Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-019-00949-w

ORIGINAL PAPER

Religion and Spirituality: Mental Health Arbitrage

in the Body of Mosques Architecture

Jamal‑e‑Din MahdiNejad1 · Hamidreza Azemati1 · Ali Sadeghi Habibabad1

Published online: 13 November 2019

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019

Abstract
Spirituality is a lost human concept and meaning in the universe that is independent
of time and place. It is an inclusive concept, which affects everyone. It has also a
kind of overlap with the religion; however, unlike the spirituality, religion has poten-
tially a type of certainty and boundaries, and specifically, some adopt it. This mean-
ing implies realities or mental in the objective and concrete world or mental facts
in the psyche. The term spirituality and its derivatives, although not being used in
the original Islamic texts, is widespread in Muslims literature, both in Persian and
in Arabic languages. The past architect being aware of this reality and relying on
his beliefs has created a architecture proportionate to his time’s culture and beliefs
and using architectural elements and has filled the objective body with the spiritual
beliefs. The research shows that the religious beliefs and spiritual practices prevent
the spiritual and physical, as well as mental, illnesses and, at the same time, reduce
the recurrence of the diseases and their symptoms. On the other hand, it accelerates
the recovery rate and increases the probability of returning to the initial state.

Keywords Religion and spirituality · Mental health · The body of architecture ·

Meaning

Introduction

“Sense of Spirituality” is a topic that needs research and requires a physical explana-
tion for today’s architecture, especially Islamic mosques. Spirituality takes place on
the basis of human belief in the unseen world and the supernatural universe and giv-
ing the originality to the inner world (Sadeghi Habibabad et al. 2019). There have
been various definitions provided for spirituality. Culliford (2002) considers it as
a term “including the religious attitude, scientific aspects, the health of body and
mind, supernatural beliefs, and religious practices.” While religion is considered to

* Ali Sadeghi Habibabad

[email protected]
1
Department of Architecture, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University (SRTTU), Tehran, Iran

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 1636 Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651

be the tie between human and a greater entity, or something equal to life, spiritual-
ity is about how the human soul is strengthened. Schroder (2003) defines it as a set
of values and beliefs about one’s “self” and the universe, i.e., taking care of one’s
own and others’ mental health. It is beyond the words and can be very easily felt and
experienced.
Spirituality is considered to be the lost aspect of mental health (Schroder 2003). It
has been inferred as a deep connection between the person and universe and is con-
sidered as the spiritual realm of human experience (Culliford 2005). This concept is
related to the discovery of the meaning and objective of the life and sense of attach-
ment to society. Spirituality is especially imported from the viewpoint of medicine
and psychiatry, in the confrontation of stress, pain, physical and mental illness, and
grief. It is related to efforts for inspiration, dignity, praise, seeking the meaning of
life, and meaningfulness even in those people who do not believe in God. According
to WHO (Swinton 2001), it can be discussed under four titles: perfection, personal
communication, the mysteries of life, and personal beliefs. Perfection is related to
concepts such as connecting to a spiritual entity or power, meaning of life, honor,
divine love, inner peace and harmony, inner power, integration of birth and death
and attachment and separation, hope and happiness, and life control. It is also related
to a person’s kindness with others, humility, acceptance of others, and forgiveness.
Some spiritual values act as mysteries of life and include honesty, encouragement,
tolerance, patience, mercy, kindness, pleasure, hope, and love. Personal beliefs also
include all of one’s perceptions of themselves, the world, and others.
Religion psychology is stemmed from the intellectual and cultural space of an
era in which the scientific methods and religion research was developed in a way
or another, and both were facing different questions and had got close to each other
in this regard (Hill and Pargament 2008). In this meaning, religion psychology for
religious research was as a new motivation as it was for the science of psychology.
However, during years, many of the psychologists have had a positive attitude to the
psychology of religion and have considered it to be valuable in people life (Shafran-
ske 1996). Therefore, it can be concluded that the related researches have also indi-
cated the presence of a positive relationship between religiosity and mental health
(Koenig et al. 2001). This feature can be seen in the past architecture environmental
psychology, especially in the architecture of Islamic mosques.
The architecture of a religious or holy space has characteristics which, instead
of only focusing its shape aspects, has a common tie with the main principles of
life quality and spiritual approach and is related to the human spirit. The spiritual
emotion is the active and dynamic aspect of the “spirit” which is independent of
the form and shapes. These shapes through which the spiritual energy is flowing
reflect the divine emotion which gives the building a holy quality (Pei-lin 1996).
In addition, these buildings are built based on a geometry which makes flowing of
this spiritual energy possible (Simpson 2007). Therefore, throughout the history, the
architecture of the holy places has been always related to a precise and rigorous sys-
tem of measurements, ratios and geometric relationships. It is that precise geometry
that enables the transference and flow of the holy energy (Gordon 2009; Macchia
2008; MahdiNejad et al. 2016; Khaki and Sadeghi Habibabad 2015; MahdiNejad
et al. 2017).

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 Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651 1637

Methodology

With a broad categorization of the research methodology which is divided into

qualitative and quantitative categories, the current study is of descriptive–analytical
in terms of application. Also, the data have been collected through a documenta-
tion–library-based method, using the research on the role of religion and spiritu-
ality on mental health. Also, 15 experts have been interviewed for the purpose of
the study. In this regard, by looking upon the angle of the research methodology
in architecture (Groat and Wang 2013), the current study uses a combined strategy
whose guidelines are the qualitative method and Inferential contingencies.

Review of the Related Literature

In many studies, the architectures and researchers have investigated the fundamental
factors related to the qualities of the spiritual space, which will be noted in the fol-
lowings. In some studies, spirituality has been defined as an effort for nurturing the
sensitivity toward one’s self, others, non-human entities and God (the great power),
or exploration for what is needed for the human and search for the achievement of
perfect humanity (Hinnells John 1995). In some other studies, this spiritual quality
has been related to the meaning, divinity, and holy atmosphere, and in some other,
it has been focused on the ontology. It has been also described by similar attributes
such as being organic, alive, perfect, comfortable, soulless, precise, and mostly eter-
nal. Such attributes have led this feeling to be tied to the label “timeless quality” and
subsequently, “the timeless architecture.” Alexander (1979) states that: “there is a
kind of timeless building… it is thousands of years old [still] it looks today as it has
always been.”

The Lexical Root of Spirituality and its Meaning

The meaning is a reality with the capability that concept narrates it and indicates it
(Welby 1983). Also, the concept is only subjective, but meaning can be objective as
well. Some argue that meaning is the same as meaning (Grice 1957). Weber relates
the subjective meaning to the belief–value system of the individual and his/her ulti-
mate goals, motivation, and intention, a goal to which the doer directs his actions
consciously (Weber 1978).
In the terminology and Dehkhoda and Moein encyclopedias, the terms ‘Ma’ana,
‘Ma’ani, ‘Ma’navi, and ‘Ma’anaviat have been defined as follows:

Ma’ana (meaning): The Persian way of writing “Ma’ani” (meaning).

Ma’ani (meaning): What the word, phrase, or sentence implies. Meaning, pur-
pose, intention.
Ma’navi (spiritual): Attributed to Ma’ana, Ma’ani; internal, true, immaterial.

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 1638 Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651

Ma’anaviat (spirituality): To be spiritual.

Lexically, spirituality means being related to or affecting the spirit, being related
to sacrifice, commitment to religious values, or values merged with the spirit
(Abdullah et al. 2009). According to the domestic literature, spirituality is defined
as: “the sublime aspect of the human soul which is deposited in all human beings to
advance in the path of perfection which is indeed getting close to Allah” (Memaryan
et al. 2016). The interest in spirituality and human values is increasing more than
ever. Spirituality is the continuous search to find the meaning and objective of life
and deep perception of the value of life, the vastness of the universe, the natural
forces available, and the system of personal beliefs. Spirituality is an inseparable
part of ethics and human values, and it is of great value in monotheistic religions.
The defects threatening the human and human life today are due to the ignorance of
ethical issues and spiritual values (Ashmos and Duchon 2000).
Some believe that the spirituality is “a transcendental relationship and creation
of a unity between the nature and human, and achievement of oneness and union
with the universe” or the relationship between the individual and God, entrusting the
affairs to him, trusting his all-out power and guidance (Applebee et al. 2007; Plante
2008). Spirituality is the relationship with a sublime entity and having faith in it.
This aspect of human existence is intrinsic and innate and is evolved and promoted
as a result of religious practices and some other behaviors, creating many indi-
vidual and social impacts. Wong and San (2011) state that spirituality is an aspect
of humanity that notes a path through which the people explore the meaning and
goal, and what they experience is the their relationship with the moments, their own
“self,” others, and what is valuable or sacred to us (MahdiNejad et al.2019a).
Motahari defines spirituality as a kind of emotion and human intrinsic inclination
to immaterial affairs and intellectuality, beauty, holiness, and worship, which distin-
guishes the man from other creatures (Motahari 1985). In his point of view, spiritu-
ality and how to achieve it cannot be separated from practicing the religious orders.
This unity between religious behavior and spiritual growth is exclusive to Islam. He,
in another work, introduces the spirituality to be equal to the unseen, the inner, and
the supernatural. He considers Islamic spirituality to be something beyond dogmatic
religiosity (ibid) and states that it is the basis of social justice (Motahari 1985).
According to Muse-Burke (2004), spirituality is defined as a type of identity
which is related to the meaning and objective of life, tie with others, inner peace,
and elevation. The elevation aspect has been always the main element in spiritual-
ity (Piedmont 1999) and, even sometimes, has been changed into an independent
construct titled “spiritual elevation.” In a study by some American researchers in
the middle of 1980s led by Prof. Elkins, which was done with a human-oriented and
phenomenological approach, the spirituality was defined as follows: “spirituality is
derived from ‘spiritus’ meaning the role of life (or a method of being) and (experi-
encing), which is created with an awareness of an immaterial aspect, and the detect-
able values determine it. These values are related to others, self, nature, and life, and
considered as anything that is taken by the individual as ultimate goal” (Elkins et al.
1988). According to Griffin (1988), spirituality is a humanistic–intrinsic attribute,
which is innately related to religious concepts and meanings. The holy spirituality

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 Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651 1639

is the feeling of the presence of meaning in the ego and its manifestation in the
behavior, driven by the correct perception of the universe and the origin of creation
and the acme of the system of creation and the invisible forces active in ordering and
flowing the traditions embodied in the text of creation. In other words, holy spiritu-
ality is a state formed as a result of a behavioral-cognitive process consistent with
the truth of universe and its traditions.

Definition of Spirituality

Defining spirituality is as difficult as defining religion (Nasr 1990). Dr. Nasr believes
that this term has been too vaguely used in recent decades. The origin of its use in
the European languages is quite new, i.e., it was first used in the catholic circles
in the past one or two centuries. This term is only recently widely used, mostly as
the replacement of “religion” and according to some, against it. The words mean-
ing “spirituality” in the Eastern languages are usually indicative of its terminology,
which is derived from “spiritus” or “the spirit.” For example, in the Arabic language,
the word “Ruhaniyah” is a common equivalent, and it is also derived from “Al-Ruh”
which exactly means “spiritus,” without this Arabic term’s meaning becoming vague
at all. However, in the modern world, whose feature is either denial of the “spirit”
as an objective and ontological reality, or confusing it with the ego (psyche), what
meaning can spirituality have? This term usually includes a vague desire for mean-
ing and experiencing the noumenal affairs, and in the meantime, while ignoring the
truth that spirit is consistent with specific principles and only manifests in great tra-
ditions that have a divine origin, which is suffice to psychological affairs instead
of noumenal ones. And if the scripture states that “the spirit can flow wherever it
wants,” it is only an exceptional indicator that proves the principle (Nasr 1968).
When the traditional criteria of the truth of “spirit” and its manifestation rules, as
present in various traditions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam,
is denied (or ignored, everything can be called spiritual—and the word spiritual-
ity loses both its intellectual aspect and holiness—the vast complexity of the mun-
dane world is confused with the luminous heaven of the “spirit,” and that kind of
so-called spirituality that results from this confusion can be brought to almost any-
thing including science. Therefore, in the current argumentation, the spirit is defined
as the inner and spiritual aspect of the traditional religions, which deals with the
noumenal and formless affairs which can be directly experienced and are beyond the
subjective topics, but not unintellectual. On the contrary, if the term “intellect” is
understood as its original meaning, that is intellectual or buddhi, and not merely as
the partial intellect (or inferential), the spirituality and intellectuality are inseparable
(Nasr 2013).
Spirituality is a global concept (Chiu et al. 2004) and everybody experience it.
Spirituality is a part of the human (Tanyi 2002). Since human is a multidimensional
entity, ignoring any of these dimensions eliminates a vital part of people humanity
as well as the significant effects it has on whole life. According to Narayanasamy
(2002), the researchers have consensus on the spirituality and the fact that human is
a spiritual entity (Narayanasamy 2002).

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 1640 Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651

Art and architecture manifest themselves in different frameworks in differ-

ent religions, and meanwhile, Islamic art is of particular importance (Hanifi and
Maleki 2016), since the Islamic art is rooted in Islamic mysticism, and thus, it can
be explained and interpreted from this view (Janson et al. 1991). Perhaps, the most
elevated manifestations of holy art and spirituality can be found in the architecture
of the Islamic era’s mosques. The holy art is an art in which closeness to God is
manifest and seeing it reminds God (Nasr 1990). As Prof. Ekasheh, this Egyptian
virtuoso, states: “the world must seek the art in Islamic art of the Islamic countries,
especially in Shia art, and more specifically, in the holy art of Iranian Islamic archi-
tecture.” Prof. Abraham Pope states that: “bury me besides Zayandeh Rood in Isfa-
han, so that my spirit would explore the value of Iranian architecture, especially the
Islamic architecture and Iranian mosques after my death, since I couldn’t research
them as I should when I was alive” Zomorshidi and Sadeghi Habibabad 2018).

The Importance of Spirituality and Religion

The necessity of spirituality in human is the same as the necessity of breathing for
life. It can be identified for all human beings in all communities all over the world.
It is one of the life-giving principles of human existence, and it is accepted by many
religions, cultures, and traditions all over the world. On the other hands, there are
still beliefs that consider the spirituality to be internal and static from birth, and that
it would push the individual forward through obtaining new experiences. Spiritual-
ity is a way to experience the elevated sense of being connected to a greater power,
which both guides life and means death (Omidvari 2008).
Spirituality is a human-based, positive, vital, and related to the ontology of
human dimensions which plays an important role by the creation of motivation for
living and exploring the meaning and objectives of the life, and beyond the life. It is
an inner, dynamic, and evolutionary process whose effects are manifested in the per-
son and all the stages and domains of life, and even the lifestyle. Spirituality is con-
sidered as an inner experience and also a connection with high power, and a truth
to increase the consciousness and relationships with oneself and others, as well as a
greater truth (Safayi et al. 2011).
Spirituality is a global phenomenon which is needed by all human beings to
explore the meaning and acceptance of life through relating to themselves, others,
and sacred things (Abbasi et al. 2012).
During the years, many psychologists have had a positive attitude toward religion
and considered it to be valuable in people’s lives (Shafranske 1996, 7). What
assures man is God’s remembrance as the Almighty God states in Holy
Quran: “ ُ‫للاِ تَط َمئِ ُّن القُلُوب‬ ِ ‫للاِ أَال بِ ِذ‬
َّ ‫كر‬ َّ ‫كر‬
ِ ‫( ”الَّذينَ آ َمنُوا َو تَط َمئِ ُّن قُلُوبُهُم بِ ِذ‬Al-Ra’ad, verse 28)
(Those who have believed and whose hearts are assured by the remembrance of
Allah. Unquestionably, by the remembrance of Allah are the heats assured.”).
“remembrance of a God who is powerful and kind, and there is no effective power in
the universe but his.” Therefore, the man is assured by his remembrance. The effects
of religious beliefs on mental health from the viewpoint of Carl Yung: Today, we

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 Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651 1641

need to think and ponder about the effectiveness of religious beliefs on all human
affairs, especially the mental and emotional ones, more than ever.

Spirituality and Mental Health

In recent decades, a holistic approach to recognition of people has paved the way
for researching spirituality as one of the cognitive, behavioral, interpersonal, and
psychological dimensions of the human being. Although the Eastern ideologies
(such as Buddhism) have created a type of a link between the spirituality and mental
health, the gap between the religion and science in the Western world finally led to a
relative interest in this subject, especially in Great Britain. This interest in relation-
ship between spirituality and mental health has been investigated in different ways.
Researchers from various fields such as psychology, psychiatry, theology, nursing,
and epidemiology have researched about the tie between different elements of these
two domains of human existence. Swinton states that spirituality is an interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and transpersonal experience which directed by the people experi-
ences and communities in which they live. In other words, spirituality has inner,
group, social, and transcendental elements. Therefore, its interaction with the men-
tal health of a seeming person would be interactive and dynamic. Although some
research seeks to find a linear relationship between some dimensions and manifesta-
tions of spirituality and consequences of the mental health, the value of a combi-
national approach to recognize and know about the mental health of the individual
is of a great significance. Meanwhile, it should be considered that the relationship
between the two is a two-way and interactive relationship, and definitely, there are
other factors that affect it.

The Consequences of Spiritual Practice for Mental Health

For a century, the advantages and benefits of spiritual performance for physical
health have been investigated and documented. In the primary level, some spirit-
ual practices have led to an increase in human life span. Recently, a review of 42
studies on the relationship between the ethics and the spiritual performance showed
that people with high religiosity, compared to their unreligious counterparts, have a
longer life. Other studies have dealt with the benefits of spiritual practice to people
with coronal disorders, AIDS, and some cancers.
In a new study, 45% of the people involved in the field of mental health believe
that religion can protect people against mental diseases. Unlike Freud who consid-
ered the religion to be obsessive neuroticism for the man, it should be said that the
relationship between the mental health, religion, and spirituality is a complex, and
at times, ambiguous one. One of the theologians has claimed that religion is the last
psychiatric taboo. At the same time, many believe that this approach is stemmed
from lack of attention to the spiritual element of the religion.
In 1997, the Mental Health Institute of America conducted the first applied study
on mental health and it was revealed that more than half of the services have a kind

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 1642 Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651

of spiritual belief and these beliefs have been positive and effective, and significant
in terms of mental health. Then, these people were asked to describe the role of spir-
ituality and spiritual and religious practices and beliefs in their lives. The outcomes
of their descriptions were cases as follows: the importance of guidance, a sense of
having a target, peace, foundation, confiding, creation of inner love and sympathy to
others. These were all positive elements for mental health.
The new evidence generally confirms this change in attitude, and somehow,
implies the protective or useful effects of religion or spirituality on mental health.
Although this relationship is variable based on how the spirituality is expressed or
which dimension of it is intended and measured, positive ties between some religi-
osity styles or spirituality orentation and public peace, life satisfaction, and the gen-
eral practices of psychology have been discovered (Seeman et al. 2003). The factors
connecting these elements somehow act replaceable. I addition, some researches
show that a spiritual or religious practice can significantly affect the mental health
of people suffering from depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and
schizophrenia.

Spirituality and Depression

Depression is the most widespread mental problem found among the people, and
it is itself emerged in different behavioral and mental forms and of course, differ-
ent levels (Desrosiers and Miller 2007). This disorder has different symptoms such
as the sadness, overwhelming fatigue, contusion, feeling that doing the smallest
things is impossible, loss of appetite, unnecessary and excessive worry, sense of fail-
ure, reasonless feeling of guilt, feeling of frustration, and being inefficacious, sleep
problems (including Insomnia, nightmares or nightmares) and even physical prob-
lems such as back pain or stomach pains. Most of the researches on the relationship
between spirituality and mental health are focused on depression. However, they
provide also valuable information about the relationship between the spirituality and
other mental problems. Swinton believes that depression, whose dominant indicators
are frustration, lack of meaning and objective in life, and low self-esteem, is basi-
cally related to something called a spiritual affair by many people. He has conducted
a short, yet deep study on six persons who had suffered from depression for 2 years.
This study was aimed at the provision of a complete description of their experience
and discovery the importance of spirituality in the treatment of depression.
One of the main subjects extracted from this study is the importance of hav-
ing a meaning and goal in life. One of the main indicators of depression can be
the instability and transience of this dimension of the person’s life. Meaningfulness
helps people to overcome mental problems. One of the participators in Swinton’s
study states that: “I didn’t believe in personal meaning in my life or conditions. I
was happy that in this world, whatever happening to people is out of chance and
accident. But the man must believe that whatever happening is in a meaningful
framework.”
Yet, the lack of this meaning would lead to the inability of the individual in over-
coming life problems. The same person continues: “I am in a stage that I can believe

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 Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651 1643

there is a God, who gives meaning to the world. In this case, I can be hopeful. The
problem is what if I cannot believe this? It is awful. And definitely, it is the real
agitation.”
Depression can lead the person to question anything in which he felt secure. Why
am I here? What is my goal in life? In such a state, the same things that helped the
person make his life meaningful and tolerable have been eliminated. It is like facing
a completely sad and disheartening view. Once there was the possibility of any kinds
of growth and evolution, but now it is only a desert. The words fail to describe such
a state. The affairs and phenomena are totally changed for the person. He/she sees
them but has no perception or sense. In the questioning process, the doubt about
things which were formerly meaningful and targeted suddenly dominates the per-
son. In the depression process, these key elements of life disappear completely from
one’s perspective. Many of the spiritual and religious traditions claim that they can
give meaning to people and their lives, even if they suffer from depression and in a
terrific state of being meaningless and goalless. Therefore, one of the main services
of spirituality to the lives of such people is the power by which they can revive the
lost meaning, objective, and hope.
One of the ways to revive the meaning through spirituality in the lives of people
suffering from depression is to understand them and sympathize with them (Nelson
et al. 2002). Almost in all researches, including that of Swinton, this understanding
and sympathy are the main and axial means of reduction in the depression pain in a
tangible manner. Although in some cases, the care receivers stated that they do not
understand the religious people or metal caregivers, when there is sympathy, they
felt stronger.
Prayer is another important source of meaning and hope in life, which is wide-
spread in spiritual traditions. It seems that when depression makes the people intel-
lectually challenge their faith and religion, the ritual elements, icons, and religion
and spiritual habits which are linked to traditions, can help the person with toler-
ating hardships. Although you may not have too many doubts intellectually and
sensually, you can share them in worshipping ceremonies and prayer (talk about
them somehow). It is itself a type of manifestation of faith, even when your mind or
senses cannot always accept faith. In addition to Swinton’s study, there are a number
of studies which have quantitatively investigated the different aspects of spirituality
and depression. Hudge describes four dimensions of spirituality and believes that
each has a linear and reverse relationship with depression. These dimensions are the
meaning of life, innate values, belief in an elevated affair, and spiritual society.
From the viewpoint of those considering the life to be meaningful and targeted
through religion or spirituality, the presence of a church and mosques usually (but
not always) leads to low levels of depression and it is true for the adults, chil-
dren, and the youth. One of the ways to recognize this effect is the probability that
some religious communities emphasize the congregation component and it affects
overcoming the depression. Therefore, it is itself a mechanism. Also, most of the
researches show that the religious people or those who are involved in religiosity in
a way or another and confirm a set of values ate less prone to depression (Koenig
2007). The estimates show that per 10% increase in religiosity, the affliction to
depression is dropped by 70%. In short, it can be said that many of the components

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 1644 Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651

and elements of spirituality are effective in the reduction in depression symptoms

and, meanwhile, generally increase mental peace.

Spirituality and Anxiety

Similar studies have dealt with the relationship between spirituality and anxiety or
stress. Symptoms which generally related to anxiety are emotional, mental, physical,
or social symptoms. These symptoms include shame, sadness, loneliness, difficulty
in concentrating or inability to learn new details, increased heart rate and respira-
tory distress, sleep and eating problems, social perception and acceptance, isolation
or abstinence, and unreasonable levels of violence. In addition, some researchers
believe that stress and anxiety can have spiritual symptoms, too:
Losing meaning in life, obsessive thoughts and acts, indifference and self-alien-
ation, lack of previous spiritual belief, the meaninglessness of future, fear of death,
fear of consequences of sins or bad behavior from the viewpoint of religion, inabil-
ity in concentration and focusing on God or meditation.
One of the more common research fields in this domain has dealt with the rela-
tionship between anxiety and spirituality in people suffering from chronic or fatal
diseases. For example, in one of these studies, the heart transplant surgery who went
to church regularly had less anxiety and had higher self-esteem compared to those
who did not go to church or barely went there. In addition, in one of the studies,
it was investigated whether spirituality and spiritual beliefs and problem-solving
mechanisms justify the change in the anxiety of women suffering from uterus can-
cer. The scientists found out that anxiety is more common among people who do
not use the spiritual mechanisms of problem-solving. It is true specifically about
the younger women in whom the disease has progressed much. The relationship
between low levels of anxiety and spiritual actions and practices has been also inves-
tigated in other communities, such as those suffering from diseases in other stages
of life, e.g., women suffering from breast cancer, the middle-aged people suffering
from heart disease, and those who have done spinal surgery.
One of the spiritual practices investigated in these communities is prayer or medi-
tation. Such practices have a significant effect on the mental health of people. For
example, in Somerset Spirituality Project, one of the interviewees has told that the
prayer is his important mechanism to overcome the problems: “God is my friend, I
confide in him, he removes burdens off my shoulder, and I am relieved.”
Yoga and meditation are also related to the improvement of mental health and the
reduction in anxiety. However, studies on the relationship between yoga/meditation
and anxiety have been scarce. The recent systematic studies show that eight stud-
ies have specifically dealt with the effects of yoga on anxiety and concluded that
although the results are promising, the methodological inefficiency means that more
studies are needed in this field. The researches show that the women who attend
yoga classes twice a week, and practice yoga for 90 min each session, compared to
other people, are able to overcome their anxiety up to 60%. Yet, it should be said
that the effectiveness of these processes in the reduction in anxiety rate depends on
the method of spiritual practice. For example, high anxiety can be usually seen in

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 Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651 1645

people who are not spiritually grown enough and their beliefs are extremist and dog-
matic. On the contrary, those spiritually in the right path moving toward perfection
have experienced less anxiety.
Overall, this image is still not complete. Many researchers who have studied such
relationships use spiritual scales which have appropriate and potential variables.
Although the effects of spirituality in the reduction in symptoms of emotions such
as anxiety can be generally viewed optimistically, for further proving of the correct
nature of this relationship and role needs further study.

Architecture and Spiritual Indicators

It is the attribute of man who shows his art and moves in the path to know God
with his art (Hekmat 2007, 212). Dr. Gholamreza Aavani states about the human
art which is the manifestation of scientific forms and power of creation: “from the
religious and mystic point of view, the human is an artist since he is created to the
form of God. Being created to the form of God means that he is the symbol of divine
names and attributes, and all the names and their truths, and divine attributes are
succinctly and latently present in human … the man has a breath of divine spirit
and ‘I breathed in him from my own spirit’ implies the same fact. In this regard, his
work and art must also manifest the truth of system of creation as well as discovery
and innovation” (ibid, 213).
Ibn Arabi always reminds that God has created the man in his own form. So, if
God is the creator, the man can also be a creator, not the creator of objects and crea-
tion phenomena, but the creator of the forms and shapes. The origin of art has been
also considered to be the power of forms. What dominates us are only the imagina-
tion, images, and forms, and imagination is the only wealth of the artist (architect).
The domain of creation of shapes is confined to the forms that can reach to per-
fection and the suitable spirit can be blown in them (Hekmat 2007, 224).

The Role of Religion and Spirituality in the Architectural Designing

of Traditional Mosques

Islam is flowing in all affairs of the man. There is nothing in this region that is not
impacted by the holy order. It means that there are no differences between the sacred
and non-sacred in life. There is only a hierarchy of existence which is rooted in mon-
otheism. This monotheism latent in everything is manifested in Islamic World arts,
more than anything else, in which there are no differences between the gentle arts
and applied industries. The technique and beauty are the supplementary dimensions
of artistic innovation. In Islam, art is an inseparable part of craftsmanship and crafts-
man’ work also cannot be separated from other dimensions of file, especially spir-
itual life. This specific dimension can be seen more in the ever-existing relationships
spiritual brotherhoods between industrial unions. Here, the process of familiarity,
skill, and delicacy occurring in each stage of learning, is consistent with the gradual
refinement in the spiritual elevation. The Islamic architecture is not great, but is the

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 1646 Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651

glory of ideals and outcome of a specific civilization, as we see about the renais-
sance. It is not promoting the individual subjective expressions as we see in modern
architecture. It is only glorious since a civilization builds its historical buildings to
bend to God, and each of its dimensions reminds of God’s glory (MahdiNejad et al.
2019b).
The traditional Islamic city lacks large avenues and landscapes besides which the
most important buildings of its residents are raised as indicators of cultural achieve-
ment. Although the sacred Islamic architecture is the mosque, it has never been
departed from the rest of the city environment. Islam, as was said, does not divide its
Ummah’s lives to sacred and non-sacred realms the sacred affairs are flowing in all
manifestations of city environment and the same practices done in the mosque are
also done in the home. The Islamic world mosques cannot be correctly seen from the
outside since the dense urban structure has surrounded them on all sides. The expe-
rience of this architecture is the internal view. That is why this architecture moves
the man from the plurality of the outside world to the world of deep thinking and
realm of spirit (MahdiNejad et al. 2016, MahdiNejad and Sadeghi Habibabad 2016).
Implementation of the Islamic architecture school and patterns for worship place
has been valued and demanded by architects for years. Designing the mosque space
architecture which is based on the patterns by Holy Prophet is equal to entering a
place of worship and communicating to God, which requires the familiarity of the
architects with the innate features that are effective in design and foundation of
mosque’s architecture structure (Kazemi and Khalilabad 2011, 42).
The Muslim architect, through his Islam, which is obedience to God’s providence,
confirms that the Almighty God is the highest architect. Therefore, the relationship
between the architect and his ambient space is a relationship based on obeisance
and not arrogance. Thus, if any effect is to be realized in this material environment,
they must be along with the obedience and not indifference to the existing natural
order. The traditional Islamic architecture reflects this awareness, fully. No positions
of indifference or ignorance or dominance over the ambient space have ever existed.
It can be seen in the curvatures of the domes, fluid shapes of the arches, horizontal
congresses, and wall trenches, which have given the building an aesthetic balance
with the ambient environment. Even the internal space and the yard are open to the
sky, which is a symbol of elevation of the heart toward heaven.

The Effective Elements in Enhancement of the Sense of Spirituality

in Mosques

Exercising of Islamic architecture school and implementing a pattern for construct-

ing a worshipping place has been qualified for a special value and attended by archi-
tects since centuries ago (Kazemi and Khalilabad 2011). Architectural designing of
a mosque’s space following the lead of the great prophet of Islam (may Allah bestow
him and his sacred progeny the best of His regards) means entry to a worshipping
place and establishing communication with God and this entails the architects’
familiarity with the internal properties influencing the fundamental plan and struc-
tural foundation of the mosque’s architecture. The architectural artist should create

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 Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651 1647

artwork that can make discoveries and creativities in the path toward manifesta-
tion of the creation system (Hekmat 2007, p.212). Architecture is a reflection of the
human beings’ mindset and ideology with divine and ethereal themes being inspired
to them by their perspicacity. If the mankind’s mind keeps on reminding and remem-
bering the names of God and the prophet, his architectural expression can also be a
means of remembrance and notify the ignorance-stricken mankind of the outstand-
ing concepts that can guide him in wayfaring the life in this and the other world as
a proof (Shafiei et al. 2014). Table 1 presents some of the factors influencing the
enhancement of the sense of spirituality in the architecture of Islamic mosques:
The most important indices of the mosque from the perspective of the users are
firstly the physical properties and then the activities and meanings of the mosque.
From the perspective of Nasr, “every object has a form and content with the former
embracing and transferring the latter (Nasr 2013).
Mosque belongs to God, and it is considered as a vivid symbol of his divine
mercifulness and also as a symbolic language comprised of spiritual and religious
thoughts (MahdiNejad et al. 2016). Manifestation of the mysterious nature, truths
and God’s signs and sacred beliefs in the mosque has been recrystallized in the sym-
bolic aspects of good physical elements like dome, porch, nave, precinct, adytum
and minaret (Ibid).

Conclusion

Spirituality is a stage in which the meaning, hope, comfort, and inner peace can be
found. Many people achieve it through religious beliefs. Some receive it from the art,
architecture, and the relationship with nature, for example seeing a calm and beauti-
ful sea. Some others find is in social relationships, their principles, or values. One of
the important effects of spirituality on life is the promotion of health. Undoubtedly,
we all admit that preservation of health requires proper nutrition, adequate exercise
and rest, and avoiding bad habits like smoking, but our beliefs also affect our health
and life span. One of these beliefs can be the spiritual emotions which are artfully
manifested in the psychology of Islamic mosques architecture.
The relation of the outside world of its interior is a semantic relation in such a way
that the concrete world is a manifestation of the interior of the universe and implies
a meaning hidden within it. The past architect, in all stages of project and build-
ing construction, embodies and objectifies his interior, and the result is an architec-
ture with his own belief attributes. It can be said that consideration for human eth-
ics along with spirituality is one of the important indicators of the creation of such
valuable architectural works, which is driven by the presence of meaning. Achieve-
ment of the important objectives of mosque building and having mosques worthy of
the religious culture of society is not possible but by the efforts of the researchers,
scholars, and scientists who pioneered the recognition of the spiritual and religious
values.
The Islamic artist, just like the pre-Islam artist, exploits a kind of subjectivity. But
instead of implying myths, his subjectivity is focused on meaning. For example, the

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 1648

13
Table 1  The indicators influencing the creation/enhancement of the sense of spirituality in the architecture of Islamic mosques (Sadeghi Habibabad et al. 2018)
Objective Content

Factors influencing the enhancement of the sense of spiritu- Physical Form Dome, porch, yard, minaret, adytum, nave
ality in the interior architecture of mosques factors Geometry Linear, central, radial, latticed
Inscriptions and decorations Decorations: tile works, plasterworks, mirror works, brick-
laying, woodwork
Inscriptions: arabesque, Ma’aqeli calligraphy, sun-like
shapes as well as square, rhombus, circular and polygonal
and armband shapes
Constructional materials Brick, glass, wood, tile and stone
Sensory factors Color Blue, green, turquoise and white (the colors have been
selected based on the authors’ research and according to
their highest scores)
Light Natural and artificial light
Sound Water, religious ceremonies (reading of holy Quran and say-
ing prayers) (based on the experiments and simulations by
the authors of the previous studies)
Cultural factors Age and gender
Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651

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 Journal of Religion and Health (2020) 59:1635–1651 1649

arabesque design is a subjectivization of plant and the plant is a symbol of nature.

However, this design cannot be adapted with the real and objective form of plant.
It has been manipulated and a kind of abstraction has taken place to show analyzed
rotating and recurring shapes that give a schematic of the order of the natural world,
an order in which the concept of unity in plurality can be seen more than anything
else. This concept drags the man from nature which was the basis of creation to a
supernatural universe, a world in which the main unity dominant over the natural
world pluralities can be explored. This is the same immaterial world intended by the
Islamic artist.

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