Networking and SCADA Systems at ONGC

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC)

Submitted by
NIKHIL KUMAR

Under Guidance of
MR. DIGVIJAY GAURAV, GENERAL MANAGER (GM)

Dept. of E&T
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC)
Date of submission: 16/07/2024
 ACKNOWLEDEMENT
At the very beginning, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to God for
giving me the strength and the composure to complete and prepare this report within the
scheduled time.

During the period of my internship work, I have received generous help from many
quarters, which I like to put on record here with deep gratitude and great pleasure.

First and foremost, I am grateful to my mentor MR. DIGVIJAY GAURAV,

GENERAL MANAGER (E&T) ONGC DEHRADUN. He allowed me to encroach upon
his precious time freely right from the very beginning of this research work until the
completion of my internship.

His guidance, encouragement, and suggestions provided me the necessary insight

into the research problem and paved the way for the meaningful ending of the work in a
short duration.

I am Nikhil Kumar, a student of the 7th semester in Electrical and Electronics

Engineering. I acknowledge my training mentor for helping me complete my 55 days
summer project training on networking and SCADA at ONGC, Dehradun. I learned about
the connectivity between various departments of ONGC, Dehradun through basic
networking skills.

I sincerely thank MR. DIGVIJAY GAURAV, GENERAL MANAGER (E&T), for

his proper guidance and support. I am also grateful to all the team members for their
teamwork and cooperation.

NIKHIL KUMAR
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONCIS ENGINEERING
N.I.T, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI
 TRAINING EXPERIENCE
During these 55 days of my summer training at ONGC, Dehradun, our experience
was excellent. We learned basic things about Networking and SCADA. We implemented
many practical tasks related to computer networking. All the trainees in the team were
helpful, talented, and skilled. We worked well together and completed our tasks with the
help of our guide. Our mentor and all the guides assigned to us were very knowledgeable
and kind. They helped us whenever we faced problems during the training. We would like
to thank the team members, our mentor, and all our guides for their support during the
training.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.No. CONTENTS PAGE
NO.
1. INTRODUCTION 1-2

2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 2-4

3. ONGC GROWTH & VISION AND 5-6

MISSION
4. ONGC CORE BUSINESSES 7-9

5. NEW INITIATIVE IN ENERGY 9-9

6. ONGC ORGANOGRAM 10-10

7. ONGC TECHNOLOGIES 10-11

8. EPINET 11-12

9. ICE 12-14

10. DISHA 14-16

11. ACHIEVEMENTS AND AWARDS 16-18

11. SCADA 18-25

12. SUPERVISORY STATION 25-27

13. SCADA ARCHITECTURE 27-39

14. COMPUTER NETWORK & OSI 39-47

MODEL
15. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 47-59

16. REFERENCES 59-59

 INTRODUCTION
ABOUT ONGC
The Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) is a central public sector undertaking
under the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Government of India. Headquartered in
Dehradun, ONGC was founded on 14 August 1956 by the Government of India. It is the
largest government-owned oil and gas explorer and producer in the country, contributing
around 70% of India’s crude oil and approximately 84% of its natural gas

ONGC ensures India's energy security through pioneering efforts. It is the largest crude
oil and natural gas company in India. ONGC contributes around 71% to India's domestic
production. Crude oil from ONGC is used by companies like IOC, BPCL, HPCL, and
MRPL. These companies produce petrol, diesel, kerosene, naphtha, and cooking gas
(LPG).

ONGC: COMMITTED TO INDIA'S ENERGY SECURITY

ONGC has in-house capabilities in all areas of oil and gas exploration and production. It
is known for its dedicated team of about 26,000 professionals. ONGC has won the Best
Employer award. Its employees work round the clock in challenging locations.

ONGC VIDESH LIMITED

ONGC Videsh Limited is a Miniratna CPSE under the Ministry of Petroleum & Natural
Gas. It is the overseas arm of ONGC. ONGC Videsh explores, develops, and produces oil
and gas outside India. It owns interests in 35 oil and gas assets in 15 countries. ONGC
Videsh produced about 30.3% of oil and 23.7% of oil and gas for India's domestic
production. It is the second-largest petroleum company in India after ONGC.

MANGALORE REFINERY AND PETROCHEMICALS LIMITED (MRPL)

MRPL is a subsidiary of ONGC and a Miniratna CPSE. It has a refinery with a capacity
of 15 million metric tons per annum. MRPL can process various types of crude oil. It
produces a variety of quality petroleum products. MRPL and ONGC also own ONGC
Mangalore Petrochemicals Limited (OMPL). OMPL produces para xylene and benzene.

HPCL
HPCL is another ONGC subsidiary and a Maharatna CPSE. It has the second-largest
product pipeline network in India, over 3,370 km long. HPCL has a vast marketing
network with 14 zonal offices, 133 regional offices, and many distribution facilities.
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HPCL's workforce of over 9,500 employees ensures consistent excellent performance
across India.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
1947 – 1960
Before independence, Assam Oil Company and Attock Oil Company were the only oil
producers in India. Most of India's sedimentary basins were not considered suitable for
oil and gas development. After independence, the Indian government recognized the
strategic and industrial importance of oil and gas. The Industrial Policy Statement of 1948
highlighted the need to develop the hydrocarbon industry. Until 1955, private companies
led the exploration. Assam Oil Company was active in Digboi, Assam, and Oil India Ltd.
worked in Naharkatiya and Moran, Assam. In West Bengal, the Indo-Stanvac Petroleum
project explored for oil.

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In 1955, the government decided to develop oil and gas resources through the public
sector. An Oil and Natural Gas Directorate was established under the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Scientific Research. This Directorate included geoscientists from the
Geological Survey of India. The government sought international expertise and training
for Indian professionals. Soviet experts helped develop a detailed plan for exploration and
drilling during the Second Five-Year Plan (1956-1961).

In April 1956, the Industrial Policy Resolution made the mineral oil industry a state
responsibility. The Oil and Natural Gas Directorate was upgraded to a commission in
August 1956. In October 1959, it became a statutory body, the Oil and Natural Gas
Commission (ONGC). ONGC's main functions included developing petroleum resources,
producing and selling petroleum products, and other government-assigned tasks.

1961 – 1990
Since its inception, ONGC expanded India's upstream sector significantly. It discovered
new resources in Assam, established the Cambay basin (Gujarat) as an oil province, and
found petroliferous areas in the Assam-Arakan Fold Belt and East Coast basins. In the
early 1970s, ONGC ventured offshore and discovered the giant Bombay High (now
Mumbai High) oil field. This and other discoveries transformed India's oil industry,
revealing over 5 billion tonnes of hydrocarbons. ONGC's major achievement was
developing self-reliance and global competence in E&P activities.

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1990 Onwards
In July 1991, India's liberalized economic policy deregulated the petroleum sector and
partially disinvested government equity in public sector undertakings. In February 1994,
ONGC became a limited company under the Companies Act, 1956. The government
disinvested 2% of its shares through competitive bidding, and ONGC expanded its equity
by offering shares to its employees.

In March 1999, ONGC, Indian Oil Corporation (IOC), and Gas Authority of India Limited
(GAIL) agreed to cross-hold shares, fostering strategic alliances. In 2002-03, ONGC
diversified into the downstream sector by taking over MRPL. ONGC also entered the
global market through its subsidiary, ONGC Videsh Ltd. (OVL), with investments in
Vietnam, Sakhalin, Colombia, Venezuela, Sudan, and other countries. ONGC became the
largest crude oil and natural gas company in India, contributing around 75% to domestic
production.

Today, ONGC continues to explore new energy frontiers, including deep-water drilling
in the Krishna Godavari Basin. It has made significant investments despite global declines
in crude prices, aiming for energy security. This journey has earned ONGC a place among
Fortune's "World's Most Admired Companies."
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 ONGC GROWTH & VISION AND MISSION
ONGC was set up under the leadership of Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru. Nehru trusted Shri
Keshav Dev Malviya to lay the foundation. In 1955, the Oil and Gas division under the
Geological Survey of India was formed. It soon became the Oil and Natural Gas
Directorate. On 14th August 1956, it was renamed the Oil & Natural Gas Commission.

In 1994, the commission became a corporation. In 1997, it was named one of the
Navratnas by the Government of India. In 2010, it achieved Maharatna status.

Over 60 years, ONGC has reached many milestones. It has turned frontier areas into new
hydrocarbon provinces. ONGC is now one of the largest E&P companies in the world.

Events in ONGC's growth:

 1956: Inception
 1958: First oil in Cambay
 1960: Oil and gas discovery in Gujarat
 1963: Oil in Assam
 1965: ONGC Videsh operations concept
 1970: First offshore well
 1974: Mumbai High discovered
 1976: Bassein gas field in Mumbai High
 1984: GAIL formed from ONGC
 1993: ONGC became a limited company
 1999: Equity swap with IOC and GAIL
 2003: Acquired Mangalore Refineries Petrochemicals Ltd
 2010: Began Coal Bed Methane production
 2018: Acquired 51.11% stake in Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited
 2019: Invested Rs 83,000 crore in 25 projects; significant oil and gas gain
 2020: Bengal Basin dedicated to the nation
 2022: Vindhyan Basin discovered

ONGC has discovered 8 of India's 9 producing basins:

 1958: Cambay, Gujarat
 1963: Assam
 1967: Rajasthan
 1974: Mumbai Offshore
 1980: Krishna Godavari Basin
 1985: Cauvery Basin
 2019: Bengal Basin
 2022: Vindhyan Basin
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ONGC has developed in-house capabilities in exploration and production. This includes
seismic data processing, drilling, engineering, production, refining, marketing, R&D, and
training.

Vision: To be a global leader in the integrated energy business, achieving sustainable

growth, excelling in knowledge, and adhering to exemplary governance practices.
Mission:
World Class
We are dedicated to excellence by leveraging our competitive advantages in R&D and
technology, with a team of engaged and committed people. We maintain high standards
of business ethics and organizational values, with a strong commitment to safety, health,
and the environment, enhancing the quality of community life. We foster a culture of trust,
openness, and mutual concern, making work a stimulating and challenging experience for
our employees. We strive for customer delight through the delivery of quality products
and services.

Integrated in Energy Business

We focus on domestic and international opportunities in oil and gas exploration and
production. We provide value linkages in other sectors of the energy business, creating
growth opportunities and maximizing shareholder value.

Dominant Indian Leadership

We aim to retain our dominant position in the Indian petroleum sector and enhance India's
energy availability.

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Carbon Neutrality
We are committed to reducing CO2 emissions across our operations, with the goal of
achieving carbon neutrality.

ONGC CORE BUSINESSES

ONGC's core business includes oil exploration, development, and production. It operates
globally. The company has two main segments: Exploration & Production (E&P) and
Refining.

EXPLORATION
ONGC's core business includes oil and gas exploration. They operate globally. ONGC's
exploration activities are divided into three types: Deep Water, Shallow Water, and
Onshore. They use seismic data to locate oil and gas reserves. This data is collected
through 2D and 3D surveys. ONGC uses its own equipment and also hires contractors for
these surveys. Geophysical Services manage data collection and processing regionally.
Logging services help visualize underground formations, essential for understanding
reservoirs. ONGC uses advanced imaging software and constantly updates their
technology. They explore in 13 sedimentary basins across India, including Assam,
Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu.

Production
ONGC's production segment involves extracting crude oil and natural gas. They have
numerous onshore and offshore production sites. ONGC ensures efficient and safe

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extraction processes. They use advanced technology to maximize production. Their
production efforts meet a significant portion of India's energy needs.
In the E&P (Exploration and production) segment, ONGC focuses on finding and
increasing oil and gas reserves. This involves Deep Water, Shallow Water, and Onshore
exploration activities.
Seismic Data Acquisition, Processing & Interpretation (API):
 Geophysical Services collect seismic data through 2D/3D surveys.
 Surveys are conducted by ONGC's own survey parties and through contracts.
 Data is processed regionally at centers like Vadodara, Dehradun, Jorhat, and
Mumbai.
 Equipment and labs are regularly upgraded with advanced technologies.
 Logging Services help visualize geological formations and reservoir
characteristics.
 Data from logging is interpreted for hydrocarbon potential and flow characteristics.
Non-Seismic Data Acquisition, Processing & Interpretation (API):
 ONGC uses Airborne Gravity Gradiometry (AGG) surveys in difficult areas.
 These surveys help unlock new hydrocarbon reserves.
Exploratory Performance:
 ONGC operates in 13 sedimentary basins in India.
 In FY 2016-17, ONGC exceeded seismic survey targets.
 100 exploratory wells were drilled, with a 43% success ratio.
 23 new discoveries were made in FY'17, marking a 35% increase from the previous
year.
Recent Discoveries and Initiatives:
 ONGC has made multiple discoveries in onshore and offshore wells.
 It continues to focus on increasing reserves and production.
 Recent initiatives include upgrading logging units and improving operational
safety.
Refining
ONGC's refining segment processes crude oil into various petroleum products. They
operate several refineries in India. These refineries produce fuels like gasoline, diesel, and
kerosene. ONGC's refining operations are essential for supplying energy to the market.
They focus on maintaining high-quality standards and operational efficiency.

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 NEW INITIATIVE IN ENERGY
Gas hydrate is a solid, ice-like form of water. It contains gas molecules in its cavities.
Large quantities of gas hydrates exist globally. Scientists see it as a future natural gas
source. However, no country has developed extraction technology yet. Gas Hydrates in
India: Japan and Canada are working on this technology. They aim for commercial
production in the next 4-5 years. ONGC is active in the National Gas Hydrate Programs
(NGHPs). A Gas Hydrate Research & Technology Centre (GHRTC) was established on
14 September 2016 at Panvel. This center boosts research and technology development
for gas hydrates. It aligns with the Government of India's plan to commercialize gas
hydrates as an energy resource. ONGC discovered gas hydrate reserves off the Andhra
Pradesh coast. These reserves are in the Krishna-Godavari basin. The reserves are
estimated at around 134 trillion cubic feet (tcf). This is about one-third of the gas reserves
in the United States. This discovery can transform India's energy sector. It can make India
self-sufficient in energy, reducing its 80% dependency on imports.

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 ONGC ORGANOGRAM:

ONGC Technology
ONGC is one of India's largest E&P companies. It has in-house capabilities for
exploration and production of oil and gas. State-of-the-art technologies are used, such as
depth domain processing, stratigraphic inversion, and advanced interpretation tools.

Mission of ONGC: “Dedicated to excellence by leveraging competitive advantages in

R&D and technology with involved people.”

Committee of ONGC Institutes: ONGC has set up twelve world-class institutes under the
'Committee of ONGC Institutes' (COIN). These institutes support the entire spectrum of
oil and gas production.

EPINET: ONGC has developed EPINET, a live E&P information network. This virtual
database supports Basin & Petroleum System Modeling. SCADA data is used for
enhanced operational efficiency and productivity.

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3-D Virtual Reality Centers: ONGC has four 3-D virtual reality centers called 'Third Eye.'
These centers provide real-time information for onshore and offshore applications. They
help in exploration and production activities and real-time surveillance of fields.

SAP Implementation: In 2002, ONGC started SAP implementation, the largest in India.
This move aimed at creating a paperless office with the latest technologies.

Project ICE: Project ICE (Information Consolidation for Efficiency) integrated standalone
applications into a common ERP platform. It involved 23 SAP modules across over 500
locations in India.

Ultra-Deepwater Drilling: ONGC has developed significant capability in ultra-deepwater

drilling. Since 2004, it has drilled over 100 deepwater wells, including wells in depths
beyond 10,000 feet.

Collaboration with IITs: In early 2015, ONGC signed a Memorandum of Collaboration

with seven IITs. This collaboration aims to develop indigenous technologies for
exploration, production, and alternate energy sources.

EPINET
The objective of the EPINET (Exploration & Production Information Network) project
was setting up a live E&P information network across the length and breadth of India. It
included setting up infrastructure (machines and software) in as many as 18 sites,
empowering the sites with suitably trained people, and creating and implementing policies
and procedures for managing a steady flow of information. It required standardization,
change management and motivating people. Its ongoingly deals with data aggregation,
organizing disparate information, and providing easy and free access to information.
The project targets information sources (field offices known as assets, basins, forward
bases, laboratories and interpretation centres) and utilizes the "own, populate, use" model
to manage data quality. In short, the EPINET project brings a paradigm shift from
personalized local databases in individual personal computers to a truly integrated
countrywide corporate database. The ultimate goal is to improve the quality and speed of
business decisions through more efficient team collaboration. This is enabled by the
availability of reliable multidisciplinary (seismic, wireline, well completion, drilling, and
production) technical data. The EPINET project is expected to create substantial value for
the organization.
A number of key decisions were made that became fundamental conventions for project
implementation. Assets, Basins and Forward Bases who generate the data, would own
such data. Owners would also manage their data. EPINET project teams would be the
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custodians of data. An asset-focused distributed data management organization, controlled
centrally, was adopted for successful data management.
This project was initiated because a team of people had a vision and could see the value
that quick and simple access to valuable data and information assets could greatly improve
the productivity and efficiency of the company. The team also understood that substantive
exploration and production successes and significant cost savings would come from better
more confident decisions made with complete and accurate information.

ICE
ONGC embarked upon realignment of its multi-faceted business activities through the
powerful medium of IT. The IT mission was realigned “To develop an integrated, flexible
and standardized Information Technology architecture to position ONGC towards
fundamental competitive advantage “. To achieve this objective Project ICE (Information
Consolidation for Efficiency) was born, out of the strategic vision of the ONGC’s board.
SAP AG signed the largest ever deal in India with the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
Ltd (ONGC) for implementation of the Information Consolidation for Efficiency (ICE)
Project. The deal worth Rs 95 crore is aimed at consolidating the IT efforts at ONGC
through the implementation of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) package on SAP.
It comprised of 23 SAP modules in more than 500 physical locations across the length
and breadth of the country, starting from mobile Survey units at Jwalamukhi of Himachal
Pradesh to Deep Sea vessels at Bay of Bengal, from Production installations at far flung
areas of Assam to Drilling rigs in the desert of Rajasthan. Over the years, ONGC has
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developed a formidable capability in ultra-deep-water drilling. Since 2004, ONGC has
drilled over 100 deep-water wells.

A large number of these wells are in daunting water depths beyond 5000 feet in
environmentally and logistically difficult areas of Indian East Coast and West Coast,
ranging from Gujarat offshore to Mahanadi offshore including 6 wells in Andaman
offshore. Out of these, around 25 wells have been drilled in water depths of 5000 feet to
7500 feet and 16 wells in water depths of 7500 feet to 10000 feet. The current world record
well # 1-D1, which is under drilling, is the 3rd well in beyond 10000 feet water depth.
ONGC has achieved this commendable feat due to a sustained effort over the years to
keep pace with latest technology in hydrocarbon exploration and it is one of the few
companies in the world to have drilled a large number of ultra-deepwater wells in diverse
and challenging areas.

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 DISHA
ONGC has taken a giant leap towards Digitization by awarding the Contract for the
Implementation of enterprise-wide paperless office solution in ONGC. In line with the
“Digital India” initiative, this Paperless Office Project will eliminate paper movement
within ONGC at all levels.
"The initiative aims to carry out office works without physical movement of paper
documents and files. The project will create an electronic document management and
electronic workflow environment to improve efficiency and enhance transparency in the
day-to-day functioning of ONGC," the Maharatna said.
The paperless project was implemented in ONGC's offices in Delhi and Mumbai in July
2017. Officials said the PSU's offices in South and North East India will also be brought
under the project in a couple of months.
"The project is also environment friendly as it will cut down paper consumption in
ONGC," said an official. The official added about 2,500 ONGC employees and officials
in the state have been trained in making the initiative successful.
Meaning of DISHA:
As the name suggests, the meaning of the terms are as follows,
Digitization: It is for paperless work i.e. doing file handling mechanism online.
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Integration: This is for combining all the different levels of work into a single platform.
Standardization: This is for maintaining international standards in all procedures
governed by DISHA.
Harnessing: This represents optimal use of resources available.
Automation: This is for automating the organizational structure.
Technologies used:
The ONGC is striving for implementing Paperless Office Solution across organizations to
enhance efficiency. The solution is being implemented by best-in-class technologies The
Technologies Used in it are:
1. IBM BPM (Business Process Management)
2. IBM FileNet (Enterprise Content Management)
3. DataCap (Scanning Solution)
IBM Business Process Management (BPM)
An integrated approach to align the key activities of an organization into process that you
can consistently measure to optimize value to your organization and its end customers.
IBM BPM Features
 Orchestrates Human to Human, Human to System & Inter-System Interactions.
 Automates workflow & Decision Making
 Reduces Errors and improve consistency
 Standardizes resolution across geographies
 Leverages existing systems and data
 Monitors business events and initiate actions
 Real-Time visibility
IBM FileNet Enternprise Content Mangement(ECM)
Corporate knowledge / information (structured/Unstructured) stored in any form:
o Paper-Data
o Reports
o Scanned Images
o Correspondence
o Email
o Multi-media etc.
o Content Drives business and enables better, faster decisions

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DataCap (Scanning Solution)
IBM DataCap is a powerful scanning solution designed to automate the capture,
recognition, and classification of documents, converting them into actionable data. It
enhances efficiency by streamlining document-intensive processes and integrating
seamlessly with enterprise content management systems.
DataCap Features:
o Automates Document Capture
o Intelligent Data Recognition
o Classification and Indexing
o Improves Accuracy and Compliance
o Enhances Productivity
o Seamless Integration
o Real-Time Processing

ACHIEVEMENT AND AWARDS

 Best Corporate in the Oil & Gas sector: June 2012
 ONGC shines bright at the Petrofed Oil & Gas Industry Awards 2011: June 2012
 ONGC rules supreme at the D&B PSU Awards: August 2012
 ONGC comes out on top in the Oil Industry Safety Awards: August 2012
 "Good Corporate Citizen Award" for ONGC at PHD Chamber Awards: November
2012
 ONGC sweeps the ICC PSE Excellence Awards 2012: December 2012
 ONGC bags the Randstad Award 2013 for the Most Attractive Employer in the
Energy Sector in India: April 2013
 ONGC receives 'Golden Peacock Award 2013' for HSE Practices: July 2013
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  ONGC bags prestigious OISD Awards: July 2013
 ONGC bags Human Resource Management Excellence Award 2013: December
2013
 ONGC the 'Best Employer' and 'Voice of Employee' Aon Hewitt: January 2014
 ONGC conferred FICCI 'India's Best Sports Promoting Company Award again:
February 2014
 ONGC moves two places up on Forbes Global 2000 list among oil and gas
operation industry: May 2014
 ONGC amongst world's greenest company: June 2014
 ONGC is India's "Most Valuable" PSU: August 2014
 ONGC climbs up to Second position on the BT-500 India's Most Valuable
Companies list: October 2014
 ONGC receives Golden Peacock Award for excellence in CSR: February 2015
 ONGC receives Scope Excellence award from Hon'ble President: April 2016
 ONGC secures top international award for Online Internal Communications: May
2016
 ONGC receives Bhamashah Award for setting up Smart Classes: July 2016
 ONGC improves its brand valuation- 7th in India: July 2016

The different departments in ONGC are as follows:

• Geology
• Geophysics
• Drilling section
• Production department
• Engineering services
• Logging
• Human Resource department (HR)
• Finance department
• Purchase department
• Logistics (vehicles)
• Infocom services

ONGC PRODUCT DETAILS

ONGC Ltd has following product profile

• Crude oil
• Petroleum
• Gas oil
• Jet/kero
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 • LPG
• MS/Naphtha
• Petrochemical
• Mixed Xylene
• Para Xylene
• Propylene
• Benzene

ONGC OFFSHORE SITE

SCADA
SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. SCADA systems are
used to monitor and control the equipment in the industrial process which includes
manufacturing, production, development, and fabrication. The infrastructural processes
include gas and oil distribution, electrical power, water distribution. Public utilities
include a bus traffic system, airport. SCADA is an online monitoring system that helps in
supervision and control The SCADA system takes the reading of the meters and checks
the status of sensors in regular intervals so that it requires minimal interference of humans.
This data is then sent to a central computer for management and control.

In industrial processes, SCADA is used in manufacturing, production, power generation,

fabrication, and refining. It can run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.

For infrastructure processes, SCADA is used in water treatment and distribution,

wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electrical power transmission
and distribution, civil defense siren systems, and large communication systems.
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In facility processes, both in public facilities and private ones, SCADA is used in
buildings, airports, ships, and space stations.

History of SCADA
Earlier, the controlling of industrial plants and manufacturing floors can be done manually
with the help of analog equipment and push-buttons. As the industry’s size is growing, so
they employed timers and relays to provide supervisory control to a fixed level for
minimal automation. So, a fully automated with a more efficient system was necessary
for all the industries.
We know that, for industrial control purposes, computers were implemented in the year
1950. After that, the concept of telemetry was implemented for data transmission as well
as virtual communication. In the year 1970, the SCADA system was developed along with
the microprocessors as well as PLC.
So, these concepts were fully helped while developing automation that is operated in
industries remotely. The distributed SCADA systems were implemented in the year 2000.
After that, new SCADA systems were developed to monitor & control real-time data
anyplace in the globe.

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Common System Components:

A SCADA system usually consists of the following subsystems:

Human-Machine Interface (HMI): The HMI is the apparatus presents process data to a
human operator. The operator uses this interface to monitor and control the process.
Supervisory (Computer) System: This system gathering or acquiring data on the process
and sending commands to control the process.
Remote Terminal Units (RTUs): RTUs connect to sensors in the process. They convert
sensor signals to digital data and sending this data to the supervisory (Computer) system.

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs): PLCs are used as field devices. They are
more economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special-purpose RTUs.
Communication Infrastructure: This infrastructure connects the supervisory system to
the Remote Terminal Units (RTU).

Systems Concepts:

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SCADA systems, or Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition systems, act as the central
nervous system for large-scale industrial operations. Imagine a vast factory or a network
of power plants spread across a wide area. SCADA takes care of monitoring and
controlling everything within these expansive systems. how it works: Local devices
called RTUs (Remote Terminal Units), and PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers) are
directly connected to the equipment they control. These devices constantly gather data on
things like temperature, pressure, and equipment status. This data then gets sent to the
SCADA system.

SCADA acts like a central hub, processing all the incoming information. It transforms the
raw data from RTUs and PLCs into a clear and user-friendly format. This allows human
operators in a control room to easily monitor everything that's happening across the entire
system. With this real-time information, operators can make adjustments, intervene if
needed, and even set up automatic controls based on pre-defined parameters.

SCADA also plays a crucial role in identifying and responding to problems. It can trigger
alarms if it detects something going wrong, like a sudden drop in pressure or a rise in
temperature. This allows operators to react quickly and prevent potential equipment
failures or safety hazards.

But SCADA's capabilities go beyond just monitoring and control. It can also store
historical data, allowing engineers to analyze trends and identify areas for improvement.
This data can be incredibly valuable for optimizing processes, boosting efficiency, and
preventing future issues.

In essence, SCADA systems bridge the gap between complex industrial equipment and
human operators. By providing a centralized platform for monitoring, control, and data
analysis, SCADA ensures the smooth and efficient operation of large-scale industrial
processes.

Example: Imagine a system that controls the flow of cooling water in a crucial part of an
industrial process. A PLC, acting like a local manager, takes direct control over the flow
rate. But SCADA, the central supervisor, gives the human operators the power they need.
They can adjust the desired flow rate (set point) through the SCADA interface, ensuring
the cooling system operates efficiently. Additionally, SCADA acts as a watchful guardian.
It can trigger alarms if the water flow drops too low or the temperature exceeds safe limits.
These critical events are displayed for the operators and recorded for future analysis. The
feedback control loop passes through the RTU or PLC, while the SCADA system monitors
the overall performance of the loop. However, SCADA provides a broader view,
monitoring the loop's overall performance and keeping the operators informed.

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HUMAN-MACHINE INTERFACE (HMI):

The Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is the apparatus that presents process data to a
human operator. The SCADA system uses the human-machine interface. The information
is displayed and monitored to be processed by a human. An HMI is usually linked to the
SCADA system's databases and software programs. HMI provides access to multiple
control units which can be PLCs and RTUs. The HMI provides the graphical presentation
of the system.

For example, it provides a graphical picture of the pump connected to the tank. The user
can see the flow of the water and the pressure of the water. The important part of the HMI
is an alarm system that is activated according to the predefined values.

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For example, the tank water level alarm is set 60% and 70% values. If the water level
reaches above 60% the alarm gives a normal warning and if the water level reaches above
70% the alarm gives a critical warning.

REMOTE TERMINAL UNIT (RTU):

The RTU or remote terminal unit is an electronic device, and it is also known as remote
telemetry units. This system comprises physical objects that are interfaced through RTUs.

The controlling of these devices can be done through microprocessors. Here,

microprocessors are utilized for controlling RTUs which are used to transmit the recorded
data toward the supervisory system. The data can be received from the master system for
controlling the connected objects.

A Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) collects data from remote location data acquisition
equipment. It sends this data to the main system over a wired or wireless network. The
RTU connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts electrical signals from
the equipment to digital values. These values can represent the open/closed status of a
switch or a valve, or measurements like pressure, flow, voltage, or current. By converting
and sending these electrical signals to equipment, the RTU can control equipment, such
as opening or closing a switch or a valve or setting the speed of a pump.

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SWITCH:

A switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit. It can interrupt the
current or divert it from one conductor to another. The most familiar form of switch is a
manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts.
Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either 'closed' (meaning the contacts are
touching and allowing electricity to flow between them) or 'open' (meaning separated and
nonconducting).

In the simplest case, a switch has two pieces of metal called contacts that touch to make
a circuit and separate to break the circuit. The contact material is chosen for its resistance
to corrosion, because most metals form insulating oxides that would prevent the switch
form working. Contact materials are also chosen on the basis of electrical conductivity,
hardness mechanical strength, low cost and low toxicity.

Switches can be classified according to the arrangement of their contacts in electronics

fields- such as “one way”, “two way”, “three way” and “four way” switches.

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Basic SCADA Animation:

SUPERVISORY STATION
The Supervisory Station in a SCADA works like a communication server among the
human-machine interface software within the control room of workstations. This
equipment includes Remote Terminal Units (RTUs), sensors and Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLCs). The supervisory station ensures that data collected from these field
devices is sent to the HMI software, which then allows operators to monitor and control
processes from workstations in the control room or other locations.

In smaller SCADA setups, the supervisory station might be as simple as a single personal
computer. However, larger SCADA systems require a more complex infrastructure. These
larger systems often include multiple servers, distributed software applications, and
sometimes even disaster recovery sites. To maintain system integrity and ensure
continuous control and monitoring, these servers are frequently configured in a dual-
redundant or hot-standby setup. This means that if one server fails, another can take over
without interrupting the system's operation.

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Initially, more open platforms like Linux were not widely used in SCADA systems. This
was mainly due to their highly dynamic development environment and the financial
capability of SCADA customers to afford more traditional UNIX or OpenVMS licenses
for their hardware. However, as Today technology has advanced, all major operating
systems, including Linux, are now commonly used for both master station servers and
HMI workstations. This shift has provided more flexibility and cost-effective solutions
for SCADA implementations.

Communication Infrastructure and Methods

The communication infrastructure of SCADA systems has traditionally relied on a

combination of radio and direct serial or modem connections. These methods have been
essential for ensuring reliable communication between remote field equipment and the
supervisory station. The remote management and monitoring function of a SCADA
system is often referred to as telemetry.

This has also come under threat with some customers SCADA data to travel over their
pre-established corporate networks or to share these networks with other applications. The
legacy of the early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though. SCADA protocols are
designed to be very compact, and many are designed to send information to the master
station only when the master station only when the master station polls the RTU. This

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method helps maintain the reliability and efficiency of the SCADA system, even as it
adapts to new communication technologies and infrastructures.

SCADA ARCHITECTURES
Generally, the SCADA system is a centralized system that monitors and controls the entire
area. It is a pure software package that is positioned on top of the hardware. A supervisory
system gathers data on the process and sends the commands control to the process. The
SCADA is a remote terminal unit which is also known as RTU.
Most control actions are automatically performed by RTUs or PLCs. The RTUs consists
of the programmable logic converter which can be set to specific requirement. For
example, in the thermal power plant, the water flow can be set to a specific value, or it
can be changed according to the requirement.
The SCADA system allows operators to change the set point for the flow and enable
alarm conditions in case of loss of flow and high temperature, and the condition is
displayed and recorded. The SCADA system monitors the overall performance of the
loop. The SCADA system is a centralized system to communicate with both wired and
wireless technology to Clint devices. The SCADA system controls can run completely all
kinds of the industrial process.
For example, if too much pressure is building up in a gas pipeline the SCADA system can
automatically open a release valve.

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The block diagram of SCADA system shown in the figure represents the basic SCADA
architecture. The SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) systems are different
from distributed control systems that are commonly found in plant sites. When distributed
control systems cover the plant site, SCADA system cover much larger geographic areas.

Above figure depicts an integrated SCADA architecture which supports TCP/IP, UDP
and other IP based communication protocols as well as industrial protocols like Modbus
TCP, Modbus over TCP or Modbus over UDP. These all work over cellular, private radio
or satellite networks.

In complex SCADA architectures, there are a variety of wired and wireless media &
protocols involved in getting data back to the monitoring site. This allows implementation
of powerful IP based SCADA networks over landline, mixed cellular and satellite
systems. SCADA communications can utilize a diverse range of wired and wireless
media.

The choice of the existing communication depends on the characterization of a number of

factors. The factors are remoteness, available communications at the remote sites, existing
communications infrastructure, polling frequency and data rates. These factors impact the
final decision for SCADA architecture. Therefore, a review of SCADA systems evolution
allows us to better understand many security concerns.

HARDWARE ARCHITECTURE
Generally, SCADA system can be classified into two parts:
 Client layer: The Clint layer caters to the man-machine interaction.
 Data server layer: The data server layer handles most of the process of data
activities.
The SCADA station refers to the servers and it is composed of a single PC. The data
servers communicate with devices in the field through process controllers like PLCs or
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RTUs. The PLCs are connected to the data servers either directly or via networks or buses.
The SCADA system utilizes a WAN and LAN networks, the WAN and LAN consist of
internet protocols used for communication between the master station and devices.
The physical equipment like sensors connected to the PLCs or RTUs. The RTUs convert
the sensor signals to digital data and sends digital data to the master. According to the
master feedback received by the RTU, it applies the electrical signal to relays. Most of the
monitoring and control operations are performed by RTUs or PLCs as we can see in
figure:

SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE

Most of the servers are used for multitasking and real-time database. The servers are
responsible for data gathering and handling. The SCADA system consists of a software
program to provide trending, diagnostic data, and manage information such as scheduled
maintenance procedures, logistic information, detailed schematics for a particular sensor
or machine, and expert-system troubleshooting guides. This means the operator can see a
schematic representation of the plant being controlled.

Examples are alarm checking, calculations, logging, and archiving; polling controllers on
a set of parameters, those are typically connected to the server.

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Types of SCADA systems
There are different types of SCADA systems that can be considered as SCADA
architectures of four different generations:
 First Generation: Monolithic or Early SCADA systems,
 Second Generation: Distributed SCADA systems,
 Third Generation: Networked SCADA systems and
 Fourth Generation: Internet of things technology, SCADA systems
Monolithic or Early SCADA Systems
Minicomputers are used earlier for computing the SCADA systems. In earlier times,
during the time of first generation, monolithic SCADA systems were developed wherein
the common network services were not available. Hence, these are independent systems
without having any connectivity to other systems.

All the remote terminal unit sites would connect to a back-up mainframe system for
achieving the first-generation SCADA system redundancy, which was used in case of
failure of the primary mainframe system. The functions of the monolithic SCADA
systems in the early first generation were limited to monitoring sensors in the system and
flagging any operations in case of surpassing programmed alarm levels.
Distributed SCADA Systems
In the second generation, the sharing of control functions is distributed across the multiple
systems connected to each other using Local Area Network (LAN). Hence, these were
termed as distributed SCADA systems. These individual stations were used to share real-
time information and command processing for performing control tasks to trip the alarm
levels of possible problems.

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The cost and size of the station were reduced compared to the first-generation system, as
each system of the second generation was responsible for performing a particular task
with reduced size and cost. But even in the second-generation systems also the network
protocols were not standardized. The security of the SCADA installation was determined
by a very few people beyond the developers, as the protocols were proprietary. But
generally, the security of the SCADA installation was ignored.
Networked SCADA Systems
The current SCADA systems are generally networked and communicate using Wide Area
Network (WAN) Systems over data lines or phone. These systems use Ethernet or Fiber
Optic Connections for transmitting data between the nodes frequently. These third
generation SCADA systems use Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) for monitoring
and adjusting the routine flagging operators only in case of major decisions requirement.

The first- and second-generation SCADA systems are limited to single site networks or
single building called as sealed systems. In these systems, we cannot have any risk
compared to the third generation SCADA system which are connected to the internet
causing the security risks. There will be several parallel working distributed SCADA
systems under a single supervisor in network architecture.
Internet of Things
In fourth generation, the infrastructure cost of the SCADA systems is reduced by adopting
the internet of things technology with the commercially available cloud computing. The
maintenance and integration are also very easy for the fourth generation compared to the
earlier SCADA systems.

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These SCADA systems are able to report state in real time by using the horizontal scale
from the cloud computing facility; thus, more complex control algorithms can be
implemented which are practically sufficient to implement on traditional PLCs.
The security risks in case of decentralized SCADA implementations such as a
heterogonous mix of proprietary network protocols can be surpassed using the open
network protocols such as TLS inherent in the internet of things which will provide
comprehendible and manageable security boundary.
Security Issues in SCADA
At present, SCADA networks are used extensively in current industries to check &
examine real-time data, industrial processes can be controlled, communicate with devices.
So, SCADA systems are essential for industrial organizations because these systems
include hardware & software. So, SCADA security is also essential in industries.
The term SCADA security is used to protect the SCADA networks which are fabricated
with computer hardware. SCADA networks used by some of the systems are electricity,
natural gas, etc. The private and government organizations have taken the measures of
these networks because of the valuable role to make sure the security of the SCADA
systems.
Examples of SCADA Security

The threats that occur in SCADA systems include the following:

 Hackers, Terrorists, Malware, Error Inside

The weakness of SCADA security mainly occurs because of the following reasons:
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  Poor Training
 Loopholes Development of App
 Issues while Monitoring
 Less Maintenance

The SCADA system can be protected by mapping all present systems, monitoring, and
detecting the institute, and create processes for the security of the network.

Application, Advantages and Disadvantages of SCADA

The applications of the SCADA system include the following:
 Generation and Distribution of Power
 Public Transport
 Water and Sewage System
 Manufacturing
 Industries & Buildings
 Communication Networks
 Oil & Gas Industries
 Power generation, transmission, and distribution
 Water distribution and reservoir system
 Public buildings like electrical heating and cooling system.
 Generators and turbines
 Traffic light control system
There are numerous applications of SCADA systems, but a few most frequently used
SCADA applications include:
SCADA In Manufacturing Industries
In manufacturing industries, the regular processes like running the production systems to
meet the productivity targets, checking the number of units produced and counting the
completed stages of operations along with temperatures at various stages of the
manufacturing process, and so on, are taken care by using the SCADA application.
SCADA Application in Waste Water Treatment and Distribution Plants
Wastewater treatment plants are of different types such as surface-water treatment and a
well water treatment system in which many control systems and automation processes are
involved in water treatment and distribution systems. SCADA systems are used for
controlling the automatic operations of the equipment used like backwashing the filters
based on the hours of working or amount of water flow through the filters.

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In distribution plants the water tank levels, pressure of system, temperature of plant,
sedimentation, filtration, chemical treatment and other parameters or processes are
controlled using the SCADA applications such as PLCs, PC based workstations which are
connected each other using Local Area Network (LAN) such as Ethernet.
SCADA in Power System
Power system can be defined as constituent of power generation, transmission and
distribution. All these sectors are needed to be monitored regularly for improving the
system efficiency. Thus, the application of SCADA in power system improves the overall
efficiency of the system by providing the supervision and control over the generation,
transmission and distribution systems. SCADA in the power system network increases the
system’s reliability and stability for integrated grid operation.

Advantages
 The advantages of the SCADA system include the following:
 The quality of service can be improved
 Reliability can be improved
 Maintenance cost is less
 The operation can be reduced
 Large system parameters can be monitored

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  Manpower can be reduced
 Repair time can be reduced
 Fault detection & fault localization
 It stores a large amount of data
 As per the user requirement, it displays the data in various formats.
 Thousands of sensors can be interfaced with SCADA for controlling and
monitoring
 Real data simulations can be obtained by operators
 Gives fast response
 It is flexible as well as scalable while adding extra resources.
 The SCADA system provides onboard mechanical and graphical information
 The SCADA system is easily expandable. We can add a set of control units and
sensors according to the requirement.
 The SCADA system is able to operate in critical situations.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of the SCADA system include the following:
 It is complex in terms of dependent modules & hardware units.
 It needs analysts, programmers & skilled operators to maintain
 High installation cost
 Unemployment rates can be increased
 This system supports hardware devices and restricted software’s

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SCADA at ONGC:

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37 | P a g e
 COMPUTER NETWORK
A computer network, or data network, is a digital telecommunications network. It allows
nodes to share resources. Computing devices exchange data using connections between
nodes, known as data links.

Computer Networking is the practice of connecting computers together to enable

communication and data exchange between them. In general, Computer Network is a
collection of two or more computers. It helps users to communicate more easily.

These data links are established over cable media such as wires or optic cables. Wireless
media such as Wi-Fi can also be used. Nodes can include hosts like personal computers,
phones, and servers, as well as networking hardware. Two devices are networked together
when one device can exchange information with the other. This occurs whether or not
they have a direct connection to each other.

Introduction

A computer network facilitates interpersonal communications. Users can communicate

via email, instant messaging, online chat, telephone, video telephone calls, and video
conferencing. A network allows sharing of network and computing resources. Users may
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access resources provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a
shared network printer. They can also use a shared storage device. Distributed computing
uses computing resources across a network to accomplish tasks. However, a computer
network may be exploited by hackers. They can deploy computer viruses or worms on
connected devices. They may also prevent access to the network through denial-of-service
attacks.

Basics building blocks of a computer network are Nodes and Links. A Network Node can
be illustrated as Equipment for Data Communication like a Modem, Router, etc., or
Equipment of a Data Terminal like connecting two computers or more. Link in Computer
Networks can be defined as wires or cables or free space of wireless networks.

The working of Computer Networks can be simply defined as rules or protocols which
help in sending and receiving data via the links which allow Computer networks to
communicate. Each device has an IP Address, that helps in identifying a device.

Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks

 Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are connected

together to enable communication and data exchange.
 Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can include
computers, Servers, Printers, Routers, Switches, and other devices.
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data is
transmitted over a network. Examples of protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and
FTP.
 Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of
nodes on a network. The common network topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh,
and tree.

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  Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give permission to take
Network Capacity and Functionality on lease from the Provider. Service Provider
Networks include Wireless Communications, Data Carriers, etc.
 IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned to every
device on a network. IP addresses are used to identify devices and enable
communication between them.
 DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to translate
human-readable domain names (such as www.google.com) into IP addresses that
computers can understand.
 Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control
incoming and outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used to protect networks from
unauthorized access and other security threats.

Types of Enterprise Computer Networks

 LAN: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that covers a small area, such as
an office or a home. LANs are typically used to connect computers and other
devices within a building or a campus.
 WAN: A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a large geographic
area, such as a city, country, or even the entire world. WANs are used to connect
LANs together and are typically used for long-distance communication.
 Cloud Networks: Cloud Networks can be visualized with a Wide Area Network
(WAN) as they can be hosted on public or private cloud service providers and cloud
networks are available if there is a demand. Cloud Networks consist of Virtual
Routers, Firewalls, etc.

Open system: A system that is connected to the network and is ready for communication.
Closed system: A system that is not connected to the network and can’t be communicated
with.
Types of Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network falls under these broad Categories:

 Client-Server Architecture: Client-Server Architecture is a type of Computer

Network Architecture in which Nodes can be Servers or Clients. Here, the server
node can manage the Client Node Behaviour.
 Peer-to-Peer Architecture: In P2P (Peer-to-Peer) Architecture, there is not any
concept of a Central Server. Each device is free for working as either client or
server.

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Network Devices

An interconnection of multiple devices, also known as hosts, that are connected using
multiple paths for the purpose of sending/receiving data or media. Computer networks
can also include multiple devices/mediums which help in the communication between two
different devices; these are known as Network devices and include things such as routers,
switches, hubs, and bridges.

Network Topology

The Network Topology is the layout arrangement of the different devices in a network.
Common examples include Bus, Star, Mesh, Ring, and Daisy chain.

OSI Model

The OSI (Open System Interconnection) model describes how information from one
computer moves to another. It consists of seven layers, each performing a specific network
function.

Developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, it is now

an architectural model for inter-computer communications. The OSI model divides tasks
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into seven smaller, manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task. Each layer
is self-contained, allowing tasks to be performed independently.

Data Flow in OSI Model

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of
OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then climbs
back 7 layers on the receiver’s end.

Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:

 Application Layer: Applications create the data.

 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.

Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination correctly,
and these steps are reversed upon arrival.

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Example: Luffy sends an e-mail to his friend Zoro.

 Step 1: Luffy interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes his
email to send. (This happens in Layer 7: Application layer)
 Step 2: Mail application prepares for data transmission like encrypting data and
formatting it for transmission. (This happens in Layer 6: Presentation Layer)
 Step 3: There is a connection established between the sender and receiver on the
internet. (This happens in Layer 5: Session Layer)
 Step 4: Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence number and
error-checking information to maintain the reliability of the information. (This
happens in Layer 4: Transport Layer)
 Step 5: Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for transfer.
(This happens in Layer 3: Network Layer)
 Step 6: Data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address is added for
local devices and then it checks for error using error detection. (This happens in
Layer 2: Data Link Layer)
 Step 7: Lastly Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical signals over
a physical network medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.
After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Zoro, the process will reverse and decrypt the e-
mail content. At last, the email will be shown on Zoro’s email client.

Physical Layer – Layer 1

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information
in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the
next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and
1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer: The Physical layer of the OSI model ensures smooth
data transmission. It synchronizes devices with a central clock, sets the communication
speed, defines network layouts (bus, star, mesh), and controls data flow (simplex, half-
duplex, full duplex). Hubs, repeaters, modems, and cables all reside here. It's the hardware
layer working together with Network and Data Link.
Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another,
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over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the
DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.

The Data Link Layer (DLL) is divided into two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC)
and Media Access Control (MAC). When a packet is received from the Network layer,
it is divided into frames based on the frame size of the Network Interface Card (NIC). The
DLL encapsulates the sender and receiver's MAC addresses in the header. The receiver's
MAC address is obtained using an Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) request, where the
destination host replies with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer:

 Framing: The DLL provides framing by attaching special bit patterns to the
beginning and end of the frame, ensuring meaningful data transmission.
 Physical Addressing: It adds the sender and receiver's MAC addresses to the
header of each frame.
 Error Control: The DLL detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames to
maintain data integrity.
 Flow Control: It coordinates the data rate between sender and receiver to prevent
data corruption and ensure proper acknowledgment.
 Access Control: The MAC sublayer determines which device has control over the
shared communication channel at any given time.

Network Layer – Layer 3

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located
in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path
to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Functions of the Network Layer

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  Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network
layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are
placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each
device uniquely and universally.
Transport Layer – Layer 4
The transport layer acts as a reliable bridge between applications and the network. It
breaks data into segments, manages their flow, and checks for errors. On the sending side,
it adds port numbers for addressing and ensures packets arrive in order. The receiving side
reassembles the segments and delivers them to the correct application based on port
numbers.
Functions and Services of the Transport Layer
The transport layer acts as the reliable delivery person for your data. It chops messages
into manageable segments, adds headers for addressing, and reassembles them on arrival.
It even offers two options: guaranteed delivery with connection-oriented service (like
signing for a package) or faster, but riskier, connectionless service (think tossing a note in
a mailbox). This layer, often called the OSI model's heart, uses protocols like TCP and
UDP to ensure data arrives correctly, and communicates with applications through your
operating system.
Session Layer – Layer 5
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,
and authentication, and also ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The session layer

allows two processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: It enables the addition of checkpoints (synchronization points)
to the data, helping to identify and correct errors, ensuring data is not prematurely
cut and avoiding data loss.
 Dialog Controller: This layer facilitates communication between two systems in
half-duplex or full-duplex mode.

Example: When a user sends a message through a Messenger application, the session
layer helps establish, maintain, and terminate the session. The application layer provides

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the interface for creating data, which is then compressed, optionally encrypted, and
converted into bits for transmission.

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application
layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: The presentation layer translates data formats, such as converting

ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/Decryption: It handles data encryption and decryption, transforming
data into ciphertext for secure transmission and back into plain text for reception,
using key values.
 Compression: This layer reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted,
optimizing data transfer.

Application Layer – Layer 7

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data
to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application
services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.

Functions of the Application Layer

The application layer simplifies network complexities for users. It lets you log in to remote
machines like they're local (NVT), manage files on other computers (FTAM), exchange
emails (Mail Services), and find resources across networks (Directory Services). It's your
user-friendly bridge to the network's power.

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 Information Form
Layer No Layer Name Responsibility (Data Unit) Device or Protocol

Helps in identifying the

Application Layer client and synchronizing Message SMTP
7 communication.

Data from the application

layer is extracted and
Presentation Layer Message JPEG, MPEG, GIF
manipulated in the required
6 format for transmission.

Establishes Connection,
Maintenance, Ensures Message (or encrypted
Session Layer Gateway
Authentication and Ensures message)
5 security.

Take Service from Network

Transport Layer Layer and provide it to the Segment Firewall
4 Application Layer.

Transmission of data from

Network Layer one host to another, located Packet Router
3 in different networks.

Node to Node Delivery of

Data Link Layer Frame Switch, Bridge
2 Message.

Establishing Physical
Physical Layer Connections between Bits Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables
1 Devices.

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
Satellite communication is a method of transmitting data, voice, and video signals over
long distances using artificial satellites in space. It is a crucial technology for global
communication, providing services such as telecommunication, broadcasting, internet
connectivity, navigation, and remote sensing. Satellites act as relay stations, receiving
signals from ground stations and retransmitting them to other locations on the Earth's
surface or to other satellites, creating a vast network that enables communication across
the globe.

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HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
The history of artificial satellites dates back to the mid-20th century, and it marks a
significant milestone in human space exploration and communication. Here's a brief
overview of the key events in the history of artificial satellites:

Sputnik 1 (1957): On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the world's
first artificial satellite. Sputnik 1 was a small spherical satellite equipped with radio
transmitters that emitted a simple "beep" signal as it orbited the Earth. Its successful
launch and operation marked the beginning of the Space Age and the dawn of the space
race between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Explorer 1 (1958): On January 31, 1958, the United States launched Explorer 1, its first
artificial satellite, in response to Sputnik 1. Explorer 1 carried scientific instruments to
study cosmic rays, and its discovery of the Van Allen radiation belts had a significant
impact on space science. 3. Communications Satellites (1960s): The early 1960s saw the
launch of the first communications satellites, such as Telstar 1 (launched in 1962 by the
United States) and Syncom 2 (launched in 1963 by the United States). These satellites
were equipped with transponders, allowing them to relay television, telephone, and other
communication signals over long distances, revolutionizing global communications.
Lunar and Planetary Exploration (1960s and 1970s): The 1960s and 1970s
witnessed the launch of numerous artificial satellites for lunar and planetary exploration.
Notable examples include Luna 2 (the first human-made object to impact the Moon in
1959), Mariner 4 (the first successful Mars flyby in 1965), and Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11
(the first spacecraft to travel through the asteroid belt and explore Jupiter and Saturn,
respectively).
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Global Navigation Systems (1970s and 1980s): The development of global
navigation satellite systems (GNSS) began in the 1970s with the launch of the U.S. Navy's
Transit system and the Soviet Union's GLONASS system. In the 1980s, the United States
started the development of the Global Positioning System (GPS), which has become the
most widely used GNSS worldwide.
Hubble Space Telescope (1990): Launched in 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope is
not a traditional satellite in Earth's orbit, but it is an important example of an artificial
satellite deployed in space to observe distant astronomical objects. Hubble has provided
breathtaking images and invaluable scientific data, revolutionizing our understanding of
the universe.

ORBIT TYPES
Orbits are the paths that objects follow as they travel around a celestial body, such as a planet,
moon, or star. There are various types of orbits based on their shape, size, and Orbits are the
paths that objects follow as they travel around a celestial body, such as a planet, moon, or
star. There are various types of orbits based on their shape, size, and orientation. Here are
the most common types of orbits:
Geostationary Orbit (GEO): Satellites in GEO orbit the Earth at an altitude of about
35,786 kilometers (22,236 miles) above the equator. They appear stationary relative to the
Earth's surface and are commonly used for communication and weather monitoring.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO): LEO is an orbit with altitudes ranging from a few hundred
kilometers to around 2,000 kilometers (about 124 to 1,242 miles). Satellites in LEO
complete one orbit around the Earth in about 90 to 120 minutes. LEO is used for Earth
observation, communication, and scientific research.
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): MEO is located between LEO and GEO at altitudes
ranging from around 2,000 to 35,786 kilometers (about 1,242 to 22,236 miles). MEO is
used for navigation systems like GPS.
Polar Orbit: Polar orbits pass over or near the Earth's poles. Satellites in polar orbits
travel from the North Pole to the South Pole and vice versa during each orbit. They are
used for Earth observation and scientific research.
Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO): SSO is a type of polar orbit that maintains a constant
angle between the satellite and the Sun. It is commonly used for Earth observation and
remote sensing.

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Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO): HEO is an elongated orbit with a high eccentricity.
Satellites in HEO have varying altitudes during each orbit and are used for specialized
missions.
Molniya Orbit: Molniya orbits are highly elliptical orbits with high inclinations relative
to the Earth's equator. They are designed to provide extended coverage over high-latitude
regions and are used for communication and navigation systems.

SATELLITE EARTH STATIONS

Satellite Earth Stations, also known as Ground Stations or Ground Earth Stations, are
facilities on the Earth's surface used to communicate with and control artificial satellites
in space. These stations play a vital role in satellite communication, data transmission,
and remote sensing missions.
Functions
Communication: Satellite Earth Stations transmit signals to satellites (uplink) and
receive signals from satellites (downlink) to establish two-way communication for various
applications like television broadcasting, internet connectivity, and long-distance
communication.

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Data Transmission: Earth stations facilitate the transmission of data, voice, and video
signals between the Earth and satellites, enabling real-time information exchange.
Satellite Control: They manage and control satellite operations, including monitoring and
adjusting satellite orbits, software updates, and performance monitoring. Components
Antennas: Large dish-shaped antennas receive and transmit signals to and from satellites.
Transceivers: Transceivers convert signals between radio frequencies used in satellite
communication and digital data used on the ground.
Equipment: Ground equipment includes modems, amplifiers, converters, and routers that
process and manage data traffic.

COMPONENTS OF NETWORK
The components of a network are the essential building blocks that work together to
enable communication and data exchange between devices and users. These components
vary depending on the type and scale of the network, but in general, the key components
of a network include:
Devices (Nodes): Devices are the endpoints of a network, such as computers,
smartphones, printers, servers, switches, routers, and other networked devices. Each
device has a unique address that identifies it on the network.
Communication Channels: Communication channels are the pathways through which
data is transmitted between devices. These channels can be physical, like Ethernet cables
in wired networks or optical fibers, or wireless, like radio waves in wireless networks.
Switches: Switches are networking devices that connect multiple devices within a Local
Area Network (LAN). They use MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to forward data
packets to their intended recipients efficiently.
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Routers: Routers are devices that connect different networks together. They use IP
(Internet Protocol) addresses to determine the best path for data to travel between
networks. Routers play a crucial role in directing data between the local network and the
internet.
Network Interface Cards (NICs): NICs are hardware components integrated into
devices that allow them to connect to the network. They provide a physical interface for
transmitting and receiving data over the network.
Network Operating System (NOS): The network operating system is the software that
manages and controls network resources. It provides services like user authentication, file
sharing, and network security.
Protocols: Protocols are sets of rules and conventions that govern data transmission and
communication within the network. They ensure that devices can understand and interpret
each other's data.
Firewalls: Firewalls are security devices that monitor and control incoming and outgoing
network traffic. They protect the network from unauthorized access and potential cyber
threats.
Network Cables: In wired networks, network cables like Ethernet cables and fiber-optic
cables are used to physically connect devices to the network.
Wireless Access Points (WAPs): WAPs are devices that enable wireless connectivity
within a network. They create wireless hotspots and allow devices with Wi-Fi capability
to connect to the network.
Network Hubs: Although less common today, network hubs are simple devices that
connect multiple devices in a network. However, unlike switches, they do not manage
data traffic and send all data to all connected devices.

LAN AND WAN NETWORK AT ONGC

ONGC has both Local Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN)
infrastructure to support its communication and data exchange needs. Here's a brief
explanation of LAN and WAN networks and how they are typically used in organizations
like ONGC:

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Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is a network that covers a limited geographical area, such as a building, office, or
campus. It allows devices within this area to communicate and share resources like files,
printers, and servers. LANs are typically owned and controlled by a single organization,
ensuring secure and fast data transfer between devices. LANs are commonly used for day-
to-day operations within an organization, facilitating internal communication, data
sharing, and centralized access to shared resources. In the context of ONGC, LANs are
likely deployed in their offices, exploration sites, and production facilities.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is a network that spans a large geographical area, connecting multiple LANs and
individual devices across cities, states, or even countries. WANs enable long-distance
communication and data exchange between remote locations. They utilize various
technologies, including leased lines, MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching), VPN
(Virtual Private Network), and internet connections, to establish connectivity between
distant sites. WANs are crucial for connecting geographically dispersed offices, remote
drilling and production sites, and facilitating centralized data management and
communication across ONGC's operations.

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How LAN and WAN are used at ONGC
At ONGC, LANs are used within their offices, production facilities, and other sites to
facilitate communication among employees, share data and information, and access
centralized resources such as databases and servers. WANs are deployed to connect
ONGC's various locations, including regional offices, drilling sites, offshore platforms,
and refineries. This enables efficient data exchange, real-time monitoring of operations,
and centralized management of exploration, production, and administrative activities.
WANs also support remote access to critical applications, such as those used for seismic
data analysis, reservoir modeling, and asset management.

WIRELESS AND WIRED CONNECTION AT ONGC

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) employs both wireless and wired
communication technologies in its operations to cater to different communication needs

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across various locations. Here's a brief overview of wireless and wired communication at
ONGC.

Wireless Communication at ONGC

Wireless communication refers to the transmission of data without the use of physical
cables, utilizing radio waves or other wireless technologies. ONGC might use wireless
communication in various scenarios, such as:

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Wi-Fi Connectivity: Wireless access points (WAPs) installed in ONGC offices, facilities,
and accommodations enable Wi-Fi connectivity for employees and guests, providing
flexible internet access across designated areas.
Remote Monitoring and Data Transfer: Wireless technologies, such as cellular networks,
satellite communication, or private radio networks, might be used to monitor remote sites,
offshore platforms, or drilling locations. These technologies facilitate real-time data
transfer and monitoring, even in locations where wired connections are impractical.
Wireless Sensor Networks: ONGC may use wireless sensor networks to monitor critical
parameters like temperature, pressure, and gas levels in the field, enhancing operational
efficiency and safety.
Mobile Communication: Mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets equipped with
cellular communication enable employees to stay connected and access information while
on the move.
Wired Communication at ONGC
Wired communication involves data transmission through physical cables. ONGC might
use wired communication in various scenarios, such as:
Local Area Networks (LANs): Within ONGC offices and facilities, wired LANs using
Ethernet cables provide high-speed and reliable connectivity for desktop computers,
servers, and other networked devices.
Industrial Ethernet: In industrial settings, ONGC may implement Industrial Ethernet
networks to connect critical equipment and control systems for oil and gas production and
processing.
Backbone Connectivity: High-speed wired connections may serve as the backbone for
interconnecting various locations, data centers, and control centers within ONGC's
network infrastructure.
Fiber-Optic Communication: Fiber-optic cables may be used for long-distance and high-
bandwidth communication, providing fast data transfer between geographically dispersed
sites.

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ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS OF
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
Advantages of Satellite Communication
Global Coverage: Satellite communication provides global coverage, making it possible
to establish communication links in remote and inaccessible regions where terrestrial
infrastructure is limited or unavailable.
Wide Bandwidth: Satellites can handle large amounts of data simultaneously, offering
high bandwidth for data-intensive applications like internet services, video streaming, and
multimedia communication.
Reliability: Satellite communication is less susceptible to natural disasters and physical
damages to terrestrial infrastructure, providing a reliable communication option in
challenging conditions.
Scalability: Satellite networks can be easily expanded or reconfigured to accommodate
increasing communication demands or to cover new areas.
Mobility: Satellite communication is ideal for mobile communication on ships, aircraft,
and vehicles, enabling connectivity while on the move.
Broadcasting and Multicast: Satellites can broadcast signals to multiple receivers
simultaneously, making it efficient for distributing TV and radio signals to a broad
audience.
Disadvantages of Satellite Communication
Latency: The long distance between satellites and ground stations results in signal delays
(latency), which can be noticeable in real-time communication like video calls and online
gaming.
Cost: The high cost of launching and maintaining satellites can make satellite
communication more expensive than terrestrial alternatives.
Signal Interference: Weather conditions and atmospheric phenomena can cause signal
attenuation and interference, affecting communication quality.
Complex Infrastructure: Establishing and maintaining a satellite communication
infrastructure requires complex technology and expertise.

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Limited Spectrum: The available frequency spectrum for satellite communication is
limited, and the increasing demand for communication services can lead to spectrum
congestion.
Applications of Satellite Communication
Telecommunication: Satellite communication provides long-distance voice and data
communication services, enabling global connectivity.
Internet Connectivity: Satellites offer internet access in remote and underserved areas,
connecting people in rural and isolated regions.

Television Broadcasting: Satellites are extensively used for direct-to-home (DTH) TV

broadcasting, delivering TV signals to a wide audience.
Navigation Systems: Satellite-based navigation systems, like GPS, provide accurate
positioning and navigation services for various applications.
Earth Observation and Remote Sensing: Satellites equipped with sensors capture data
for weather forecasting, environmental monitoring, and disaster management.
Military and Defense: Satellite communication plays a crucial role in military operations
for secure and reliable communication and reconnaissance.
Maritime and Aviation Communication: Satellites enable communication and data
exchange on ships and aircraft, enhancing safety and connectivity in these domains.

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CONCLUSION
My 55 days internship at ONGC Dehradun has been an invaluable learning experience. I
gained practical knowledge in networking and SCADA systems, which are critical to
ONGC's operations. The hands-on tasks and exposure to SCADA architecture enhanced
my understanding of the technical infrastructure that supports large-scale industrial
activities.

The guidance from Mr. Digvijay Gaurav, General Manager (E&T), and other mentors
was crucial in navigating complex concepts and practical applications. The collaborative
environment with skilled team members further enriched my experience, fostering
teamwork and problem-solving skills.

This internship has not only equipped me with technical skills but also prepared me for
future challenges in Electrical and Electronics Engineering. I am grateful to ONGC
Dehradun and all those who supported me during this period. The knowledge and
experience gained will undoubtedly contribute to my professional growth and future
endeavors.

References:
https://www.watelectronics.com/scada-system-architecture-types-applications/
https://scada-international.com/what-is-
scada/#:~:text=What%20does%20SCADA%20stand%20for,data%20from%20the%20in
dustrial%20equipment.
https://inductiveautomation.com/resources/article/what-is-scada
https://www.elprocus.com/scada-system-architecture-its-working/
https://ongcindia.com/web/eng/about-ongc/technology
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