.

RESEARCH PROCESS

Welcome to our third lecture in Research Methodology. In this lecture, we shall start by introducing
the term research process in order to gain an understanding of why research process is referred to as
scientific. Finally, we shall discuss the importance of research process, as well as the purpose of the
research process.

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired sequencing of these steps. Understanding the research process is an important step
towards executing a thorough research or study.

Let us examine the different phases in research planning as well as the stages involved in a research
process. A deeper understanding of the process of research will help you identify the similar
features that occur in the different fields, and the variety in the purpose and approaches to some
studies. Understanding the research process will help you understand the implication of deviating
from a systematic approach to research, as well as the associating consequences of ineffective and
ineffectual research.

The research process involves identifying, locating, assessing, and analyzing the information you
need to support your research question, and then developing and expressing your ideas. These are
the same skills you need any time you write a report, proposal, or put together a presentation. The
research process can be broken down into eleven steps, making it more manageable and easier to
understand. This session will give you an idea of what's involved at each step in order to give you
a better overall picture of where you are in your research, where you will be going, and what to
expect at each step.

4.1. Learning outcomes

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. Describe the research process

2. Discuss the steps of research steps

3. Explain the importance of research process

 4.2. Formulation of research problem

Let us start our discussion by asking ourselves this question;

Activity

Question 1: How do we solve the life or educational challenges that we face?

In a research process, you have to select a topic of study from your area of study. After this, you n
arrow down this topic for your study. The next concern is to define the problem which you are f
acing. Kerlinger (2015), defines a research problem in two ways. The first is in a general sense
in which he regards a research problem as a question that states situation needing discussion,
inquiry, decision or solution. In the second definition, which is more satisfactory, he regards a
research problem as a question that asks for how two or more variables are related. It means
therefore that a research problem must state and show how two or more variables are related. This
may be stated in a question form. The most important fact here is that t h e relationship between two
or more variables must be specified in the research problem. Look at these problems. Does the
social class/status of parent play significant role in the academic performance of secondary
school students in Mombasa County? Do customers‟ satisfactions depend on hotel management
styles?

Looking at these definitions and examples of problems in research, you should be able to identify
some key characteristics of problems in research. Now let us look at the characteristics of research
problem.

3.3.1 Characteristics of research problem

Every research study has two aspects: Study population and Study
discipline.

1. Study population

• People: individuals, groups, communities, organizations (they provide the information or

information about them is collected)

2. Subject area

This is the area one has been trained in and may involve;

• Problems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles

• Programs: content, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfactions, consumers, Service

providers, e.t.c.

• Phenomena: cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon itself (Information

that you need to collect to find answers to your research questions)

3.3.2 Sources of problems

The four Ps is used to identify sources of problems;

· People - may be individuals or a group of individuals

• Problems – involves examining the existence of certain issues relating to peoples’ lives; to
ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an issue.

• Programs - to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention

• Phenomena - to establish the existence of a regularity.

In practice most research studies are based upon at least a combination of People and Problems.
These are obtained through reading, asking questions and narrowing the scope

i) People

Classroom lectures, class discussions, seminar reports and out of class exchanges of ideas with
fellow students and lecturers can suggest many stimulating problems for solution. Another fruitful
source of research problem is prior research. When you read assignments, journal articles,
textbooks, research report, term paper, etc., they can also suggest additional areas of needed
research. All research projects have limitations; new questions may be raised by the findings.
Research reports have discussions of weakness and limitations of the research, including
suggestions for further research, so focusing on these unanswered questions or expending on
previous research is a good way to find research problems. Again, if you have any reason to doubt
or question the results of an original study or you wish to replicate another research study, it gives
you the opportunity of having a research problem. This is possible because of numerous
opportunities for errors or biases to influence research results.

ii) Problems

Most of the problems confronted in the school system, the community, banking industry, hotel and
hospitality industries, etc., lead themselves to investigations. You can see that today we are having
technological changes and developments. These are constantly bringing forth new problems and
new opportunities for research.

The whole area of computer education and literacy provides an avenue for a good number of
research topics through the internet and websites. You can also get topics through international
abstracts typed for computer processing.

iii) Programmes

Programme evaluation and practice effectiveness evaluation can form important activities for
research purposes. Other sources of problem selection include political issues. Some of these may
attract financial sponsorship from external interests like the government or its agencies, non-
governmental organizations, private research organizations e.t.c.

iv) Phenomena

Some research topics can be selected on the basis of their use in verifying and testing a particular
theory. You know that every research has some implications for existing theory. Therefore, some
research topics are selected specially for the purpose of testing some aspects of a given theory. In
your exploration in an area, you may come across additional problems that need resolving. Most of
these problems are often theoretically framed.
Take Note

Consultation with your supervisor or advisor may be helpful in providing research problems for
your study. A very important function of your supervisor is to help you clarify your thinking,
achieve a sense of focus and develop a manageable problem from one that may be vague, complex
or not researchable.
We have discussed the sources of research problems. We shall now shift our attention and ask
ourselves the following question:

Activity

i. Identify a researchable problem in your area of specialization area.

ii. ii State this problem as research topic
So far so good! You have been able to list a number of problems that can be formulated into
research questions. This leads us to our last subsection in this lecture on purposes of research
process
 4.3. How to select and formulate a problem

Selecting a research problem is one of the most difficult tasks you have to face in the research
process. This statement of fact is not in any way intended to discourage you. However, we are going
to discuss some appropriate guidance to make it easier for you. According to Best and Khan (2014),
one of the most difficult phases of the graduate research project is the choice of a suitable problem.
This is because most students often select problems that are too broad in scope. Of course, they do
this because they lack the understanding of the nature of research and systematic problem-solving
ability. Sometimes, they are so enthusiastic to solve an important problem quickly. You have to
understand that research is often very tasking, slow and rarely spectacular.

Since research is the search for truth and solution to very important problems, it takes a great deal
of time and energy. It takes intensive application of logical thinking. You should therefore follow
some guiding principles to aid you in your problem identification and selection in research
encounters.

3.3.4 Factors to consider in formulating a research problem

In order to ensure that the study remains manageable and continues to motivate you, the researcher,
it is advisable you should painstakingly select your problem of study upon these considerations;

1. Novelty (newness) of the problem and interest - a research endeavor is usually time
consuming, and involves hard work, and possibly unforeseen problems. One should select a topic of
great interest to sustain the required motivation.

2. Magnitude of the problem - one needs to select a topic that can be managed within the time
and resources at disposal. The topic should be narrowed down to a manageable, specific and clear
idea.

3. Relevance or Practical value - Ensure that the study adds to the existing body of knowledge,
bridges current gaps and is useful in policy formulation. This helps in sustenance of interest in the
study.

4. Measurement of concepts – one should ensure that the indicators and measurement of
concepts (if used) in the study are clear.

5. Level of expertise or special qualification to handle the problem - Ensure that there is
adequate level of expertise for the task being proposed; there is need to do the work yourself.

6. Availability of data on the problem - Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data are
available.

7. Ethical issues - Ensure that ethical issues and problems that can affect the study population
are known, thoroughly examined and how they can be overcome is addressed in the formulating
stage

3.3.5 Criteria for a good research problem

Further to the above discussed factors the research problem should have met the following
standards:

i. Falls within the discipline (i.e. in time and space) is not a duplication of an existing work?
ii. Conveys some reasonable information on the nature of the research problem, the variables
and how they are matched.

iii. It is not too lengthy iv. It is not vague

3.3.6 Steps in formulation of a research problem

The steps indicate a reasonable level of knowledge in the broad subject area within which the study
is to be undertaken. Without such knowledge it is difficult to clearly and adequately ‘dissect’ a
subject area. Steps suggested include:

Step 1- Identify a broad field or subject area of interest – Write a general statement.

Step 2 - Dissect the broad area into sub areas through review of literature available and

holding discussions Step 3 - Select what is of most interest to you

Step 4 - Raise research questions through reading -rephrase questions to bring focus, clarity and
specificity. They should be operationally viable.

Step 5 - Formulate objectives.

Step 6 - Assess your objectives.

Step 7 - Double check.

 4.4. Reviewing Literature

This is an essential preliminary task in order to acquaint oneself with the available body of
knowledge in the area of interest. It is an integral part of entire research process and makes valuable
contribution to every operational step. It can be timeconsuming, daunting and frustrating, but is
rewarding. As a researcher, you are expected to show what other researchers and writers have done,
said, written, or found out in the area of the research topic you are investigating. You are expected
to make reviews of theoretical, conceptual and empirical literature.

3.4.1 Functions of Literature Review

Functions of the review include:

a). Bringing clarity and focus to the research problem - The process of reviewing the literature
helps one to understand the subject area better and thus conceptualize the research problem clearly
and precisely. It also helps one to understand the relationship between the research problem and
the existing body of knowledge in the area. It will provide the definitions and meanings of the
key concepts and variables in the study and also the theoretical bases for the study.

b). Improving methodology - Literature review tells you if others have used procedures and
methods similar to the ones that you are proposing, which procedures and methods have worked
well, and what problems were faced. You will be in a better position to select a methodology that is
capable of providing valid answers to the research questions.

c). Broadening the knowledge base in the research area – One is required to read widely around the
subject area of the research under study. It is expected that one will be an expert in the area of
study, hence helps fulfill this expectation. It also helps one to understand how the findings of the
study fit into the existing body of knowledge.

d). Contextualizing findings - Empirical literature review will provide, if possible, a comprehensive
account of research findings of other studies related to your own study in order to provide
comparative empirical findings upon which to evaluate the new ones to be generated in the study on
your hand. It helps you to visualize how answers to research questions compare with what others
have found, what contributions have been made into the existing body of knowledge, and how
findings differ from those of others. It is important to place findings in the context of what is
already known in the field of enquiry.

e) Prevents duplication of work that has been done before - enables one to know what has been
done before and appreciates the work of others

3.4.2 Stages of Literature review

There are three stages of reviewing literature in research;

1. Early review – done to establish the context and rationale for the study and to confirm

choice of research focus/questions;

2. Mid review - to make sure that one keeps in touch with current, relevant research in the field
of study, which is published during the period of the research;
3. End of study review – during preparation of final report or thesis, to relate findings to those
of others, and to identify their implications for theory, practice, and research.

3.4.3 Sources of Literature

There are different sources from which academic literature can be found. These include;

• Books

• Journals

• Conference Proceedings

• Periodicals

• Organizations and Institutions (Includes Clinic and hospital based data from routine activity
statistics)

• Government publications (e.g. Kenya Gazette)

• Theses, Dissertations and Project Reports

• Computer based searches

• Unpublished documents (studies in related fields, reports, etc.)

• Opinions and beliefs of key persons

These materials are reviewed in a systematic way known as the procedure for reviewing literature.

3.4.4 Procedure for Reviewing Literature

The steps for reviewing literature are:

i) Searching for existing literature - Searching for reading materials in the area of interest,
preparing a final list, locating the materials in libraries or borrowing from other sources. E-books
and articles can be downloaded once passwords are obtained. The contents are then examined and if
not relevant to the topic, they are deleted from the reading list. A final list is then ccompiled from
published and unpublished sources.

ii) Developing a theoretical framework - Involves setting parameters by reviewing the

literature in relation to some main themes pertinent to the research topic. Reading literature
involves a number of aspects that have a direct `and indirect bearing on the research topic. The
aspects should be used as a basis for developing the theoretical framework. This enables effective
review the literature

iii) Developing a conceptual framework - Involves organizing the literature to alienate

universal/general and more specific information (general and local trends or specific program). iv)
Reviewing the literature selected – The identified useful reading material is read critically to pull
together themes and issues associated with the study topic. A theoretical framework is then
developed with themes in mind. A rough framework developed is used to slot findings from the
material reviewed, using a separate sheet of paper or page for each theme of that framework.
Information is slotted under the theme where it logically belongs as reading goes on. More themes
are added as reading goes on.
 4.5. Formulation of objectives

Research objectives are set at the very start of a project to guide the research. Their main role is to
ensure you gain insights that are relevant and useful. Your objectives need to be clearly defined at
the outset of the project and kept top of mind at every stage; from survey design, through to analysis
and outputs.

3.5.1 Importance of Objectives

Here we outline the four main reasons why clearly defined objectives are vital to B2B research
success.

1. Providing focus and direction

Carrying out research without setting objectives is like going on a journey with no knowledge of the
destination or how to get there. You need to know where you are headed, and a map to get you
there. Having clear objectives will set you on a path to achieving your main aim and help you get
the most useful insight possible. Most research projects that go wrong lead back to objectives not
being clearly defined or understood. Unclear or cursory objectives can lead to irrelevant data, or
insights that lack depth.

2. Informing survey and discussion guide design

Without objectives, how will you know what to ask your audience? Objectives provide you with
clear direction for writing your survey or discussion guide. Think about the topics you need to
cover and specific questions you need to ask that will allow you to meet your objectives.

3. Helping to engage and align stakeholders - Getting sign off to conduct research can be a
hard task. Costs and a lack of understanding of the need for research can be potential barriers for
your CFO or other senior team members.

You will need to convince them that it’s worthwhile. Having well-defined objectives that clearly
illuminate what you are going to learn from the research, and how it will be useful to the business,
will help you get them onboard.

1. Ensuring impartiality

You may have pre-conceived ideas of what the research will show, based on previous experience or
personal beliefs. Or you could have a vested interest for the results to turn out a certain way; for
instance, if you are testing appeal of two new product ideas and one is more financially viable.

These biases may unwittingly (or not!), lead you to interpret the data in a way that fits with your
expectations or best interests. Unlike hypotheses which propose an explanation as a starting point
for further investigation, research objectives are neutral statements. Therefore, they help keep you
on course for analyzing data objectively, so that your findings are not affected by confirmation bias
or other prejudices.

Having a clear goal and a clear path to reach that goal is vital to helping you deliver research that is
useful and impactful. When setting your objectives, ask yourself, ‘What do I need to learn to help
guide me to achieve my goal?’
3.5.2 Types of objectives
A research objective addresses the purpose of the investigation and types of knowledge to be
generated out of one’s investigation. Looking at the objectives of the research, one can anticipate
what is to be achieved by the study. A research objective indicates the population of interest, the
independent variable, and the dependent variable.

Your objectives should be set with your business goal in mind; the reason that underlines why you
are doing the research in the first place. You may be looking to explore the needs of your ideal
target market because you want to win new business and increase your revenue.

The following are summarized types of research objectives;

1. General Objective

First you should determine your primary research objective. This summarizes the main aim of the
research – what you want to find out. It should be a neutral statement, led by an infinitive general
verb such as ‘to explore’, ‘to establish’, or ‘to identify’, ‘to determine’ e.t.c.

Your primary objective could be ‘To determine the challenges manufacturers face in building a
digital presence’, or ‘To explore the buyers’ journey when choosing a new service provider’.

Many researchers state their research objective in the declarative form as a broad statement of
purpose, such as “The objective of this study is to examine the relationship between the initial
salary (dependent variable) of those who are employed in NGOs (population of interest) and their
previous job experience (independent variable)”.

Descriptive studies do not always have variables that can be designated as independent or
dependent. In such a case, the objective indicates the nature of the inquiry, the study variables, and
the population under study, as we find in the example: “The purpose of this study is to assess the
women’s decision making autonomy regarding their health care, their child’s health care, large
household purchases, household purchases for daily needs, and visits to the women’s family or
relatives”.

2.Specific Objectives

After setting the main objective, you should then define several specific research objectives. These
indicate the specific issues/aspects within the main framework of study the research plans to
investigate to achieve the primary objective. Remember, every objective must start with the word,
"To."

In the case of exploring the buyers’ journey, specific objectives may be ‘To explore the needs,
behaviours and decisions made at each stage of the journey’, ‘To identify key moments of truth’
and ‘To understand what factors are important from a provider’.

Qualities of Objectives
A critical component of a successful research engagement is a set of clearly defined and meaningful
objectives. Having welldefined objectives narrows and focuses the research and ensures that the
findings are relevant to decision-makers. The research objectives drive all aspects of the
methodology, including instrument design, data collection, analysis, and ultimately the
recommendations.
Six important guidelines that should be observed when developing research objectives are:
1. They should be presented briefly and concisely
2. They should be presented in logical sequence
3. They should be realistic (e.g., achieved within the expected timeframe, achieved

within the available resources)

4. They should be phrased in operational terms (i.e., in a way that brings the

organization closer to its business objectives)

5. They should use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated or

measured (e.g., assess, determine, compare, verify, calculate, describe).

6. They should be static once the study work begins (i.e., objectives should not be moving

targets)

3.5.4 Characteristics of good objectives

An easy way to remember the characteristics of a good objective, is the acronym, "SMART." It
stands for "Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-Bound."

S pecific

M easurable

A chievable

R ealistic

T ime bound

When identifying objectives as part of an exercise in preparing a project design or proposal, use the
SMART acronym as a check list, to see if the objective is a good objective. (Making sure each
objective begins with the word, "To.") The objectives must be derived from, and consistent with,
the intention of the identified goals.

4.6. Designing the research study

A research design is a broad plan that states objectives of research project and provides the
guidelines of what is to be done to realize those objectives. It is, in other words, a master plan for
executing a research project.

The word ‘design’ has various meanings. However, in research, it refers to a pattern or an outline of
research project’s workings. It is the statement of essential elements of a study that provides basic
guidelines of conducting the study. It is the same as the blue print of architect’s work.

The research design is similar to broad plan or model that states how the entire research project
would be conducted. It is desirable that it must be in written form and must be simple and clearly
stated. The real project is carried out as per the research design laid down in advance. There are a
number of types of designs from which one can choose from. These will be discussed in a later
session.
 4.7. Ethical review

It is very important to talk about ethical issues in research process. Ethics in research process have
assumed considerable significance especially when the area of study transgresses national
boundaries and because information needs to be disseminated or distributed accurately and with
equity.

In designing research studies, you have to take into considerations the diversity in the circumstances
of the study subjects, and in relation to the effective data collection procedures and ethical
requirements. According to Evans and Jakupee (1996), sample participants in the research projects
should be informed very clearly about the objectives of the research, the procedure and the
implications of the research findings including their utilization. When you have distance
participants in Pestal or telephonic interviews, you must try to empower them in order to be able to
respond to the research questions. Again, before you start the interview or the questionnaire
administration you should try to get written contents from them to ensure their freedom and to
reduce uncertain or unproductive travel time and cost. Strong ethical considerations are required for
the conduct and utilization of institutional research. You have to make a distinction between
students‟ research and research involving evaluation for the improvement of courses and students’
services. You need to exercise caution and restrain in your temptation to publish result or present
them in a conference, when the findings are essentially meant for institutional monitoring and
quality assurance.
 4.8. Data collection

This includes the method(s) through which you obtained the data. Such details as whether research
assistance were used, if yes, whether they were trained, whether you were present at each location
to collect the data or postal system were used, did you obtain permission before collecting data
e.t.c., should all be reported. You should also report whether the instruments used for recording
went faulty during data collection and steps taken to correct them. These details, when reported will
help future researchers to be formed. These practical details and problems encountered when
reported will serve the additional purpose of confirming that you actually carried out the
investigation and experience the realities of research. So, you have to report all the steps you have
taken in order to ensure the collection of valid data.

3.9 Data analysis and interpretation

Usually in chapter four of the report, results of analysis of data collected is presented. It should
clearly and concisely set out the results using the most illuminative modes of presentation. You can
exploit fully the use of tables and figures. All tables and figures should be serially numbered. They
must have titles or headings. You should highlight the findings of interest displayed in these using
brief verbal descriptions. These should be directly related to the hypotheses and/or research
questions. It is always better to organize the data presentation and analysis around the hypotheses
and research questions. You have to treat each hypothesis or research questions. You have to treat
each hypothesis or research questions in turn. All the detailed calculations of the data may be
included in the appendix
 4.9. Report writing and dissemination of findings

Dissemination refers to “a planned process that involves consideration of target audiences and the
settings in which research findings are to be received and, where appropriate, communicating and
interacting with wider policy and…service audiences in ways that will facilitate research uptake in
decision-making processes and practice” (Wilson, Petticrew, Calnan, & Natareth, 2010, p. 91). In
other words, dissemination of research findings involves careful planning, thought, consideration of
target audiences, and communication with those audiences. Writing up results from your research
and having others take notice are two entirely different propositions. In fact, the general rule of
thumb is that people will not take notice unless you help and encourage them to do so.

Take Note

Scholars take extraordinary care to avoid committing plagiarism. Presenting someone else’s words
or ideas as if they are your own is among the most egregious transgressions a scholar can commit.
Indeed, plagiarism has ended many careers (Maffly, 2011) and many students’ opportunities to
pursue degrees (Go, 2008). Take this very seriously. If you feel a little afraid and paranoid after
reading this warning, consider it a good thing— and let it motivate you to take extra care to ensure
that you are not plagiarizing the work of others.

4.10. Summary

In this lecture you have learnt that a research problem must state and show how two or more
variables are related. These variables should be measurable or manipulated. You have seen the
characteristics of a research problem as outlined by Tuckman (1972) and that of Egon Guba (1973).
You looked at some sources of the research problems. These include problems from the schools,
community, banking, hotel industries, society etc. problems can come from the technological
changes and developments, computer education and literacy, classroom lectures and discussions,
seminar reports, exchange of ideas, lectures, assignments, journal articles, textbooks, research
reports, term papers, verifying and testing a particular theory, prior research, programme evaluation,
political issues, external interests and advice from your supervisor.

4.11. Review Activity

1. What is the difference between describing, explaining and predicting phenomena?

2. Explain how research is used to produce new knowledge.

3. Differentiate between ‘purposiveness’ and ‘Objectivity’ as characteristics of research

 4.12. References and Further Reading

1. Kothari C. R. (2003). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques (2nd Edition): New
Delhi, Gupta K.K

2. Mbwesa J. (2006). Introduction to Management Research: A Students Handbook: Nairobi,

Basic Modern Management Co

Mugenda, O. M. & Mugenda, A. G. (2015). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative

Approaches. Nairobi: African Centre for
Technology Studies