words and phrases
where needed.
Proofreading. Conclude your revision by proofreading all the
parts of your technical report. Check for errors in grammar, usage,
spelling, and punctuation.

575
Unit 12 Technical Writing

Exe cise 5 Revising: Sentences The following excerpt from

a technical report needs revision. On your paper, write the letter of
the suggested revisions that you think would best improve the
excerpt. If a sentence is effective as it stands, write the letter that
indicates Make no change.
(1) The cost of heating fuel has gone up a lot. (2) Therefore,
people in many communities like Shavertown are trying to find ways
to conserve fuel. (3) I want to tell you how to decrease the amount
of heating fuel that you use. (4) There are several ways to do
that. (5) There are also many ways to conserve the amount of
water that you use. (6) The objectives of this report are to present
those methods and to evaluate which are the most effective.
(7) Large amounts of heat can be lost from your house.
(8) The easiest way to detect those leaks is to check areas where you
can feel a draft on a windy day. (9) I want to tell you that a utility
company can provide a more scientific check. (10) For just a few
bucks, they will take an infrared snapshot of the outside of your
building. (11) Heat escaping from the building shows up on an
infrared photograph. (12) Ultraviolet photographs also show things
that normal photographs do not. (13) Once you have determined
where the leaks are, you must decide how to repair them.
1. Sentence 1
a. Make no change.
b. Rewrite the sentence: Within the past five years, the cost of heating
fuels has more than doubled.
c. Rewrite the sentence: The cost of heating fuels is out of sight.
2. Sentence 3
a. Rewrite the sentence: There are several ways to decrease the
amount of heating fuel that is used each month.
b. Make no change.
c. Remove sentence.
3. Sentence 4
a. Make no change.
b. Rewrite the sentence: The most effective methods are eliminating
heat leaks, improving the efficiency of heating systems, installing
energy-saving devices, and using alternative sources of energy.
c. Rewrite the sentence: If you use a combination of four methods,
your conservation process will be effective.

576
 12.4c
Revising a Report

4. Sentence 5
a. Rewrite the sentence: Conserving water is not hard either.
b. Remove the sentence.
c. Make no change.
5. Sentence 6
a. Make no change.
b. Rewrite the sentence: This report will be very helpful.
c. Rewrite the sentence: I hope that you will enjoy this report.
6. Sentence 7
a. Rewrite the sentence: Heat generated by your furnace can be lost
from leaks in your house.
b. Rewrite the sentence: Large amounts of heat can be lost through
cracks in the windows, the doors, the vents, and the roof of your
house.
c. Make no change.
7. Sentence 8
a. Rewrite the sentence: Finding those spots yourself is no problem.
b. Remove the sentence.
c. Make no change.
8. Sentence 9
a. Rewrite the sentence: You should know that a utility company can
provide a more scientific check.
b. Make no change.
c. Rewrite the sentence: A utility company can provide a more scien
tific check.
9. Sentence 10
a. Rewrite the sentence: For a low price, the company will take an
infrared photograph of the outside of your building.
b. Rewrite the sentence: It doesn’t cost much to have an infrared
photograph taken.
c. Make no change.
10. Sentence 12
a. Rewrite the sentence: If you take an ultraviolet photograph of an
object, it will not look like a normal photograph.
b. Make no change.
c. Remove the sentence.

577
Unit 12 Technical Writing

Assignment 1 Prewriting Step 1: Select one of the following

topics for a technical report, or choose another topic that interests
you and about which you can find sufficient information. Step 2:
Using the library and other sources, research your topic and make
notes.
1. The use of wood-burning stoves as an alternative source of heat
2. Practical water-conservation methods for this community
3. The advantages and disadvantages of opening a fast-food shop in this
neighborhood
4. Effective fire-prevention methods in the home

Assign ent 2 Writing Step 1: Using the notes from your

research in Assignment 1, write a technical report. Include numbered
lists in the body of your report, if necessary. Step 2: Write a
conclusion for your report, based on the recommendations that your
research indicates. Step 3: Write an introduction that provides
background information and explains the purpose of the report.
Step 4: Prepare an abstract that covers the main points made in your
report.

Assignment 3 Writing Step 1: Using your notes from Assign

ment 1, prepare footnotes to accompany your technical report.
Step 2: If you have five or more terms to define, write a glossary for
your report. Step 3: Prepare a bibliography from the references that
you used in researching your topic.

Assignment 4 Writing Step 1: Prepare a list of illustrations if

you included charts and diagrams in the body of your report. Step 2:
Prepare a table of contents for the entire technical report. Double
check to see that all page references are correct. Step 3: Prepare the
title page for your report.

Assignment 5 Revising Reread and revise all parts of your

technical report before handing it in.

578
 1 2.4c
Revising a Report

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
~.ø 1. Did you choose a topic that is appropriate for a technical
report?
2. Did you do research to find information on your topic?
~ 3. Did you write an abstract that covers the main points of your

report?
,. 4. Did you prepare a title page and a table of contents?
~.— 5. Did you write an introduction that explains the purpose of
your report?
6. Did you write a body that accurately reports the findings of
your research?
~— 7. Did you write a conclusion that presents your recommenda
tions?
~ 8. Did you include footnotes in your report?
~.— 9. Did you write a glossary that defines the difficult terms in
your report if you have five or more such terms?
~.— 10. Did you list the references that you used to research your
report?
,.— 11. Did you list any illustrations that you used, including those
that you made?
i..— 12. Did you revise your report?
j.— 13. Did you check your report for correct grammar, usage,

spelling, and punctuation?

579
 —— ~W ~ WA

141 -

Miro-Weld Solar Panels: Writing a Technical Description

Situation. You are a copywriter for a catalogue of solar
home-heating products. For a catalogue entry about Miro
Weld solar panels, you need to describe the panels and to
explain how they work. As you write, keep in mind the follow
ing information.
Writer: you as a catalogue copywriter
Audience: potential buyers of solar home-heating systems
Topic: Miro-Weld solar panels
Purpose: to describe the product and to explain how it
works

Directions: To write your copy, follow these steps.

Step 1. Read the notes and study the diagrams provided
by Miro-Weld shown on the facing page.
Step 2. Using the notes labeled “Description and Func
tion,” write a paragraph that describes and ex
plains the Miro-Weld panels. Remember that you
are providing information about an object to
readers who may know little about solar heating.
Present your information in a logical sequence
and refer to the diagrams as necessary.
Step 3. Using the information labeled “Panel Installa
tion,” write a second paragraph that explains
how to install the panels.
Step 4. Write a concluding paragraph that explains how
to order the panels.

580
Miro-Weld
4’ x 8’ Shatterproof

L •~d
‘1
Bonded permanently
to a rigid
outer aluminum
pane\
support frame

•2
southern exposure

Description and Function

—A simple method of passive heat collection: The sun’s rays pass
through the panels and are absorbed by a thermal mass such as a
stone floor or dark wall; double-layer panels keep the heat in the
room.
—Panels measure 4 ft. by B ft.
—Panels transmit maximum solar radiation.
—Southern exposure provides maximum heat in the winter, minimum
heat in summer.
—Panels collect all the energy (direct from the sun or diffuse on cloudy
days) that passes through the panel.
—Panels are lightweight, unbreakable, shatterproof, economical
—Panels are made of 2 flat sheets of fiber glass bonded to a rigid
aluminum support frame.
—Panels can withstand 2 days’ exposure to temperatures of 30O~ F.
—Weigh only 1½ lb per sq ft.

Panel Installation
,—Follow detailed instructions for home installation included with every
order.
— Miro~-Weldiguarantees customer satisfaction.
—l.ay’panels out in horizontal rows.
—‘AllOw ½ in.space between panels.
—Be sure to provide support on all four sides of panels when they are
mobnted.
—Panels are factory-assembled for easy installation.
—For waterproof installation use Miro-Weld sealant.
—Mount panels on south-facing wall or southern roof exposure for
- maximum heat again.

Ordering Information
—Order by mail, prepaid, from Miro-Weld Inc., P. 0. Box 185. Chicago, II
60606
—Price, $200 per panel, including shipping.
—Allow six weeks for delivery.

581
Unit Assignments
Assignment I Define the following words, using a three-part
definition: the item, its class, and its distinguishing features.
1. ligament 3. grafting 5. longitude
2. quasar 4. triceps 6. retina

Assignment Select two of the following mechanisms; define

each and explain how it operates.
1. binoculars 4. lever 7. spark plug
2. prism 5. pulley 8. sextant
3. block and tackle 6. fulcrum 9. calipers

Assignment 3 On your paper, write an explanation of one of the

following processes requiring an operator. Include diagrams, if
necessary. Use library sources and other references to obtain the
necessary information.
1. how to operate a 16-mm movie projector
2. how to assemble, operate, and care for a stereo tone arm and turn
table
3. how to develop film
4. how to draw a blueprint
5. how to change the oil in a car

Assignment 4 On your paper, write an explanation of one of the

following processes not requiring an operator. Include diagrams, if
necessary. Use library sources and other references to obtain the
necessary information.
1. how stalagmites and stalactites are formed
2. how the human ear transmits sound
3. how a television picture is formed
4. how acid corrodes metal
5. how an electric clock works

Assignment 5 Write a technical report in which you analyze two

types of cameras: a single-lens reflex and a camera that produces
instant photographs. Using the library and other sources, compare

582
the cost, size, and weight of both cameras. Include the cost of film for
each and the cost of developing for the single-lens reflex camera.
Discuss the practicality of using each indoors and outdoors. Conclude
your report with recommendations.

Revising Your Assignments

For help in revising technical writing, consult the Checklist for
Revision on the last page of this book.

583
Unit Tests
si
A. Number your paper from 1 to 5. Next to each number, write
True if the sentence is true or False if it is false.
1. In technical writing the opinions and experience of the author are not
emphasized.
2. You may use slang and contractions in technical writing.
3. If you cannot explain a point clearly, you may substitute a diagram for
an explanation.
4. Use spatial order when you describe a process.
5. Once you have gathered data for a technical report, you must inter
pret it and make a recommendation.

B. Number your paper from 6 to 10. Next to each number, write

the letter of the term that correctly completes the sentence. You will
use all but one of the items.
a. process d. table of contents
b. glossary e. technical report
c. mechanism f. abstract

6. A(n) i is any object or tool that is used for a specific purpose.

7. A(n) _1 is a series of actions, changes, or functions that bring about
a product or a result.
8. In a(n) i your purpose is to help the reader solve a problem or to
make a decision leading to an action.
9. A(n) i is a brief summary of main points.
10. A(n) .i is an alphabetical listing of terms with their definitions.

C. Number your paper from 11 to 15. Next to each number, write

the letter of the item that correctly answers the question.
11. Which of the following is not true about technical writing?
a. It should be humorous.
b. It should be impersonal.
c. It should present facts in an unbiased way.
d. It should be written from the third-person point of view.

584
12. Which of the following is not part of a definition of a mechanism?
a. The name of the item.
b. The group to which the item belongs.
c. Features that distinguish the item from other items in its group.
d. Examples of other items in its group.
13. Which of the following is a good strategy for explaining a process
requiring an operator?
a. Use the passive voice.
b. Assume that your audience will know all the technical terms.
c. List any special equipment necessary to work through the process.
d. Include personal observations about the process.
14. Which of the following is not a part of a technical report?
a. A title page
b. A table of contents
c. A glossary
d. An index
15. Which of the following is a good strategy for writing the abstract of a
technical report?
a. Write it before you complete your report.
b. Follow the same organization in it that you followed in your report.
c. Place it at the end of your report.
d. Include important informtion that is not included in your report.

Choose one of the Unit Assignments. Write the assignment as

directed and hand it in to your teacher.

585
Unit 13

~II,
A

Whenever you have occasion to write a business letter,

make sure that your letter contains all the necessary informa
tion, presented concisely and courteously.
The letter on the following page contains all of the infor
mation necessary to the person who will receive it.

For Analysis On your paper, answer the following questions

about trie letter from Kevin Kin naly.
1. What is the purpose of the letter?
2. What information is being requested?
3. Why is the information needed?
4. Where should the information be sent?

In this unit you will learn how to write standard business

letters: the order letter, the request letter, and the adjustment
letter. In addition, you will learn how to write a letter applying
for a job, how to write a résumé, and how to write a letter
expressing your opinion. In writing these letters, you will
practice the three steps of the writing process: prewriting,
writing, and revising.

586
 1502 Highland Terrace
Sacramento. California 95828
March 28, 19
Dr. Nancy Christopher
Superintendent of Schools
Sacramento School District
842 Washington Avenue
Sacramento. California 95816
Dear Dr. Christopher:
On behalf of Valley High Schools senior class.
I would like to invite you, as newly appointed
superintendent of schools, to participate in our
graduation ceremony in the Sacrament. Civic
Center at 6 00 P.M. , June 6
It has been traditional for the superintendent
of schools to deliver a brief address of
approximately fifteen minutes to Valley High
Schools graduating class. We would be pleased
if you would continue the tradition
In order to complete our plans we hope to
receive your response to our invitation by
April 15. We would also like to ask you to
attend a reception with officers of the senior
class and the Valley High School administration.
Thank you very much.
Sincerely yours,
~tevi,t ~
Kevin Kinnaly
Senior Class President

•a• - --S -t

Parts of a Business Letter

All business letters, regardless of their purpose, consist of the
following parts.
Heading. The heading is your address and the date. Place it at
the upper right or upper left of your stationery, depending on which
letter style you are using (page 588). Spell out the name of your state,
or abbreviate it by using the standard abbreviation or the Postal

587
Unit 13 Writing Business Letters

Service abbreviation. In the date, give the month, the day, and the
year.
Inside Address. The inside address is the name and address of
the person or organization to whom you are writing. Include such
titles as Dr., Mr., or Ms. with a person’s name. In the last line of the
inside address, use the same form for the state as you used in the
heading.
Salutation. Capitalize the first word and all the nouns in the
salutation. Place a colon after the salutation. Use Dear Sir, Dear
Madam, or Dear Sir or Madam when addressing someone whose
name you do not know.
Body. The body consists of the paragraphs that state your busi
ness. Leave an extra line of space between the salutation and the first
paragraph and between all other paragraphs.
Complimentary Close. Capitalize only the first word of the
complimentary close. Place a comma at the end of the close. Yours
truly, Very truly yours, Sincerely yours, and Yours sincerely are
acceptable complimentary closes.
Signature. Write your full name below the complimentary close.
If your letter is handwritten, print your name under your signature. If
it is typed, type your name under your signature.

Styles of Business Letters

The two styles of business letters are the block style and the
modified block style. In the block style, all parts of the letter start at
the left margin. Paragraphs are not indented. Use the block style only
when you are typing a letter. The letter on page 587 is written in
block style.
In the modified block styler place the heading, the compli
mentary close, and the signature to the right. You may either indent
paragraphs or start them at the left margin, as in the block style. You
may use the modified block style for either handwritten or typed
letters.
Regardless of the style that you use, be sure to leave sufficient
margins on all sides of your letter by centering your letter on the
paper.

588
 13.1

Letter Styles

Follow these general strategies for writing brief, clear, and

accurate business letters.

Strategies
1. Use unlined paper measuring 8 ~ 2 inches by 11 inches.
2. Type your letter, if possible. If you cannot, use black or blue
ink. Do not use pencil.
3. Make sure that the heading and the inside address are
complete and accurate.
4. Include in the body of the letter all the information necessary
to achieve your purpose.
5. Avoid slang and contractions. Do not write in a tone that is
too casual or informal.
6. Avoid using cliches and wordy expressions in an effort to
sound formal and businesslike. Note the substitutions in
following examples.
AVOID USE
in the amount of for
enclosed please find enclosed is
herein enclosed enclosed
at the earliest as early
possible date as possible
at the present time now
I wish to express thank you
my gratitude
in accordance with as you requested
your request
as per your request as you requested
7. Do not end your letter with a participial phrase, such as
“thanking you in advance” or “hoping to hear from you
soon.”
8. Reread your letter carefully for errors in typing, spelling,
grammar, and punctuation. If you find errors, rewrite or
retype your letter.

589
Unit 13 Writing Business Letters

The Request Letter

Write a request, or inquiry, letter when you need information
on a specific subject, or when you need a brochure or a catalogue.
Like all business letters, the request letter should be brief, but it
should also contain all the necessary information. Study the following
example.

330 Owens Avenue

South Bend, Indiana 46605
October 10, 19

Director of Admissions
Indiana State University
Terre Haute, Indiana 47809

Dear Sir or Madam:

I am a senior at Franklin High School in South

Bend. In the fall I plan to attend college,
taking courses leading to a degree in marine
biology. I would like to know if Indiana State
University offers a degree in marine biology.

Would you please also send the following:

1. a current catalogue
2. information on scholarships,
particularly in the science department
3. information on student loans and
student work programs

If there is a charge for this service, please

let me know. Thank you very much.

Sincerely yours,

Max Nelson

When writing a request letter, follow the general strategies for

business letters on page 589. In addition, follow these specific
strategies.

590
 13.1

Order Letter

Strategies
1. Make your requests reasonable and specific. For example,
do not request from the National Park Service all the
available information on parks. Instead, you could ask for
information about one or two particular parks.
2. Offer to pay for printed material if you are not certain that it
is free.
3. Allow sufficient time for your request to be filled. If you
need information for a class report, for example, write at
least three weeks before your report is due.

The Order Letter

When ordering merchandise through the mail, you must some
times write an order letter. Make sure that your letter contains
complete and accurate information about quantity, size, color, cost,
and catalogue number. Study the letter on the following page.
When writing an order letter, follow the general strategies for
writing business letters on page 589. In addition, follow these
strategies.

Strategies
1. Give the source of the advertisement or the catalogue year,
season, or number from which you are ordering.
2. Double-check your arithmetic. Also, make sure that you
have included postage and handling costs, if necessary.
3. Explain how you intend to pay for the merchandise. Do not
send cash through the mail. Use a money order or a check
instead.
4. Explain if you must have the merchandise by a certain date.
5. Type or write the word Enclosure in the bottom left corner
of your letter if you have enclosed a check or a money
order.

591
Unit 13 Writing Business Letters

617 Depot Road

Omaha, Nebraska 68123
September 23, 19

Griffin Bros. Stationers

1122 Broad Street
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15211

Dear Sir or Madam:

I would like to order the following items from

your fall sale catalogue.

Code Quantity Description Price

B—l28 1 Calligraphy for Beginners $8.95
P—900 1 St. Pierre pen 7.98
C—006 1 Extra—fine nib 1.00
C—OO9 1 B—2 nib 1.00
C—l05 1 bottle black india ink 3.00
C—3O9 1 sheet 36 x 30
ivory parchment 3.00
24. 93
Shipping and handling 2.50

Total $27.43

Please send the items to me at my home address.

If my order cannot be filled in full within six

weeks, please let me know; I may wish to cancel all
or part of it.

I have enclosed a check for twenty—seven dollars

and forty—three cents ($27.43).

Sincerely yours,

Margaret Rogers

Enclosure: check #157

592
 13.1

Adjustment Letter

The Adjustment Letter

Write an adjustment letter whenever an order that you place is
not ifiled correctly or when merchandise that you purchase is
defective. Explain the problem clearly and courteously and suggest a
solution. Study the example letter.

911 Webster Avenue

St. Paul, Minnesota 55115
November 2, 19

Western Trading Company

1172 Harbor Drive
Portland, Oregon 97267

Dear Sir or Madam:

On September 23, I ordered a pair of blue

gloves, a cable—knit cardigan, and a red down
vest from your company’s winter preview
catalogue. All the merchandise arrived
promptly three weeks later; however, you
mistakenly sent a navy blue vest instead of the
red one I requested.

I am returning the blue vest to you in a

separate package. In exchange please send me a
red vest, size large (item number W 179).

Also, I would appreciate being reimbursed

the $2.35 in postage charges incurred in
returning the wrong vest to you.

Thank you.

Sincerely,

Marcus Hopkins

When writing an adjustment letter, follow the general strategies

on page 589. In addition, follow the strategies on the following page.

593
Unit 13 Writing Business Letters

Strategies
1. State the problem accurately and clearly. Try to explain the
problem in the first paragraph of your letter.
2. Suggest a solution. Ask politely for a refund or a replace
ment.
3. Keep a copy of your letter until the adjustment that you
request has been made.

E ercise 1 Writing: An Adjustment Letter Use the follow

ing information to write an adjustment letter in modified block style.
Your name is Maryanne Bonica; you live at 811 Mountain
View Drive, Memphis, Tennessee 38112. You ordered two tickets
for The Pirates of Penzance. You asked for seats in the first balcony
for the evening performance on February 9. You have received two
tickets for February 9, but only one is for a seat in the first balcony;
the other is for the second balcony. Because it is only January 28,
there is still time to get the correct ticket. Write to the Majestic
Theater, Box Office, 801 South Street, Memphis, Tennessee 38102,
and request an adjustment.

Exercise 2 Revising: A Request Letter Rewrite the follow

ing letter, making all necessary changes in form, tone, and content.
Eliminate and revise sentences as needed.
April 20, 19—
Dover, Delaware
12 Prospect Lane 19901
Ms. Marlene Chu, Manager
16 Lancaster Road
Dover, Delaware
Bijou Theater
Dear Marlene,
Last summer my family, friends, and I attended all of the
movies in the Humphrey Bogart Film Festival that you held last
July. Boy, like Bogart was really something! I think it was really
neat of you to give Bogart fans, both old ones and new ones, the
opportunity to see his films in a theater instead of just on late-night

594
 13.1

Adjustment Letter

television. You are also to be commended for providing worthwhile

entertainment at a time when many young people have little to do.
This summer, how about having a Greta Garbo Film Festival?
I know many young people, as well as adults, who would welcome
the opportunity to see all of her movies. She was so beautiful. Did
you see her in Camille? If you do not have another festival planned
yet, I would appreciate your giving consideration to a Garbo Film
Festival.
Thanking you in advance, I am
Yours truly,
Edward Sansone

ssignmen I Writing On an unlined sheet of paper, write an

adjustment letter in modified block style to the publisher of a
photography magazine to which you recently subscribed at regular
rates. Now you have discovered that student rates are available.
Write to the magazine publisher and ask for an adjustment. Make up
a name for the magazine and its publisher, but use your own name
and return address.

Assignment 2 Writing On an unlined sheet of paper, write a

letter in modified block style to a major airline requesting informa
tion on careers in air travel. Ask for descriptions and requirements
for the position of ffight attendant, as well as for other positions not
requiring travel. Make up a name for the airline, but use your own
name and return address.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
1. Did you include all of the necessary parts of the business
letter?
~.— 2. Does the body of your letter contain all of the necessary
information?
~..i 3. Did you use the modified block style?

k—4~ Did you state your request briefly, clearly, and courteously?
i..— 5. Did you proofread your letter for correct grammar, usage,
spelling, and punctuation?

595
 Unit 13 Writing Business Letters

1. ApI~gf

When applying for a job, you need to write a letter of

application and a résumé. Both are necessary to give a prospective
employer an accurate impression of you and your qualifications.

Application Letter
The purpose of an application letter is to get an appointment for
an interview. Be certain that your letter contains the following
information.
Position Sought. In the first paragraph, state what position you
are seeking and tell how you learned of it. Do not merely say that you
are interested in any position that happens to be open.
Experience. In the second paragraph, make a brief reference to
whatever experience that you have that qualifies you for the job. This
information need not be presented in detail here. You will be more
explicit in your résumé (pages 597—598).
Conclusion. State courteously that you would like to have a
personal interview at the employer’s convenience. Tell where and
when you can be reached to arrange an appointment.
Study the letter of application that appears on the next page.
When writing a job application letter, follow the general
strategies for business letters on page 589. In addition, follow these
specific strategies.

Strategies
1. Express confidence in your ability to do the job, but do not
boast.
2. Read your letter aloud for tone to make sure that you do not
sound arrogant, flippant, or too casual. If you wish, have a
family member or a teacher read your letter.
3. Include additional information about yourself in an attached
résumé.

596
 13.2
Résumé

227 West Pine Street

Flagstaff, Arizona 86001
May 8, 19
Mr. David Stewart
1907 Central Avenue
Flagstaff. Arizona 86001
Dear Mr. Stewart:
I am responding to your May 6
advertisement in the Review Journal for a
summer assistant in your law office. I would
like to be considered for that position.
I understand from your advertisement that
your office needs an assistant to file, to
deliver material to the courthouse, and to do
occasional research. You will note from my
enclosed r~sum~ that I have assisted in the
counseling offices of my high school and worked
at the public library. Through my library job,
I have become familiar with research work.
I believe that my background, interests,
and experience qualify me for the position
advertised; furthermore, I am interested in law
as a career. I would be pleased to meet with
you for an interview at your convenience. My
home phone number is 555—0901, and I can be
reached there any afternoon after 3:15.
Thank you for your consideration.
Very truly yours,
th~*4et4 K. KA~~
Elizabeth K. Knox

Writing a Résumé
With your letter of application, enclose a résumé. A résumé,
sometimes called a data sheet, is a summary of your qualifications. Its
purpose is to present your qualifications in a clear, well-organized
manner. Include the following information in your résumé: position
wanted, experience, education, personal interests and special skills,
and references.
Begin work on your résumé before you start applying for a job.
You need time to collect all the data and to write, organize, and

597
Unit 13 Writing Business Letters

revise your résumé until it represents your best effort. An early start
will also allow you time to contact those persons whom you wish to
use as references.
The sample résumé on the facing page has side headings to
point out the categories of information contained.
Use the following strategies when writing a résumé.

Strategies
1. Type your résumé. It should be neat and free of errors.
2. Limit your résumé to one or two pages.
3. List your most recent work experience first. Include the
dates that you were employed, the places where you were
employed, and the responsibilities that you had.
4. Do not include personal data such as age, height, weight,
religion, and so forth.
5. List two, preferably three, references, with an address or
telephone number for each. One of your references should
be a character reference, someone who knows you well. Do
not include family members or friends your own age. Do
not list anyone without first obtaining his or her permission.

Exercise I Writing: An Application Letter Write a letter

of application from Clark Masur, 11 Ridge Road, New Haven,
Connecticut 06523, in response to the following advertisement.
Supply all information needed.

ASSISTANT WANTED
Local landscape architectural firm needs
assistant for major project. Must have
knowledge of botany and be able to read
plans. Mechanical drawing helpful but not
required. Some light clerical duties in
volved. Reply by letter only to Mr. Gerry
Travers, Tomasini Landscaping Inc., New
Haven, CT 06525

598
 13.2
Résumé

Elizabeth K. Knox
227 West Pine Street
Flagstaff, Arizona 86001
Telephone: 555—0901

Position Wanted Assistant in law office

Experience Flagstaff Public Library, June—August

19_. Checked books in and out;
shelved books; assisted library
patrons in locating books and nonprint
materials; performed research
assignments

Mountainview High School. Counseling

Office September—May, 19_. Office
Assistant: typed and filed letters;
made telephone calls

Education Will graduate with honors from

Mountainview High School, June 2, 19

Skills and Skills

Interests Speak Spanish
Type 50 wpm
Have driver’s license

Interests
Member of the Mountainview High School
debating team
Member of All City Youth Choir
Participant in local amateur
theatricals

Award
Mountainview High School Debater of
the Year. 19

References Mr. Mark Anderson, Director

Flagstaff Public Library
548 Charleston Avenue
Flagstaff, Arizona 86002
Telephone: 876—9453

Mr. Robert Harney, Government Teacher

Mountainview High School
1702 Valley View Drive
Flagstaff, Arizona 86002
Telephone: 878 9720

599
Unit 13 Writing Business Letters

Exercise 2 Writing: A Résumé Using the following informa

tion, write a résumé for Clark Masur in the preceding exercise. Use
side headings to categorize the information. Proofread the finished
résumé and correct any mistakes.
Clark will graduate this year from Lincoln High School.
Among the courses he has taken are botany, biology, and mathe
matics. His hobbies include sketching and photography. He has a
driver’s license and can drive both automatic and stick-shift vehicles.
He knows first aid.
Last summer from June through August, Clark worked for
Harvey Nursery and Gardeners in New Haven. His job included
watering and fertilizing flowers and shrubs, hauling soil, planting
flower bulbs, and checking plants for signs of insects or disease.
Clark is currently employed by the New Haven Botanical
Society, where he conducts Saturday-morning nature walks on which
he helps youngsters to identify and draw or photograph leaves and
wildflowers.

Clark’s references are the following:

Mr. Robert Hamey, Botany Teacher, Lincoln High School, New
Haven, CT 06514 Telephone: 555-0847
Mr. Mark Anderson, Manager, Harvey Nursery and Gardeners,
Wedgewood Road, New Haven, CT 06514
Telephone: 555-6211
Ms. Donna Schaeffer, New Haven Botanical Society, 60 Bellview
Avenue, New Haven, CT 06514 Telephone: 555-1145

Assignment Writing Find a help-wanted advertisement that

interests you in the classified section of your local newspaper. Write a
letter applying for the job. Prepare a résumé to accompany your
letter.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignment for the following points:
i.0 1. Did you begin your letter by stating what position you are
seeking?
2. Did you tell where and when you can be reached?

600
 13.3

Opinion Letter

,, 3. Did you read your letter for appropriate tone?

, 4. Did you include side headings in your résumé?
,..— 5. Did you list your most recent work experience first in your

résumé?
,~‘ 6. Did you list at least two references, with addresses and phone
numbers, in your résumé?
~.‘ 7. Did your proofread your letter and résumé for correct gram

mar, usage, spelling, and punctuation?

Occasionally there may be local or national issues on which you

wish to express your opinion. One effective way to express opinions is
to write a letter to a newspaper, a national magazine, a television or
radio network, or an elected official, such as a mayor or a senator.
Your letter of opinion will be more likely to achieve the result
that you wish if you maintain a reasonable tone throughout. Anger,
sarcasm, and accusations offend readers and will diminish your
persuasiveness. If your letter is restrained, logical, courteous, and
tactful, you may persuade others to accept your opinion.

Parts of an Opinion Letter

To be well organized, your letter of opinion should contain the
following parts.
Summary and Opinion. Begin your letter by giving a brief
summary of the situation or issue about which you are writing. Then
state your opinion briefly and clearly.
Support. Support your opinions with logical and factual state
ments. Once you have made your point, do not wander from it; do
not include irrelevant statements. See Unit 8, “Persuasive Writing,”
for help in writing persuasive arguments.
Conclusion. Conclude your letter by summarizing your main
points or, when appropriate, by suggesting a course of action that you
think should be followed.

601
Unit 13 Writing Business Letters

Forms of Address
When writing to elected officials, use conventional forms of
address. Consult the following chart.

PERSON AND ADDRESS SALUTATION

The President
The President Dear Mr. President:
The White House Sir:
Washington, DC 20500
United States Senator
The Honorable Justin Hale Dear Senator Hale:
The United States Senate Dear Sir (or Madam):
Washington, DC 20510
United States Representative
The Honorable Joan Weitz Dear Representative Weitz:
House of Representatives Dear Congresswoman (or
Washington, DC 20515 Congressman) Weitz:
Dear Sir (or Madam):
Governor
The Honorable Clyde Doyle Dear Governor Doyle:
Governor of Utah Dear Sir (or Madam):
Salt Lake City, UT 84100
State Senator
The Honorable Mary O’Brien Dear Senator O’Brien
The State Senate Dear Madam (or Sir):
Jefferson City, MO 65101
State Legislator
The Honorable César Ruiz Dear Representative Ruiz
The General Assembly Dear Mr. Ruiz:
Richmond, VA 21900 Dear Sir (or Madam):
Mayor
The Honorable Lynn Venable Dear Mayor Venable:
Mayor of the City of Green Bay Dear Madam (or Mr.) Mayor:
City Hall
Green Bay, WI 54301

Study the letter of opinion that appears on the facing page.

602
 13.3

Opinion Letter

542 Black Mountain Way

Aberdeen, South Dakota 57401
February 9, 19

The Honorable Glenn Reid

Mayor of the City of Aberdeen
City Hall
Aberdeen, South Dakota 57401

Dear Mayor Reid:

I am writing in response to a recent proposal

that the city build a parking garage on the downtown
lot formerly occupied by the Wentworth estate, at the
corner of Main Street and Marlboro Avenue. Since the
city of Aberdeen acquired the land from the Wentworth
heirs after the estate was demolished by fire two
years ago, several proposals for its use have been
discussed; yet only the latest has received serious,
though perhaps unjustified, attention.

The city has built two parking garages in the

downtown area within the past decade; a third would
seem unnecessary. Certainly a feasibility study
should be completed before discussion of the parking
garage proposal proceeds further. Should such a study
forecast little demand for additional parking
facilities in the downtown area, perhaps the vacant
lot could be converted into a park rest area for
downtown workers and shoppers. The Downtown Merchants
Association might even be willing to provide the
minimal upkeep necessary for a small park.

If it is found that parking facilities are truly

needed. I would support the current proposal.
However, I suspect that a third parking garage would
prove superfluous, while a small park might be better
appreciated and enhance the appeal of Aberdeens
downtown district.

Respectfully,

Joseph Albertson

603
Unit 13 Writing Business Letters

Writing the Opinion Letter

Use the following strategies to write an effective opinion letter.

Strategies
1. Keep your letter brief. Many newspapers and magazines
indicate the preferred length for letters, usually two hun
dred words or less.
2. Use the salutation To the Editor: in letters to newspapers
and magazines.
3. Sign your letter. Also include your address and telephone
number so that the newspaper can verify that you wrote the
letter.
4. Write promptly. Editors often will not publish letters on
subjects that are no longer current.
5. Address your query or suggestion to the public official who
is best able to respond to it. For example, do not write to the
governor about matters that pertain to your community
only, and do not write to your mayor about an issue to be
decided in the United States Senate.

xercise Writing: An Opinion Letter Using the following

information, write a letter of opinion in modified block style. Then
proofread your letter and revise it.
Your name is Scott Ames, and you live at 331 North Avenue,
Brunswick, Maine 04011. Every Tuesday evening for the past three
weeks, you have watched American Classics Revisited, a television
series featuring dramatizations of famous American short stories.
You are enjoying the series very much because of the quality of the
acting and also because of the choice of stories, especially Eudora
Welty’s “A Visit of Charity.” However, the program airs from 9:30
to 11:00, a time that you think is inappropriate for younger viewers.
Write to Mr. Edward L. Reynolds, President, American Television
Network, 7 Rockefeller Plaza, New York, NY 10020. Suggest that
the program be switched to Friday night at the same time or to 8:00
to 9:30 on Tuesday nights.

604
 13.3

Opinion Letter

Assignment I Writing Find a letter to the editor on the

editorial page of your local newspaper. Write a letter to the editor in
which you offer support for or arguments against the points it
contains.

Ass gnment Writing Think of an unresolved issue that

affects your community or state. Write a letter to your governor or
mayor in which you suggest a solution. Be specific.

Assignment Checklist
Check your assignments for the following points:
~.ø 1. Did you state your opinion briefly, clearly, and courteously?
~.w 2. Did you make a unified and coherent argument?
i..’ 3. Did you summarize your main points or suggest a course of
action?
~ 4. Did you maintain a reasonable tone?
,.— 5. Did you include your name, address, and telephone number?
~.— 6. Did you proofread your letter for correct grammar, usage,
spelling, and punctuation?

605
 — — —— V Ii~a WA W’

iij~) - 7’

A Model Senate Program: Writing a Business Letter

Situation: You have read a newspaper article about a pro
gram in another state that enables high school seniors to act
as state legislators for a day. Students in the program discuss
policy issues and follow the agenda of a regular legislative
session. You are going to write a letter in which you explain
to your state senator why you think this program should be
made available to students in your state.
Writer: you as a high school senior
Audience: your state senator
Topic: the Model Senate Program
Purpose: to inform and persuade in a letter

Directions To write your letter, follow these steps.

Step 1. Read the newspaper article on the facing page
about the Model Senate Program in Moline.
Step 2. Write a letter in modified block style to your state
senator. In the first paragraph, state who you are
and tell why you are writing. In the next para
graph, tell what the Model Senate Program is and
explain how it works. In the third paragraph, ex
plain the benefits of the program and tell why
you feel that your state should have a Model
Senate Program. In the concluding paragraph,
urge your senator to institute a Model Senate
Program in your state. Thank the senator for con
sidering your request and indicate courteously
that you would appreciate a response.

606
2 Ledger

Local Students Go to Senate

ability tO stimulate interest in govern
~0~f~E_Eighte~ high school sen ment. State Senator Roberta Avedon
iors from Moline attended a Model comments, “1 think it’s a marvelous
Senate yesterdaY at the state capitol. opportunity both for us and for the
The students, elected by their class students. They have a genuine inter
mates and accompanied by a teacher, est in how government works, and I
participated in a day~long session of wouldn’t be surprised if some of these
legislative decision making. They par students went on to become legisla
ticipated in a lively debate and roll- tors themselves.” Jonathan Baccus,
call vote on a current issue. social studies teacher at Molifle Sen
The Model Senate Program, begun ior High School, has accompanied
in 1980, gives students firsthand expe students tO the state capital every
rience of the state’s legislative proc year since the program began. “The
esses. The students accompany their benefits are many,” he says. “Stu
senator on a round of activities that dents have a better grasp of how a bill
begins in the senator’s office and ends becomes a law. We discuss and vote
in the state senate chamber. As part on these same issues in the classroom,
of their activities, student “senators” and students are more involved than
greet constituents, read legislative ever in how our government works to
briefs, and lunch in the Senate dining serve the people.” The words of Bob
room. Both the students and their Blanque, a student from Kendall
teacher are encouraged to ask ques High in Kendall County, capture it
tions of legislatOrs about problems best: “For the first time, I feel that
facing the state. I’m really a part of the democratic
Legislators, educat01~, and stu process.”
dents have praised the program for its

U,4

607
Unit Assignments
Assignment I You are interested in a certain occupation, and a
relative has given you the name of someone in that field. Write a
letter requesting an interview with that person and a tour of the job
site. Make sure that your letter is brief, yet specific. Proofread and
revise your letter to correct any errors.

Assignment 2 After you graduate you would like to work and

continue your education at the same time. Write a letter of applica
tion to a prospective employer explaining your situation and your job
needs. Include a résumé of your education and previous job experi
ence. Proofread and revise your letter and résumé.

Assignment 3 There is a historic one-room schoolhouse in your

community that is to be razed to make way for an access road to a
new shopping mall. It has been maintained by a local civic group, and
it is used for small community gatherings. Write a letter to the editor
of your local paper explaining why you feel that the schoolhouse
should not be demolished. Proofread and revise your letter to correct
any errors in content, spelling, punctuation, and tone.

Assignment 4 Your state legislature is considering enacting a

bottle bill. Write a letter to your local representative urging him or
her to support or not to support the legislation. Explain the reasons
that you feel the bill would or would not be good for your state.
Proofread and revise your letter to correct any errors in spelling,
punctuation, and tone.

Assignment 5 You ordered a number of items of camping

equipment from C. M. Peterson’s summer catalogue. When the
package arrived, one item was missing. There was no notice that it
would be sent at a later date. Write an adjustment letter to the
company explaining the problem. Proofread your letter and eliminate
any errors.

Assignment S While you were looking through Kaplan’s cata

logue of posters, you saw a poster of Mt. Everest that you would like

608
to put on the wall of your room. Write an order letter to the Kaplan
company. The poster is item 5603 in the fall catalogue, and its price is
$5.99. Then proofread and revise your letter to eliminate any errors.

Assignment 7 You and several of your friends are interested in

the sport of windsurfing. Write to the branch of the National
Windsurfing Association in a city near your home. Ask where
windsurfing can be done in your area, when lessons are given, and
what equipment is needed. Proofread and revise your letter to correct
any errors in content, spelling, punctuation, and tone.

Assignment 8 You believe that your school should present a

career day in which local business people explain what types of jobs
are available and what qualifications are necessary for those jobs.
Express your opinion in a letter to the principal of your school.
Explain why you think that the career day would be valuable to
students. Then proofread and revise your letter to eliminate any
errors.

Revising Your Assignments

For help in revising letters, consult the Checklist for Revision
on the last page of this book.

609
Unit Tests

Number your paper from 1 to 5. Next to each number, write

True if the sentence is true or False if it is false.
1. In a résumé you should list your most recent work experience first.
2. Letters to the editor do not have to be signed.
3. A job-application letter is meant to secure an appointment for an
interview.
4. If you cannot type a business letter, you should write it in blue or
black ink.
5. Your résumé should include a minimum of four references.
B. Number your paper from 6 to 10. Next to each number, write
the letter of the term that correctly completes the sentence. You will
use all but one of the terms.
a. adjustment letter d. opinion letter
b. block style e. inside address
c. résumé f. modified block style

6. The 2 is the name and address of the person to whom you are
writing.
7. In the fl, all parts of the letter start at the left margin.
8. You write a(n) ZL. when an order that you place is not filled correct
ly or when merchandise that you purchase is defective.
9. A(n) LL_ is a summary of your qualifications for a job.
10. A(n) 1 expresses your view of a local or national issue.
C. Number your paper from 11 to 15. Next to each number, write
the letter of the item that correctly answers the question.
11. Which of the following statements would be appropriate in a request
letter?
a. Hoping to hear from you soon.
b. I’m sure your catalogue will take some of the hassle out of trying
to decide which college to apply to.
c. Please let me know if there is any charge for this service.
d. Send the information to the above address right away.
e. As per your request, I am enclosing a stamped, sell-addressed
envelope.

610
12. Which of the following does not belong in a job application letter?
a. I feel that I am qualified for the position.
b. I am 5 feet 11 inches tall and weigh 142 pounds.
c. I will be happy to come for an interview at your convenience.
d. From my enclosed résumé you will note that I have studied ac
counting.
e. Thank you for your consideration.
13. Which of the following is an appropriate reason for writing an opinion
letter to your United States senator?
a. You feel that your community should continue to sponsor the
Spring Kite Festival, as it has done in the past.
b. You disagree with those people who feel that your city is not large
enough to support a professional basketball team.
c. Although you realize that no one welcomes an increase in the state
sales tax, you think that your state should raise the tax rate.
d. You would like to see a national holiday in honor of Benjamin
Franklin, whom you consider to be unjustly ignored.
e. You think that Saturday morning television should offer a wider
choice of programming.
14. Which of the following points should not be mentioned in a résumé?
a. You can write a computer program.
b. You speak and write French.
c. You participated in an after-school tutorial program for non-
English speaking students.
d. You are nineteen years old.
e. You know standard first-aid procedures.
15. Which of the following statements about résumés is not true?
a. Résumés should have side headings to categorize information.
b. Résumés should not be handwritten.
c. Listed references should always contain telephone numbers.
d. The résumé should begin with a description of the position sought.
e. The place and date of one’s birth belong at the top of the résumé.

S
Choose one of the Unit Assignments. Write the assignment as
directed and hand it in to your teacher.

611
 Part
Three
0 /

~.a — S ~ — ~

- /1

Unit 14 Spelling SkIls 614

Unit 15 Vocabulary Skills 624
Unit 16 Public Speaking Skills 634
Unit 17 Test-Takin Skills 654

612 ~ “~
 As you complete assignments and other projects now
and in the future, you will need skills that are related to
writing. By studying the units in Part Three, you will learn
skills that you can use to present your ideas better in either
writing or speaking. Techniques for improving your spelling
and your vocabulary will aid you in all of your work, and they
will also help you to present yourself well to prospective
employers and other people in your community. Test-taking
skills, too, can be useful to you when you take tests to apply
for a job or to be admitted to a college. You may use public
speaking skills to address a class or to present information to
the members of an organization to which you belong.

&

.1~
Unit 14

- //

- //

.1 eI”g s
Following these five steps will help you to improve your spelling
skills and will enable you to learn to spell new words as you increase
your vocabulary.

Procedure
1. Look at the word and study its letters.
2. Pronounce the word to yourself and think about the letters
in it and the sounds that they have.
3. Write the word. As you write it, think about any difficult
letter combinations in the word.
4. Check your spelling to see whether it is correct.
5. Study the word until you have memorized its spelling.

I . e
4. a Making Nouns Plural

The following rules will help you to form correctly the plurals of
nouns when you write.

Regular Plurals
Most noun plurals are formed according to the following rules.

614
Rule Form the plural of most common nouns and proper
nouns by adding -s to the noun.
alibi Celt omelet Paquette
alibis the Celts omelets the Paquettes

Rule Form the plural of common nouns and proper nouns that
end with s, x, z, ch, or sh by adding -es to the noun.
abyss tax crutch Ruiz
abysses taxes crutches the Ruizes

Rule Form the plural of a common noun that ends with y

preceded by a consonant by changing the yto land adding -es.
commodity intricacy observatory promontory
commodities intricacies observatories promontories

ule Form the plural of a common noun that ends with y

preceded by a vowel by adding -s.
buoy fray replay valley
buoys frays replays valleys

Rule Form the plurals of most nouns that end with f or fe by

changing the fto v and adding -es.
wolf loaf thief
wolves loaves thieves
BUT spoof waif
spoofs waifs

Rule Form the plural of nouns that end with if by adding -s.
bluff cuff sheriff staff
bluffs cuffs sheriffs staffs

Rule Form the plural of nouns that end with o preceded by a

vowel by adding -s.
cameo kazoo radio scenario
cameos kazoos radios scenarios

615
Unit 14 Spelling Skills

Rule Form the plural of nouns that end with o preceded by a

consonant in one of three ways: for some nouns, add -s; for
others, add -es. For a few nouns, add either -s or -es; both
spellings are correct. Check your dictionary when you are
uncertain.
dynamo virtuoso innuendo memento
dynamos virtuosos innuendoes mementos
mementoeS

Rule Form the plural of a letter, a symbol, a number, or a word

that is in italic type (underlined) (pages 20 1—202) by adding an
apostrophe and -s (‘s). Do not underline (italicize) the plural
ending.
J 20 yes *

J’s 20’s yes’s

Irregular Plurals
Some nouns do not follow the preceding rules for forming
plurals. The following are two examples of irregular plurals. Check
your dictionary when you are uncertain of how to form a plural.
Certain nouns change their form when they are plural.

crisis die mouse tooth

crises dice mice teeth

Some common nouns and many proper nouns have the same
form for both singular and plural.
aircraft chassis grouse Japanese

Compound Nouns
Rule Form the plural of a compound noun that is written as
one word by changing the last word in the compound to its
correct plural form. Form the plural of a compound noun that is
hyphenated or written as two or more words by making the
most important word plural.
onlooker hanger-on bill of sale
onlookers hangers-on bills of sale

616
 14.2b

Adding Endings

.2 Adding Endings

The following rules will help you to remember how to spell

words when you add endings other than the plural (-s and -es).

Doubling the Final Consonant

Double the final consonant only when you add an ending that
begins with a vowel. Then follow these rules:
Rule Double the final consonant when you are adding an
ending to a one-syllable word that ends with a single consonant
preceded by a single vowel.
flip peg skim
flipping pegged skimmed

ule Double the final consonant when you add an ending to a

word that has more than one syllable and ends with a single
consonant preceded by a single vowel and has the primary
stress on the last syllable.
allot regret prefer
allotted regrettable preferred

ule To words that end in c preceded by a single vowel, add -k

before endings that begin with e or ito keep the hard c sound.
picnic mimic shellac
picnicking mimicking shellacked

Keeping or Dropping the Final e

ule When you add an ending that begins with a consonant to
most words that end with silent e, keep the final e.
blithe contrite loathe
blithely contriteness loathesome
BUT argue acknowledge
argument acknowledgment

617
Unit 14 Spelling Skills

Rule When you add an ending that begins with a vowel to

most words that end with silent e, drop the final e.
contrive cringe disparage
contrivance cringing disparaging
BUT singe
singeing

Rule When you add an ending that begins with a or o to most

words that end with ce or ge, keep the final e to preserve the soft
sound of the c or g.
enforce advantage notice
enforceable advantageous noticeable
BUT mortgage
mortgagor

Changing Final yto I

Rule For most words that end with y preceded by a consonant,
change the y to i before adding any ending except -ing.
levy luxury liquefy
levied luxurious liquefying
BUT wry
wryly

Rule For most words that end with y preceded by a vowel, do

not change the y to i before adding an ending.
alloy enjoy journey
alloyed enjoyable journeying
BUT day
daily

Assignment Adding Endings On your paper, write the cor

rect spelling of each word with the ending indicated in parentheses.
When adding plural endings, you must choose the correct plural form
(-s, -es, -‘s). Use your dictionary if you need help. Then write a
sentence using each new word form.

618
 14.3
Spelling Patterns

1. colony (-al) 10. harmony (-ous)

2. head of state (plural) 11. cup (-fisl)
3. collate (-ed) 12. guide (-ance)
4. courtesy (plural) 13. reflex (plural)
5. codify (-ing) 14. tradesman (plural)
6. convey (-ed) 15. polite (-ness)
7. industry (-ous) 16. leaf (plural)
8. notice (-able) 17. passer-by (plural)
9. crescendo (plural) 18. double-header (plural)

e
The ie/ei Pattern
The following rules will help you to decide whether to spell a
word with ie or with ei.
Rule Use ie if the vowel combination has a long e sound (as in
fiend) unless the letter c immediately precedes the pair of
vowels.
chief liege siege
grieve shield perceive
BUT neither leisure

Rule Use ei after c or when the sound is not long e.

receipt meiosis foreign
BUT lie efficient

ule If the vowel combination has a long a sound (as in sleigh)

use ei.
neighbor feint veil weight

Rule If the two vowels are pronounced separately in the word,

spell them in the order of their pronunciation.
diet piety reimburse

619
 Unit 14 Spelling Skills

The “Seed” Sound Pattern

The “seed” ending sound has three spellings: -sede, -ceed, and
-cede. The spelling s-e-e-d does not occur as a suffix in any word.
1. Only one word ends in -sede: supersede.
2. Three words end in -ceed: exceed, proceed, and succeed.
3. All other such words end in -cede: accede, intercede, secede,
and so on.

ciat e i
Certain kinds of pronunciation errors commonly cause spelling
problems. Check your dictionary for the pronunciation of words that
you are unsure of, and note the letters that spell the sounds.
Extra Sounds or Omitted Sounds. Words are often mis
spelled because they are pronounced with extra sounds or with
sounds left out. Study the words in the following list. Pay special
attention to the underlined letters to make sure that you neither add
nor omit sounds when you spell or pronounce the words.
different leverage surprise
foliage recognize temperament

Transposed Letters. Sometimes people write letters in the

wrong order because they think of them in the wrong order. Such
errors often occur in the words in the following list. Pay special
attention to the underlined letters to make sure that you pronounce
them and spell them in the correct order.
amateur pervade trag~y
hundred prevalent unanimous

Homophones and Commonly Confused Words. Words

that have the same pronunciation but different origins, spellings, and
meanings are called homophones. Some other sets of words are not
homophones, but they are similar enough in sound and spelling to
create confusion. Learn the spellings and meanings of the words in
the following list so that you will use them correctly in your writing.

620
 14~5

Other Spelling Aids

acclamation, acclimation envelop, envelope

aesthetic, ascetic flaunt, flout
air, heir hew, hue
callous, callus ingenious, ingenuous
chili, chilly knead, need
cite, sight, site later, latter
cooperation, corporation pray, prey
discus, discuss verses, versus

In addition to learning the preceding spelling rules and pat

terns, use the following strategies to help you to improve your
spelling.
Strategies
1. Develop your own methods of word study. Make sure that
you know the rules and patterns of spelling.
2. Keep a list of troublesome words. Study your list frequently,
and use the words in your writing.
3. Create your own memory aids, called mnemonic
(ni-MON’ik) devices, for difficult words. For example:
Something that is extraordinary is extra ordinary.
History tells a story.
An island is land.
There are no a’s buried in cemetery.
4. Think carefully about how words sound and look.
5. Always consult a dictionary if you are unsure of the spelling
of a word.

Alternate Spellings of Sounds

If you do not know how to spell a word, you may have difficulty
locating it in your dictionary. You may have to guess the spelling of
the word and then check other possible spellings until you find the
correct one. You already know which letters usually stand for the

621
 Unit 14 Spelling Skills

* ~ R’! r~
various sounds In English, but some sounds can be spelled in more
than one way. The following list suggests where to look for a word
when it does not begin in the way that you expect.
CONSONANT SOUNDS ALTERNATE SPELLINGS
as in feast ph, as in physical
j, as in justice g, as in generate
as in keep c and ch, as in confirm and chorus
n, as in nest gn, kn, and pn, as in gnarl, know,
and pneumonia
r, as in right wr, as in wring
5, as in sip ps and c, as in pseudo and circus
VOWEL SOUNDS ALTERNATE SPELLINGS
a, as in ache ei, as in eighteen
1, as in idea ei, as in Einstein
u, as in urban e and ea, as in ermine and early

1.6 S

Certain words are misspelled so often that many writers consid

er them problem words. You have studied some troublesome words
earlier in this unit. The following list gives fifty more words for you to
master.
academically hypocrisy prominent
accessible immense questionnaire
accumulation incessant rehearsal
aggressive inevitable reminisce
apparatus inimitable requisition
buoyancy inoculate rhythm
clientele intellectual ridiculous
competent irrelevant scissors
coupon irritable schism
criticism laboratory severely
curriculum livelihood suppress
exhibition miscellaneous suspicion
exhilaration mucilage sympathize
ecstasy ordinarily tyranny
exaggerate parallel vacillate
embarrass pastime vengeance
facile phenomenon

622
 14.6

Misspelled Words

Assignment 1 Improving Your Spelling ~ii your paper,

list ten words that you want to learn to spell from the preceding list.
Create a mnemonic device (page 621) for each of the words on your
list; write each device next to its word. Use the mnemonic devices to
study the words.

Assignment 2 Learning New Words On your paper, list

three pairs or sets of words from the list of homophones and other
commonly confused words on page 621. Write one or two paragraphs
that include all of the words that you chose. Underline the words.
Consult your dictionary to check your spelling and usage of each
word.

623
 Unit 15

J~

The words that you use when you speak or write can add to or
detract from what you have to say. The words that you recognize
when you listen or read can increase your comprehension of what
other people have to say. Developing a good vocabulary can add to
your ability to use and recognize words.
In this unit you will discover how to learn new words, how
certain words have become part of our language, how to choose the
words that will carry the meaning that you wish to convey, and how to
use your dictionary most effectively.

5. a

In your notebook, make a list of words that you want to add to

your vocabulary. Look up the meanings in your dictionary, and add
them to your list. Study each word and its meaning frequently. Use at
least one of these words every day in your writing or in your
conversation.
Once you are confident in using these new words, add more
words to your list and use the same approach to learn them. In this
way, you can build a reliable and effective vocabulary.

1. n xt

When you come across an unfamiliar word in your reading, you

may be able to determine its meaning by examining the context, the
words that precede and follow it and the general meaning of the
passage in which the word appears. The following strategies suggest
ways in which context can help you determine meaning.

624
Strategies
1. Use the general sense of the passage along with your existing
knowledge of what is described to infer a meaning.
2. Look for synonyms or restated definitions of the unfamiliar
word.
3. Look for examples in the passage that may help you to
determine the meaning of the unfamiliar word.
4. See whether the unfamiliar word is compared or contrasted
with a familiar word or idea. If it is, use that known idea to
help you determine the meaning of the unfamiliar word.

Assignment Context Read the following paragraph, paying

special attention to the words in italic type. Write those words in your
notebook. Beside each word write the meaning that you think the
word has in the paragraph. Then find each word in your dictionary,
and make sure that the dictionary definition is similar to the one that
you got from the context. If not, write the correct definition in your
notebook.
Farmers who live in arid areas have developed ingenious ways
to provide water for their crops. A simple method that they use is to
leave half their land fallow, or unpianted, each year. That land
accumulates moisture during the year and is suitable for growing
crops the next year. Farmers who want to utilize all of their land use
irrigation; that is, they send water from lakes or wells to the crops
through canals. These canals are lined with fine soil to prevent
seepage. If the soil is fine enough, little water can pass through it.
These two methods allow crops to flourish in areas that would
otherwise be barren.

et I S ts
If you know the meanings of some common roots, prefixes, and
suffixes, you can often use them to determine the meanings of
unfamiliar words.
Roots. Many words in English have Latin or Greek origins;
therefore, you can expand your vocabulary by learning the meanings

625
Unit 15 Vocabulary

of some Latin and Greek roots. If you recognize a root, the central or
basic element of a word, you can use this clue to figure out the
meaning of an unfamiliar word. For example, you may recognize the
common root -magn- (meaning “great,” “grand,” “large”) in the
words magnificent, magnify, and magnitude. If you read the sentence
“All agreed that the contribution was a magnanimous gesture on his
part,” you can use your knowledge of the root -magn- to conclude
that magnanimous means “grand” or “generous.”
Keep in mind that the spelling of a root may change slightly
when it is combined with a prefix, a suffix, or another word root.
You should also remember that two different word roots can
have the same meaning even if they have different origins. For
example, in the following list of roots, the Latin root -circ- and the
Greek root -cyci- both mean “circle”; the Latin root -aqua- and the
Greek root -hydr- both mean “water”; and the Latin root -equ- and
the Greek root -iso- both mean “equal.”
The hyphens before and after each root in the following lists
indicate that the root may appear at the beginning, in the middle, or
at the end of a word.
COMMON LATIN ROOTS
Root Meaning(s) Examples
1. -ag- (-act-) do, drive, lead agent, action
2. -am- (-amic-) love, friend amorous, amicable
3. -aqua- water aquarium, aquatic
4. -cent- hundred centimeter, century
5. -circ- circle circus, circulate
6. -equ- equal equidistant, equation
7. -jur- (-jud-, law, justice jury, judge, justify
-jus-)
8. -rupt- break abrupt, interrupt
9. -seq- (-sec-) follow sequel, consecutive
10. -sol- alone isolate, solitude
COMMON GREEK ROOTS
Root Meaning(s) Examples
1. -cycl- circle bicycle, cyclone
2. -hydr- water hydraulic, hydroplane
3. -iso- equal isosceles, isotope
4. -micro- small microbe, microscope
5. -morph- form amorphous, metamorphosis

626
 15.3

Word Parts

6. -neo- new Neolithic, neophyte

7. -nom- divide astronomy, binomial
8. -proto- first protocol, prototype
9. -soph- wise philosophy, sophisticated
10. -zo- animal zoology, protozoan
Prefixes and Suffixes. A prefix is a letter or a group of letters
placed before a word or a root to create a different word. A suffix is a
letter or a group of letters placed at the end of a word or a root to
change its function and, sometimes, to change its meaning. The
spelling of a root word does not change when you add a prefix. The
spelling may change, however, when you add a suffix. Two or more
suffixes may be added to a base word to make another word; for
example, residentially is made up of reside plus -ent plus -ial plus -ly.
If you know the meanings of several prefIxes, suffixes, and
roots, you can use this knowledge to determine the meanings of
unfamiliar words. For example, if you know that con- means “togeth
er,” that the root -junct- means “to join,” and that -ion means “state
of,” you can figure out that conjunction means “the state of being
joined together.”
PREFIXES
Prefix Meaning(s) Examples
1. ambi- both, around ambiguous, ambivalent
amphi- both, around amphibious, amphitheater
2. bi- (bin-) two, twice bicycle, binocular
3. contra- against, contrary contradict, contrary
4. hyper- over, beyond hyperbole, hypersensitive
5. inter- be~een,,among intercede, intermission
6. intra- in, within intramural, intravenous
7. intro- in, into introspective, introvert
8. retro- back, backward retroactive, retrospect
9. super- above, over superfluous, superimpose
SUFFIXES
Suffix Meaning(s) Examples
These suffixes are used to make verbs:
1. -ate make, apply, do fascinate, radiate
2. -en cause to be, become brighten, lengthen
3. -fy make, form into amplify, qualify
4. -ize make into, have the realize, sterilize
quality of

627
 Unit 15 Vocabulary

These suffixes are used to make nouns:

1. -ee recipient of action, addressee, employee
in condition of
2. -ian of or belonging to, civilian, physician
skilled in
3. -ion result of act or process, evolution, adhesion
state of being
4. -ment result of act or advertisement,
process, state of environment
being
These suffixes are used to make adjectives out of nouns or verbs:
1. -able (-ible) inclined to, adaptable, collapsible
capable of
2. -ic of, pertaining to, angelic, scenic
characteristic of
3. -ish suggesting, like impish, stylish
4. -less lacking, without aimless, sleepless
This suffix is used to make adverbs out of adjectives:
-ly in a way that is carefully, joyously

Assgnment Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes Choose one

word root, one prefix, and one suffix from the lists on pages 626—628.
For each of these three word parts, write three words that contain the
part. Write these nine words in your notebook; then write a sentence
for each of the nine words.

Words come into our language in one of the following ways:

they are borrowed from other languages, or they are coined (created)
from new or existing words.
Borrowing. The following words have been incorporated into
our language directly from other languages.
Word Language Origin
mesa Spanish
soprano Italian
résumé French

628
 15.4

Word Origins

Coining. The following words and expressions have been creat

ed from existing words or ideas.

These are conversions from one part of speech to another.

Word Origin
a commute (n.) to commute (v.)
to diagnose (v.) a diagnosis (n.)

The following words are combinations of two or more existing

words.
spacecraft space, craft
backwoodsman back, woods, man

These are words taken from the name of a person or a place.

cardigan after the Seventh Earl of
Cardigan
jovial from the Roman god
Jupiter, also called Jove

The following words sound like the action that they denote.
This process of word-making is known as onomatopoeia.
crackle crunch

These words are shortened forms of other words.

bus omnibus
hi-fl high fidelity

These are specialized or technical words from certain trades,

professions, or industries.
CAT scan Computed Axial
Tomography (medicine)
bit a binary digit
(computer technology)
Ass gnment Word Origins In your notebook, make a list of
six words that have come directly into our language from other
languages. Use words other than those in the preceding list. Next to

629
 Unit 15 Vocabulary

the six words, write the language from which they were borrowed.
Use your dictionary to find this information. For each word, write a
sentence that clearly conveys its meaning.

5. set e
Learning about synonyms and about denotation and connota
tion can help you to choose the best word for the context with which
you are working.

Synonyms
Words that have similar meanings are called synonyms. Al
though many words have similar meanings, no two words have the
same meaning. There is always a slight difference that separates one
from another. These differences are often referred to as shades of
meaning. Recognizing shades of meaning can help you to make the
most appropriate word choices.
Notice the shades of meaning that differentiate the words in the
following sets of synonyms.
steady, even, equable, uniform, constant
habit, practice, custom, usage, fashion

Now, look carefully at the word courage and three of its

synonyms.
Courage means strength that can be used to face danger. Fortitude
stresses endurance during difficulty. Mettle emphasizes the capacity
to rise to a challenge. Tenacity stresses persistence in resisting ad
versity.

You can see from the preceding examples that it is important to

choose the right synonym to convey precise meaning. Most diction
aries list synonyms for certain entry words (page 632).

Denotation and Connotation

Many words have a denotative meaning and a connotative
meaning. Denotation refers to the definitions listed in a dictionary.

630
 15.6

Using the Dictionary

Connotation refers to the ideas and feelings associated with words.

In the following examples, note the stronger connotation of the word
staunch when compared with the connotation of the word loyal.
Frederick was a staunch supporter of the cause; he devoted all of his
free time to it.
Christine has been a loyal fan of the basketball team for years.

Also, the same word can have different connotations in differ

ent contexts. Notice the different connotations of the word friends
when it is used in different contexts.
Janice said that Beth and Roberta were her best friends.
Ron said, “With friends like you, who needs enemies?”

Make sure that the connotations of the words that you use
convey your intended meanings.

Assignment Synonyms Choose five words from the follow

ing list and write them in your notebook. Use your dictionary to find
at least two synonyms for each word. Write the synonyms next to the
words. Then, for each set of synonyms, write a sentence using one of
the synonyms. Make sure that your sentences show the correct use of
the synonyms in context.
SAMPLE indifferent
ANSWER indifferent, uninterested, apathetic
The witness showed no emotion; he appeared to be
quite apathetic.
1. miniature 4. obvious 7. sequence
2. fatigued 5. candid 8. objective
3. assert 6. tranquil 9. inquire

IC

If you wish to find the meaning, the pronunciation, or other

information about a word, you need to know how to use your
dictionary.

631
Unit 15 Vocabulary

Locating a Word
Use the guide words at the tops of the pages to find the page
that the word is on. Then look for the entry word, listed in
alphabetical order on that page.
The entry includes the following information about the word:
syllabication, pronunciation, part(s) of speech, definitions, and ety
mology. Entry words of more than one syllable are divided by dots or
hyphens. This syllabication indicates where to divide the word at the
end of a line of writing.

Using a Pronunciation Key

Pronunciations. The pronunciation of a word usually follows
the entry word and is printed inside brackets, parentheses, or bars.
Most dictionaries contain a complete pronunciation key near the
front of the dictionary and a shorter key at the bottom of each page or
each pair of facing pages. Use these keys to interpret the pronuncia
tion symbols.

Parts of a Dictionary Entry

Definitions. The most important information in a dictionary is
the definitions of words. When an entry word has multiple defini
tions, each definition is numbered. You should read all of the
definitions to make sure that you select the one that is most
appropriate to the context in which the word is used.
Parts of Speech. Dictionaries identify the part(s) of speech of a
word. The following abbreviations are used in most dictionaries and
usually appear after the pronunciation.
n.—noun adj.—adjective
pron —pronoun adv.—adverb
v. or vb.—verb prep .—preposition
tv. or tr. v.—transitive verb conj.—conjunction
iv. or intr. v.—intransitive verb interj.—interjection

Labels. When appropriate, dictionary entries include usage la

bels, such as Nonstandard, Informal or Colloquial, Regional or
Dialect, or Slang. Such labels are a guide to the correct use of words.

632
 156

Using the Dictionary

Synonyms. Dictionaries often list synonyms for an entry word

and explain their connotations. Some dictionaries list antonyms,
words that mean the opposite of the entry word.

Homographs. Words that are spelled alike but have different

origins and different meanings are called homographs. Homographs
may also have different pronunciations and syllabications. In most
dictionaries homographs are listed as separate entry words and are
identified by superscripts, small raised numerals placed before or
after the entry word. When homographs are listed in your dictionary,
read all of the definitions for each entry to find the meaning that is
most suitable to a given context. For example, for the entry word
present you might find the following definitions: present1 “a period
in time between the present and the future,” and present2 “to
introduce or make a gift of.”
Etymologies. The etymology of a word is the origin and the
history of that word. The etymology is usually given in brackets or
parentheses after the pronunciation or at the end of the entry. The
etymology usually gives information about or insight into the mean
ing of the word. For example, the word recreant, meaning “cowardly
or disloyal,” comes from words that mean “to yield in a contest.”

Ass~gnment Improving Your Vocabulary From the fol

lowing list, choose ten words that you would like to add to your
vocabulary. Write the words in alphabetical order in your notebook,
leaving room for a definition and a sentence after each word. Using
your dictionary, learn the meaning and the pronunciation of each
word. Then, in your notebook, write a brief definition and a sentence
for each word. Review the words at least once a week, and use them
in your speaking and writing. When you have learned these words,
make a new list of the remaining ten words and study them in the
same way.
1. dormant 6. benevolent 11. insinuate
2. perplex 7. heterogeneous 12. permutation
3. whimsical 8. subtlety 13. cache
4. corroborate 9. attrition 14. affiliated
5. renown 10. rebuke 15. ultimatum

633
Unit 16

p /

—
/
- //

.1 ss C a is

As a student, you engage in public speaking every time you

speak in class. You probably speak before groups of listeners in other
situations as well. Whether your audience is large or small, friends or
strangers, your objective as a speaker is to convey a message to your
listeners. In this unit you will study and apply principles that will help
you to be a more effective public speaker.

Kinds of Speeches
Speeches may vary from formal to informal, depending on the
occasion, the purpose, and the audience. An address to Congress, for
example, is a very formal speech. A committee report at a club
meeting, on the other hand, is relatively informal.
In addition to being formal or informal, a speech may be either
prepared or impromptu. A prepared speech is planned carefully
before it is delivered. If you were giving a speech to your English
class on the life of Shakespeare, for instance, you would do the
needed research, organize your material, write your note cards,
rehearse, and then deliver your prepared speech.
On the other hand, if you were asked in class to summarize the
first act of Othello, your answer would be an impromptu speech.
Other examples of impromptu speeches include unscheduled an
nouncements, speeches accepting unexpected awards, and other talks
that you give on the spur of the moment, without preparation.

634
Purposes of Speaking
When you make a speech, your purpose may be to inform your
listeners, to persuade them, or to entertain them. Sometimes you
may combine purposes in a single speech, as you would if you wanted
to inform your listeners about an issue and persuade them to support
your position on that issue.
Your purpose in giving an informative speech is to convey new
and interesting information to your listeners. An informative speech
may explain, define, report, describe, or demonstrate. For example,
when you define for a government class the concept of justice under
different legal systems, your purpose is to inform your audience.
Your purpose in giving a persuasive speech is to form or change
your listeners’ attitudes or opinions. You may also want your
audience to take some action. For example, when you encourage the
members of your physics class to plan a trip to the science museum,
your purpose is to persuade.
In giving an entertaining speech, your purpose is to provide
your listeners with a pleasant diversion. Personal experiences, inter
esting events, human-interest stories, or amusing anecdotes may
form the basis of an entertaining speech. As the welcoming speaker
at the class dinner, for instance, your purpose would be to entertain.

Considering Purpose, Audience,

and Topic
In deciding on a speech topic, you should consider who your
audience is, what subjects might interest them, and what would be
appropriate for the occasion. A group of students new to your school,
for example, would probably be interested in an informative talk
about the layout of the school and the activities and services available
to them. The same talk would not be very interesting to students who
had already been attending your school for several years.
Besides considering appropriate topics for your listeners, think
also about the purpose of your speech. If you decide to make a
speech on camping, you have several possibilities. You can inform
your listeners about some aspect of camping, persuade them to try a
particular camping method, or entertain them with a funny story
about camping. You must always consider your purpose, your
audience, and your topic in relation to one another.

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Unit 16 Public Speaking Skills

n Y eh
The key to making a successful speech is good planning.
Adequate attention to each step in the preparation process makes the
next step that much easier. These are the steps to follow:
1. Selecting and limiting your topic
2. Gathering information and developing ideas
3. Organizing your speech
4. Preparing and rehearsing your speech
5. Delivering your speech

a Selecting and Limiting a Topic

Any subject that interests you can be the source of a good

speech topic. In choosing a topic, you should think about your own
experiences, knowledge, observations, work, hobbies, or special
interests. You may also find a topic by talking to friends and family
members or by getting ideas from radio, television, films, books,
newspapers, or magazines.
Sometimes you will be assigned a general subject, such as solar
energy, the English novel, or computer technology. At other times
you will choose your own topic. In both situations you must limit your
topic so that it will be narrow enough for you to cover well and also
be appropriate for your audience and the occasion.
Factors to take into account in limiting your topic are the
general and specific purposes of your speech, your thesis statement,
your audience, and your time limit.

General and Specific Purposes

The general purpose of your speech is to inform, to persuade,
to entertain, or perhaps some combination of these purposes. Your
specific purpose is a more exact statement of what you want your
listeners to know, to feel, to think, or to do.

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 16.2a

Selecting a Topic

GENERAL PURPOSE SPECIFIC PURPOSE

To inform I want my audience to learn how a scuba
tank operates.
To persuade I want my audience to support
educational television.
To entertain I want my audience to be amused by my
experiences when I worked as a
supermarket checker.

Your Thesis Statement

After you have determined your general and specific purposes,
you are ready to write a thesis statement (page 435). In clear, specific
language, the thesis statement tells your audience what you are going
to talk about. Study how the preceding statements of specific purpose
are incorporated into thesis statements in these examples.
GENERAL PURPOSE THESIS STATEMENT
To inform Today we will look at the parts of a
scuba tank and see how they function.
To persuade Educational television can benefit us as
students; we should all support it.
To entertain Let me tell you from my own experience
some of the funny things that can hap
pen to a supermarket checker.

Your Audience
For your speech to be successful, your limited topic must hold
your listeners’ interest. When you are selecting and limiting your
topic, ask yourself the following questions about your audience:
1. Who are my listeners? (Are they teen-agers? Adults? What
are their interests, experiences, attitudes?)
2. Will they be interested in my topic?
3. How much do they already know about my topic?
4. How do I want to affect my audience?

Analyzing your audience in relation to your topic and purpose

will help you to gain their attention and to get a favorable response to
your speech.

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Unit 16 Public Speaking Skills

Your Time Limit

The amount of time allotted for your speech is another factor
for you to consider when you are limiting your topic. Knowing how
long you will be speaking will also help you as you gather information
and organize your speech. If you have not been given a time limit for
your speech, discuss the matter with the person in charge.

Gathering Information

Sources of Information
Information for your speech may come from many sources. List
briefly some of the information you need to meet your specific
purpose and to support your thesis statement. Depending on your
topic, any of the following sources may provide the information you
need.
1. Personal knowledge, observations, and experiences
2. Books, newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, encyclopedias,
and other reference materials
3. Radio, television, and films
4. Speeches, lectures, and public meetings
5. Interviews with friends, family members, or experts on the
topic

Your librarian can help you to locate some of the printed

materials. Use the card catalog and appropriate indexes. Take careful
notes, and keep track of the sources you use.

Kinds of Information
The material you present in your speech may be facts, your own
opinions, someone else’s opinions, or opinions supported by facts.
All of these kinds of information may be appropriate, depending on
the topic and the purpose of your speech. You should, however, be
sure to distinguish between fact and opinion and to use them
appropriately ~page 357).

638
 16.2b

Gathering Information

An informative speech focuses primarily on factual, objective

information. A persuasive speech is necessarily an expression of your
opinion. The more strongly you can support your position with facts
and other evidence, however, the more likely your audience is to
accept it.
You may need to include any of the following kinds of informa
tion in your speech.
1. Explanations. You may need to explain unfamiliar concepts
to your listeners, telling what something is, how something
functions, or why something happens as it does.
2. Definitions. When you include an unfamiliar term or use a
word in an unusual way, you need to define it for your
listeners.
3. Examples and illustrations. You can clarify what you are
saying by giving examples of general categories or by using
illustrations, which are extended and detailed examples.
4. Statistics. Use statistics—facts in the form of numbers—
only sparingly, so that they interest your listeners and give
authority to your points.
5. Quotations. The statement of another person, cited exactly
as originally spoken or written, can add variety and impact
if chosen carefully.
6. Anecdotes. You can use a brief account of an incident to
amuse, inspire, or enlighten your audience. Be sure that
any anecdote you use relates directly to the ideas in your
speech and is appropriate for your audience and the
occasion.

Use the following strategies in planning your speech.

Strategies
1. Keep your audience and purpose in mind when you select
and limit your topic.
2. Gather information that is appropriate to your topic and
purpose.
3. Take notes and indicate your sources of information.
4. Distinguish fact from opinion.

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 Unit 16 Public Speaking Skills

The Conclusion of Your Speech

Your conclusion should sum up your speech and leave a strong
impression in your listeners’ minds. In an informative speech, this is
your last chance to help your listeners understand and remember the
information that you have presented. In a persuasive speech, it is
your last chance to influence their opinions or actions.
Different kinds of conclusions are appropriate for different
kinds of speeches. An informative speech may end with a summary of
major points. A persuasive speech may end with a restatement of
your position, a striking statement, a challenging question, or a call
for action. An entertaining speech may end with an anecdote, a
quotation, a startling statement, or a question.

.3 Unity, Coherence, and Conciseness

Three elements that contribute to the effectiveness of a speech

are unity, coherence, and conciseness.
Unity. A unified speech includes only material that relates directly
to the topic. Be sure that everything you include supports your thesis
statement or your position and fulfills your specific purpose.
In planning your speech, strive for unity in the introduction, the
body, and the conclusion.
Coherence. When a speech -has. a logical relationship among its
ideas, it is coherent. A coherent speech is easy for your listeners to
follow and to understand. Remember these points to make your
speech coherent.

Strategies
• 1. Keep rèlàted ideas together. Do not jump from idea to idea.

• 2. Present your ideas in a logical order. One idea must follow

•another for a particular reason. •

3. Use transitional words and phrases to link the parts of your

642
 16.3c
Wording Your Speech

speech and to connect the ideas within your speech. You

will learn more about transitions later in this unit.
Conciseness. A concise speech does not have wasted words. Say
clearly what yoi~ mean, using as few words as possible. Concise
statements are easier for your listeners to understand and to remem
ber, and they will make it easier for you to cover all your information
within your time limit.
WORDY STATEMENT
Frequently a chapter title reveals to the reader the main point
that the author desires to bring out during the course of the
chapter.
CONCISE STATEMENT
The title of a chapter often reveals its main idea.

Complicated expressions of your thoughts can become tiresome

to your audience. Simple, direct words that say exactly what you
mean not only save time, but also maintain your listeners’ interest by
keeping your speech moving. For example, say because rather than
due to the fact that.

I .3c The Wording of Your Speech

. -

A reader can examine written material at leisure, pausing to

think about the idea~ and to absorb them at a comfortable, rate~ A
reader can reread a passage any number of times.
The listening audience does not have the opportunity to consid
er at leisure the ideas of the speech. If listeners pause to reflect on a
point, they will miss the next point in the speech and be left behind.
They cannot go back and hear over again a sentence that they did hot
quite understand. Therefore, the words of a speech must be easily
and completely understandable to the audience.
Style is the• manner’ of using language. Spoken style is more
forceful, more informal, and more personal than.writtenstyle. It may
also be simpler in the use. of vocabulary and sentence structure,
signals and transitional words, repetition, and summary.

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Unit 16 Public Speaking Skills

Sentence Structure for Speeches

Since your audience must grasp and remember the words of a
sentence in just one hearing, spoken sentences should not be too long
or complex. Keep in mind the following points:
1. A simple sentence with a clear sequence of subject and verb
is easy for your audience to understand. A compound
sentence, one that has two or more independent clauses, is
also easy to follow. (See pages 67—68.)
Every game has its humorous incidents.
Wages continue to go up, but prices keep on rising faster.

2. A complex sentence (page 68) is easier to understand when

the subordinate clause follows the main clause.
The next decade will require new ideas, new approaches,
and new concepts because you cannot approach the future
with yesterday’s tools.
3. As a speaker, you need not avoid ending sentences with
prepositions if the effect is natural.
This is the first issue for us to be concerned with.
4. You can use commands, exclamations, and questions as
effective ways to awaken interest.
Never underestimate your own creative power.
The results were amazing!
5. You may occasionally use partial sentences in a speech to
achieve a certain effect.
Today, not tomorrow.
More courses, more options, more knowledge.
6. By using parallel structure, you can lend a rhythmical
quality to parts of your speech, making your message both
pleasant to listen to and easy to understand.
We get Vitamin A from carrots and spinach, Vitamin C
from oranges and tomatoes, and Vitamin D from fish oils
and sunshine.

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 16.3c

Wording Your Speech

Signals and Transitional Words

Signals are words or phrases that alert your listeners to what is
coming next in your speech. You insert signals to tell them what to
listen for or to indicate key points or shifts in focus.

SIGNAL OF PURPOSE
“I would like to tell you about . .

“I will present evidence to show . .

SIGNAL OF BACKGROUND INFORMATION

“Let us see how this situation came about.”

SIGNAL OF KEY POINTS

“There are three basic types of. .

SIGNAL OF SUPPORTING MATERIAL

“An example of this is . .

“In a recent survey . .

Transitional words and phrases contribute to coherence by

establishing the connections between your basic ideas and your
supporting material and between the parts of your speech. Note the
following kinds of transitional words and phrases:

LIKENESS moreover, in addition, and, similarly, likewise

CONTRAST but, on the other hand, however, nevertheless,
although, conversely

EMPHASIS even more important, chiefly, significantly, indeed

EXAMPLE for instance, as an example, specifically, such as,
that is
CONSEQUENCE thus, it follows, as a result, therefore, so, then, hence
CHRONOLOGY finally, next, then, at last, later, as soon as, until,
prior to, before
RESTATEMENT in other words, that is, in short, in effect
CONCLUSION finally, to sum up, in closing

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 Unit 16 Public Speaking Skills

Repetition and Summary

You sometimes need to repeat for your listeners. Repeating the
same idea in the same words ensures that your listeners take note of
it, remember it, and realize that it is important.
If repetition of the same words threatens to become tiresome,
you can relate the same information in different words. This tech
nique is also helpful if you think your listeners may not have
understood the idea as you phrased it originally.
STATEMENT During the Gilded Age, the economy of the United
States experienced rapid growth.
REPETITION Remember that we saw earlier that the economy of
the United States experienced rapid growth during
the Gilded Age.
RESTATEMENT The economy of this country expanded at a remark
able rate during the late 1800s.

A summary is a general repetition or restatement of points

made in your speech. The summary forms a total picture of the parts
under discussion. You may summarize one section of your speech
before continuing with the next section, as well as summarizing the
entire speech in your conclusion.
As you recall, the three characters in the novel had similar back
grounds, experiences, and expectations, but each was a distinct
individual.
I have presented to you the advantages of joining the hiking club
and have shown you how hiking can be fun and educational.

Effective Vocabulary
Spoken language must be understood instantly. Your audience
has no dictionaries, maps, reference books, or explanatory notes to
refer to; therefore, each word that you use must express your exact
meaning and be easily understood. Your listeners will understand you
best when you choose words that are short, familiar, concrete,
specific, and vivid.

646
 16.3c

Wording Your Speech

Short Words. Short words are usually preferable to longer words

in public speaking. Short words are convenient and economical,
easier to pronounce and to comprehend.
keen judgment instead of perspicacity
water cycle instead of hydrologic cycle
green instead of verdurous

In choosing words, you need to consider your listeners’ level of

understanding. In talking to a class of sixth-graders, you would use
short, simple words in almost every instance. In speaking to a group
of college professors, you could vary your speech by using some
longer and more complex words where they would truly add a
dimension to your speech.
Familiar Words. In general, shorter words tend to be more
familiar to most people. There are some exceptions to this rule,
however, and in these cases the more familiar word is usually the
preferable one. In the following examples, the longer words would
probably be more easily understood by your listeners.
widespread instead of rife
relatives instead of kin
meadow instead of lea
Concrete Words. A concrete word refers to something that can
actually be seen and touched rather than to an abstract concept. The
definition of a concrete word is less open to question than the
definition of an abstract word. Therefore, concrete words are more
likely to present to your listeners the same idea or mental picture that
is in your own mind.
ABSTRACT TERMS means of access for the disabled
CONCRETE TERMS ramps, wide doorways, low door handles
Specific Words.. Use specific words that tell exactly what you
mean. Give your listeners as much information as you can by
substituting specific words for those that are general and vague.
VAGUE WORDS trees, birds, nice
SPECIFIC WORDS oaks, robins, friendly

647
 Unit 16 Public Speaking Skills

~ ~ ~ J?~~ ~
Vivid Words. Some words create images in your listeners’ minds
by invoking the five senses: taste, touch, smell, sight, and hearing.
Such words make your speech more lively and more interesting.
His hands were hard, rough, and scarred.
The cool, damp cave was pleasant after the heat of the sun.
The waving fields of grain shimmered in the hazy sunshine.
Muffled rolls of thunder boomed across the sky.
The sharp, salty taste made my tongue tingle.

Pitfalls to Avoid
When you are thinking about the words you want to use in your
speech, keep in mind the following pitfalls that can weaken your
presentation.
Generalizations. A generalization is a statement that includes
every member of a category or every occurrence of an event.
GENERALIZATIONS All artists live unconventional lives.
Gossip always leads to trouble.

A generalization can be disproved by finding just one exception.

If one artist leads a conventional life, the generalization in the
preceding example is not valid. You can usually limit a generalization
by changing or inserting a word or a brief phrase. You can say, for
instance, “Some artists live unconventional lives,” or “Gossip fre
quently leads to trouble.”
Other words that appear in generalizations are everyone, never,
anytime, completely, constantly, every, invariably, no, and none, as
well as all and always. Words and phrases to replace them include
many, often, some, few, usually, sometimes, frequently, in most cases,
and for the most part.
Keep in mind that not all statements containing such words as
all and always need to be changed. The statement “All triangles have
three sides” has no exceptions and is a valid statement.
Jargon. Many occupations and areas of interest such as sports
and hobbies have their own special vocabularies or expressions. In a
speech, avoid using this special language, called jargon, unless your
audience is also familiar with the terms. (See page 88.)

648
 16.4a

Preparing to Speak

ft•~
If you are giving a talk to the chess club, you can include
specialized terms that other chess players would know. If you give a
talk on chess to another audience, though, you should limit your use
of jargon and explain those terms that you do use.
Clichés. Some words and expressions have been used so often
that they have lost their impact. Avoid using these clichés, or trite
expressions; they do not stimulate audience interest or contribute to
understanding.
Examples of trite expressions include nice, great, terrific, awful,
few and far between, last but not least, nervous as a cat, and so on.

Assignment Organizing Your Speech Use your notes from

Assignment 3 on page 640. Select a suitable method of organizing
your speech. Then make an outline, organizing your material into
main headings, subheadings, and supporting details. Write an intro
duction and a conclusion for your speech. Save your papers.

. I

Having outlined your speech, you are ready to plan for deliver
ing it to your audience. With good preparation, your presentation is
likely to be successful.

a Preparing Yourself to Speak

You can use certain techniques to help you prepare for an

effective delivery. Depending on how you plan to deliver your
speech, you will need to know how to make and use note cards or
how to write out your manuscript. You should consider also the use of
visual aids, rehearsing your speech, and your setting.

Using Note Cards

You can use note cards as a guide when you deliver your
speech. You should have a card for the introduction, another for the
conclusion, and a varying number for the body, depending on the

649
 Unit 16 Public Speaking Skills

length and complexity of your speech. Each card for the body of your
speech should contain no more than one main idea with its subhead
ings and supporting information. Write key words and phrases on the
cards to help you remember your points.
Write out in full any material that you must present in exact
form, such as quotations and statistics. Include names, dates, and
other important information. You may want to use different colored
inks for main ideas, subheadings, and supporting material.
Write on only one side of your note cards. Do not crowd your
notes, and write clearly so that you will be able to read them at a
glance. Number your cards so that you can keep them in order.

Writing Out Your Speech

On certain occasions, particularly formal ones, it is sometimes
preferable to write out your speech word for word and read it to your
audience. When you use a written speech, your language can be more
precise and polished than when you speak from notes.
Write marginal notes on the pages to remind yourself when to
pause, to be emphatic, to speed up or slow down, or to build to a
climax. You should be careful to make frequent eye contact with your
audience, for the chief drawback of delivery from a written speech is
the barrier that seems to exist between the speaker and the listeners.
The speaker must make a conscious attempt to break down that
barrier.

Using Visual Aids and Props

Visual aids and props can add interest to your speech and
enhance understanding and retention. If you decide to use aids, plan
exactly what materials are needed and precisely where in the speech
they will be used. Keep visual aids clear and simple, and be sure that
they can be seen by all members of your audience. Practice with the
aids until you are sure that you can manage them skillfully.
Include a visual aid in your speech only when it is so important
that the speech would be incomplete without it. The aid should
enable you to present information more quickly and effectively than
you could with words alone.

650
 164b

Effective Voice

Rehearsing Your Speech

The best way to improve your delivery is to practice. You will
give your speech with more ease, confidence, and authority if you
rehearse it well.
Using your note cards, practice your speech aloud. Use a tape
recorder if one is available, or ask family members and friends to
listen and comment. Practice your speech standing as you will when
you actually deliver it. Remember to practice with your visual aids if
you are using any.

Knowing Your Setting

The more you know in advance about the setting in which you
will deliver your speech, the better you will be able to plan your
delivery. These are some of the questions you may have about the
setting:
1. Is the room large or small?
2. Will there be a desk, a lectern, a microphone?
3. Does the setting lend itself to any visual aids that I might
use?

Speaking Before a Group

Your delivery is a significant factor in how your listeners

respond to your speech and how well you achieve your purpose. Your
voice, posture, gestures, and use of eye contact are all important.

Using Your Voice Effectively

Variety in the rate, loudness, pitch, and quality of your voice
helps you to express your thoughts and feelings. In addition, vocal
variety keeps your audience interested.
The quickness or slowness with which you speak and the length
of pauses between words and phrases constitute the rate. You will
want to vary your rate enough to heighten interest without sacrificing
clarity.

651
 Unit 16 Public Speaking Skills

Your voice should be loud enough to be heard easily, yet not so

loud that your audience finds it unpleasant. Try lowering or raising
your voice for emphasis. Also try not to pitch your voice too high or
too low. Let your pitch vary, however, within a comfortable range.
The quality of your voice should be pleasing, full, rich, vibrant,
and alive. Work to overcome such problems as harshness, breathi
ness, or nasality.

Posture, Gestures, and ye Contact

Stand straight, but not stiffly, as you deliver your speech. Avoid
leaning on a desk or lectern. Feel free to move about, provided your
movements are natural and do not detract attention from what you
are saying.
Gestures can be effective in reinforcing your meaning. Use
gestures as you would in everyday conversation. If you relax and
concentrate on your topic, your gestures will be more natural.
Avoid the following distracting gestures and movements: lock
ing hands and arms behind or in front of your body, covering your
mouth with your hand, pacing nervously, leaning, jingling objects in
your pockets, twisting your hair or a ring, standing in a frozen
posture, and rocking or swaying.
Remember to make eye contact with your audience. Look at
your listeners, not at the back wall, the floor, or the ceiling. Let your
eyes move from face to face, establishing personal contact.

Avoi ing Nervousness

Almost everyone is nervous about making a speech. If you have
prepared your speech well and rehearsed until you know the material
thoroughly, you will be more confident. Concentrate on what you are
saying and remember that the message is what is most important.
The more you practice before others, the more easily you will
be able to speak in public. Many speakers never completely conquer
nervousness, but by selecting a topic you care about, preparing
carefully, and taking time to rehearse and refine your techniques, you
will feel more comfortable. You will reduce your nervousness and
increase your confidence.

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 16.4c
Impromptu Speaking

c Extemporaneous and
Impromptu Speeches

Sometimes you make a speech with little or no preparation.

When you prepare your topic in advance and then speak without
notes, or with a few brief notes, your speech is extemporaneous.
When you speak on the spur of the moment, with no preparation,
your speech is impromptu.
Impromptu speaking requires thinking on your feet. So does
extemporaneous speaking, for it involves delivering a planned mes
sage in the language of the moment. You can practice by reading a
short story or an article; when you finish it, summarize aloud what
you have read. Use a tape recorder or have a friend listen.
Another way to practice is to have a friend suggest topics for
you to speak on without preparation. The more you practice thinking
on your feet, the more you will develop self-confidence and ease.
Even if you do not yet feel completely confident, you can help
yourself and convince your audience by standing straight, using a
strong voice, avoiding nervous mannerisms, and looking directly at
your audience. Pause when you think about what to say next, rather
than filling in with such expressions as “you know,” “well,” “urn,”
and so on.
When you speak extemporaneously, give special thought to
how you will open and close your speech. A strong opening will catch
the attention of your listeners, and a strong closing will get your point
across and leave no doubt about your purpose. In impromptu
speaking, try to apply the same principles. Take a deep breath before
you begin and think of a good opening. Ask yourself, “What is my
thesis statement?”
Before concluding your speech, pause and ask yourself, “What
are the main points I need to summarize? What idea or feeling do I
want to leave with my audience?” If you concentrate on your
message and not on yourself, your speech is likely to be effective.

Assi nment Delivering Your Speech Use the material you

prepared for the Assignment on page 649. Prepare note cards and
rehearse your speech, making any needed improvements in your
notes. Then deliver your ten-minute speech to your English class.

653
Unit 17

/ / -
~
/
- //

No matter what your future plans are, you wi probably have to

take a standardized test at some point in order to achieve your
educational or career goals. Most colleges and many technical and
vocational schools use scores on standardized tests as a basis for
admission or placement. The United States military services also use
test scores to determine placement for volunteers. This unit offers
suggestions on how you can improve your performance on standard
ized tests.
Preparing for any standardized test takes time. Last-minute
cramming is not helpful. The best way to prepare for a test is to
complete your class assignments conscientiously and to read widely.
Through reading you can enlarge your vocabulary and develop your
ability to comprehend what you read.

I .1

Most standardized tests have at least one section designed to

measure the extent of your vocabulary and your ability to understand
what you read. This section may include test items covering anto
nyms, analogies, sentence completion, and reading comprehension.
In this unit you will learn how to answer each kind of test item.

654
 .1 a Antonyms

In a test of antonyms you must select the word most nearly

opposite in meaning to a given word. Most antonym items follow the
format shown here.
AFFLUENT: (A) afflicted (B) effluent (C) indigent
(D) fluid (E) wealthy
The word most nearly opposite in meaning to affluent is (C)
indigent.
Use the following strategies when taking a test on antonyms.

Strategies
1. Consider all of the choices before deciding which one is the
best possible answer. Do not choose the first answer that
appears to be correct; there may be a better answer.
2. Bear in mind that many words have more than one meaning.
If you do not realize that impress means “to confiscate
property” as well as “to affect or influence greatly,” you
may miss a test item.
3. Use your knowledge of prefixes, suffixes, and Greek and
Latin roots to help you understand the meaning of unfamil
iar words. Refer to Unit 15, “Vocabulary Skills.”

Assignment I Antonyms Write the letter of the antonym of

each word given in capital letters. Use a dictionary, if necessary, to
check your choices after you have finished.
1. MOROSELY: (A) gloomily (B) happily (C) modestly
(D) morbidly (E) sincerely
2. HETEROGENEOUS: (A) conscious (B) dissimilar
(C) homogeneous (D) indigenous (E) redundant
3. QUESTIONABLE: (A) declarative (B) doubtful
(C) indubitable (D) pardonable (E) querulous
4. ITINERANT: (A) incumbent (B) migratory (C) repentant
(D) sedentary (E) traveler

655
 Unit 17 Test-Taking Skills

5. ABATE: (A) debate (B) discuss (C) increase (D) inundate

(E) saturate
6. DORMANT: (A) awake (B) dreary (C) hibernating
(D) latent (E) portable
7. VILIFY: (A) citify (B) debase (C) degrade (D) glorify
(E) unveil
8. DISCORD: (A) concord (B) record (C) ripcord
(D) stationery (E) tied

7. Analogies

A test of analogies challenges your ability to understand the

relationship between two words and your ability to recognize a
similar or parallel relationship between two other words. In an
analogies test, you must first establish the relationship that exists
between two given words. Then, from a list of choices, you select
another pair of words with a similar or parallel relationship.
Most analogies test items follow the format shown in the
example. When reading such an item, substitute “is to” for the single
colon. Substitute “as” for the double colon. You should read the
following example this way: “Smallest is to small as best is to well,
larger is to large” and so forth.
SMALLEST : SMALL :: (A) best : well (B) larger : large
(C) lest : less (D) long : longest (E) more : less

If you look carefully at the first two words in the example, you
see that the relationship between them is that the first word is the
superlative form of the second. Among the answer choices, that same
relationship exists only in (A) best: well. In answers (B) and (E), the
first word is the comparative of the second. In answer (C), lest is
meant to distract the reader, who may be thinking of least. In answer
(D), the superlative form appears, but it is the second word, not the
first. To be correct, the second word pair must follow the same
sequence as the first two words.
Use the following strategies when taking an analogies test.

656
 17.lc
Sentence Completion

Strategies
1. Determine the relationship that exists between the first pair
of words. In a sentence or a phrase, say to yourself what
that relationship is.
2. Read all of the answer choices before selecting one.
3. Make sure that the words you choose are in the same
sequence as the first pair of words.

Assignment 2 Analogies On your paper, write the letter of

the pair of words having the same relationship as the words in capital
letters.
1. SYNONYM: ANTONYM:: (A) active : passive
(B) same : similar (C) symphony: chorus (D) synagogue: church
(E) word : symbol
2. NOVEL: WRITER:: (A) song: choir (B) editor: book
(C) law : judge (D) poet : poem (E) symphony : composer
3. EDAM: MADE:: (A) green: go (B) lame : male
(C) mail : stamp (D) red : stop (E) war : raw
4. CANINE: DOG:: (A) bovine : cow (B) feline: deer
(C) tiger : cat (D) mammal : elephant (E) whine : bark
5. CONFLAGRATION : FLAME:: (A) hose : water
(B) fire : ash (C) hurricane : breeze (D) log : kindling
(E) mishap: catastrophe
6. FLY: FLIES :: (A) bye : buys (B) pry : prize (C) sigh: size
(D) try: tries (E) why : wise
7. SLIGHT: SLEIGHT:: (A) light: dark (B) right : write
(C) sly : slay (D) slender : frail (E) tricky : skillful
8. FRANCE : PARIS:: (A) Montana: America (B) London:
England (C) Switzerland : Bern (D) Albany : New York
(E) Quebec: Canada

.ló Sentence Completion

Sentence-completion test items require you to supply a missing

word or words that fit in the context of the sentence. To do so, you

657
Unit 17 Test-Taking Skills

must first understand the ideas in the sentence. Sentence-completion

items do not require any knowledge beyond an understanding of the
words in the sentence and in the answer choices. Your skill in
determining meaning from context is very important (pages 624—
625).
Study the following example.
Hypocrites portray emotions that they do not _i_, but which they
feel that they should _L.
(A) condone. .suspend (B) respect. .motivate (C) tolerate. .im
provise (D) possess. .display (E) exemplify. .repress
Only the words in answer (D) make sense in both blanks; in the
other choices, the first word makes sense, but the second one does
not.
Follow these strategies when answering sentence-completion
test items.
Strategies
1. Read the entire sentence through before trying to supply the
missing word or words.
2. Make sure that both answers make sense in a sentence that
has two blanks.
3. Check your answers by reading the complete sentence
silently with the word(s) in place.
Assignment 3 Sentence Completion On your paper, write
the letter of the word or words that complete the sentence. Use a
dictionary, if necessary.
1. Mr. Wiggins displays i by writing a paragraph when a sentence is
sufficient.
(A) brevity (B) verbosity (C) animosity (D) intolerence
(E) attentiveness
2. A fresh, new group of volunteers JL the weary group who had been
stacking sandbags in an effort to 1 the flood waters.
(A) rebuked. .placate (B) depressed. .preserve
(C) replaced. .halt (D) admired.. avoid
(E) cheered. .sanitize

658
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Comprehension

3. It is 2_ to accept the _L_ and foolish to combat it.

(A) cowardly. .deterioration (B) hopeless. .cheating
(C) silly. .untenable (D) wise. .inevitable
(E) cynical. .apparent
4. Both crocuses and robins are considered by many to be _L_ of
approaching 2_.
(A) harbingers. .spring (B) symbols. .storms
(C) reminders. .disasters (D) omens. .peace
(E) prototypes. .joy
5. Millions of voters _L_ guerilla threats to 2_ the p~esidential elec
tions in the small South American country.
(A) forgot. .win (B) defied. .sabotage (C) made. .cancel
(D) heard. .defeat (E) exacerbated. .defraud

7. Reading Comprehension

Reading-comprehension items test your ability to understand

what is stated directly. They also test your ability to interpret,
analyze, and make inferences about what you have read. The reading
passages given contain all of the information that you need to answer
the questions that follow them.
Follow these strategies when answering reading-comprehension
test items.

Strategies
1. Read the passage closely and attentively. Try to get a sense
of the ideas and the organization of the passage, but do not
waste time underlining or making marginal notes.
2. Read the questions first if the passage is on a subject
unfamiliar to you. For example, if the passage is on
astronomy, about which you may know little, reading the
questions first may help you to follow the information more
easily and to look for important points.
3. Read all possible answers before selecting one.

659
Unit 17 Test-Taking Skills

4. Select your answer solely on the basis of the material that is

in the passage, not on your personal knowledge or opinion.
5. Skip a passage that is too difficult for you and go on to the
next one. Come back to it if you have time after you have
answered the rest of the questions.

Read the following passage and then study the comprehension

items that come after it.

In his first dive in the bathyscaph FNRS-3, Jacques-Ives Cous

teau planned to descend 4500 hundred feet into the ocean. The
FNRS-3 was a sphere with an interior diameter of two meters. Its
walls were lined with navigational instruments. Even though feelings
of anxiety were natural under the circumstances, Cousteau had
confidence in his pilot, Commander Georges Houot, who had previ
ously taken the bathyscaph to a depth of 6890 feet.
Cousteau kept a constant watch at the porthole to observe
changes during the descent. Just below three hundred feet, he
noted, “The pellucid sea darkened quickly from nile green to blue. I
was already deeper than I had ever been before.”
Below five hundred feet, Cousteau observed a “snowstorm of
tiny organisms glaring out of the darkness.” Then he noted a living
transparent organism with filaments two feet long. Darkness in
creased with the depth, with only a tinge of blue left at 1200 feet.
At 1500 feet, no evidence of the sun remained.
After passing the three-thousand-foot level, Cousteau began
to see many things that he never knew existed. He saw a fish twenty
inches long and shaped like a drafting triangle, with the color and
thinness of aluminum foil and a “ridiculous little tail.” Red squid,
about eighteen inches long, dispensed, to Cousteau’s surprise, white
ink. He saw several sharks, different in size and shape from their
more familiar cousins in the heights of the ocean. Finally, with the
bathyscaph’s light shining full on the ocean floor, Cousteau saw the
most incredible sight of all—a legible newspaper.

1. The “snowstorm” that was observed by Cousteau was made of

(A) sand (B) hailstones (C) snowflakes (D) salt crystals
(E) living things

660
 17.ld
Comprehension

2. The water was completely dark between the depths of

(A) 6 and 300 feet (B) 300 and 500 feet (C) 500 and 1200 feet
(D) 1200 and 1500 feet (E) 1500 and 4500 feet
3. Before his dive in the bathyscaph FNRS-3, Cousteau’s record dive had
been at a depth
(A) less than 300 feet (B) about 500 feet (C) about 750 feet
(D) about 920 feet (E) more than 1200 feet

If you read the passage carefully, following the strategies on

pages 659—660, you should be able to answer the questions easily.
The answer to question 1 is (E). Cousteau refers to a “snowstorm of
tiny organisms”; organisms are living things. For question 2, the
answer also is (E). Notice the sentence “At 1500 feet, no evidence of
the sun remained.” To answer question 3, note the second paragraph.
When the sphere had descended just below three hundred feet,
Cousteau observed, “I was already deeper than I had ever been
before.” The correct answer is (A).

Assignment 4 Reading Comprehension Read the para

graphs about legal assistants on pages 326—327 in Unit 7, “Three
Modes of Writing.” Then, on your paper, write the letter of the
correct answers to the following items.
1. Legal assistants are persons who
(A) run errands for judges (B) find lawyers for people with low
incomes (C) serve as court stenographers during trials (D) per
form a variety of tasks for lawyers (E) cover courtroom proceedings
for newspapers, radio, or television
2. The most important trait that a legal assistant should have is
(A) an excellent memory (B) an interest in working with people
(C) a desire to see criminals punished (D) superior stenographic
skills (E) good public-speaking skills
3. In the course of their work, legal assistants may find themselves
(A) serving subpoenas to witnesses (B) preparing simple contracts
(C) conducting television interviews (D) testifying in court
(E) representing clients in court

661
Unit 17 Test-Taking Skills

ad
Some standardized tests also have a section designed to test
your knowledge of standard written English. You will be expected to
recognize errors in usage and in sentence structure.
Usage. In usage test items you must identify examples of incorrect
use of idiomatic expressions and slang; the incorrect use of verbs,
pronouns, and other parts of speech; the incorrect use of punctuation
marks, and so forth. Items on usage usually follow the format shown
here. You are to identify the lettered sentence part, if any, that
contains an error.
In his letter Uncle Tim promised to take Dad, Mother,
A
Rick, and Ito the theater when we visit him in New York.
B c D
No error.
E

Read the sentence, looking carefully at each lettered choice.

Sometimes a sentence has no error. No sentence has more than one
error. This example does have an error: Choice C. The correct form
is and me.
Sentence Structure. Some items in a standardized test reflect
errors in logic or in sentence structure. You must choose the best way
of stating an underlined portion of a sentence or an entire sentence.
If more than one answer seems correct, choose the one that is most
effective in the context. In this kind of test, choice (A) is always the
same as the underlined portion and means “Make no change.” Study
the following example.
Because the crop is smaller this year, less persons will be needed for
the harvest.
(A) less persons will be needed for the harvest.
(B) for the harvest less persons will be needed.
(C) not as many persons will be needed for the harvest as were
needed last year.
(D) few persons will be needed for the harvest.
(E) fewer persons will be needed for the harvest.

662
 17.2

Standard English

Read the sentence; then study closely the underlined portion to

determine if it is incorrect and, if so, why. In the example the
underlined portion is incorrect because it uses less to refer to items
(persons) that can be counted individually (page 150). Choice (B) is
incorrect for that same reason and also because the inverted clause is
awkward. Choice (C) is too wordy. Choice (D) uses few instead of its
comparative form. Choice (E) is the correct answer.

Assignment I Usage On your paper, write the letter of the

usage error in each of the following sentences. Write (E) if there is no
error.
1. I would go with you to the exhibit this evening if I was free. No error.
A B CD E
2. After putting the dogs into the back of Father’s truck, we climbed into
A B C Th
the cab. No error.
E
3. One section of the grocery store was devoted to mangoes, papayas,
A B C
and bananas—those kind of fruit that comes from tropical climates.
D
No error.
E
4. The huge Wawona sequoia, felled by a storm in the winter of 1969,
A B
now lays in the national park. No error.
C D E
5. Boasting of nonexistent accomplishments is usually a symptom of an
inferiority complex; furthermore, those who boast some times come to
A B C
believe their own boasting. No error.
E
6. In the critics’ reviews in the morning papers, we saw that everybody
A B C
but Walter and her received unfavorable notices. No error.
D E
7. “I appreciate you lending me extra dining chairs when the McLeans
A B C
were here last week,” Grant told us. No error.
D E

663
Unit 17 Test-Taking Skills

8. Whomever planned the interior decor of this building should have

A B
known that light carpet gets dirty quickly. No error.
0 E

Assig ment 2 Sentence Correction On your paper, write

the letter of the error in each of the following sentences. Write (E) if
there is no error.
1. Roger won first place in the shot-put; however, he won second place
in the javelin.
(A) put; however, (B) put, unless (C) put, for instance,
(D) put, however, (E) put; nevertheless
2. If he had handled the baton more carefully and run faster, the relay
team would have won.
(A) had handled the baton more carefully and run (B) had handled
the baton more carefully and ran (C) had handled the baton careful
ly and had run (D) handled the baton more carefully and ran
(E) handled the baton carefully and had ran
3. Mr. Trumbull supposed Ito be she.
(A) Ito be she. (B) Ito be her. (C) me to be her. (D) me to
be she. (E) I was her.
4. The state income tax laws in California are different than those in
other states.
(A) different than those (B) different to those (C) different to the
ones (D) different than the ones (E) different from those
5. The League of Women Voters invited the two candidates for gover
nor, Long and him, to participate in a debate.
(A) the two candidates for governor, Long and him, (B) the two
candidates for governor, Long and he, (C) the two candidates for
governor, he and Long, (D) Long and he, the two candidates for
governor, (E) he and Long, the two candidates for governor,
6. Swimming in her aquarium, Margie saw seven baby guppies.
(A) Swimming in her aquarium, Margie saw seven baby guppies.
(B) In her aquarium swimming, Margie saw seven baby
guppies. (C) Swimming in her aquarium, seven guppies that were
babies were seen by Margie. (D) Margie saw seven baby guppies
swimming in her aquarium. (E) Margie saw seven guppies, which
were babies, in the aquarium that belonged to her.

664
 17.2
Standard English

7. Being as how it was almost dark, we decided to walk back to the

cottage where we were staying.
(A) Being as how it was almost dark, (B) Almost dark, (C) Being
that it was almost dark, (D) Being almost dark, (E) Because it
was almost dark,
8. Charles might have come in first in the annual Three Oaks Marathon
if he would have trained harder.
(A) if he would have trained harder. (B) if he would train
harder. (C) if he had trained harder. (D) should he have trained
harder. (E) with harder training on his part.
9. Glenda is one of those gifted musicians who is able to play many
instruments.
(A) who is (B) who are (C) whom are (D) whom is
(E) whose
10. To prepare for the race, I plan to get up early, to eat a light breakfast,
and will do some stretching exercises.
(A) and will do some stretching exercises. (B) and doing some
stretching exercises. (C) and to do some stretching exercises.
(D) and do some stretching exercises. (E) and will do some exercis
es to stretch my muscles.
Index
Abbreviations: capitalization of, 62—64; defined, 23; distinguishing
173, 175; periods after, 178—179; from prepositions, 28; of extent,
Postal Service, 176, 178, 587—588; 23; modifying adjectives, 24;
in technical writing, 546—547 modifying adverbs, 24-25;
Absolute phrases: defined, 51 modifying verbs, 24; not, never,
Abstract, for technical report, 24; nouns used as, 24; placement
569—570 of, 24-25; prepositional phrases
Abstract nouns: defined, 5 used as, 27—28, 47; verbals and
Actions, in narratives, 347 verbal phrases used as, 54—56
Action verbs: defined, 12; Adverb suffixes, 628
distinguishing from linking verbs, Agreement of pronouns and
13; objects after, 41—42 antecedents, 118—122:
Active voice, 15, 103—104, 299, 308 antecedents joined by and, 119;
Address, forms of, 602 antecedents joined by or, nor,
Adjective clauses: agreement of 119; collective nouns as
subjects and verbs in, 116; antecedents, 120-121; in gender,
defined, 59—60; essential, 60; with 121; indefinite pronouns as
implied introductory word, 60; antecedents, 119—120; intensive
nonessential, 61; relative adverbs pronouns, 122; in number,
in, 60; relative pronouns in, 60 119—121; in person, 121—122;
Adjective phrases: defined, 47 personal pronouns, 118—122;
Adjectives: answering Which? What plural antecedents, 119; reflexive
kind? How many?, 18; articles, pronouns, 122; singular
18; clauses used as, 59—61; antecedents, 119
commas with, 19, 181—182; Agreement of subjects and verbs,
defined, 18; effective use of, 108—116: in adjective clauses,
21—22; after linking verbs, 19; 116; auxiliary verbs, 109;
nouns used as, 19—20; as collective nouns, 112—113;
objective complements, 43; compound subjects, 110-111;
placement of, 18—19; possessive every a, many a, 116; indefinite
nouns used as, 20; predicate, 44; pronouns, 111—112; intervening
prepositional phrases used as, words and phrases, 109; inverted
27—28, 47, 48; pronouns used as, word order, 115; nouns ending in
20—21; proper, 19, 175; verbals s, 113; plural subjects, 108—109;
and verbal phrases used as, sentences with predicate
50—52, 54—56 nominatives, 115—116; singular
~djective suffixes, 628 subjects, 108—109; titles and
~djustment letter, 593—594 names, 113—114; verb phrases,
~dverb clauses: comma after, 181; 109; words of amount and time,
defined, 62; elliptical, 63—64; 114
subordinating conjunctions in, Almanacs, 488
62—63 Analogy: defined, 262; false, 390;
~dverb phrases: defined, 47 in paragraph development,
~dverbs: answering How? When? 262—263; in tests, 656—657
Where? How often? To what Anecdotes, in speeches, 639
extent?, 23; clauses used as, Antecedent: agreement of pronoun

566
 with, 118—122; defined, 7;
essay, 420—421, 425; of literary
reference of pronoun to, 131—132 essay, 455; of paragraph,
Antonyms: defined, 633; in tests,
655
246—252; of research paper, 509;
of speech, 641
Apostrophe: in contractions, 193;
Brackets, 200
in plural forms, 193—194, 616; in
Business letters, 586—604:
possessives, 192—193
adjustment letter, 593—594;
Appendix, for technical report, 571
application letter, 596—597; block
Application letter, 596—597
style, 587, 588; body, 588;
Appositive phrases: defined, 48;
complimentary close, 184, 588;
essential, 48—49; nonessential,
heading, 587—588; inside address,
48—49, 183; pronouns in, 129
588; modified block style, 588;
Appositives: defined, 48; essential,
48—49, 183; nonessential, 49, 183 opinion letter, 601—604; order
Archaic language, 87 letter, 591—592; request letter,
590—591; salutation, 188, 588;
Argument: clarifying remarks in,
375—377; concluding sentences in, signature, 588; strategies for
writing, 589, 591, 594, 596, 604
382; defined, 373; fallacies in,
388—391; moderation in, 384—386;
reasons in, 378, 379; rebuttals in,
Call number, 486—487
380—381; revising, 384—391;
Capitalization: of the abbreviations
supporting sentences in, 377—378,
A.D., B.C., A.M., P.M., 175; of
379, 380—381
Articles: defined, 18; in titles, 174 abbreviations after names of
people, 173; of compass points,
Atlases, 488
173; of family~relations~,jp words,
Audience: considering, 322;
172; of first word of direct
defined, 233—234; for essay,
quotation, 171; of first word of
405—406; for literary essay, 438;
line of poem, 172; of first word
for persuasive writing, 360-361;
of sentence, 171; of initials, 172;
for speech, 635, 637; for
of interrupted quotation, 171; of
technical writing, 545, 555
names of awards and documents,
Author card, 486
174; of names of days, months,
Auxiliary verbs: agreement with
etc., 174; of names of gods of
subjects, 109; definition of, 13;
list, 13; modals, 99—100; with mythology, 173; of names of
heavenly bodies, 174; of names
past participle, 91, 92; with
of historical events and periods,
present participle, 91, 92; with
174; of names of languages, 174;
verbals, 51, 55; in verb phrases,
of names of nationalities and
13, 109
peoples, 174; of names of
organizations, 175; of names of
people, 172; of names of school
Balanced sentences, 307—308
subjects, 174—175; of names of
Be: as auxiliary verb, 91, 92; as
structures, 175; of names of
linking verb, 13, 43; partial
trains, ships, etc., 175; of
conjugation of, 106
personal and official titles,
Bibliography: for literary essay,
172—173; of place names, 173; of
457—458, 461; for research paper, Postal Service abbreviations, 176;
489—491, 512—513; for technical
of proper adjectives, 19, 175; of
report, 571
proper nouns, 4, 172—175; of
Bibliography cards, 490—491
titles of books, newspapers, etc.,
Body: of business letter, 588; of
174; of trade names, 175
 Capital letters, in outline, 416, 450, expressions, 181—182; with
502 nonessential appositives, 183;
Card catalog, 485—486 with nonessential clauses, 61,
Cardinal numbers, 204 183; with nonessential phrases,
Case. See Pronoun case. 183; with parenthetical
Cause and effect: defined, 264; in expressions, 182; after salutation
describing operation of a of social letter, 184; to separate
mechanism, 553; in essays, 414; sentence parts, 182—184; in
in paragraph development, series, 180
264—265; in speeches, 641; words Common nouns: defined, 4
used in, 264 Comparative degree, 134—135
Characters, in narrative writing, Comparison and contrast:
345 distinguishing, 261; in essays,
Chronological order: defined, 255; 414; in paragraph development,
in describing operation of a 261—262; in speeches, 641; words
mechanism, 553; in describing a used in, 261
process, 557; in essays, 413; in Comparison, of modifiers:
paragraph development, 255—256; compound, 136; correct use of,
in speeches, 641; words used in, 134—137; degrees of, 134; double,
255 135; with -er, -est, 134; illogical,
Clarity. See Coherence. 136—137; incomplete, 135—136;
Classification: defined, 259; in irregular, 135; with less, least,
paragraph development, 135; with more, most, 135;
259—260 pronouns in, 130
Clauses, 58—66: adjective, 59—60; Complements: defined, 41;
adverb, 62—63; defined, 58; objective, 42—43; objects, 42—43;
elliptical, 63—64; essential, 60; subject, 43—44
independent, 58—59; infinitive, Complete predicate: defined, 38
56; nonessential, 61; noun, Complete sentence: defined, 70;
65—66; placement of, 137—139; writing, 70—75
subjunctive mood in, 107; Complete subject: defined, 37
subordinate, 59—66 Complex sentence: defined, 68; in
Clichés, 336, 649 speeches, 644
Climax, in narratives, 341 Complimentary close, 184, 588
Coherence: defined, 254; in Compound adjectives, hyphenating,
paragraphs, 254—255, 277—282; in 196—197
sentences, 303—304; in speeches, Compound comparison, of
642—643 modifier, 136
Collective nouns: agreement of Compound-complex sentence:
verbs with, 112—113; as defined, 69
antecedents, 120—121; defined, 4 Compound nouns: defined, 4;
Colloquial language, 87 forming possessives, 193; spelling
Colon, 187—188, 588 plurals, 616
Comma: to avoid confusion, 182; Compound numbers, hyphenating,
after complimentary close, 184, 197
588; after conjunctive adverb, 31, Compound objective complement,
185; before coordinating 43
conjunction, 58, 182; in dates Compound objects: defined, 42
and addresses, 184; with direct Compound predicate: defined, 37
address, 182; after interjection, Compound preposition: defined,
33, 181; after introductory 27; list, 27

668
Compound sentence: defined, 68; Demonstrative pronouns: as
in speeches, 644 adjectives, 20; defined, 8
Compound subject: agreement of Denotation, 335, 408, 630—631
verb with, 110—111; defined, 36 Dependent clauses: See
Conciseness, 298—302, 643 Subordinate clauses.
Concluding paragraph: of essay, Descriptions: avoiding overwritten,
422—423, 425; of literary essay, 336—337; effective words in,
455—456; of research paper, 509 334—335; of mechanisms,
Concluding sentence: in argument, 549—551, 552—553; in narratives,
382; defined, 252; in descriptions, 345, 346—347; purpose of, 320,
338; in explanations, 326, 327 332; sensory details in, 332—334;
Conclusion: of narrative, 341; of similes and metaphors in, 336;
speech, 642 strategies for organizing and
Concrete nouns: defined, 5 writing, 338
Conflict, in narratives, 341 Descriptive writing, 320, 332—339.
Conjugation, of verbs, 94—95 See also Descriptions.
Conjunctions: conjunctive adverbs Dewey decimal system, 487
as, 31, 58—59; coordinating, 29, Dialect, 87
58; correlative, 30, 295; defined, Dialogue: in narratives, 345—346;
29; subordinating, 30—31; in punctuating, 189
titles, 174 Diction, levels of, 408—409
Conjunctive adverbs: defined, 31; Dictionary, using the, 631—633
with independent clauses, 58, 59, Direct address, 182
68, 185; list, 31 Direct objects: defined, 41
Connotation, 335, 408, 631 Direct quotations: capitalization of,
Context, and meaning, 624—625 171; of five or more lines, 190,
Contractions, 193 456—457; in literary essay, 446,
Coordinating conjunctions: defined, 456—457; of more than one
29; with independent clauses, 58, paragraph, 189; of poetry, 457;
68, 182 punctuating, 188, 189—190,
Coordination, revising by, 284—285 456—457; in research paper,
Correlative conjunctions: defined, 496—497; in speeches, 639. See
30; list, 30; in parallel sentence also Dialogue.
structure, 295 Documentation: of literary essay,
Critical essay. See Literary essay. 457—458; of research paper,
Cross-reference card, 486 509—5 12
Double comparison, of modifier,
135
Dangling modifiers, 138—139
Dash, 197
Data, for technical reports, 562—563 Ellipsis points, 198
Declarative sentence: defined, 35; Elliptical clauses, 63—64
placement of subject and Emphasis, revising for, 306—309
predicate in, 38; punctuating, 35, Emphatic forms, of verbs, 99—100
178 Encyclopedias, 487
Definite article: defined, 18 English language, history of,
Definitions: in dictionary, 632; in viii—xxiii
explanations, 326; quotation Entry words, 632
marks in, 190; in speeches, 639; Essays, 400—427: audience for,
in technical writing, 549—550, 552 405—406; body paragraphs in,
Degrees of comparison, 134—135 420—421, 425; concluding
 paragraph in, 422—423, 425; Future perfect tense, 96
defined, 400; introductory Future tense, 96
paragraph in, 418—419, 425;
listing ideas for, 413; organizing
ideas for, 413—417; outlining, Gazetteers, 488
416, 420; planning, 413—417; Gender: agreement of pronouns
proofreading, 426—427; purposes and antecedents in, 121; defined,
of, 402—403; revising, 425—427; 8
selecting and limiting topics for, Generalizations, avoiding, 648
401—403; style in, 408—410; thesis Gerund phrases: defined, 53;
statement in, 415, 418; title for, functions of, 54
427; tone of, 406, 419; Gerunds: defined, 53; functions of,
transitional devices in, 420—421, 53; modified by possessive
425. See also Literary essays. pronouns, 126
Essential appositives: defined, Glossary, for technical report, 570
48—49 Grammar, 2—85
Essential clause: defined, 60 Greek roots, common, 626—627
Etymologies, 633 Guide words, in dictionary, 632
Evidence: for literary essay,
445—446; in persuasive writing,
363, 364—366, 367—371; revising Heading, in business letter, 587—588
for effective, 386—387 Helping verbs. See Auxiliary verbs.
Examples: in paragraph Historical present, 95
development, 246, 247; in Homographs, 633
speeches, 639 Homophones, 620
Exclamation point, 33, 35, 179 Hyphen, 195—197, 204
Exclamatory sentence: defined, 35;
placement of subject and
predicate in, 39; punctuating, 35, Idioms, 87
179 Illustrations: for speeches, 639; in
Explanations: purpose of, 320, 324; technical writing, 547, 565—566
selecting and limiting topics for, Imperative mood, 105
328; in speeches, 639; strategies Imperative sentence: defined, 35;
for planning, 325; strategies for placement of subject and
writing, 326; technical, 544—547, predicate in, 39; punctuating, 35
552—553 Impromptu speeches, 653
Expository writing, 320, 324—326, Incomplete comparison, of
328—330. See also Explanations. modifier, 135—136
Extemporaneous speeches, 653 Indefinite articles: defined, 18
Indefinite pronouns: as adjectives,
20; agreement of verbs with,
Facts: defined, 363; as evidence in 111—112; as antecedents,
persuasive writing, 364—365; in 119—120, 122; defined, 10; list,
paragraph development, 246, 10, 112, 119; plural, 112, 120;
247; verification for, 363 singular, 112, 119; singular or
Fallacies, avoiding, 388—391 plural, 112, 120; as subjects,
Footnotes: defined, 509; forms for, 111—112
510—512; placement of, 512; rules Independent clauses: comma with,
for using, 510; in technical 58, 68, 182; conjunctive adverbs
reports, 571 with, 58, 59, 68, 185;
Formal English, 88 coordinating conjunctions with,

670
 58, 68, 182; defined, 58; 43; subject complements after,
semicolon with, 58—59, 68, 185 43—44
Indicative mood, 105 List: of illustrations, for technical
Indirect object: defined, 42 report, 571; prewriting, 227—228
Indirect quotation: defined, 189 Literary essays, 436—467. See also
Infinitive clauses, 56 Essays.
Infinitive phrases: defined, 55;
functions of, 55; without to, 56
Infinitives: defined, 54; functions Main headings, in outline, 416, 450,
of, 54—55; tenses of, 97 451, 502
Informal English, 88 Main verb: defined, 13
Information, analyzing and Manuscript form, 208—209
interpreting, 224—225 Mechanics, 170—209: defined, 170.
Inside address, 588 See also Capitalization; Italics;
Intensive pronouns: agreement with Numbers, in writing;
antecedents, 122; defined, 9 Punctuation.
Interjections: defined, 33; Mechanisms, describing, 549—551
punctuating, 33, 179, 181 Metaphors, 336
Interrogative pronouns: as Misplaced modifiers, 137—138
adjectives, 20; case of, 127—128; Modals, 99—100
defined, 9; in subordinate Moderation, in argument, 384—386
clauses, 65 Modes, of writing, 320—347:
Interrogative sentence: defined, 35; defined, 320; descriptive writing,
placement of subject and 320, 332—339; expository writing,
predicate in, 38; punctuating, 35, 320, 324—326, 328—330; narrative
179 writing, 320, 340—348; persuasive
Intransitive verbs: defined, 14 writing, 320. See also Argument,
Introduction, to speech, 641 Descriptions, Essays,
Introductory paragraph: of essay, Explanations, Literary essays,
418—419, 425; of literary essay, Narratives, Persuasive writing,
454—455; of research paper, 509 Technical writing.
Inverted word order, 115 Modifiers: adjective clauses, 59—60;
Irregular comparison, of modifier, adjectives, 18-21; adverb clauses,
135 62—63; adverbs, 23—25;
Irregular verbs, 91—93 comparison of, 134—137; correct
Italics. 201—202 use of, 134—139; dangling,
138-139; infinitives and infinitive
phrases, 54—56; misplaced,
Jargon, 88, 648—649 137—138; participles and
participial phrases, 50—52;
placement of, 137—139;
Language history, English, viii—xxiii prepositional phrases, 27—28,
Latin roots, common, 626 46—48
Letters. See Business letters. Mood, of verbs, 105—107, 281
Library of Congress classification,
487
Library, using, 485—488 Narratives: actions in, 347;
Linking verbs: adjectives after, 19, choosing a topic for, 341; climax
44; defined, 13; distinguishing in, 341; conclusion of, 341;
from action verbs, 13; list, 13, conflict in, 341; creating
43; nouns and pronouns after, characters for, 345; descriptions

R7 I
 in, 345, 346—347; dialogue in, verbs, 14, 41—42, 104
345—346; organizing, 341; Obsolete language, 87
planning, 340—341; point of view Occupational language, 88—89
in, 342—343; setting for, 344 Opinion letter, 601—604
Narrative writing, 320, 340—347. See Opinions: defined, 357;
also Narratives. distinguishing from facts, 357; as
Nominative case, 123, 124 evidence in persuasive writing,
Nonessential appositives, 183 368—371; recognizing, 357—358; as
Nonessential clauses, 61, 183 topics for persuasive writing,
Nonessential phrases, 48—49, 183 357—359
Nonstandard English, 88 Order letter, 591—592
Note cards: for research paper, Order of importance: defined, 258;
497, 498, 499; for speech, in essays, 413—414; in paragraph
649—650 development, 258; in speeches,
Notes, prewriting, 225, 229—230 641; words used in, 258
Note taking: for literary essay, Ordinal numbers, 204
445—448; for research paper, Origins, of words, 628—629, 633
493—499, 503; strategies for, Outlining: as essay, 416, 420; a
495—496 literary essay, 450—451;
Noun clauses: defined, 65; procedure for, 501—503; a
functions of, 65; interrogative research paper, 481, 501—503
pronouns in, 65; with omitted
introductory word, 66; relative
pronouns in, 66; subordinating Paragraphs, 242—268: analogy in,
conjunctions in, 66 262—263; body of, 246—252; cause
Nouns: abstract, 5; as adjectives, and effect in, 264—265;
19—20; as adverbs, 24; collective, chronological order in, 255—256;
4, 112—113, 120—121; common, 4; classification in, 259—260;
compound, 4, 193, 616; concrete, coherence in, 254—255; combined
5; defined, 4; effective use of, methods of organization in,
6—7; plural, 614—616; proper, 4, 267—268; comparison and contrast
172—175 in, 261—262; concluding sentence,
Noun suffixes, 628 252; defined, 242; developing,
Number: agreement of pronouns 243—252; limiting topics for,
and antecedents in, 119—121; 243—244; order of importance
agreement of subjects and verbs in, 258; organizing, 254—264;
in, 108—116 selecting topics for, 243; spatial
Numbers, in writing: with and, 204; order in, 256—257; supporting
at beginning of sentence, 204; sentences, 246—247; topic
cardinal, 204; compound, 204; in sentence, 245; transitional words
dates, street numbers, etc., 205; and phrases in, 255, 257, 258,
in expressions of time, 204—205; 259, 261
ordinal, 204; in technical writing, Parallel structure: revising for,
546 294—295, 307—308; in speeches,
644
Paraphrase, 446—447: in literary
Objective case, 123, 124—125 essay, 446—447; in research
Objective complement: defined, 42 paper, 497—498
Objects: compound, 42; defined, Parentheses, 199—200
41; direct, 41; indirect, 42; of Parenthetical expressions, 182
prepositions, 27; retained, 104; of Participial phrases: defined, 51;

672
 placement of, 51 Postal Service abbreviations, 176,
Participles, as adjectives: auxiliaries 178, 587—588
with, 51; defined, 50; past, Predicate: complete, 38;
50—51; present, 50; tenses of, 97 compound, 37; placement of,
Part-of-speech labels, in dictionary, 38—39; simple, 36—37
632 Predicate adjective: defined, 44;
Parts of speech, 3—33. See also placement of, 44
Adjectives, Adverbs, Predicate nominative: defined, 43;
Conjunctions, Interjections, and subject-verb agreement,
Nouns, Prepositions, Pronouns, 115—116
Verbs. Prefixes: defined, 627; hyphen
Passive voice, 15, 103—104, 308—309 after, 196; list of common, 627;
Past perfect tense, 96 and meaning, 627
Past tense, 96 Prepositional phrases: as adjectives,
Period, 35, 178—179 27—28, 47—48; as adverbs, 27—28,
Periodical indexes, 488 47; defined, 27, 46
Periodic sentences, 307 Prepositions: compound, 27;
Personal pronouns: agreement with defined, 26; distinguishing from
antecedents, 118—122; case, adverbs, 28; lists, 26, 27; objects
123—126; chart, 8; defined, 8; of, 27; placement of, 27; in titles,
gender, 8, 121; number, 8, 174
119—121; person, 8, 121—122; Present perfect tense, 96
plural, 8, 119; possessive, 8, 20, Present tense, 95
125—126; singular, 8, 119 Prewriting, 218—234: analyzing and
Person of pronouns: agreement of interpreting information,
pronouns and antecedents in, 224—225; defined, 218; developing
121—122; defined, 8 ideas, 227—230; exploring subject,
Persuasive writing, 356—391 229; finding ideas, 219—224;
Phrases, 46—56: absolute, 51—52; focusing ideas, 232—234; lists,
appositive, 48—49, 129, 183; 227—228; notes, 225, 229—230;
defined, 46; essential, 48—49; questions, 224, 229
gerund, 53—54; infinitive, 55—56; Principal parts: defined, 15, 90; of
nonessential, 48—49, 183; irregular verbs, 91—93; of regular
participial, 51—52; placement of, verbs, 91
137—139; prepositional, 27—28, Problem-solving method, in
46—48; verb, 13—14; verbal, speeches, 641
50—52, 53—56 Process, in technical writing:
Plagiarism, 510 analysis, 559—560; defined, 555;
Point of view: in literary essay, 439; describing a, 555—558, 559—560
in narratives, 342—343; in Progressive forms, of verb, 98—99
technical writing, 545 Pronominal adjectives. See
Position statement: in argument, Possessive pronouns.
374—375; in persuasive writing, Pronoun case: in appositive
363; strategies for clarifying, phrases, 129; in comparisons,
376—377 130; defined, 123; of
Positive degree, 134—135 interrogative pronouns, 127—128;
Possessive case, 123, 125—126 nominative, 123, 124; objective,
Possessive nouns, 20, 192—193 123, 124—125; of personal
Possessive pronouns: as adjectives, pronouns, 123—126; possessive,
20, 126; defined, 8; referring to 123, 125—126; of relative
or replacing nouns, 125 pronouns, 128

673
Pronoun reference, 131—132 writing, 320, 356
Pronouns: as adjectives, 20—21,
126; agreement with antecedents,
118—122; antecedents, defined, 7; Question mark, 35, 179
in appositive phrases, 129; case, Questions: for literary essay,
123—126, 127—128, 129—130; in 441—442; prewriting, 224, 229; for
comparisons, 130; in compound understanding audience, 233
constructions, 126; consistency in Quotation marks, 189—191
use of, 281—282; correct use of, Quotations. See Direct quotations.
118—132; defined, 7;
demonstrative, 8—9; indefinite,
10, 20, 111—112, 119—120, 122; Readers’ Guide to Periodical
intensive, 9, 122; interrogative, 9, Literature, 488
127—128; personal, 8, 118—122; Reading-comprehension tests,
plural, 119; possessive, 8, 20, 659—661
125—126; reference to Reading, for literary essay, 440—442
antecedents, 131—132; reflexive, Reasoning, in persuasive writing,
9, 122; relative, 10, 128; singular, 370—37 1
119 Reasons: in argument, 378, 379; in
Pronunciation: in dictionary, 632; paragraph development, 246—247
key, 622, 632; spelling and, Rebuttal, in argument, 380—381
620—621, 622 Reduction, revising by, 300—302
Proofreading: defined, 310; an Redundancy, 89, 300
essay, 426—427; a research paper, Reference works, general, 487—488
517; symbols, 207—208; a Reflexive pronouns: agreement
technical report, 575 with antecedents, 122; defined, 9
Proper adjectives: capitalization of, Regular verbs, 91
19, 175; creating with suffixes, Relative adverbs, 60
19; defined, 19 Relative pronouns: as adjectives,
Proper nouns: capitalization of, 4, 20; case, 128; defined, 10;
172—175; defined, 4 introducing adjective clauses, 10;
Public speaking, 634—653. See also in subordinate clauses, 59, 60, 66
Speeches. Repetition, in speech, 646
Punctuation, 177—200: apostrophe, Request letter, 590—591
192—194; brackets, 200; colon, Research paper, 478—534:
187—188; comma, 180—184; dash, bibliography for, 489—491;
197; ellipsis points, 198; defined, 478; direct quotations in,
exclamation point, 35, 179; 496—497; documentation of,
hyphen, 195—197; parentheses, 509—512; drafting, 508—509;
199—200; period, 35, 178—179; finished form for, 521—534;
question mark, 35, 179; footnotes in, 509—512; organizing
quotation marks, 189—190; information for, 501—503;
semicolon, 185—186 proofreading, 517; research for,
Purpose, in speaking, 635, 636—637 485—491; revising, 515—517;
Purpose, in writing: considering, selecting and limiting topic for,
321—322; defined, 233; of 479—480; taking notes for,
descriptive writing, 320, 332; of 493—499, 503; thesis statement
essay, 402—403; of expository for, 478, 480—482, 501
writing, 320, 324; of literary Résumé, writing a, 597—598
essay, 437—438; of narrative Retained object: defined, 104
writing, 320; of persuasive Review, writing a, 328—330

674
Revising, 276—312: an argumen public speaking, 651
384—391; for consistency, Signature, in business letter, 588
280—282; by coordination, Similes, 336
284—285; for emphasis, 306—309; Simple predicate: defined, 36
an essay, 425—427; a literary Simple sentence: defined, 67; in
essay, 462—463; for paragraph speeches, 644
coherence, 277—282; for Simple subject: defined, 36
paragraph order, 278—279; for Single quotation marks, 191
paragraph unity, 277—278; for Slang, 87
parallel sentence structure, Social letters: complimentary close,
294—295; by reduction, 300—302; 184; salutation, 184
for redundancy, 300; a research Sources: secondary, 448—449;
paper, 515—517; for sentence strategies for evaluating, 493—494
coherence, 303—304; for sentence Spatial order: defined, 256; in
conciseness, 298—302; for descriptions of mechanisms, 550;
sentence variety, 290-291; by in essays, 413; in paragraph
subordination, 285—287; a development, 256—257; in
technical report, 575 speeches, 641; words used in, 257
Roman numerals, in outline, 416, Speeches: effective delivery of,
450, 502 651—652; information for,
Roots: defined, 626; Greek, 638—639; kinds, 634; organizing,
626—627; Latin, 626; and 640—647; preparing and
meaning, 625—627 delivering, 649—651; purposes of,
Rough outline, 416, 481 635; selecting and limiting topics
Run-on sentence, 74—75 for, 636—638
Spelling, 614—623: -cede, -ceed,
-sede, 620; changing final y to i,
Sentence: balanced, 307—308; 618; doubling final consonant,
capitalization in, 171—172; 617; dropping final e, 617—618;
classified by structure, 67—69; homophones, 620; ielei, 619;
coherence, 303—304; complete, patterns, 619—620; plurals,
70—75; complex, 68; compound, 614—616; procedure for studying,
68; compound-complex, 69; 614; pronunciation and, 620—621,
conciseness, 298—302; declarative, 622; rules, 614—618; strategies for
35, 38, 178; defined, 34; improving, 621; words commonly
exclamatory, 35, 39, 179; confused, 620—621; words
fragment, 70—73; imperative, 35, frequently misspelled, 622
39; interrogative, 35, 38, 179; Statistics, in speeches, 639
parallel structure in, 294-295, Style, in essays: 408—410, 426;
307—308; periodic, 307; run-on, spoken, 643; in technical writing,
74—75; simple, 67; subject and 545—546, 575
predicate, 36—39; variety, Subheadings, in outline, 416, 450,
290—291 451, 502
Sentence combining, 52—53, 56—57, Subject card, 486
61—62, 64, 69—70, 283 290, 426, Subject complement: defined, 43
517—5 19 Subject, of infinitive clause, 56
Sentence-completion tests, 657—658 Subject, of sentence: agreement of
Sentence-correction tests, 662—663 verb with, 108—116; complete, 37;
Sentence fragment, 70—73 compound, 36; placement of,
Sentence outline, 416 38—39; simple, 36
Setting: for narratives, 344; for Subjunctive mood, 105—107

67’
Subordinate clauses: as adjectives, Title page, for technical report, 572
59—60; as adverbs, 62; defined, Titles: agreement of verbs with,
59; interrogative pronouns in, 65, 113—114; capitalizatiOn of, 174;
127—128; as nouns, 65; relative correct manuscript form, 208,
pronouns in, 59, 66; 209; for essay, 427; italics with,
subordinating conjunctions in, 202; for literary essay, 454; for
30, 59, 66 narrative, 347; quotation marks
Subordinating conjunctions: with, 190
defined, 30; relationships Tone: consistency in, 282; of essay,
expressed by, 30—31; in 406, 419; of literary essay, 439;
subordinate clauses, 30, 59, 66 of technical writing, 545, 575
Subordination, revising by, 285—287 Topic: for essay, 401—403; for
Suffixes: defined, 627; list of explanation, 324; limiting,
common, 627—628; and meaning, 243—244; for literary essay, 442;
627—628 for narrative, 341; opinion as,
Summary: in literary essay, 447; in 357—359; for persuasive writing,
research paper, 498—499; in 357—361; procedure for focusing
speech, 646 on, 232—233; for research paper,
Superlative degree, 134—135 479—480; selecting, 243; for
Superscripts: in dictionary, 633; in speech, 636—637; for technical
footnotes, 509 writing, 544
Supporting sentences: in argument, Topical order, in speeches, 641
377—378, 379, 380—381; in Topic outline, 416
paragraph development, 246—247; Topic sentence: defined, 245; in
descriptions, 338; in
in persuasive writing, 363 explanations, 326, 327; implied,
SynonymS, 630, 633
249—250; position of, 249; writing
effective, 245
Transitional words and phrases: in
Table of contents, for technical describing a process, 557; in
report, 571—572
descriptions, 338, 339; in essays,
Technical reports, writing, 562—575
Technical writing, 542—575: defined, 421, 425; in explanations, 326,
543; descriptions of mechanisms, 327; in paragraph development,
549—551; explanations, 544—547, 255, 257, 258, 259, 261; in
research papers, 516; in revising,
552—553, 555—558, 559—560;
278; in speeches, 645
reports, 562—575; topics for, 544 Transitive verbs: defined, 14
Tense: consistency of, 101, 280;
defined, 94; future, 96; future
perfect, 96; historical present, 95;
in literary essay, 439; past, 96; Unity: in paragraph, 277—278; in
past perfect, 96; present, 95; speech, 642
present perfect, 96; sequence of, Usage: alphabetical notes, 141—163;
101—102; shifts in, 101—102; of correct, 90—140; levels of, 88;
verbals, 97 scope of, 87—89; in test items,
Tests, taking, 654—665 662
Thesis statement: defined, 415; for Usage labels, in dictionary, 632
essay, 415, 418; for literary essay,
443, 449, 450; for research paper,
478, 480—482, 501; for speech, Variety: in sentence beginnings,
637 29 1—292; in sentence structure
Title card, 486 and length, 290—291
 -~

Verbal phrases: absolute, 51; sequence of tenses, 101—102;

gerund, 53—54; infinitive, 55—56; subjunctive mood, 105—107;
participial, 51 taking objective complements,
Verbals: defined, 50; gerunds, 53; 42; tense, 94—97; transitive, 14;
infinitives, 54—55; participles, voice, 15, 103—104, 209, 308—309
50—51 Verb suffixes, 627
Verbal skills, in tests, 655—661 Visual aids, for speech, 650
Verbosity, 89 Vocabulary, 624—633: connotation
Verb phrase, 13, 109 and denotation, 630—631; context
Verbs: action, 12, 13, 41—42; active and meaning, 624—625; dictionary
voice, 15, 103—104, 209, 308; and, 631—633; effective, in
agreement with subjects, speeches, 646—647; origins of
108—116; auxiliary, 13—14, 91, 92; words, 628—629; prefixes and
changes in form, 15; meaning, 627; roots and
characteristics of, 14-15; meaning, 625—626; suffixes and
conjugation of, 94—95, 106; meaning, 627—628; synonyms,
consistency of tenses, 101; 630, 632
correct use of, 90—116; defined, Voice, of verb: consistency in use
12; effective use of, 16—17; of, 280—281; defined, 15; effective
emphatic forms, 99—100; use of, 103—104, 209, 308—309
imperative mood, 105; indicative
mood, 105; intransitive, 14; Writer’s notebook, strategies for
irregular, 91—93; linking, 13, 43; keeping, 219—222
mood, 105—107; objects of, 14,
41—42; passive voice, 15, Yearbooks, 488
103—104, 308—309; principal
parts, 15, 90—93; progressive
forms, 98—99; regular, 91; ZIP code, using, 176

677
~cknowIedgmefltS (continued)
The Publisher also wishes to thank all the students whose names appear
this textbookfOr granting permission to use their writing as models. The
ditors and the Publisher have been solely responsible for selecting the
tudent writing used as models.
The editor~have made every effort to obtain permission to use student
writing. In three instances, however, it was not possible to locate student
writerS.
rom The Norton Anthology of English Literature edited by M. H. Abrams et~al.
~eprinted by pèrmission~of W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. From The Wild
nside by Linda Allison. Copyright © 1979 by Linda Allison. Reprinted with the
)ermission of Sierra~Club Books and Charles Scribner’s Sons. From “A Study in
vlotion” by Joseph Alper. First appeared in Science Digest, © 1982 by The Hearst
Dorporation. Reprinted by permission of the author. From A Glimpse of Eden
y Evelyn Ames. Copyright © 1967 by Evelyn Ames. Reprinted by permission~of
Eloughton Muffin Company, and Russell & Volkening, Inc. as agents for the
author. From Fundamentals of Meteorology by Louis J. Battan. Copyright ®
1979. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc. From Get ‘em and Go
Travel Guide: Mexico 1982 by Stephen Birnbaum. Copyright © 1981 by Houghton
Muffin Company. Reprinted by permission of Houghton Muffin Company, and
Penguin Books Ltd. From The Prairie World by David F. Costello. Published by
University of.MinnesOta Press, copyright © 1980. Reprinted by permission of.the
author. From “Sailing Through Space on Sunlight” by Eric Drexier. First
published in Smithsonian, February 1982. Reprinted by permission of the author.
From “The Snail That’s Too Good for Its Own Good” by Carrol Fleming. First
published in Smithsonian, March 1982. Reprinted by permission of the author.
From “Does Your Sport Suit Your Body?” Courtesy Glamour. Copyright
© 1982 b~ The Condé Nast Publications Inc. From page 382, Table 13.8,
Nutritional Evaluation of Food Processing by R.S. Harris and E. Karmas, 1975.
Reprinted by permission of The AVI Publishing Company, Inc., P.O. Box 831,
Westport, CT 06881. From “The Snows of Kilimanjaro,” in The Short Stories of
Ernest Hemingway, by Ernest Hemingway. Copyright 1936 Ernest Hemingway,
copyright renewed 1964 Mary Hemingway. Used with the permission of Charles
Scribner’s Sons, and Jonathan Cape Ltd. From “A Sunrise on the Veld” from
African Stories by Doris Lessing. Copyright ~ 1951, 1953, 1954, 1957, 1958, 1962,
1963, 1964, 1965 by Doris Lessing. Reprinted by permission of Simon & Schuster,
and Curtis Brown Group Ltd. From “Bat Quest” from All Creatures Great and
Small by Daniel P. Mannix. Copyright © 1963 by Daniel P. Mannix. Reprinted by
permission of the Harold Matson Company, Inc. “Cargoes” by John Masefield
from Collected Poems by John Masefield. Published by Macmillan Publishing
Company, Inc., © 1953. Reprinted by permission of Macmillan Publishing
Company, Inc., and The Society of Authors as the literary representative of the
Estate of John Masefield. From “The Duke’s Children” by Frank O’Connor from
Domestic Relations by Frank O’Connor. Copyright 1956 by Frank O’Connor.
Published by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Joan
Daves. From Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature. Copyright © 1980, 1981 by
The MW. Wilson Company. Material reproduced by permission of the publisher.
From On Stage: A History of Theater, 2nd edition, by Vera Mowry Roberts.

678
Copyright © 1974 by Vera Mowry Roberts. Published by Harper & Row,
Publishers, Inc. Reprinted by permission of the author. From Life Science
Library Planets by Carl Sagan, Jonathan Norton Leonard and the Editors of
Time-Life Books. © 1966 Time, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Time-Life Books,
Inc. From “Reminiscences of Childhood” from Quite Early One Morning by
Dylan Thomas. Copyright 1954 by New Directions Publishing Corporation.
Reprinted by permission of New Directions Publishing Corporation and David
Higham Associates Ltd. From WGBH Boston, Nova, © 1983 WGBH
Educational Foundation. Published by Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts.
P. 209. Reprinted with permission. From “Song” by William Carlos Williams
from Pictures from Brueghel and Other Poems by William Carlos Williams.
Copyright © 1962 by William Carlos Williams. Reprinted by permission of New
Directions Publishing Corporation. From “Columbus and the Moon” by Tom Wolfe
in The New York Times, July 20, 1979. © 1979 by The New York Times Company.
Reprinted by permission.

Student sample by Eric Heywood from Images, Mount Vernon High School, Mount
Vernon, Iowa. Student sample by Denise Kolek was provided by Professor Wallace
Coyle.

Credits
Cover concept, book design, and art production: Ligature Publishing Services, Inc.
Photos
Carl Corey: cover, xxiv—1, 216—217, 612—613
Steven Curtis: xxi
James L. Ballard: 237, 271, 315, 316, 351, 395, 396, 431, 471, 537, 538, 581, 607
Pages viii, xvi, xix: Historical Pictures Service, Chicago Page 237 (left): Culver
Pictures Page 237 (right): NASA/Photo Page 315 (right): Courtesy of the
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679
 Checklist f r Revision
As a guide in revising your writing, consider the
following questions:
1. Did you cover your topic thoroughly?
,. 2. Did you remove any information not directly related to
your topic?
~.— 3. Did you include a topic sentence or a thesis statement?
,.. 4. Did you present your information in a logical order?
~ 5. Did you use transitional words and phrases to
emphasize the order of your ideas?
i..0 6. Did you write an appropriate conclusion?
j. 7. Did you use words and details that are suitable for your
audience?
~ 8. Did you achieve your purpose for writing?
i.~ 9. Did you vary the length and structure of your
sentences?
i.’1O. Did you use accurate and precise words?
k~l 1. Did you use the correct forms for research papers,
technical reports, and letters?
i—’12. Did you avoid using sentence fragments, run-on
sentences, and other incorrect sentence structures?
j.—13. Did you use correct usage, spelling, punctuation, and
capitalization?
v14. Did you carefully proofread your finished copy?

680
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2-2~l836