MODULE V

NON -NEWTONIAN FLUID

5.1 Introduction
A Newtonian fluid at a given temperature and pressure has a constant viscosity  which does
not depend on the shear rate and, for streamline (laminar) flow, is equal to the ratio of the shear stress
( ) to the shear rate (-  = dux/dy) as shown in equation 5.1:
y
 5.1
du x
dy
The modulus sign is used because shear stresses within a fluid act in both the positive and negative
senses. Gases and simple low molecular weight liquids are all Newtonian, and viscosity may be treated
as constant in any flow problem unless there are significant variations of temperature or pressure.
Many fluids, including some that are encountered very widely both industrially and domestically,
exhibit non-Newtonian behaviour and their apparent viscosities may depend on the rate at which they
are sheared and on their previous shear history. At any position and time in the fluid, the apparent
viscosity a which is defined as the ratio of the shear stress to the shear rate at that point is given by
equation 5.2:
y
a  5.2
du x
dy
For Newtonian fluids, a plot of shear stress (), against shear rate (-  = du/dy) on Cartesian
coordinate is a straight line having a slope equal to the dynamic viscosity (µ) but for Non -Newtonian
fluid a plot of shear stress against shear rate does not give a straight line.
There are two types of non-Newtonian fluids: (i) Time-independent and, (ii) Time-dependent.
(i) Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids
In this type the apparent viscosity depends only on the
rate of shear at any particular moment and not on the
time for which the shear rate is applied. For non-
Newtonian fluids the relationship between shear stress
and shear rate is more complex and represented by
equation (5.3 a & b):
  k ( ) n (For Power Fluids) 5.3a
   0  k ( ) (Bingham Plastic Fluid) 5.3b
The shape of the flow curve for time-independent fluids
Figure 5.1
compared with Newtonian fluid is shown in thee Figure
5.1, where
A: Newtonian fluids

69
 B: Pseudoplastic fluids [power-law n<1] Examples: Polymer solution, detergent.
C: Dilatant fluids [power-law n>1] Examples: Wet beach sand, starch in water.
D: Bingham plastic fluids, it required (o) for initial flow. Examples: Chocolate mixture, soap,
sewage sludge, toothpaste.
(ii) Time-Dependent Non-Newtonian Fluids
For this type, the curves of share stress versus shear
rate depend on how long the shear has been active.
This type is classified into:
(i) Thixotropic Fluids
Which exhibit a reversible decrease in shear stress
and apparent viscosity with time at a constant shear
rate. Example Paints.
(ii) Rheopectic Fluids
Which exhibit a reversible increase in shear stress
and apparent viscosity with time at a constant shear
rate. Example: Gypsum suspensions, bentonite
Figure 5.2
clay.

5.2 Flow Characteristics of Non- Newtonian Fluid

As earlier establish, the velocity distribution for Newtonian fluid of laminar flow through a circular
pipe (Figure 5.3),is given by the equation (5.4):

5.4
where, u: is the mean (average) linear velocity; u = Q/A

5.5

Figure 5.3
4u 8u
 w     w  5.6
R d
Equation (5.6) is the flow characteristic and therefore, for laminar flow,
8u
 w    w   5.7
d
The force balance on an element of fluid of L length is:

5.8

5.9
5.3 Flow of General Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids

70
 The slope of a log-log plot of shear stress at the pipe walls against flow characteristic [8u/d] at
any point along the pipe is the flow behaviour index (n')

5.10
Equation (5.10) leads to equation (5.11):

5.11
where, Kp' and n' are point values for a particular value of the flow characteristic (8u/d). Equation
(5.11) can also be written as:

5.12
By the analogy of equation (5.9) with equation (5.12), the following equation can be written for non-
Newtonian fluids in equations (5.13) to (5.16):

5.13
where, (µa)P is apparent viscosity for pipe flow.

5.14
This equation (5.14) gives a point value for the apparent viscosity of non-Newtonian fluid flow
through a pipe. Reynolds number for the of non-Newtonian fluids can be written as equation (5.15):

5.15

5.16
where, m = Kp' (8 n'-1) . Equations (5.15) or (5.16) gives a point value for Re at a particular flow
characteristic (8u/d).
A point value of the basic friction factor ( or Jf) or fanning friction factor (f ) for laminar flow
can be obtained from equation (5.17)
5.17
The pressure drop due to skin friction can be calculated in the same way as for Newtonian fluids:

5.18
Equation (5.18) is used for laminar and turbulent flow, and the fanning friction factor (f ) for turbulent
flow of general time independent non-Newtonian fluids in smooth cylindrical pipes can be calculated
from equation( 5.19):
f = a/Reb 5.19
where, a, and b are function of the flow behaviour index (n') as shown in the Table 5.1
Table 5.1

71
There is another equation to calculate (f ) for turbulent flow of time-independent non-Newtonian fluids
in smooth cylindrical pipes as presented in equation (5.20)

5.20
Example 5.1
A general time-independent non-Newtonian liquid of density 961 kg/m 3 flows steadily with an average
velocity of 1.523 m/s through a tube 3.048 m long with an inside diameter of 0.0762 m. For these
conditions, the pipe flow consistency coefficient Kp' has a value of 1.48 Pa.s0.3 [or 1.48 (kg / m.s2)s0.3]
and n' value of 0.3. Calculate the values of the apparent viscosity for pipe flow (µ a)p, the Reynolds
number Re and the pressure drop across the tube, neglecting end effects.
Solution

5.4 Flow of Power-Law Fluids in Pipes

Power-law fluids are those in which the shear stress () is related to the shear rate (  ) by
equation (5.21):
5.21
For shear stress at a pipe wall (w) and the shear rate at the pipe wall (  w),equation (5.21) becomes:

5.22
Equation (5.11) gives the relationship between (ΔP) and (8u/d) for general time-independent non-
Newtonian fluids. But for power-law fluids the parameters Kp' and n' in equation (5.11) are no longer
point values but remain constant over a range of (8u/d), so that for power-law fluids, equation (5.11)
can be written as equation (5.23):

5.23

72
The shear rate at pipe wall for general time-independent non-Newtonian fluids is:

5.24
and for power-law fluids

5.25
Combine equations (5.23), (5.24), and (5.25) to give the relationship between the general consistency
coefficient (K) and the consistency coefficient for pipe flow (Kp).

5.26
The apparent viscosity for power-law fluids in pipe flow:

5.27
The Reynolds number for non-Newtonian fluids flow in pipe:

5.28
For power –law fluids flow in pipes the Re can be written either as:

5.29

Example 5.2
A Power-law liquid of density 961 kg/m3 flows in steady state with an average velocity of 1.523 m/s
through a tube 2.67 m length with an inside diameter of 0.0762 m. For a pipe consistency coefficient of
4.46 Pa.s0.3 [or 4.46 (kg / m.s2)s0.3], calculate the values of the apparent viscosity for pipe flow (µ a)p in
Pa.s, the Reynolds number, Re, and the pressure drop across the tube for power-law indices n = 0.3,
0.7, 1.0, and 1.5 respectively.
Solution

73
5.5 Friction Losses Due to Form Friction in Laminar Flow

5.6 Turbulent Flow and Generalized Friction Factor

74
 Figure 5.4 : Friction factor chart for purely viscous non-Newtonian fluids
For rough pipes with various values of roughness ratio (e/d), this figure cannot be used for turbulent
flow, since it is derived for smooth pipes.
Example 5.3
A pseudoplastic fluid that follows the power-law, having a density of 961 kg/m 3 is flowing in steady
state through a smooth circular tube having an inside diameter of 0.0508 m at an average velocity of
6.1 m/s. the flow properties of the fluid are n' = 0.3,Kp = 2.744 Pa.s n . Calculate the frictional pressure
drop across the tubing of 30.5 m long.

Solution

75
Exercise

5.1

5.2 Calculate the frictional pressure gradient –ΔPfs/L for a time independent non Newtonian fluid in
steady state flow in a cylindrical tube if
the liquid density the ρ = 1000 kg/m 3
inside diameter of the tube d = 0.08 m
the mean velocity u = l.0 m / s
the point pipe consistency coefficient K' = 2 Pa. s 0.5
and the flow behaviour index n' = 0.5.

76
 MODULE VI

LIQUID MIXIXNG
7.1. Introduction
Mixing is one of the most common operations carried out in the chemical, processing and allied
industries. The term "mixing" is applied to the processes used to reduce the degree of non-uniformity,
or gradient of a property in a system such as concentration, viscosity, temperature and so on. Mixing is
achieved by moving material from one region to another. It may be of interest simply as a means of
achieving a desired degree of homogeneity but it may also be used to promote heat and mass transfer,
often where a system is undergoing a chemical reaction. Another closely related operation is Agitation
which is not synonymous to mixing. Agitation refers to the induced motion of a material in a specified
way, usually in a circulatory pattern inside some sort of container while mixing is the random
distribution, into and through one another of two or more initially separate phases. a single
homogeneous material such as a tank full of cold water can be agitated but it cannot be mixed until
some other material such as a quantity of hot water or some powdered solid is added to it.
A mixing equipment which may be a rotating agitator
generates high velocity streams of liquid, which in turn
entrain stagnant or slower moving regions of liquid
resulting in uniform mixing by momentum
transfer. This equipment may then be designed not only to
achieve a predetermined level of homogeneity, but also to
improve heat transfer. For example, the rotational speed of
an impeller in a mixing vessel is selected so as to achieve a
required rate of heat transfer, and the agitation may then be
more than sufficient for the mixing duty . A typical
example of this equipment is a shown in Figure 7.1 Figure 7.1: A Typical
Mixing/Agitation Vessel
Several attempts have been made to classify mixing problems and prominent classification
usually adopted has been that which describes. This is probably the most useful description of mixing
as it allows the adoption of a unified approach to the problems encountered in a range of industries.
This includes:
Single-phase liquid mixing : Blending miscible liquids to give a product of a desired specification,
such as, in the blending of petroleum products of different viscosities.
Mixing of immiscible liquids : dispersing a second immiscible liquid with the first to form an
emulsion of suspension of fine drops. Liquid-liquid extraction is one important example of this type of
mixing.

94
Gas-liquid mixing : dispersing a gas through the liquid in the form of small bubbles . Examples are
aerobic fermentation, wastewater treatment, oxidation of hydrocarbons. The purpose of mixing here is
to produce a high interfacial area . Generally, gas liquid mixtures or dispersions are unstable and
separate rapidly if agitation is stopped, provided that a foam is not formed when a surface-active agent
is added.
Liquid-solids mixing : Mechanical agitation may be used to suspend particles in a liquid in order to
promote mass transfer or a chemical reaction. The liquids involved in such applications are usually of
low viscosity, and the particles will settle out when agitation ceases. At the other extreme, in the
formation of composite materials, especially filled polymers, fine particles must be dispersed into a
highly viscous Newtonian or non-Newtonian liquid. The incorporation of carbon black powder into
rubber is one example.
Gas-liquid-solids mixing : In some applications such as catalytic hydrogenation of vegetable oils,
slurry reactors, froth flotation, evaporative crystallisation, and so on, the success and efficiency of the
process is directly influenced by the extent of mixing between the three phases.
Solids-solids mixing: Mixing together of particulate solids, sometimes referred to as blending, is a
very complex process in that it is very dependent, not only on the character of the particles — density,
size, size distribution, shape and surface properties — but also on the differences of these properties in
the components. Mixing of sand, cement and aggregate to form concrete and of the ingredients in
gunpowder preparation are longstanding examples of the mixing of solids. Other industrial sectors
employing solids mixing include food, drugs, and the glass industries. All these applications involve
only physical contacting.

7.2 Mixing Mechanisms

If mixing is to be carried out in order to produce a uniform mixture, it is necessary to
understand how liquids move and approach this condition. In liquid mixing devices, it is necessary that
two requirements are fulfilled. Firstly, there must be bulk or convective flow so that there are no dead
(stagnant) zones. Secondly, there must be a zone of intensive or high-shear mixing in which the non-
homogeneities are broken down. All these factors are important in mixing, which can be described as
a combination of three physical processes: distribution, dispersion and diffusion. These processes are
energy-consuming and ultimately the mechanical energy is dissipated as heat; the proportion of energy
attributable to each varies from one application to another. Depending upon the fluid properties,
primarily viscosity, the flow in mixing vessels may be laminar or turbulent, with a substantial
transition zone in between the two, and frequently both flow types will occur simultaneously in
different parts of the vessel. Laminar and turbulent flow arise from different mechanisms, and it is
convenient to consider them separately.

7.2.1 Laminar Mixing

95
 Laminar flow is usually associated with high viscosity liquids (in excess of 10 N s/m 2) which may
be either Newtonian or non-Newtonian. This makes the inertial forces to die out quickly, and the
impeller of the mixer must cover a significant proportion of the cross-section of the vessel to impart
sufficient bulk motion. Here, the velocity gradients close to the rotating impeller are high, the fluid
elements in that region deform and stretch (thinning of fluid elements) through (i) laminar shear flow
(ii) extensional or elongational flow and (iii) molecular diffusion.
Both mechanisms of shear (Figure 7.2a) and elongation(Figure 7.2b), give rise to stresses in the
liquid which then effect a reduction in droplet size and an increase in interfacial area, by which means
the desired degree of homogeneity is obtained. In addition, molecular diffusion is always tending to
reduce inhomogeneities but its effect is not significant until the fluid elements have been reduced in
size sufficiently for their specific areas to become large. It must be recognized, however, that the
ultimate homogenisation of miscible liquids, can be only brought about by molecular diffusion. In the
case of liquids of high viscosity, this is a slow process

Figure 7.2a : The thinning of fluid elements Figure 7.2b : The thinning of fluid elements
due to laminar shear flow due to extensional flow
7.2.2 Turbulent Mixing
For low viscosity liquids (less than 10 mN s/m 2), the bulk flow pattern in mixing vessels with
rotating impellers is turbulent. The inertia imparted to the liquid by the rotating impeller is sufficient to
cause the liquid to circulate throughout the vessel and return to the impeller. Turbulent eddy diffusion
takes place throughout the vessel but is a maximum in the vicinity of the impeller. Eddy diffusion is
inherently much faster than molecular diffusion and, consequently, turbulent mixing occurs much more
rapidly than laminar mixing. Ultimately homogenisation at the molecular level depends on molecular
diffusion, which takes place more rapidly in low viscosity liquids. Mixing is most rapid in the region
of the impeller because of the high shear rates due to the presence of trailing vortices, generated by
disc-turbine impellers, and associated Reynolds stresses. Furthermore, a high proportion of the energy
is dissipated here.
Turbulent flow is inherently complex, and calculation of the flow fields prevailing in a mixing
vessel is not amenable to rigorous theoretical treatment. If the Reynolds numbers of the main flow is
sufficiently high, some insight into the mixing process can be gained by using the theory of local
isotropic turbulence
7.3. Mixing Equipment

96
 The wide range of mixing equipment available commercially reflects the enormous variety of
mixing duties encountered in the processing industries. It is reasonable to expect therefore that no
single item of mixing equipment will be able to carry out such a range of duties effectively. This has
led to the development of a number of distinct types of mixer over the years. The choice of a mixer
type and its design is primarily governed by experience. In the following sections, the main mechanical
features of commonly used types of equipment together with their range of applications are described.

7.3.1. Mechanical agitation (Agitator)

This is perhaps the most commonly used method of mixing liquids (Figure 7.1) , and essentially there
are three elements in such devices.
7.3.1.1 Vessels
These are often vertically mounted cylindrical tanks, up to 10 m in diameter, which typically are
filled to a depth equal to about one diameter, although in some gas-liquid contacting systems tall
vessels are used and the liquid depth is up to about three tank diameters; multiple impellers fitted on
a single shaft are then frequently used. The base of the tanks may be flat, dished, or conical, or
specially contoured, depending upon factors such as ease of emptying, or the need to suspend solids.
Other horizontally mounted vessels are also available such as those for the batch mixing of viscous
pastes and doughs using ribbon impellers and Z blade mixers.

7.3.1.2 Baffles
To prevent gross vortexing, which is detrimental to mixing, particularly in low viscosity systems,
baffles are often fitted to the walls of the vessel. These take the form of thin strips about one-tenth
of the tank diameter in width, and typically four equi-spaced baffles may be used. In some cases, the
baffles are mounted flush with the wall, although occasionally a small clearance is left between the
wall and the baffle to facilitate fluid motion in the wall region. Baffles are, however, generally not
required for high viscosity liquids because the viscous shear is then sufficiently great to damp out
the rotary motion. Sometimes, the problem of vortexing is circumvented by mounting impellers off-
centre.
7.3.1.3 Impellers
Some of the impellers which are frequently used are as shown in Figure 7.3. Propellers, turbines,
paddles, anchors, helical ribbons and screws are usually mounted on a central vertical shaft in a
cylindrical tank, and they are selected for a particular duty largely on the basis of liquid viscosity.
Propellers, turbines and paddles are generally used with relatively low viscosity systems and operate
at high rotational speeds. A typical velocity for the tip of the blades of a turbine is of the order of 3
m/s, with a propeller being a little faster and the paddle a little slower. These are classed as remote-
clearance impellers, having diameters in the range (0.13 - 0.67) x (tank diameter). Anchors, helical
ribbons and screws, are generally used for high viscosity liquids. The anchor and ribbon are

97
 arranged with a close clearance at the vessel wall, whereas the helical screw has a smaller diameter
and is often used inside a draft tube to promote fluid motion throughout the vessel. Helical ribbons
or interrupted ribbons are often used in horizontally mounted cylindrical vessels. A guide for the
selection of a type of impeller is given in Table 7.1

Figure 7.3: Commonly used impellers (a) Three-bladed propeller (b) Six-bladed disc turbine
(Rushton turbine) (c) Simple paddle (d) Anchor impeller (e) Helical ribbon (/) Helical screw
with draft tube (g) Z-blade mixer (h) Banbury mixer

Table 7.1: Impeller selection guide

7.3.2. Portable mixers

For a wide range of applications, a portable mixer which can be clamped on the top or side of
the vessel is often used. This is commonly fitted with two propeller blades so that the bottom rotor

98
forces the liquid upwards and the top rotor forces the liquid downwards. The power supplied is up to
about 2 kW, though the size of the motor becomes too great at higher powers. To avoid excessive
strain on the armature, some form of flexible coupling should be fitted between the motor and the main
propeller shaft. Units of this kind are usually driven at a fairly high rate (15 Hz), and a reduction gear
can be fitted to the unit fairly easily for low-speed operations although this increases the mass of the
unit.
7.7.3. Extruders
Mixing duties in the plastics industry are often carried out in either single or twin screw extruders. The
feed to such units usually contains the base polymer in either granular or powder form, together with
additives such as stabilisers, pigments, plasticisers, and so on. During processing in the extruder the
polymer is melted and the additives mixed. The extrudate is delivered at high pressure and at a
controlled rate from the extruder for shaping by means of either a die or a mould. In the typical single-
screw shown in Figure 7.4a, the shearing which occurs in the helical channel between the barrel and
the screw is not intense, and therefore this device does not give good mixing. Twin screw extruders, as
shown in Figure 7.4b, may be co or counter-rotating, and here, there are regions where the rotors are in
close proximity thereby generating extremely high shear stresses. Clearly, twin-screw units can yield a
product of better mixture quality than a single-screw machine.

Figure 7.4a: Single-screw extruder Figure 7.4b: Co-rotating twin-screw extruder

7.3.4. Static mixers
All the mixers described so far have been of the dynamic type in the sense that moving blades are used
to impart motion to the fluid and produce the mixing effect. In static mixers, sometimes called "in-line"
or "motionless" mixers, the fluids to be mixed are pumped through a pipe containing a series of
specially shaped stationary blades. Static mixers can be used with liquids of a wide range of viscosities
in either the laminar or turbulent regimes, but their special features are perhaps best appreciated in
relation to laminar flow mixing. The flow patterns within the mixer are complex.

A particular type of static mixer in which a series of stationary helical blades mounted in a circular
pipe is used to divide and twist the flowing streams is as shown on Figure 7.5a . In laminar flow,
(Figure 7.5b) the material divides at the leading edge of each of these elements and follows the
channels created by the element shape.

99
Figure 7.5a: Twisted-blade type of static mixer Figure 7.5b:. Twisted-blade type of static mixer
elements operating in the laminar flow regime (a)
Distributive mixing mechanism showing, in
principle, the reduction in striation thickness
produced (h) Radial mixing contribution
from laminar shear mechanism

7.4. Scale-Up of Stirred Vessels

One of the problems confronting the designers of
mixing equipment is that of deducing the most
satisfactory arrangement for a large unit from
experiments with small units. In order to achieve
the same kind of flow pattern in two units,
geometrical, kinematic, and dynamic similarity
and identical boundary conditions must be
maintained. It has been found convenient to relate
the power used by the agitator to the geometrical
and mechanical arrangement of the mixer, and
thus to obtain a direct indication of the change in
power arising from alteration of any of the factors
relating to the mixer. A typical mixer arrangement Figure 7.5. Typical configuration and
is shown in Figure 7.6, dimensions of an agitated vessel

For similarity in two mixing systems, it is important to achieve geometric kinematic and dynamic
similarity.
Geometric similarity: prevails between two systems of different sizes if all counterpart length
dimensions have a constant ratio. Thus the following ratios must be the same in two systems:

100
 7.1
Kinematic similarity exists in two geometrically similar units when the velocities at corresponding
points have a constant ratio. Also, the paths of fluid motion (flow patterns) must be alike.
Dynamic similarity occurs in two geometrically similar units of different sizes if all corresponding
forces at counterpart locations have a constant ratio. It is necessary here to distinguish between the
various types of force: inertial, gravitational, viscous, surface tension and other forms, such as normal
stresses in the case of viscoelastic non-Newtonian liquids. Some or all of these forms may be
significant in a mixing vessel. Considering corresponding positions in systems 1 and 2 which refer to
the laboratory and large scale, respectively, when the different types of force occurring are F a, Fb, Fc
and so on dynamic similarity requires that:

7.2
Some of the various types of forces that may be arise during mixing or agitation will be formulated:

101
102
7.5 Power Curve

103
 Figure 7.6: Power Curve for the Standard Tank Configuration with Baffles

Figure 7.7: Power Curve for the Standard Tank Configuration without Baffles

104
Example 7.1 Example 7.2 :
Calculate the theoretical power in Watt for a 3 Calculate the theoretical power in Watt for a 0.1 m
m diameter, 6-blade flat blade turbine agitator diameter, 6-blade flat blade turbine agitator running
running at 0.2 rev/s in a tank system at 16 rev/s in a tank system without baffles and
conforming to the standard tank configuration. conforming to the standard tank configuration. The
The liquid in the tank has a dynamic viscosity liquid in the tank has a dynamic viscosity of 0.08
of 1 Pa.s, and a liquid density of 1000 kg/m 3 Pa.s, and a liquid density of 900 kg/m3

105