Assignment 1

1. State Carnot’s theorem.

Ans. Carnot's theorem states that no heat engine operating between two thermal reservoirs
can be more efficient than a Carnot engine operating between those same reservoirs. It
establishes the maximum possible efficiency for any engine, given by the formula:

𝑇𝐶𝑇𝐻TCTH
η=1−

where:
 η is the efficiency of the Carnot engine,
 TH is the absolute temperature (in Kelvin) of the hot reservoir, and
 TC is the absolute temperature (in Kelvin) of the cold reservoir.
The theorem implies that the efficiency depends only on the temperatures of the hot and
cold reservoirs, and not on the type of working substance or engine design.

2. Why negative temperature is not possible?

Ans. Negative temperatures are generally not possible because temperature is a measure
of the average kinetic energy of particles in a system, and it correlates directly with the
amount of random motion of those particles. In classical terms:
1. Absolute Zero Limit: Temperature scales, such as Kelvin, start from
absolute zero (0 K), the lowest possible temperature, where particle motion
nearly ceases. Since temperature reflects energy, particles can’t have
"negative" energy in this context, as this would imply, they have less than zero
kinetic energy, which is physically unachievable.
2. Thermodynamic Definition: Temperature is also linked to the entropy
(S) of a system. According to the thermodynamic definition, temperature (T)
is defined as:
1𝑇1T

𝜕𝑆𝜕𝑈𝜕S𝜕U
=

where U is the internal energy. For most systems, as energy U increases, so does
entropy S, keeping temperature positive.
3. Negative Temperature in Limited Systems: However, in very
specific quantum systems with an upper limit of energy levels (e.g., certain
spin systems in magnetic fields), a type of "negative temperature" can occur.
Here, a negative temperature is actually "hotter" than any positive
temperature. This is an unusual case and doesn’t apply to everyday physical
systems, as it involves a highly restricted range of energy states.
In classical thermodynamic systems, negative temperatures are impossible, as they
contradict the nature of kinetic energy and entropy.

𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑣CpCv
3. Obtain an expression for the ratio of heat capacities

.
Ans. To derive the expression for the ratio of heat capacities
 𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑣CpCv
, where Cp and Cv are the heat capacities at constant pressure and constant volume,
respectively, let's use the following thermodynamic relationships:
1. Definitions of Cp and Cv
For an ideal gas:
 Cp : The heat capacity at constant pressure
 Cv : The heat capacity at constant volume
2. Relationship between Cp and Cv
The relationship between Cp and Cv for an ideal gas is given by:
C p = Cv + R
where R is the ideal gas constant.

𝑪𝒑𝑪𝒗𝑪𝒑𝑪𝒗
3. Deriving

The ratio of Cp to Cv is usually denoted by γ, where:

𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑣CpCv
γ=

4. Using the Relationship Involving γ

Rearranging the above relationship, we get:
Cp = γ Cv
Substituting Cp = Cv + R into the equation, we get:
γ C v = Cv + R
Dividing both sides by Cv :

𝑅𝐶𝑣RCv
γ=1+

𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑣CpCv
Thus, the expression for the ratio

𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑣 CpCv
is:

𝑅 𝐶𝑣R Cv
=γ=1+

This is a standard result for an ideal gas, where γ is often referred to as the adiabatic
index.

4. State second law of Thermodynamics. Differentiate between reversible and

irreversible processes.
Ans. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated
system can never decrease over time; it can only increase or remain constant. In simpler
terms, natural processes tend to move toward a state of greater disorder or randomness.
The law has several formulations:
1. Kelvin-Planck Statement: It is impossible to construct an engine that
operates on a cyclic process and converts all absorbed heat into work without
any loss.
2. Clausius Statement: Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder
body to a hotter body without external work.
 Difference Between Reversible and Irreversible Processes
Aspect Reversible Process Irreversible Process
Definition A process that can be reversed A process that cannot be reversed
without leaving any change in without leaving changes in the
both the system and system or surroundings.
surroundings.
Entropy Change The total entropy change (system The total entropy change is
+ surroundings) is zero. positive. Entropy increases.
Equilibrium Occurs in infinitesimally small Does not maintain equilibrium;
steps, maintaining quasi-static rapid and spontaneous changes
equilibrium. occur.
Examples Idealized processes like slow Natural processes such as
compression or expansion of combustion, friction, and
gases. diffusion.
Work Done Maximum possible work can be Less work can be obtained
obtained from a reversible compared to a reversible
process. process.
Heat Transfer Occurs between system and Occurs with a finite temperature
surroundings at infinitesimally difference.
small temperature differences.

5.Write notes on the following:

a. First Law of Thermodynamics
b. Concept of internal energy
Ans. First Law of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics is a principle of energy conservation that states:
"Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transferred or transformed
from one form to another." For thermodynamic systems, this law is mathematically
expressed as:
ΔU = Q − W
where:
 ΔU is the change in internal energy of the system,
 Q is the heat added to the system, and
 W is the work done by the system on its surroundings.
In other words, the change in internal energy of a system is equal to the heat added to the
system minus the work done by the system. This law implies that if heat is added to a
system, it can increase the system's internal energy or be used to do work (or both). The
First Law provides a foundation for understanding energy exchange but does not specify
the direction or nature of energy transfers.
Applications of the First Law:
1. Isothermal Processes: In an isothermal (constant temperature) process
ΔU = 0, so Q = W.
2. Adiabatic Processes: In an adiabatic (no heat exchange) process,
Q = 0, so ΔU = −W
3. Isochoric Processes: In an isochoric (constant volume) process,
W = 0, so ΔU = Q
4. Isobaric Processes: In an isobaric (constant pressure) process, the First Law
helps to calculate changes in internal energy.
 b) Concept of Internal Energy
Internal energy (U) is the total energy contained within a thermodynamic system. It includes the
microscopic forms of energy that are due to the random motion and interactions of the
molecules, atoms, or particles that make up the system. Internal energy encompasses:
1. Kinetic Energy: The energy due to the motion of molecules, including
translational, rotational, and vibrational movements.
2. Potential Energy: The energy arising from intermolecular forces and
chemical bonds within the system.
Characteristics of Internal Energy:
 State Function: Internal energy is a state function, meaning it depends only
on the current state of the system (such as temperature, pressure, and volume) and
not on the path taken to reach that state.
 Temperature Dependence: For an ideal gas, internal energy is directly
proportional to temperature; increasing temperature increases internal energy.
 Change with Work and Heat: As described by the First Law, changes in
internal energy result from heat flow into the system or work done on or by the
system.
Importance of Internal Energy:
Internal energy plays a central role in thermodynamics, as it helps quantify the energy changes
in various processes, from chemical reactions to phase changes. It allows scientists and
engineers to analyse the energy transformations that occur in engines, refrigerators, and
biological systems, helping to ensure energy efficiency and stability across diverse applications.

Assignment 2
1. What is principle of Conservation of charge, derive an expression for it. What
do you understand by displacement current? Gives its characteristics.
Ans. Principle of Conservation of Charge
The Principle of Conservation of Charge states that the total electric charge in an
isolated system remains constant over time, regardless of internal changes. In other
words, charge can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transferred from one
part of the system to another. Mathematically, this is expressed using the continuity
equation.
Derivation of the Continuity Equation for Charge Conservation
Let’s consider a region in space with charge density ρ (charge per unit volume) and a

𝑗→j→
current density

(current per unit area per unit time). The change in charge within a volume V over time is due
to the current flow across the boundary S of that volume.
According to Gauss's theorem, the total charge Q in a volume V is given by:

∫𝑣 𝜌 dV∫v ρ dV
Q=

𝑑𝑄𝑑𝑡dQdt
The rate of change of charge within this volume is:

𝑑𝑑𝑡∫ 𝑣𝜌 dVddt∫v ρ dV
=
 By the conservation of charge, the rate of charge decrease within the volume must be

𝑑𝑑𝑡∫ 𝑣𝜌𝑑𝑉= −∮ 𝑠𝑗→ .𝑑𝐴→ddt∫v 𝜌dV= −∮s j→ .dA→

equal to the net outward current across the boundary SSS, so:

𝑑𝑑𝑡∫ 𝑣𝜌𝑑𝑉= −∫ 𝑣∇. 𝑗→𝑑𝑉ddt∫v 𝜌dV= −∫v ∇. j→dV

Using the divergence theorem, we can convert the surface integral to a volume integral:

𝜕𝑝𝜕𝑡+ ∇.𝑗→=0𝜕p𝜕t+ ∇.j→=0

Since this must hold for any arbitrary volume VVV, we get the continuity equation:

This equation represents the conservation of charge and shows that the rate of change of
charge density in a region is equal to the negative divergence of the current density.
Displacement Current
The concept of displacement current was introduced by James Clerk Maxwell to modify
Ampère's law in situations where the electric field is changing over time, such as in

𝐸→E→
capacitors. When a time-varying electric field

exists, it creates a displacement current, even if no actual movement of charge (conduction

current) is present.
Expression for Displacement Current

𝐽𝑑−→Jd→
The displacement current density

𝐽𝑑−→= 𝜀0𝜕𝐸→𝜕𝑡Jd→= 𝜀0𝜕E→𝜕t

is defined as:

The total displacement current Id across a surface is then:

𝐼𝑑= ∫ 𝑠𝑗𝑑→ . 𝑑𝐴→= 𝜀0𝜕∅𝐸 𝜕𝑡Id= ∫s jd→ . dA→= 𝜀0𝜕∅E 𝜕t

𝜀0𝜀0
where

𝜕∅𝐸→𝜕𝑡𝜕∅E→𝜕t
is the permittivity of free space, and

∅𝐸∅E
is the time rate of change of the electric flux

through the surface S.

Characteristics of Displacement Current
1. Non-Conductive Current: Displacement current is not due to the
actual flow of charge; instead, it arises due to a changing electric field.
2. Completes Ampère's Law: Displacement current allows Ampère's
law to hold in cases of time-varying electric fields, such as in the space
between capacitor plates.
3. Associated with Electromagnetic Waves: Displacement current is
essential for electromagnetic wave propagation, as it generates a magnetic
field in regions without conduction current.
4. Units: Like conduction current, displacement current has units of
amperes (A).
 5. Role in Maxwell’s Equations: The inclusion of displacement current
led to the modification of Ampère’s law in Maxwell’s equations, resulting in
the complete set of equations describing electromagnetism.

2. Differentiate between Solenoidal and Irrotational fields.

Ans. Solenoidal and irrotational fields are two types of vector fields that have distinct
properties related to divergence and curl.

Aspect Solenoidal Field Irrotational Field

Definition A vector field with zero A vector field with zero curl,
3. Calc divergence, meaning it has meaning it has no tendency
ulat
e the no net source or sink to "rotate" or form a closed
Speed of within any region. loop at any point. EM

𝐹→: ∇.𝐹→=0F→: ∇.F 𝐹→: ∇×𝐹→=0F→: ∇×

wave in Mathematical For a vector field For a vector field
free Condition
space →=0 F→=0 and

Physical Represents incompressible Represents conservative

Interpretation fields where flow lines are fields, where the work done
continuous and do not around any closed loop is
diverge from or converge zero, often associated with
to any point. potential fields.

𝐵→B→ 𝑔→g→
Examples Magnetic field Gravitational field

𝐸→E→
and incompressible fluid and electrostatic field
flow.

Existence of Solenoidal fields do not Irrotational fields can be

Potential necessarily have a scalar represented by a scalar

∅∅
potential. potential

𝐹→= −∇∅F→= −∇∅

, where

Applications Used in fluid dynamics and Important in conservative

electromagnetism, force fields, such as
particularly in analysing gravitational, electrostatic,
incompressible flows and and other fields derived from
magnetic fields. potential energy.
dielectric (isotropic) medium.
Ans. The speed of electromagnetic (EM) waves can be calculated based on the properties
of the medium through which they travel. Here, we will calculate the speed of EM waves
in free space and in an isotropic dielectric medium.
1. Speed of EM Wave in Free Space

𝑐= 1𝜇0∈0‾‾‾‾‾‾√c= 1𝜇0∈0
In free space, the speed of an electromagnetic wave c is given by:

where:

 𝜇0𝜇0
is the permeability of free space, with a value of 4π×10−7 H/m,

∈0∈0


is the permittivity of free space, with a value of 8.854×10−12 F/m

𝑐= 1(4𝜋×10−7 )×(8.854×10−12)‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾√c= 1(4π

Substituting these values:

×10−7 )×(8.854×10−12)

𝑐 ≈3×108c ≈3×108
Calculating this gives:

m/s
So, the speed of EM waves in free space is approximately 3×108 m/s

2. Speed of EM Wave in an Isotropic Dielectric Medium

𝑣= 1𝜇𝜖‾‾‾√v= 1𝜇𝜖
In an isotropic dielectric medium, the speed of an electromagnetic wave v is given by:

where:
 μ is the permeability of the dielectric medium,
 ϵ is the permittivity of the dielectric medium.
For an isotropic dielectric, we often assume the medium is non-magnetic, so μ≈μ0 .The

𝜖= 𝜖𝑟𝜖0𝜖= 𝜖r𝜖0
permittivity ϵ\epsilonϵ in a dielectric medium is typically expressed as:

where ϵr is the relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of the medium.

𝑣= 1𝜇0𝜖𝑟𝜖0‾‾‾‾‾‾√=𝑐∈𝑟‾‾‾√v= 1𝜇0𝜖r𝜖0=c∈r
Substituting these values:

𝑣= 𝑐∈𝑟‾‾‾√v= c∈r
Thus, the speed of EM waves in an isotropic dielectric medium is:

4. For a conducting medium, show that fields (Electric and magnetic fields) are
spatially attenuated.
Ans. In a conducting medium, both electric and magnetic fields are subject to spatial
attenuation due to the medium's conductive properties. This attenuation arises from the
interaction of the electric field with the free charge carriers in the conductor. Here’s how
we can derive the expressions that illustrate this phenomenon.
1. Basic Equations in a Conducting Medium
When an electromagnetic wave propagates through a conducting medium, the constitutive
relations for the medium can be described by Maxwell’s equations, specifically Ampère's
law and Faraday's law.
Ampère's Law (With Displacement Current)

∇×𝐻→= 𝜎𝐸→+ 𝜕𝐷→𝜕𝑡∇×H→= 𝜎E→+ 𝜕D→𝜕t

In a conducting medium, the modified Ampère’s law is given by:

where:
  𝐻→H→
is the magnetic field intensity,

 𝐸→E→
 σ is the electrical conductivity of the medium,

 𝐷→
is the electric field intensity,

is the electric displacement field.

For a plane electromagnetic wave in a conductor, we assume a time-harmonic variation of

𝐸→(𝑧,𝑡)= 𝐸→0𝑒𝑗(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑧)E→z,t= E→0ej(𝜔t−kz)

the fields:

Faraday’s Law

∇×𝐸→= −𝜕𝐵→𝜕𝑡
Faraday’s law of induction states:

2. Deriving the Wave Equation

To derive the wave equation for the electric field in a conducting medium, we first

∇×𝐻→= 𝜎𝐸→+ 𝜖𝜕𝐸→𝜕𝑡

differentiate Ampère's law with respect to time:

𝐷→= ∈𝐸→D→= ∈E→

Substituting

∇×𝐻→= 𝜎𝐸→+ 𝜖𝜕𝐸→𝜕𝑡

, we have:

𝐵→= 𝜇𝐻→B→= 𝜇H→

Now, substitute

∇×𝐸→= −𝜇𝜕𝐻→𝜕𝑡
into Faraday's law:

Combining these equations gives us a wave equation. For a plane wave, we assume a

𝐸→(𝑧,𝑡)= 𝐸0−→𝑒𝑗(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑧)
solution of the form:

3. Complex Wave Vector

The wave vector k in a conducting medium becomes complex due to the presence of

𝑘= 𝛼+𝑗𝛽
conductivity σ:

where:
α is the attenuation constant,

β is the phase constant.

4. Attenuation in a Conducting Medium
In a good conductor (where σ is high), the electric field attenuates as it propagates

𝐸→(𝑧)= 𝐸→0𝑒−(𝛼+𝑗𝛽)𝑧= 𝐸→0𝑒−𝑎𝑧𝑒𝑗(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧)E→z= E→0e−(𝛼+j𝛽)z= E→0e−

through the medium. The electric field can be expressed as:

azej(𝜔t−𝛽z)
 From this expression, we see that the electric field's amplitude decreases exponentially
with distance z as follows:
[Equation]
5. Expression for Attenuation Constant

𝛼= 𝜔𝜇𝜎2‾‾‾‾‾√
The attenuation constant α for a conducting medium can be expressed as:

This indicates that as the frequency of the wave ω increases, or as the conductivity σ
increases, the attenuation constant α also increases, leading to stronger attenuation of the
electric field.
6. Magnetic Field Attenuation

𝐻→
The magnetic field

will also experience attenuation. Its behaviour in a conducting medium can similarly be

𝐻→(𝑧)= 𝐻0−→−𝑒−𝑎𝑧
shown to have the form:

where the attenuation constant for the magnetic field will also be the same, leading to:
[Equation]
Summary

𝐸→
 Spatial Attenuation: In a conducting medium, both the electric field

𝐻→
and the magnetic field

are spatially attenuated as they propagate through the medium.

𝛼= 𝜔𝜇𝜎2‾‾‾‾‾√
 Attenuation Constant: The attenuation constant

quantifies how quickly the fields decay with distance.

 Physical Reason: This attenuation occurs because the electric field induces
currents in the conducting medium, leading to energy loss as heat (due to the
resistive nature of the material).

5. In conductors, show that if conductor is poor, skin depth does not depend on
frequency while for a good conductor, it varies inversely as square root of
frequency of EM waves.
Ans. The concept of skin depth is crucial in understanding how electromagnetic (EM)
waves penetrate conductors. Skin depth (δ) is defined as the distance over which the
intensity of the wave decreases to
1𝑒1e
of its original value. This behaviour is important in applications such as radio frequency (RF)
communications and microwave engineering.
Skin Depth in Conductors

𝛿= 2𝜌𝜇𝜔‾‾‾‾√
The skin depth for a conductor is given by the formula:

Where:
 δ = skin depth
 ρ = resistivity of the conductor
 μ = permeability of the conductor
  ω=2πf = angular frequency of the EM wave (f is the frequency)
1. Poor Conductors
For a poor conductor, the resistivity ρ is relatively high compared to its permeability μ,
and the conduction losses are small. In this case, the frequency (f) of the EM waves has a
minimal effect on the penetration of the waves.
 Frequency Independence: As the resistivity is significantly greater than the

𝛿 ≈ 2𝜌𝜇.0‾‾‾‾‾√𝛿 ≈ 2𝜌𝜇.0
effects caused by frequency, the skin depth simplifies to:

𝜔→0𝜔→0
(as

)
Thus, δ becomes relatively constant and does not significantly depend on frequency.
The wave penetration is more influenced by resistivity rather than frequency effects.
2. Good Conductors
For a good conductor, the resistivity ρ is low, and the skin depth is significantly affected
by the frequency of the EM waves.
 Frequency Dependence: In this case, as the frequency increases, the term ω

𝛿= 2𝜌𝜇 . (2𝜋𝑓)‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾√
in the denominator becomes significant. Thus, we can see that:

𝛿= 1𝑓‾‾√
This indicates that:

Therefore, in good conductors, the skin depth decreases as the frequency of the EM
waves increases. The waves penetrate less deeply into the conductor at higher frequencies
due to the increased surface currents.

Assignment 3
1. Write conditions for good and sustained interference. What happens to
interference pattern if white light is incident on Fresnel’s Bi-prism?
Ans. To observe a good and sustained interference pattern, several conditions must be
met:

Conditions for Good and Sustained Interference

1. Coherent Sources: The two sources of light must be coherent,
meaning they have a constant phase difference and the same frequency.
2. Monochromatic Light: Using light of a single wavelength
(monochromatic light) helps produce clear interference fringes.
3. Equal Amplitudes: The sources should ideally have similar intensities
(or amplitudes) to achieve a high-contrast pattern.
4. Parallel or Narrow Paths: Light waves should travel in close or
nearly parallel paths to ensure consistent overlapping of wavefronts.
5. Constant Distance between Sources: The two sources should remain
at a fixed distance from each other to maintain a stable interference pattern.
Interference Pattern with White Light Incident on Fresnel’s Bi-prism
When white light is incident on Fresnel’s Bi-prism, the interference patterns that forms
consists of coloured fringes rather than uniform dark and bright fringes. This occurs
because white light contains multiple wavelengths (colours). As a result:
 Each colour component of white light (e.g., red, blue, green) creates its
own interference pattern with a different fringe spacing.
 These different-coloured interference patterns overlap, leading to a
series of coloured fringes around the central bright fringe, which appears white
(since all colours overlap here).
 Moving away from the central fringe, the fringes start to separate, and
individual colours become more prominent, creating a spectrum effect.
This phenomenon leads to a beautiful, rainbow-like pattern but also makes the
interference pattern less distinct compared to using monochromatic light.

2. What will happened to Newton Rings if

a. Plate is silvered from back?
b. Lens is lifted off?
c. White light is used?
d. Both the surfaces are curved?
Ans. Newton's rings are a series of concentric circular interference patterns observed
when a plano-convex lens is placed on a flat glass plate. The patterns result from the
interference of light waves reflected from the top surface of the lens and the flat surface
of the plate. Here’s how various changes affect the Newton's rings:
a) If the Plate is Silvered from the Back
 Effect: Silvering the back of the plate will cause the light to reflect off both
the lens and the newly silvered surface. This creates an additional reflection,
leading to an increase in the number of rings and potentially altering the contrast
and sharpness of the rings. The rings may appear brighter and more distinct due to
the increased intensity of the reflected light.
b) If the Lens is Lifted Off
 Effect: Lifting the lens off the plate will eliminate the air gap that creates the
interference pattern. Without the lens, there will be no overlapping wavefronts to
interfere with each other, resulting in the disappearance of the Newton rings.
c) If White Light is Used
 Effect: Using white light instead of monochromatic light will produce a
spectrum of colours in the rings due to the presence of multiple wavelengths. The
central fringe will appear white, but as you move away from the center, the rings
will exhibit a range of colours, creating a colourful and distinct appearance. The
colours will not be uniform but will instead show a rainbow-like pattern.
d) If Both Surfaces are Curved
 Effect: If both surfaces (the lens and the plate) are curved, the conditions for
forming Newton's rings may be altered. The rings may not be concentric, and their
spacing will change depending on the radii of curvature of the surfaces. If the
curvatures are similar, rings may still form, but their patterns will differ from
traditional Newton's rings. If the curvatures are significantly different, the
interference pattern may become irregular or may not form at all.

3. Explain Michelson Interferometer and types of fringes(localized).

Ans. The Michelson Interferometer is an optical instrument used to demonstrate the
wave nature of light and measure small distances with high precision. It splits a beam of
light into two paths, reflects them back, and then combines them to create an interference
pattern. The setup can provide insights into various phenomena, including wavelength
measurement, index of refraction, and the effects of motion on light.
Basic Components of Michelson Interferometer
1. Light Source: A monochromatic light source (like a laser) provides
coherent light.
2. Beam Splitter: A partially reflecting mirror that divides the incoming
light beam into two separate beams.
3. Mirrors: Two mirrors (M1 and M2) reflect the two beams back
toward the beam splitter.
4. Recombination: The beams combine again at the beam splitter and
travel to the viewing screen or detector.
5. Viewing Screen: The resulting interference pattern is observed on a
screen, where bright and dark fringes appear.

Working Principle
1. Beam Splitting: The beam splitter reflects and transmits light, creating
two coherent light beams traveling in different paths (arm 1 and arm 2).
2. Reflection: The beams reflect off the mirrors and return to the beam
splitter.
3. Interference: As the beams recombine, they interfere with each other,
leading to an interference pattern on the screen.
The phase difference between the two beams depends on the path lengths. When the path
length difference changes (for example, by moving one of the mirrors), the interference
pattern shifts, allowing for precise measurements.
Types of Fringes
The interference pattern observed in a Michelson interferometer consists of fringes that
can be classified based on their localization and visibility. The main types of localized
fringes are:
1. Bright Fringes (Constructive Interference):
o Occur when the path difference between the two beams is an
integral multiple of the wavelength (mλ), where m is an integer.
o The waves are in phase, leading to reinforcement (constructive
interference) and producing a bright spot.
2. Dark Fringes (Destructive Interference):
o Occur when the path difference is an odd multiple of half the
wavelength (m+
12
)λ.
o The waves are out of phase, leading to cancellation (destructive
interference) and producing a dark spot.
3. Localized Fringes:
o Fringes of Equal Thickness: Formed when light reflects off
surfaces with varying thickness (like a thin film). They show a pattern
due to the interference of light reflected from the top and bottom
surfaces.
o Newton’s Rings: A specific case where circular fringes are
formed due to the interference of light reflected between a curved
surface and a flat glass plate.
 o Fringes in Thin Films: Created when light reflects off thin
films (like soap bubbles), leading to colourful patterns based on
thickness and angle of incidence.
Applications
The Michelson interferometer has several applications, including:
 Wavelength Measurement: Used to measure the wavelength of light
accurately.
 Index of Refraction: Helps determine the refractive index of materials.
 Gravitational Waves Detection: Used in LIGO (Laser Interferometer
Gravitational-Wave Observatory) to detect gravitational waves by measuring
minute changes in distance between mirrors.
 Testing Optical Components: Used to evaluate the quality of lenses and
mirrors.

4. Discuss Intensity Distribution due to N slit and show that there are (N-1)
minima separated by (N-2) maxima. Discuss Missing Spectra of a grating.
Differentiate between
a. Ordinary Ray and Extra Ordinary Ray
b. Negative uniaxial crystal and Positive uniaxial crystal
Ans. Intensity Distribution due to N Slits
When light passes through multiple slits (N slits), it creates an interference pattern
characterized by a specific intensity distribution. The intensity of the light at a point on
the screen can be expressed as a function of the angle of observation (θ).
Formula for Intensity Distribution

𝐼(𝜃)= 𝐼0(sin(𝑁∅2)sin(∅2))2I𝜃= I0sin⁡N∅2sin⁡∅22

The intensity I due to N slits can be expressed using the formula:

 𝐼0I0
where:

 ∅ ∅
is the maximum intensity (when all slits are in phase).

=
2𝜋𝑑𝜆 2𝜋d𝜆
is the phase difference between light waves from adjacent slits.
 d is the distance between the slits.
 λ is the wavelength of the light.
Minima and Maxima
 Minima occur when
sin(𝑁∅2)=0 sin⁡(N∅2)=0

𝑁∅2=𝑚𝜋N∅2=m𝜋
. This leads to the condition:

(m = 1,2,3,….,N-1)

sin(𝑁𝜋𝑑𝜆sin𝜃)=0sin⁡N𝜋d𝜆sin⁡𝜃=0
Therefore, the positions of the minima are given by:

∅∅
Maxima occurs when
=mλ (for integer values of m). Since there are N slits, there are N−1 minima and N−2
maxima between each pair of minima.

Missing Spectra of a Grating

The missing spectra in a diffraction grating refer to certain wavelengths that do not
produce observable maxima due to destructive interference. This can occur when the
condition for constructive interference does not meet certain criteria, leading to gaps in
the observed spectrum. Specifically, if the wavelengths are not suitable for the spacing of
the grating, they may result in positions where intensity drops to zero.
Differences Between Ordinary Ray and Extra Ordinary Ray
Ordinary Ray (o-ray):
 Behaviour: The ordinary ray follows Snell's law and experiences a constant
refractive index, which is determined solely by the angle of incidence.
 Refractive Index: The refractive index n0 remains the same irrespective of the
direction of propagation in the crystal.
 Propagation: It propagates with a velocity that is independent of the
polarization direction.
Extra Ordinary Ray (e-ray):
 Behaviour: The extraordinary ray does not follow Snell's law in the same
manner and has a variable refractive index, which depends on both the angle of
incidence and the polarization direction.
 Refractive Index: The refractive index ne varies with the angle of propagation
concerning the optic axis of the crystal.
 Propagation: It propagates with a velocity that depends on the polarization
direction relative to the optic axis.
Differences Between Negative Uniaxial Crystal and Positive Uniaxial Crystal
Negative Uniaxial Crystal:
 Refractive Indices: In a negative uniaxial crystal, the ordinary ray has a
higher refractive index than the extraordinary ray: no>ne .
 Optical Behaviour: The e-ray is faster than the o-ray. Common examples
include calcite and quartz.
Positive Uniaxial Crystal:
 Refractive Indices: In a positive uniaxial crystal, the extraordinary ray has a
higher refractive index than the ordinary ray: no<ne .
 Optical Behaviour: The o-ray is faster than the e-ray. Common examples
include zinc blende and rutile.

5. What are Rayleigh Criteria of resolution? Derive an expression for resolving

power of a grating.
Ans. The Rayleigh Criterion is a criterion used in optics to define the minimum
resolvable detail in an imaging system. According to the Rayleigh criterion, two-point
sources are considered resolvable when the central maximum of the diffraction pattern of
one source coincides with the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other source.

𝜃=1.22𝜆𝐷𝜃=1.22𝜆D
Mathematically, the Rayleigh criterion can be expressed as:

where:
 θ is the minimum angular separation between two-point sources,
 λ is the wavelength of light used,
  D is the diameter of the aperture or lens.
This formula indicates that the ability to resolve two points decreases with increasing
wavelength and increases with larger aperture sizes.
Resolving Power of a Grating
The resolving power of an optical device, such as a diffraction grating, is defined as the
ability to distinguish between two closely spaced wavelengths or spectral lines. It is

𝑅= 𝜆∆𝜆R= 𝜆∆𝜆
mathematically expressed as:

where:
R is the resolving power,
λ is the wavelength of light,
Δλ is the minimum difference in wavelength that can be resolved.
Derivation of Resolving Power of a Grating
1. Basic Setup: Consider a diffraction grating with N lines (or slits) per unit
length. The angle of diffraction for the m-th order maximum can be described by

𝑑sin𝜃=𝑚𝜆dsin⁡𝜃=m𝜆
the grating equation:

where d is the grating spacing (distance between adjacent slits) and mmm is the order of
the maximum.

𝜆1𝜆1
2. Resolution Condition: The condition for resolving two wavelengths

𝜆2𝜆2
and

is that the angular separation between the two orders should be distinguishable.

sin𝜃 ≈ tan𝜃 ≈ 𝜃sin⁡𝜃 ≈ tan⁡𝜃 ≈ 𝜃

For small angles, we can write:

(in radians)

𝜆1𝜆1
Therefore, the angular separation Δθ between two wavelengths

𝜆2𝜆2
and

∆𝜃 ≈ 𝑚𝑑∆𝜆∆𝜃 ≈ md∆𝜆
in the m-th order is given by:

3. Resolving Power Expression: The resolving power R can be defined based

𝑅= 𝜆∆𝜆= 𝑑∆𝑑R= 𝜆∆𝜆= d∆d

on the number of slits N in the grating:

where Δd is the separation of the two wavelengths at the angular position θ. For a grating

𝑅=𝑚𝑁R=mN
with N slits, the resolving power can be expressed as:

where:
 m is the order of diffraction,
 N is the total number of slits illuminated by the light.
 Assignment 4
1. Why a two-level laser is not possible?
Ans. A two-level laser is theoretically discussed in quantum optics but is not practically
feasible due to several fundamental limitations associated with population inversion and
the interaction of light with matter. Here’s a breakdown of why a two-level laser cannot
function:
1. Population Inversion Requirement
 Basic Principle: For a laser to operate, it requires a population
inversion, where more atoms are in an excited state than in the ground state.
This inversion is crucial because it allows stimulated emission to dominate
over absorption.
 Two-Level System: In a two-level system, there are only two energy
states (ground state and excited state). If you excite the atoms to the excited
state, the number of atoms in the excited state will eventually decrease as they
return to the ground state, primarily via spontaneous emission and non-
radiative processes.
 Inability to Achieve Inversion: It is impossible to achieve a stable
population inversion in a two-level system because, as soon as the atoms are
excited, they immediately start to decay back to the ground state, preventing
the accumulation of excited atoms.
2. Stimulated Emission vs. Absorption
 Balance of Processes: In a two-level laser, as you attempt to induce
stimulated emission (which is essential for laser action), you also create
conditions for absorption. This means that for every photon emitted through
stimulated emission, there is an equivalent probability for a photon to be
absorbed as excited atoms transition back to the ground state.
 Lack of Gain: The overall effect is that the gain medium will not
produce a net amplification of light. Instead, the laser would behave like a
 normal light source, where the emitted light does not sustain itself, leading to a
failure in achieving laser action.
3. Limited Lifespan of Excited States
 Short Lifetime: The excited states in a two-level system generally
have very short lifetimes (on the order of nanoseconds to microseconds). As a
result, the excited atoms will decay to the ground state quickly, again
preventing the build-up of a population inversion necessary for laser
operation.
2. What do you understand by a metastable state?
Ans. A metastable state refers to a condition of a physical system that is stable under
small disturbances but is not the most stable state possible. In other words, it is a
temporary state of equilibrium that can persist for a significant amount of time, but is not
the final or most stable state of the system.
Characteristics of a Metastable State
1. Local Stability: A metastable state is locally stable, meaning that if the
system is slightly disturbed, it tends to return to this state rather than transitioning
to a more stable state.
2. Potential Energy: In terms of potential energy, a metastable state is
represented by a local minimum in the potential energy landscape. There are other
states (global minima) with lower potential energy, but reaching them may require
overcoming an energy barrier.
3. Energy Barriers: The transition from a metastable state to a more stable state
usually involves crossing an energy barrier. This energy barrier can be due to
factors like activation energy in chemical reactions or thermal activation in
physical processes.
4. Persistence: Metastable states can persist for a relatively long time compared
to unstable states but are still not permanent. They can eventually transition to a
more stable configuration, either spontaneously or through external influences.
5. Applications: Metastable states are important in various fields, including:
o Physics: Understanding phase transitions and phenomena like
supercooling.
o Chemistry: In reaction mechanisms, where reactants may exist in a
metastable configuration before proceeding to products.
o Materials Science: The study of materials that can exist in different
crystalline forms, some of which may be metastable.
Examples of Metastable States
1. Supercooled Water: Liquid water can exist below 0 °C without freezing. In
this metastable state, water remains liquid until disturbed (e.g., nucleation of ice
crystals).
2. Excited Atomic States: Atoms can be in excited electronic states that are
metastable. These states can decay to a lower energy state, emitting a photon, but
may persist for a noticeable duration before doing so.
3. Nucleation in Phase Changes: In materials science, a metastable state might
occur when a material is in a non-equilibrium phase, such as when a liquid can
exist at a temperature below its normal freezing point without solidifying.

3. Differentiate between Stimulated and Spontaneous emission.

Ans. The difference between spontaneous emission and stimulated emission is:
 Feature Stimulated Emission
Definition Emission of a photon induced by an incoming photon interacting
with an excited atom.
Mechanism Occurs due to interaction with an external photon,
stimulating the atom to emit a second photon.
Photon Characteristics Emitted photons are coherent with the incoming photon (same
frequency, phase, and direction).
Coherence Light produced is coherent and monochromatic (single frequency).
Role in Lasers Primary mechanism for light amplification in lasers, essential for
laser operation
Rate of Emission Rate is proportional to the intensity of the incoming light field;
higher photon flux increases the rate.
Applications Fundamental to the operation of lasers and laser-based
technologies.

4. Discuss postulates of special theory of relativity.

Ans. The Special Theory of Relativity, proposed by Albert Einstein in 1905,
fundamentally changed our understanding of space and time. It is based on two primary
postulates that lead to profound consequences for physics, particularly regarding the
behaviour of objects moving at significant fractions of the speed of light. Here are the key
postulates of the theory:
1. Principle of Relativity
Postulate: The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference. An inertial
frame is one in which an object either remains at rest or moves at a constant velocity
unless acted upon by a force.
Implications:
 There is no preferred frame of reference in the universe; all inertial frames are
equivalent for the formulation of the laws of physics.
 Physical phenomena, such as the laws of motion, electromagnetism, and
thermodynamics, apply equally in all inertial frames, leading to the conclusion
that no observer is privileged.
 This postulate implies that the results of experiments conducted in inertial
frames will yield the same outcomes regardless of the relative motion of the
observer.
2. Constancy of the Speed of Light
Postulate: The speed of light in a vacuum is constant and is the same for all observers,
regardless of their relative motion. The speed of light c is approximately 3.00×108 meters
per second.
Implications:
 Unlike classical mechanics, where velocities add linearly, the speed of light
remains constant regardless of the speed of the source or the observer. For
example, if an observer moves toward a light source, they will still measure the
speed of light as c.
 This leads to several non-intuitive consequences, such as time dilation and
length contraction, which arise from the need to reconcile the constancy of the
speed of light with the principle of relativity.
Consequences of the Postulates
The postulates of the special theory of relativity lead to several important conclusions:
 1. Time Dilation: Time experienced by an observer moving relative to a
stationary observer will be measured as moving more slowly. This means that a
clock moving with a high velocity will tick more slowly compared to a stationary

𝑡′= 𝑡1− 𝑣2𝑐2‾‾‾‾‾‾‾√t′= t1− v2c2

clock.

where t′ is the proper time measured by the moving observer, t is the time measured by
the stationary observer, and v is the relative velocity.
2. Length Contraction: Objects in motion are measured to be shorter in the

𝐿′=𝐿1−𝑣2𝑐2‾‾‾‾‾‾‾√L′=L1−v2c2
direction of motion when observed from a stationary frame of reference.

where L′ is the contracted length, L is the proper length (length at rest), and v is the
relative velocity.
3. Relativity of Simultaneity: Events that are simultaneous in one inertial frame
may not be simultaneous in another. This challenges the classical notion of
absolute simultaneity.

𝐸=𝑚𝑐2E=mc2
4. Mass-Energy Equivalence: The famous equation

arises from special relativity, establishing the equivalence of mass m and energy E.
This means that mass can be converted into energy and vice versa.

5. Derive a relation showing mass energy equivalence and justify through

suitable examples. Show that a photon carrier momentum even though it is
massless.

𝑬=𝒎𝒄𝟐 𝑬=𝒎𝒄𝟐
Ans. Mass-Energy Equivalence: Derivation of

𝐸=𝑚𝑐2.
The mass-energy equivalence principle, famously expressed as
E=mc2
, states that mass and energy are interchangeable; they are two forms of the same physical
entity. Here’s how we can derive this relation using the principles of special relativity.
1. Relativistic Energy and Momentum
In special relativity, the total energy E of an object with mass m moving with velocity v is

𝐸= 𝛾𝑚𝑐2E= 𝛾mc2
given by:

 𝛾= 11−𝑣2𝑐2‾‾‾‾‾‾√𝛾= 11−v2c2
where:

is the Lorentz factor,

 c is the speed of light.

𝐸0=𝑚𝑐2E0=mc2
For an object at rest (v=0):

This is the rest energy of the mass m.

2. Total Energy Expression
When the object is in motion, its total energy can also be expressed in terms of its

𝐸2= (𝑝𝑐)2+ (𝑚𝑐2)2E2= (pc)2+ (mc2)2

momentum p:
 𝑝= 𝛾𝑚𝑣p= 𝛾mv
where p is the relativistic momentum defined as:

3. At Rest Condition

𝐸=𝑚𝑐2E=mc2
When the object is at rest (v=0), the momentum p is zero, and the energy simplifies to:

𝐸=𝑚𝑐2E=mc2
Thus, we see that mass m is equivalent to energy E given by

Justification through Examples

1. Nuclear Reactions: In nuclear reactions, a small amount of mass is converted
into a large amount of energy. For example, in the fusion of hydrogen nuclei in
stars, the mass difference between the reactants and products is converted to
energy, which powers stars and provides heat and light.
2. Particle-Antiparticle Annihilation: When a particle and its antiparticle
collide, they annihilate each other, and the energy released is equivalent to the

𝑚𝑒me
total mass of the particles multiplied by c2. For instance, an electron (mass

𝑚𝑒me
) and a positron (mass

) annihilate to produce gamma-ray photons with energy:

𝐸=(𝑚𝑒+𝑚𝑒)𝑐2=2𝑚𝑒𝑐2E=me+mec2=2mec2

3. Particle Accelerators: In particle accelerators, particles are accelerated to

high speeds. Their relativistic mass increases, and when they collide, the kinetic
energy can be converted into new particles, demonstrating the conversion of
energy to mass.
Momentum of a Photon
Photons are massless particles; however, they carry momentum. The momentum p of a

𝑝= 𝐸𝑐p= Ec
photon can be expressed as:

where E is the energy of the photon. Since the energy of a photon is related to its

𝐸=ℎ𝑓E=hf
frequency f (or wavelength λ) by:

𝐸= ℎ𝑐𝜆E= hc𝜆
or

𝑝= ℎ𝑓𝑐= ℎ𝜆p= hfc= h𝜆

where h is Planck's constant, we can rewrite the momentum of a photon as:

Explanation of Photon Momentum

1. Momentum without Mass: Although photons have zero rest mass, they
possess energy E and, consequently, momentum p. This is consistent with the
relationship for relativistic momentum, which does not require mass to be non-
zero.
2. Example: When a photon strikes a surface and is absorbed or reflected, it
imparts momentum to that surface. The momentum transferred is observable, for
example, in solar sails, which are propelled by the momentum of photons from
sunlight.
3. Conservation of Momentum: In interactions involving photons, the
conservation of momentum is maintained. If a photon collides with a particle and
is absorbed, the photon transfers its momentum to the particle, demonstrating that
photons, despite being massless, effectively carry momentum.