Title of Course: Recipe development and Testing

Course code: HND 431

Lecturer: Onodugo, N.G
Topics to handle:
1. Sensory evaluation of product: selecting of judges, types of tests
2. Review of literature
3. Planning the experiment
4. Reporting and interpretation of results

Introduction
Food evaluation is a variety of food testing methods that can be used to measure sensory
factors and ultimately evaluate food quality and acceptability. Food evaluation can be divided
into sensory and objective evaluation.
Definition of sensory evaluation of food products
Sensory evaluation is a scientific technique that is used to measure, analyze, and interpret
reactions to food products as they are experienced by the senses of taste, smell, touch, and
hearing. It can also referred to as a systematic study of human response to physico-chemical
properties to make it possible to obtain information about the sensitivity of the human sense.
Or it is a scientific discipline used to evoke measure, analyze and interpret reactions to those
properties of foods and materials as they are perceived by senses of sight, smell, taste, touch,
and hearing. Thus, the sensory attributes include appearance (color, size, shape, and
consistency of liquid and semisolid products), kinesthetic (texture, consistency, and
viscosity), and flavor (taste and odor).

What are sensory evaluation concerns?

Sensory evaluation concerns include:
Precision
Accuracy
Sensitivity
Avoidance of false positive results
When reviewing sensory evaluation information, the user wants precise, accurate and
sensitive results which avoids false positive results.
Reliability: Sensory evaluation is based on the skill of the sensory analyst in heightening
these 4 factors:
1. Defining the problem and who cares?
2. Test design
3. Instrumentation- what instrument will be used?
4. Interpretation of results

Effectiveness of sensory evaluation

For an effective sensory evaluation, sensory analyst should:
 Recognise the purpose of the study
 Select the appropriate experimental design
 Use panellist who is fit for the purpose
 Choose the proper method for preparing and presenting samples
 Analyse the data correctly

The human senses
Physiology of human senses
Vision/Sight

Figure 1: the human eyes

The first system of sense organs we employ to evaluate the characteristics and quality of food
and perceive information such as colour, size, shape, texture, consistency, and opacity. Light
reflection from the seen object triggers the start of the image processing process, causing
light to travel through the pupil to the cornea. Light then travels to the retina, which is located
in the back of the eye, where rod and cone photoreceptors are activated to transform light into
nerve impulses. Cones, on the other hand, work in strong light; rods work in weak light. The
pupil's capacity to constrict and dilate controls the amount of light that reaches the retina.
Perception of vision is closely related to other senses. For instance, the ability to perceive
food visually influences the ability to recognize flavors and intensities of odors. Perception
by the visual system of light of wavelengths 400-500 nanometers identifies blue, 500- 600
nm shows green and yellow, and 600-800 nm identifies red. As stated above the eyes
perceive initial quality of food and gives information such as colour, size, shape, texture,
consistency, and opacity. It is important to note that individuals have different acceptability
levels for food some people may desire yellow/green bananas others may prefer yellow/black
bananas.

Audition/Hearing
The auditory system is one of the most important human sensory systems as a means of
interpersonal communication. Acoustic signals (sound) are the stimuli of auditory system.
The system itself is divided into three parts: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear.
The outer ear consists of the visible part of the pinna (the visible part of the ear) and the
auditory canal. The eardrum separates the outer ear from the middle ear. In the middle ear,
three small bones are located: the hammer, the anvil, and the stapes. Inside the inner ear is the
cochlea which looks like a spiral-shaped canal. The cochlea is divided into three sections,
each of which is separated from the other by a membrane and contains a lymphatic fluid.
When the outer part of the ear registers sound waves, they are first directed by the pinna
through the auditory canal to the eardrum. The eardrum starts vibrating in turn. The hammer,
anvil, and stapes of the middle ear consistently transmit vibrations through the middle ear
into the inner ear where the hydraulic movement of fluids in the cochlea changes accordingly.
Inside the cochlea on one of the membranes sound receiving apparatus is located that
contains hair cells that transform mechanical vibrations into signals.

Olfaction/Smell
Olfactory sense-also contributes to our evaluation of food quality. The visible part of human
nose consists of nasal bones and cartilage tissue. Before reaching the nasal cavity, the air first
enters through the nostrils. The nasal septum, formed by a vertical plate of latticed bone
tissue, vomer, and cartilage divides the nasal cavity into two parts. These serve as a
humidifier, a heater, and a filter for incoming air. For smell perception to occur, the air
containing odor-active molecules must enter the nasal cavity. Odor-active molecules dissolve
on contact in the mucus covering the nasal cavity. There are 10-20 million olfactory sensory
neurons that are located in a specific small area of the nasal cavity called olfactory
epithelium.

After dissolving in the mucus, odour compounds attach to the end of the olfactory receptors
and interact with the membrane proteins. Membrane proteins involved in olfactory
perception are specific to olfactory receptors. There are more than 1000 kinds of receptors
where each receptor cell produces one specific type of membrane protein. Binding of
molecules to the receptor proteins is selective, so that each receptor can bind only to a certain
range of compounds. Likewise, each odour-active compound can bind only to a certain range
of receptors. The sensitivity of the receptors to certain molecules can vary up to 1012 times
or more. Due to the anatomy of the nose, air reaches the olfactory epithelium only partially.
The optimum sniffing time for a full contact is 1-2 seconds. Next comes the adaptation of the
7 receptors to the smell, after which a pause of 5-20 seconds is recommended to restore the
receptors.
An additional difficulty hides in the fact that some odorants can partially block the receptors
for an extended period of time reducing the ability to detect specific odours or distinguish
similar odours. The sensitivity of the sense of smell varies from person to person and depends
on a number of factors such as gender, age, habits, illnesses, and trauma. Cases of complete
absence of smell (anosmia) are rare but partial anosmia to certain odour compounds is
common. Also, sensitivity can depend on feelings of hunger and satiety, mood, pregnancy,
and menstrual cycle. The volatility of odour is related to temperature because only volatile
molecules, in form of gas, carry odour. Therefore it is easier to smell hot foods than cold
ones. Lighter molecules that can becomes volatile are detected by the olfactory epithelium in
the nasal cavity through one of two pathways: (1) directly through the nose or (2) after
entering the mouth and flowing retro-nasally or toward the back of the throat and up into the
nasal cavity. Since different people perceive a given odorant differently, there is need to use
large number of panellist when trying to identify a new odour from a food product.

Adaptation: Adaptation is the gradual decrease in the ability to distinguish between odours
over time. It occurs to prevent sensory overload.

Somatosensation/Touch

The sense of touch is a complex process of perception of external factors (e.g., mechanical
influence, changes in temperature) carried out with the help of receptors located in the skin,
muscles, tendons, joints, mucous membranes, and lips. The most common type of tactile
receptors are free nerve endings in the surface of the skin. These nerve endings perform a row
of different functions of thermo receptors, pain receptors, and mechanoreceptors.
Mechanoreceptors respond to touch, pressure, stretch, and vibration. The physiological basis
of tactile sensation is in agitation of the receptors in the outer layers of the skin, the
subsequent agitation of the nerve fibers, and the flow of information from the receptors to the
central nervous system. The main receiving channel of tactile information is the spinal cord,
through which the signals reach the brain.
Sense of touch delivers impressions of a food’s texture to us
-oral sensations on the skin
-Texture-complex perception
-Visual-touch-mouth feel
Texture-sensory manifestation of the structure or inner makeup of products in terms of their
reactions to stress measured as mechanical properties by the kinaesthetic sense in the muscles
of the hands, fingers, tongue, jaws or lips. Texture also includes tactile feel properties- which
are measured as geometric properties (i.e., grainy, gritty, crystalline, flaky) or moisture
(wetness, oiliness, moistness, dryness) by the tactile nerves in the surface of the skin of the
hands, lips, or tongue. The greatest surface sensitivity of the lips, tongue, face, and hands
makes easy detection of small differences in particle size and thermal and chemical properties
possible among food products.

Gustation/Taste

The oral cavity is the first part of the digestive tract. The entrance to the oral cavity, mouth,
consists of the lips, teeth, gums, tongue, and jaw. Inside the oral cavity are mechanoreceptors
that respond to pressure, and muscles responsible for the chewing process. Also in the mouth
are salivary glands. The tongue plays an important role as it participates in the formation of
taste sensation. Taste sensation arises from the presence of hydrophilic molecules soluble in
saliva (tastants) that interact with specific receptors in the mouth. The taste cells agglomerate
into taste buds which are located both on the surface of the tongue and partially on the
epithelium of the palate. One taste bud can contain up to 100 taste cells. The average lifespan
of a taste bud is 8-12 days. New cells are continuously generated. Each taste bud has a small
opening (pore) which is continuously in contact with the environment of the oral cavity.
Through this pore, the tastants dissolved in saliva reach the receptors. Receptors themselves
are transmembrane proteins that interact either with ions or molecules that cause taste
perception.

Five basic tastes can be distinguished: sweet, salty, bitter, sour, and umami. Recent studies
indicate that fat could be considered as an additional, sixth basic taste. Previously it was
believed that the receptors for basic taste are located on the specific parts of the tongue: the
tip of the tongue is responsible for the sweet taste; the lateral edges of the front part of the
tongue – for the salty taste; the lateral edges of the back of the tongue – for the sour taste; the
root of the tongue – for bitter taste. It is now widely recognized that the receptors are
distributed uniformly throughout the surface of the tongue.

The perception of taste is influenced by several factors such as the concentration of the
substances in the saliva, the serving temperature of the food product, duration of stimulus,
and the presence of other tastants. A complete lack of sense of taste (ageusia) is very rare but
there are differences in sensitivity to certain stimuli. For example, wide variations in
sensitivity to different substances causing bitter taste is quite common.
Factors affecting sensory perception
Thresholds
Physiological factors
Psychological factors

Thresholds
A threshold is a point at which sensory perception ends. There are four types of thresholds:
absolute threshold, recognition threshold, differential threshold, and terminal threshold. They
can be used for both taste and smell. The lowest concentration of a stimulus (such as a
volatile chemical or tastant) at which a response may be observed is known as the absolute
threshold. The concentration of a stimulus at which it may be identified and described is
known as the recognition threshold. The rise in the concentration of stimulus that can be
identified is known as the differential threshold. The concentration above which additional
increases in concentration are no longer detectable is known as the terminal threshold. Over
this, pain frequently manifests. The concentration of any particular compound at which the
compound's feelings are noticed is the assessor's threshold. Nevertheless, thresholds are not
constant and frequently change based on a variety of variables. Examples of factors that may
impact thresholds include inability to concentrate, mood swings, biorhythm alterations,
sensations of hunger and fullness, etc.

Physiological factors
The panel members' general physical and health conditions should be considered first and
foremost. When an assessor's health is impaired (due to a common cold, the flu, or an
infection), or when they experience mental discomfort or a severe workload, they should be
removed from the session. Up to an hour before the evaluation session, smokers should
abstain from smoking. Additionally, coffee should be avoided for up to an hour prior to
analysis. After a substantial meal, wait two hours before doing a sensory assessment.
Additional physiological variables that could impact panel performance are adaptation,
synergy, augmentation, or suppression.

Prolonged exposure to a stimulus that causes a discernible decrease in sensitivity leads to the
formation of adaptation. Improvement, cooperation, or inhibition of a stimulus can occur
when more than one stimulus are present and interact with each other. The interaction can
lead to the following effects: one stimulus may be enhanced by the presence of others
(=enhancement); multiple stimuli may produce a sensation that is stronger than the sum of
the sensations caused by the stimuli separately (=synergy); or the presence of others may
suppress one stimulus (=suppression).

Psychological factors
The psychological factors that affect sensory assessment by a panel include:
● Expectation error: Expectation errors might occur when too much information about the
objectives or samples is given prior or during the analysis. Unnecessary information might
trigger certain expectations that indirectly warp panellists’ judgement. Instead, samples
should be coded and randomized; the amount of information disclosed should be minimal and
just enough to fulfil test’s objectives.
● Habituation error: When similar samples are presented on a regular basis, habituation error
occurs where the panelists feel inclined to assign similar scores irrespective of actual
differences that might occur. Habituation error is more common in quality control and can be
avoided by varying samples presented to the panel or by introducing from time to time
intentionally altered samples.
● Suggestion and distraction errors: Unnecessary noises or comments made during the
analysis might affect focus and, therefore, judgement of the panel. To avoid this error the
environment should be quiet and free of distractions; unnecessary banter within the panel
should be discouraged; when possible, sensory booths should be used.
● Stimulus and logical errors: This occurs when irrelevant properties affect the judgement of
the panelists (e.g., color) stimulus error occurs. When the irrelevant properties can also be
tied to certain attributes (for example, deeper colored samples are viewed as more intense
either in odor or flavor) logical error occurs. To avoid these errors, presented samples should
be as uniform as possible or the irrelevant differences masked (colored sniffing glasses,
colored lighting, nose clips, etc.
 Order error: The judgement of one sample can be influenced by the samples that were
presented before it. Additionally, the samples that are presented first tend to get
higher scores of intensities. To avoid the error, samples can be randomized,
additionally balanced, or a “blank” sample of the same product category can be
presented first to the panelists.
● Halo effect error Halo effect error occurs when the perception of one attribute
subconsciously affects the perception of others. For example, the sweetest sample can be
viewed as the stickiest. The error is the most common in untrained assessors. To avoid the
error, it is advised to use a panel of trained assessors.
 Contrast effect error: If the difference between two samples in a line-up is too
striking, the panelists might feel inclined to exaggerate those differences. On the other
hand, if similar samples are presented in a group of highly different samples, their
similarity might be exaggerated. To avoid the error, the order of presentation of the
samples can be balanced. Additionally, if possible, samples producing the
unnecessary contrast in a line-up should be excluded from the test.
 Central tendency error: When scales are used for assessment to quantify the
differences between the samples more often than not panelists tend to avoid the
extreme scores (the lowest and the highest) and work in the middle of the scale. To
avoid the error, the panelist should be trained and encouraged to use the scale in its
entirety. Additionally, the scale itself should be large enough to accommodate
significant differences between the samples.
● Lack of motivation: The degree of motivation of panel members will affect how focused
and consistent they will be in their judgements. This should be especially addressed when a
sensory panel consists out of employees that perform sensory analysis in addition to other
work responsibilities. To raise motivation in panel members, regular feedback on the
performance should be given. When possible, the importance of panel activities should be
emphasized.

Sensory characteristics/attributes
The following order is followed when addressing sensory qualities during a sensory
assessment: appearance, flavor, fragrance, and texture.

Appearance
The primary factor used to quickly determine whether a food product is of a high standard or
meets consumer expectations is how it looks, both inside and outside of its packaging. This
means that while evaluating the samples in a laboratory setting, appearance needs to be
carefully considered.
A food product's appearance can be evaluated based on its size, shape, color, and surface and
cross-sectional textures. Shape and size attributes can comprise length, width, and thickness;
geometric shapes (such as square or circular); filling distribution, or additions (such as
almonds, raisins, and veggies). Dry or moist, smooth or rough, matte or shiny, soft or hard,
crispy or chewy are all possible surface textures. Colour may indicate ripeness, strength of
dilution, and the degree to which the food has been heated. It is used to evaluate a food’s
desirability and acceptance. For instance, greenish bananas, burnt meat, and dark brown
avocado send visual signals that can alter an individual’s choices. Although colour can be
deceptive, it usually triggers certain expectations in the mind e.g. the creamy colour of vanilla
ice cream evokes an expectation of richness. Hence, colour changes alone can enhance a
food’s acceptability considerably. Even little visual details like background colour and the
relative size of area of contrasting colour may influence a consumer’s perception. The
dullness, shininess, smoothness, or roughness of a surface and the clarity of liquid evokes
preconceptions about food.

Smell
The process via which volatile molecules are detected by the olfactory system during sniffing
and make their way into the nasal cavity is known as odor. Orthonasal olfaction is the term
used to describe the mechanism by which volatile substances are perceived by the olfactory
epithelium inside the nasal cavity. The type of chemicals and the serving temperature both
affect how many volatile compounds are present in food products. When volatiles diffuse
more readily through a soft, wet, and porous surface than through a hard, dry, and smooth
surface, the food product's surface characteristics are also very important. During enzymatic
processes, some chemicals are released. For example when chopping fresh onions or garlic.

Flavour
Oral food processing involves multiple simultaneous mechanisms that support perception.
First, when food is masticated, volatile odor molecules are released into the nasal cavity
through the nasopharyngeal route and interact with the olfactory epithelium. We refer to this
mechanism as retronasal olfaction. Concurrently, food-tasting substances dissolve in saliva
and interact with taste receptors within taste buds. These tasteants can be described as umami,
sweet, sour, bitter, or salty. Certain chemical substances that stimulate the nerve terminals
can produce additional sensations related to the sensitivity of the mouth's mucous
membranes, such as astringency, metallic taste, spiciness, and cold feeling. Food flavor is
characterized as the culmination of the aforementioned senses.

Texture
A food product's texture can be thought of as an expression of its mechanical, structural, and
surface characteristics. For that reason, texture can be viewed as a multifaceted sensory
quality made up of various simultaneous sensations. The senses of sight and hearing are the
main ways that humans perceive texture. Food characteristics that can be expressed visually
include homogeneity, oiliness, moistness, and surface characteristics. The characteristics that
are expressed through the noises produced during food handling or chewing (such as
crunchiness) are linked to the hearing organs. The textural characteristics that define the
food's structure are linked to the senses of touch and pressure. Food products can be
categorized based on their structure into solids, semi-solids, and liquids. Semi-solids and
solids, in contrast to liquid items, require much greater mechanical processing in the oral
cavity using the teeth, tongue, and jaw muscles. Three categories can be used to group texture
attributes, according to Szczesniak, A.S. (1963): mechanical characteristics, geometrical
characteristics, and miscellaneous characteristics (mostly related to moisture and fat content).
As shown in the table below:

Concept of food texture

The sensory evaluation examines the perceptions of both trained and unskilled customers
about food goods. For today’s consumers, the primary consideration for selecting and eating
a food commodity is the product’s palatability or eating quality, and other quality parameters,
such as nutrition and wholesomeness are secondary. In order for players in the food and
beverage industry, to have a market edge/success, they should ensure that the quality of food
is appealing and appetising or more specifically that the eating quality attributes of; aroma,
taste, aftertaste, tactual properties and appearance is acceptable to the consumer so that they
crave for more. Thus if we accept that food quality is that “which the consumer likes best”
and that the grades of quality are understood more by the degree of desirable attributes and
absence of undesirable characteristics which are primarily detected by the consumer’s
sensory organs, then a good method of deciding quality of a food is through sensory
evaluation.

Principles of good practice and data analysis

Three consideration for good practice in sensory evaluation are:
The sensory testing environment
The sensory testing method and set-up
Humans as measurement instruments

Four variables affect sensory evaluation and these are the food, the people, and the testing
environment and test methods used.

The sensory quality of food products has been considered an important factor since the
beginning of the food industrialization process due to its influence on the overall quality of
the product. Quality, in terms of sensory properties, is related to the adequate levels of
sensory attributes considering the appearance, aroma, flavor, and texture.

During sensory testing, the preparation and presentation of samples to panelists and the
testing location suitable for collection of responses based on the sensory properties of the
products, must be carefully controlled. When done properly, sensory information can provide
great insight into the world. When measures are undertaken poorly they do more to mislead
than to inform. Careful controls must be implemented and followed when conducting sensory
analysis, including (1) neutrality in the presentation of samples, (2) elimination of response
bias, and (3) use of methods that require panelists to demonstrate their ability rather than
relying upon self-reports. Failure to adhere to any of these controls diminishes the value of
the resulting sensory data. By contrast, determining appropriate controls and ensuring they
are in place will result in reliable and useful information about foods which no instrument can
measure i.e. their eating quality.

Different components which form a foundation for an effective sensory evaluation

programme are approved goals and objective, well defined programme strategy, professional
staff, suitable test facilities and qualified test subject. The objectives of sensory evaluation are
as under:

Importance of sensory evaluation

The role of sensory evaluation is to provide valid and reliable information to the research
department, production and marketing in order for management to make sound business
decisions about the perceived sensory properties of the product. Cost saving may be realized
by correlating sensory properties with instrumental, physical or chemical analysis. Moreover,
following points are equally important in sensory evaluation:

1. Man has well-developed like and dislikes for dairy products depending on their
palatability.
2. Sensory evaluation will become paramount importance with increasing consumer
awareness towards nutrition and quality.
3. Sensory evaluation assists in measuring the eating qualities of any food.
4. Optimal information can be obtained only through co-ordination of instrumental
and sensory measurements.
5. Where no signal appears our senses may still perceive an odour or taste.
6. Senses give us a total impression of quality.

Sensory evaluation provides unique information that has significant importance/value in the
market place. Successfulness of sensory programme will depend on the involvement of
individuals, the sensory professionals and their ability to make meaningful contribution to the
decision making process.
Applications
Sensory evaluation can be applied in the following areas in food industry
 Companies can compare a competitor’s product.
 Improve products by modifying or changing the ingredients.
 Check that the specification is being met.
 Monitor quality control by checking regular samples against specification.
 Detect differences between products from different runs or batches.
 Profile the characteristics of new products.
 Describe specific characteristics of the product.
 Demonstrate new products to marketing team.
 Promote new or reformulated products to consumers.
Advantages
 Helps manufacturers, scientists, and food technologists etc. to gain a clear perception
of what ordinary consumers may experience.
 Measures the overall impression of the product i.e. eating quality when consumed.
 Sensory panel testing can be much more rapid than most non-sensory methods.
 Uses more than one sense, making them more flexible instruments.
 Can be very sensitive and good at detecting minute differences in product
characteristics.

Disadvantages
 Sensory panellists can become fatigued with the entire process of testing and
assessing descriptive data.
 Assessors may be subject to biases e.g. from loss of interest or from distractions.
 To ensure precision in the analysis and interpretation of the descriptive data and for
statistical analysis, several assessors may be required, making it an expensive
proposition.
 The entire process of recruiting and training sensory panelists can be a time-
consuming and costly process.
  It may not be easy to replace assessors quickly, as the incoming assessor will have to
be given intensive training to develop requisite expertise of the job.
 The sensory panel method can be more expensive than some non-sensory methods.
 The panellists may not be good at quantifying perceptions.
 Interpretation of results may get problematic and be open to dispute.

Sensory Attributes of Food Products

Food products are developed, produced, and marketed to appeal to the consumer, who is
becoming more and more demanding about quality. The perception of food quality is
changing rapidly, which highlights the need for food producers to be innovative as a way to
survive. In other words, the success of a product depends on its acceptance by consumers,
because they are the ultimate users of the product and thus, the ones who will be willing to
purchase the product. Therefore, professionals in various industries are eager to understand
consumer perceptions and attitudes toward a new product, a formulation change, or a new
process. If a product is not liked by consumers, the research or manufacturing project is
considered to be a failure.

The sensory attributes of food products can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic attributes
are concrete product characteristics that can be perceived by a consumer and, in many
situations, can serve as a quality cue that can be observed, without actual consumption or use.
It is related to the appearance, color, shape, size, and structure, all of them extremely
important for milk products. Intrinsic attributes are always related to the physical aspects of
the product. Extrinsic quality cues refer to product characteristics that are used to evaluate a
product but are not physically part of it, such as price, brand, production and nutritional
information packaging design, country of origin, store, and convenience (Table 1.1).
Extrinsic cues become more important when products are very similar in appearance. The
intrinsic and extrinsic cues are categorized and integrated by consumers to establish the
quality attributes of a food product.

Intrinsic and extrinsic sensory attributes of food products

Intrinsic Extrinsic
Appearance Price
Color Brand name and familiarity
Shape Label (packaging design)
Size Advertisement
Structure Nutritional information
Aroma Production information (environment, organic)
Taste Origin (country)
Store name
Convenience

Selecting of judges
The selection of sensory panel members
When assembling a panel, it is better to use equal number of men and women while also
considering the age distribution of the panel to get a valid result. Opinions regarding the
minimum number of judges needed for sensory descriptive analysis (DA) vary greatly; some
writers suggest as few as six, while others suggest as many as fifteen. However, there isn't
much evidence to back up these figures. Thus, using randomly chosen subgroups of
assessors, the data from three DA trials with between 14 and 22 trained judges rating between
8 and 30 different red wines in triplicate using between 20 and 30 descriptors were
reanalyzed. Tucker-1, multifactor, and analyses of variance were used to compare the
outcomes. The minimum number of panelists required to provide a consistent result varied
somewhat, according to the results, but generally speaking, it seems to be sufficient to have at
least 8 and ideally 10. These results are comforting because clearly the standard 8–12 judges
fell within the grouping. This information could be important for timing and cost constraints.
The candidates for the sensory panel may be chosen from a group of volunteers from outside
the company or from within the organization, including line workers, office employees, and
members of the Research & Development team. There are benefits to having an internal
panel made up of employees because they have a greater familiarity with the products being
evaluated. But if the firm staff isn't available for frequent sensory evaluations, for at least ten
minutes at a time, the panel will need to be put together and educated from volunteers. The
possible candidates should be in excellent health (no allergies; no indications of ageusia,
color blindness, or anosmia), be able to complete the activities, and have the availability,
motivation, and willingness to regularly engage in the assessment sessions.

This involves the selection of the most stable and sensitivity members and training them, one
might expect to obtain a small but efficient panel. Selection is important since individuals
differ in sensitivity, interest, motivation and ability to judge difference.
The selection of candidates should be based on specific personal attributes and potential
capability in performing specific sensory tasks.
•Must be able to perform and repeat the task with consistent results.
•Panel members must be free from taste / odour perception disorders, color blindness, denture
defects, frequent allergies not be consuming medications that affect sensory functions.
Discriminating skills may not be general; a good wine taste may not be a good judge of
chocolates. Sensory Panel members must have motivation, interest and responsible attitude
towards sensory evaluation. They may be trained or randomly selected based on the type of
evaluation required.

Judges on sensory panels are chosen and trained through a demanding procedure that
entails multiple steps:
1. Recruitment: A call is made to possible applicants, frequently using a survey to gauge
their motivation, interest, and fit for the position. This survey has been validated by sensory
analysis professionals. Candidates are screened based on a set of criteria, which includes
things like age, health, and drug-related behaviors.

2. Selection: After passing the preliminary requirements, candidates are subjected to

additional testing to gauge their sensitivity and capacity for differentiating between senses.
Taste threshold tests, which include comparing various chemical concentrations, could be one
of these tests. Tests of texture, including determining how cohesive, chewy, and sticky a
sample is. Tests for identifying odors. Applicants are disqualified from the selection process
if they don't match the necessary requirements.

3. Training: To improve their sensory perception and guarantee consistency in their

assessments, the chosen judges receive specialized training. Usually, this instruction consists
of: guidance on how to utilize certain language and how to analyze sensory data. Recurring
training sessions, sometimes extending to multiple hours, to enhance their sensory awareness
and comprehension of particular characteristics. Exposure to a range of samples in order to
establish a framework for the features under evaluation, both qualitatively and quantitatively.
The goal of the training is to guarantee that judges can consistently and accurately assess the
sensory qualities of goods.

4. Validation: The results of sensory assessments, like texture testing, are used to determine
the judges' final rating of their abilities to differentiate between various sensory
characteristics, to verify the judges' consistency and dependability, a battery of sensory
testing is conducted on them, including triangle tests using various product compositions.
5. Maintenance: Regular training and evaluation are essential for preserving the judges'
sensitivity and skill set after the panel is formed. This guarantees the panel's long-term
dependability and effectiveness. These procedures help select and train judges for sensory
panels to deliver reliable sensory evaluations, which are crucial for quality control and
product development across a range of sectors.

Skills taught to sensory panel judges during training

Specialized training is provided to judges on sensory panels in order to enhance their sensory
perception and ensure consistency in their evaluations and among these are:
1. Development of Terminology: Judges receive training in creating words that
characterize the senses of sight, smell, taste, and texture.

2. Interpretation of Sensory Data: In order to make well-informed and consistent

conclusions, judges receive instruction on how to interpret sensory data and apply
specific terminology.

3. Sensory Threshold Tests: Testing judges' capacity to discriminate between various

sensory qualities, such as chewiness, sweetness intensity, and adhesiveness, is done
through the use of sensory threshold tests, which judges are trained to administer.

4. Texture Tests: To improve their understanding of textural characteristics, judges

undergo training on a variety of texture tests, such as those measuring hardness,
stickiness, cohesion, elasticity, viscosity, chewiness, and friability.

Qualitative and quantitative frame of reference: Using the provided qualitative and
quantitative frame of reference for the key textural aspects of foods, judges can accurately
evaluate the sensory features of items. A quantitative frame of reference measures the
intensity of sensory qualities using particular scales and techniques. For instance, judges
might assess a sample's chewiness or sweetness intensity on a scale of 1 to 10. This
quantification aids judges in providing accurate and dependable judgments.
5. Regular Training: To improve their sensory awareness and comprehension of
particular qualities, judges undergo regular training sessions, which typically last
many hours.
6. Triangular Tests: To guarantee the accuracy and dependability of their sensory
assessments, judges are taught to conduct triangular tests using various product
compositions. For judges on sensory panels to offer reliable and consistent sensory
evaluations—which are critical for quality assurance and product development across
a range of industries—they must possess these competencies.

The key considerations in selecting panellists for sensory evaluation include:

a. Sensory Acuity and Discrimination Ability: Panelists should have the ability to detect
small differences in the parameters of interest in a repeatable and consistent manner.
 They should be able to discriminate among foods of the same kind that are known to
differ in a particular quality.
b. Training and Experience: Experienced panellists tend to provide more consistent and
reliable results compared to inexperienced subjects. Panellists should be acquainted
with the product through normal use and have no strong dislike for it.
c. Personal Characteristics: Panellists should exhibit intelligence, comprehension,
concentration, sustained interest, and motivation towards the sensory testing situation.
They should be able to control bias by eliminating preferences when detecting
differences.
d. Health and sensory ability: it is not appropriate for panellist to be suffering from colds
or other ailments that could affect their ability to taste or smell.
e. Age and smoking status are two factors that should be taken into account since they
may affect sensory acuity.
f. Selection Process: A battery of tests should be administered to prospective panellists
in order to evaluate their capacity for sensory discrimination. The selecting procedure
need to focus on finding people who have exhibited proficiency in the particular
sensory qualities under consideration.

Types of sensory evaluation tests/methods

There are several types of sensory tests used in sensory evaluation, namely:
1. Affective/Acceptance/Preference Testing
2. Affective or acceptance testing is a sensory technique, usually performed at
consumer’s levels. It refers to measuring liking or preference for a product. These are
tests in which subjective attitudes, such as product acceptance and preference, are
measured. In affective tests the task is to indicate preference or acceptance by either
selecting, ranking, or scoring samples. The paired-preference and 9-point hedonic
scale are popular examples of these types of tests Preference can be measured directly
by comparison of two or more products with each other. Indirect measurement of
preference is achieved by determining which product has scored significantly higher
rating than another product in a multi-product test. The two methods most frequently
used to directly measure preference and acceptance are the paired comparison test and
a 9-points hedonic scale.
Hedonic tests: These tests involves untrained panellists and are used to determine consumer
acceptability. They are often used to evaluate the liking or disliking of a product.
Hedonic Rating
Hedonic relates to the psychology of pleasurable and non-pleasant states of consciousness. In
hedonic method, psychological states of like and dislike are measured on a rating scale.
Normally rating scale has been categorized into five forms, viz. numerical, graphic, standard,
cumulated points and forced choice forms. The Nine points numerical scale as given below
has been most extensively used for new product development and consumer studies.

SCORE CARD – HEDONIC SCALE

Name of the Judge:_

___________________ Date: _____________

Product Name________________________ Attribute:

___________
 Degree of Preference Sample 1 Sample 2
Like Very much
Like much
Like moderately
Like slightly
Neither like nor dislike
Dislike slightly
Dislike moderately
Dislike much
Dislike very much
Comments

The above scale can be modified by assigning a numerical value of 0 to the indifferent
category, with positive integers above and negative integers below this point. The use of
positive and negative type of scoring can be effectively used by only trained panel. The
hedonic scale provides following advantages:

 evaluators can respond to the queries without previous experience

 data can be handled statistically, and
 indicates general level of preference or liking for the samples

The only requirement for use of hedonic method is that large numbers of evaluators are
needed to provide reliable responses or results.

2. Analytical tests
Descriptive tests: these tests involves trained panellists who are trained to describe their
perception using a standardized vocabulary. They are used to quantify the sensory attributes
of a product. Descriptive method of sensory evaluation provides quantitative descriptions of a
sensory attributes of a product taking into account all sensation that are perceived: visual,
auditory, olfactory, gustatory, kinesthetic and so on. Descriptive tests aim to describe the
sensory characteristics of a sample, such as the intensity, quality, and preference of each
attribute. These tests are useful for creating sensory profiles and understanding consumer
perception.
This method is used to create detailed product profiles that can be compared with other
products or used to develop new products. It enables us to relate specific process variables to
specific changes in some of the sensory attributes of a product, for example, the flavour
changes in milk at high temperature processing. A descriptive test involves relatively few
judges, who have been screened, selected and trained for the particular product category.
Training of this group is primarily focused on development of descriptive language, which is
used as a basis for scoring a new product, developing a definition of each attribute and
familiarizing the judges with scoring procedures. There are numerous applications for
descriptive analysis including monitoring competitions, storage stability/shelf life, product
development, quality control, establishing physical/chemical and sensory correlation. Some
of the popularly used descriptive methods are flavour profile, texture profile etc.
Examples of descriptive test methods include:
Conventional profiling, which involves the use of trained sensory assessors who rate the
intensity of specific attributes like appearance, odour, taste, and texture and the result is used
to create a comprehensive product profile; Consensus profile method, this is similar to
conventional profiling but involves a group discussion to develop a joint, overall result;

Discriminating/difference tests: The objective of the discrimination test is to determine

whether samples are detectably different from one another or to evaluate the effectiveness of
a new product. The discrimination test is a small panel test, used in a laboratory environment.
Difference test is one of the most useful sensory tests. It is generally used for selection and
training of sensory panellists. The most frequently used discrimination test methods are the
sequential, paired difference, duo-trio, and triangle tests.

Paired Comparison Test: The paired comparison test determines whether two products
differ in a specified attribute, such as sweetness, crispness, redness and if different, which
attribute, such as sweetness, acidity, hardness, colour etc. is responsible for this difference.
Here two differently coded samples are presented to each panellist simultaneously. It requires
30 and more members. The panellist chooses the one that is perceived as more intense in the
specified sensory attribute. •The paired comparison implicates the “forced” choice and
therefore the judges must give an answer in any case. It is frequently used in Preference tests.
Question: these are food samples, start with the coded sample on your left. Tick the sample
that is more chewy?

AB
---------

BA
---------
Comments:
Name:
Date:
Thank you.
b) Duo-trio Test: A Reference is provided with 2 coded samples. It determines whether or
not a sensory difference exists between two samples. The degree / intensity of difference is
not elicited. This method is particularly useful: to determine whether product differences
result from a change in ingredients, processing, packaging, or storage; to determine whether
an overall difference exists, where no specific attributes can be identified as having been
affected. You are given one Control sample of ‘Potato Soya gravy’ labelled as ‘R’. Along
with that there are two coded test samples out of which one is identical with ‘R’ and the other
is different. Tick the sample found different.
Sample code
619 _____
352 _____

Comments:
Thank you.
Name:
Date:

c) Triangle Test: Triangle test is most well-known and more frequently used out of the three
difference tests. As its name implies, it is a three product test in which all the samples are
coded and the panellist’s task is to determine which two are most similar or which one is
most different from the other two. Triangle test is more difficult test because the panellist
must recall the sensory characteristics of two products before evaluating the third and then
make a decision.

d) Multiple Sample Test: Test involving more than 3 stimuli are classified as multiple
sample tests. They may have equal (symmetrical) or unequal (asymmetrical) numbers of each
stimulus. When they are applied as true difference tests, the judge is required to separate the
sample into two groups of like samples. When they are applied as directional tests, the judge
is asked to identify the groups of higher or lower intensity of a given criterion.

3. Sensitivity Tests:
Threshold or dilution Tests: these tests are used to evaluate a tester’s ability to detect odours
or flavours. They are used to select and train panellists.
4. Temporal Tests
 Time-Intensity Tests: these are used to measure the temporal characteristics of a
product like the intensity of a flavor over time.
Other tests include the following:
 Sorting tests: these tests involves presenting multiple samples to assessors and
asking them to sort the samples based on their perceived similarities.
 Polarization sensory positioning (PSP): This method involves comparing
samples to a reference point and evaluating how similar or different they are.
These tests are used in various industries, including food, beverage, and
acceptability.
 Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) which has to do with the proprietary
process that uses a specific vocabulary and rating system to descrie and quantify
sensory properties; and spectrum TM method that involves a specific vocabulary
and rating system to describe and quantify sensory characteristics.
 Scoring
Certain score is given to each sensory attribute arranged in logical order on a score sheet in
this method. The weightage is given on the basis of importance of the attribute. For example,
flavour is considered to be most important and highest score is allotted to this attribute. The
scoring method is most extensively used by the dairy industry. Score cards wherein 10 to
100 total points have been allotted to different quality attributes are in use for dairy and food
products. Scoring method is most frequently used because of its diversity, simplicity and ease
of statistical analysis. The most attractive feature of this method is that rigorous training is
not required for panelists as information on defects and scoring guide is also provided on the
scorecard.
 Ranking
In ranking method two or more samples are provided to the panellists who are asked to
arrange them in an ascending or descending order of intensity of a specific attribute, e.g.
sweetness. Ranking is often used for screening inferior from superior samples in product
development. This method is also suited for comparison of market samples of different
brands. Samples may be ranked in order of degree of acceptability or in order of general
quality or by a specific attribute.

Review of literature
A literature review is an overview of the previously published works on a topic. It provides a
general image of the existing knowledge on the topic in question and is usually written as part
of a thesis, dissertation, or research paper. The aim of a literature review is to:
1. Familiarize oneself with the current state of knowledge. That is to ensure that one are
aware of the existing research and debates in the field.
2. Identify gaps in knowledge. This implies that it is important to find out where further
research is needed
3. Develop ones theoretical framework and methodology: this means that the researcher
should use the existing knowledge to inform his/her research design and approach
4. Provide an overview of key findings and debates: this will help the researcher to
situate his/her research within the broader context of the field.
Step 1 – Search for relevant literature

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic.
If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will
search for literature related to your research problem and questions. Start by creating a list of
keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables
you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you
discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for
journals and articles include:

 Your university’s library catalogue

 Google Scholar
 JSTOR
 EBSCO
 Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
 Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
 EconLit (economics)
 Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

Step 2 – Evaluate and select sources

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so
it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

 What question or problem is the author addressing?

 What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
 What are the key theories, models, and methods?
 Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
 What are the results and conclusions of the study?
 How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add
to, or challenge established knowledge?
 What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Note: Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark
studies and major theories in your field of research. Make notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later
incorporate into the text of your literature review. It is important to keep track of your sources
with citations to avoid plagiarism. It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where
you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each
source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

Step 3 – Identify themes, debates, and gaps

To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand
the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading
and notes, you can look for:
  Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become
more or less popular over time?
 Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
 Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
 Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the
direction of the field?
 Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be
addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable)
show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

Example of trends and gapsIn reviewing the literature on social media and body image, you
note that:

 Most research has focused on young women.

 There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
 But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram
and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

Step 4 – Outline your literature review’s structure

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the
length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example,
your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you
choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the
field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

Thematic

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into
subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes,
key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status,
and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research
methods, you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different
approaches. For example:
  Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
 Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical
scholarship
 Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework. You can use it to
discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various
theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Step 5 – Write your literature review

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction, a main
body, and a conclusion. What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature
review.

Introduction

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Body

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into
subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological
approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

 Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and
combine them into a coherent whole
 Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers—add your own
interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to
the literature as a whole
 Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
 Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to
draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

Conclusion

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature
and emphasize their significance. Be sure to show how your research addresses gaps and
contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories and methods
to build a framework for your research. When you’ve finished writing and revising your
literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting.

Planning the experiment

Like any other scientific methods of taking measurements, sensory evaluation is concerned
with precision, accuracy, and sensitivity and avoidance of false-positive results. Therefore,
reliable sensory evaluation is based on the ability of the sensory analyst in utilizing the
following four factors:
 Definition of the problem: The item to be measured must be defined precisely. The
objectives of the analysis should be defined early on to ensure the success and
relevance of the results. The correctly assessed objectives and expected results
determine the rest of the experimental design and efficient use of resources. The
following question can help to define the objectives of the analysis:
a. Are products different?
b. How great/intense/significant is the difference between the products?
c. What are the sensory properties of the product?
d. What sensory properties are significant?
e. How sensory properties change with time/processing/reformulation/packaging?
 Test design: the design must consider the source of bias and at the same time
minimize the amount of testing required to produce the desired accurate result
 Instrumentation: the panellist must be selected and trained to give a reproducible
result
 Interpretation of results: the analyst should be able to select appropriate statistics
based on the correct statistical assumption and draw conclusion that support the data.

Sample preparation and presentation

Sample preparation should be done by following good laboratory and/or good hygiene
practice. The portion sizes should be enough for sensory assessment. Too much of the sample
will encourage assessors to take larger bites or sips causing sensory fatigue early on. In some
cases, the sample presentation is dictated by the nature of sensory assessment method
Otherwise, there’s a number of different sample presentation techniques used in sensory
analysis. Most frequently used are sequential monadic presentation and simultaneous
presentation. In sequential monadic presentation, the samples are presented to panellists one
by one. Samples are assessed separately in a timely manner. This order of presentation is
thought to be the most appropriate if samples, for example, are temperature sensitive. In
simultaneous presentation, all samples are given to the panellists at once. This technique of
sample presentation is a common practice in discrimination tests and ranking of the products
based on specific attribute.
Blind tasting and randomization
The assessment of samples should proceed in blind tasting conditions. In blind tasting, no
background information is provided to the panellists about the samples and their source.
Unnecessary information might affect the objectiveness of panel judgement and result in
unreliable data. When multiple samples are presented to the panel, it is important to use
randomization within the order of sample presentation. This way, the place of any specific
sample in a line-up will always be different and reduce order effects

Variable control during sensory evaluation

During sensory evaluation, panellists are typically seated at tables, cubicles, or booths and the
food is presented in a uniform fashion. In order to obtain valid, reproducible results during a
sensory evaluation, the environment in which the sensory panel evaluate foods or beverages
should be carefully controlled.
Approach for screening of panellists
· Use as test materials the same products which will be tested later
· Prepare samples with variations that are likely to be encountered later
· Adjust the deficiencies so that most will be able to discriminate but some will fail
· Use score card similar to the ones that will be used later
· Start with a large number of candidates, with simple selection test
· Screen on the basis of relative achievement continuing until top ranking group of the
desired size is reliably selected
· Reject at each stage those that are not reliable but select more than actually needed. A
person with previous experience might utilize some of the skills he has developed. He may be
able to note and detect differences which are not detected by inexperienced judges. He can
often describe the sensory impressions more fully and usually has a better understanding of
the terminology employed.

Sensitivity Tests: For general panel selection the candidates can be eliminated on the basis of
lack of sensitivity to the senses, attributes, because of poor memory, slow recovery from
stimulation and failure to understand the test. Sensitivity to taste or odour appears to be only
one of the factors influencing discrimination.

Factors influencing sensitivity: The most important factors influencing successful judging
are interest, motivation, knowledge and comparison of results, adjustment to the test situation
memory etc. The panel members should be given as much information as possible on the
purpose and need of investigation – however when this information might influence his
judgement it should be withheld. A rewards system for maintaining interest is frequently
recommended. This may take the form of special pay, time off, special privileges, providing
refreshments after panel sessions etc.

Panel size: The number of judges needed varies according to the variability’s of individuals
and of the product.

Training: Training should be distinguished from experience. Training steps may be taken
deliberately to increase the effectiveness and the rate at which the individual assimilates new
knowledge or new techniques. Training is directed towards getting panel members to
disregard their personal preferences. It might also be directed—to secure recognition of small
differences. One of the important aims of training is to obtain homogeneity of response.
Sensitivity to basic tastes and odours increases due to training. Training helps judges learn to
compare flavours and flavour strengths in spite of time lag between samples.

Environment: Control of environmental factors and samples is universally recognized for

sensory evaluation of foods. The lab should be air-conditioned. Well lighted comfortable
seating and free from distractions/smoking and cosmetic odours. Judges should be provided
comfortable seating, a separate receptacle for expectoration, water for oral rinsing and
adequate space for the samples and score card. The facilities should be thoroughly cleaned
after the judge leaves and the new one comes.

Time of the day: Tests should be arranged when the judges feel their best and it is preferably
done between 10:15 to 11:45 AM and 3:00 PM. Findings has shown that there is no
significance differences between sensory evaluations conducted at 11 AM or 3 PM.

Serving Procedures: Samples presented must be representative of lot and exactly alike. The
factors which are to be considered include visual appearance, sample size, temperature,
utensils, pouring, coding order, instructions and rinsing.
Appearance: The samples should be the same inform consistency colour and appearance.

Sample size: The volume/quantity of sample should be provided sufficient to taste with
confidence. Sufficient sample to give a feeling of mouthfulness is recommended (30 to 50 ml
for 2 mouthfuls)

Temperature: Uniformity of temperature is necessary. Milk should be served at 15 ⁰C,

Cheese (15.5⁰C), butter (7⁰C-13⁰C), and ice cream (-15⁰C-12.5⁰C)

Utensils: All samples should be served in the containers of the same size, shape and colour.
The utensils should not impart a taste or odour to the samples. Samples should be placed in
the container in a uniform\aesthetic manner.

Coding: All samples presented should be coded to avoid giving information to the panel.
Three digit random numbers are ideal.

Order of serving: Usually the first sample is assumed to be standard against which the rest
of the samples are rated. Ideally strong flavoured samples should be served last as they
frequently over-sensitize the taste buds and recovery is not quick.

Instruction to Judges: It may not be necessary to give instructions to a trained panel but this
is not true for all panels. The best practice seems to be to allow the judges to use his preferred
method but the same technique should be used by him.

Statistical analysis
In order to inform product development and quality control, sensory evaluation carefully
examines how food products are experienced by human senses using a variety of descriptive,
inferential, and multivariate statistical techniques.
Descriptive statistics: The variable sensory data is explored and described using means,
variance and histograms. Another helpful tool for displaying the distribution of sensory data
is a box plot.
Inferential Statistics:
To ascertain if observed variations in sensory data are statistically significant, hypothesis
testing is employed. Descriptive analysis, rating tests (9-point hedonic scale), and difference
tests (triangle, duo-trio) are examples of common statistical tests. Additional Methods: One-
factor, two-factor, and higher-order designs are among the sensory data that can be analysed
using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Complex sensory data is analysed using multivariate
approaches such as principal component analysis (PCA) and multiple factor analysis (MFA).
For sensory evaluation, preference mapping and cluster analysis can also be used.
Univariate and multivariate statistics are both used in sensory evaluation, but they differ in
their approach and application as follows:
Univariate Statistics Analysis of Variance (ANOVA): this is used to compare the means of
multiple groups to determine if there are significant differences between them.
Hypothesis Testing: Used to determine if a specific hypothesis about the sensory data is true
or false. Multivariate Statistics Principal Component Analysis (PCA): Used to reduce the
dimensionality of large datasets and identify patterns in the data.
Canonical Variate Analysis (CVA): Used to relate multiple sensory attributes to each other
and to identify patterns in the data.
Preference Mapping: Used to identify the underlying factors that influence consumer
preferences.
Procrustes Analysis: Used to align and compare sensory profiles across different samples or
conditions.

Key variations:
Number of Variables: Multivariate statistics manage several variables at once, whereas
univariate statistics concentrate on a single variable.
Data Dimensionality: Higher-dimensional data require multivariate statistics, and lower-
dimensional data require univariate statistics.
Interpreting Data: While multivariate statistics shed light on patterns and correlations
between variables, univariate statistics only offer information about individual variables. This
is used when each variable need to compare group means or test particular hypotheses on a
single variable. Use multivariate statistics when you need to relate different sensory
properties to one another, find patterns in the data, or examine numerous variables at once.

Application of ANOVA in sensory testing

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique widely used in sensory evaluation to
analyse and compare the sensory properties of different food products. Here are the key
points on how ANOVA is applied in sensory testing:
Application of ANOVA in Sensory Testing One-Way ANOVA: This is used to determine
whether there are significant differences between the means of two or more sensory attributes
(e.g., taste, texture, appearance) of different food products.
Two-Way ANOVA: Used to analyse the interaction between two factors (e.g., product type
and panellist) on sensory attributes.
Multifactor ANOVA: is used to analyse the interaction between multiple factors (e.g.,
product type, panellist, and storage conditions) on sensory attributes.
ANOVA Table: The ANOVA result is presented in a table that includes the F-statistic, p-
value, and degrees of freedom, which help to determine the significance of the model.
Practical Applications Sensory Attribute Analysis
ANOVA is used to analyse the sensory attributes of different food products, such as taste,
texture, and appearance, to identify significant differences between products.
Product Comparison- ANOVA helps to determine whether there are significant differences
between the sensory properties of different products, which can inform product development
and quality control decisions.
Panellist Variation- ANOVA can be used to analyse the variation in sensory responses
among panellists, which is important for understanding the reliability of sensory data.
Importance of ANOVA in Sensory Evaluation/Statistical Significance: ANOVA helps to
determine whether observed differences in sensory data are statistically significant, which is
crucial for making informed decisions about product development and quality control.
Practical Implications: ANOVA provides practical insights into the sensory properties of
different food products, which can guide product development and quality control decisions.
Non-parametric tests: An alternative to d-prime that is non-parametric and can measure the
difference between items based on rating and categorization information is the R-index. R-
index is developed to measure the area under an empirical receiver operation characteristics
(ROC) curve in signal detection theory. R-index defines the degree of difference between two
samples in term of the probability of discriminating paired samples. An R-index value of 1.0
indicates paired samples are easily distinguishable while an R-index value of 0.5 shows that
paired stimuli are extremely difficult to discriminate. For those samples with R-index
between 0.5 and 1.0, a larger R-index reflects better discrimination.
R-index can be collected and calculated by rating or ranking tasks, where a panellist is
presented with a sample and determines if the sample is the signal or noise; in the rating
tasks, the panellist responds by selecting one category on a scale (e.g. “signal sure”, “signal
unsure”, “noise unsure” or “noise sure”). In the ranking task, the stimuli are scored against
each other simultaneously and the samples should be ranked by panellist based on the
strength of signal. In practice, the sample with lower attribute intensity is normally designed
as the “noise” sample, while the sample with higher intensity is designated as “signal”
sample.
The validation and advantage of R-index are greatly facilitated by the fact that the area under
the ROC curve, when the trapezoidal rule is applied, is closely related to the Mann-Whitney
U statistics, a version of the Wilcoxon statistic. The relationship of R-index and Mann-
Whitney-Wilcoxon (MWW) make various statistical tools useful in R-index.
Others include the chi-square test and binomial test that can be used when the assumptions
for parametric tests are not met. The precise goals of the sensory evaluation study, the kind of
data gathered, and the underlying presumptions all influence the choice of relevant statistical
approaches. To guarantee the validity and reliability of the outcomes of the sensory
evaluation, proper experimental design and data analysis are essential.

Reporting and interpretation of results

Chapter four of the project is given different titles as Analysis of Data, Results of
Study, Analysis and Results and others. However, the two key words
are analysis and results where the researcher analyses the data collected and presents
the results in Chapter 4. The analysis here implies the use of relevant statistical tools usually
to determine differences and relationships. It is possible for students to spend so much time
collecting and analysing the data but when it comes to reporting they do the wrong thing.
Some students ‘sell short’ by under-reporting the data they have collected and analysed. By
applying statistical techniques to the results it is possible to make inferences about the
products under test. Most large food companies have departments dedicated to sensory
analysis and analysis of the results. Appropriate statistical software and methods must be
used to process and interpret the data. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), is a widely used
method that can be used to compare the mean values of various samples or groups and
ascertain whether there are any significant differences between them. Another common
method that can be used to reduce the dimensionality of the data and identify the primary
factors or components that explain the variability of the data is principal component analysis
(PCA). Finally, cluster analysis is a useful tool for grouping samples or panellists according
to likeness or dissimilarity, and to produce clusters or segments that have common
characteristics. Many software programs are available today for the analysis of data generated
from sensory analysis. However, the statistical values will be meaningful only when the
Sensory Evaluation is carried out in an appropriate method.
For research to e ultimately beneficial, precise and thorough reporting is necessary. The most
common way that sensory evaluation is misused in result reporting is when important details
are left out. It is quite difficult for the reader to evaluate the reliability of those methodologies
and try to replicate the study if sensory test protocols and data are not fully reported. Authors
that fail to fully communicate the sensory component of their research, such as the number
and origin of panellists, scoring methodology, coding, design, and analysis, should face
severe consequences from reviewers, editors, and publishers.