General Methods of Teaching

UNIT ONE

Introduction to Instructional Methods

Introduction

In this unit you will learn a lot about varied definitions of terms like teaching, learning, active
learning method, method and principles. In addition, you will be equipped with the
characteristics of effective teaching and learning, core qualities of an effective teacher, different
types of instructional methods and their application, principles of teaching and the major criteria
for selecting instructional methods. It is worth noting that you should invest your time and
energy on planned basis.

Learning outcomes: After the completion of this unit, the trainees will be able to:

 Define the terms, “Teaching” , “Learning” , principles and “methods”

 List down the major features of teaching, learning, and the actors’ roles

 Identify the responsibilities and the expected qualities of primary school teachers

 Identify the major principles of teaching

 Write active learning methods that are suitable to primary school students

 Apply the active learning methods in their respective fields of specialization

 Discuss the advantages and limitations of each method of teaching

 Select the appropriate method of teaching using specific criteria

Section 1.1: Definition of Terms

Teaching is defined as:

• Any form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the ways in which other persons can or
will behave" (Gagne: 1963a)

•An interactive process, primarily involving classroom talk, which takes place between teacher
and pupils & occurs during certain definable activities"(Amidon& Hunter: 1967)

•Teaching denotes action undertaken with the intention of bringing about learning in another"
(Robertson: 1987)

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Teaching denotes:

 An activity or action: You can see teaching taking place

 A process : It involves a series of actions and decisions of the teacher
 An interpersonal activity: Interpersonal refers to the fact that teaching involves
interactions between a teacher and one or more students
 Intentional: There is some purpose or set of purposes for which teaching occurs. This
purpose is bringing about learning on the part of the learner.

Sub-section one: Characteristics of Effective Teaching

• Clarity of the teacher’s explanations and directions.

• Establishing a task-oriented classroom climate.
• Making use of a variety of learning activities.
• Establishing and maintaining momentum and pace for the lesson.
• Encouraging students’ participation and getting all of them involved.
• Monitoring pupils’ progress and attending quickly to pupils’ needs.
• Delivering a well-structured and well organized lesson.
• Providing pupils with positive and constructive feedback.
• Ensuring coverage of the educational objectives.
• Making good use of questioning techniques

Learning is defined as:

1. A persisting change in human performance or performance potential . . . (brought) about as a

result of the learner’s interaction with the environment (Driscoll, 1994)

2. The relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience

(Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).

3. An enduring changes in behavior or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results
from practice or other forms of experience (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).

4. It is the lifelong process of transforming information into knowledge, skills, behaviors and
attitudes.

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Activity one

Argue in group on the following two statements through citing tangible examples and share to
the whole class.

1. There can be teaching without learning.

2. There can be learning without teaching.

Sub-section two: Characteristics of Effective Learning:

• It is meaningful to the students

• Students can use it, connect it to their lives, or actively participate in it

• It allows students to move further than memorization of facts and bits of knowledge

• It prepares the students to understand and participate in a complex world.

• It encourage students to investigate, to understand the world around them, to analyze, to

draw conclusions & to communicate – in other words, TO THINK.

Principles are defined as fundamental norms, rules, or values that represent what is desirable and
positive for a person, group, organization, or community and it helps in determining the
rightfulness or wrongfulness of it action, Principles are more basic than policy and objectives,
and are meant to govern both.

Teaching Method is defined as: A systematic order imposed up on teaching activities. These
teaching activities can be expressed in terms of the teacher activity and students’ activity in a
given lesson. Methods are ways by which the teacher imparts (conveys the facts, ideas, concepts,
etc. to the learners to help them acquire the necessary knowledge, develop skills and values.
They are how teachers transmit lesson content to facilitate information to students. They are the
means by which the teacher attempts to bring about the desired learning. Instructional methods
are not ENDS by themselves by MEANS to achieve the intended objectives of instruction. The
different methods that are available to teachers are varied and many in their nature and values.

Sub-section three: What is active learning?

 A situation where students are active participants in their own learning rather than passive
receivers of knowledge
 Students engage in some activity that forces them to think about and comment on the
information presented

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 The focus in active-learning is on generating knowledge through a process of inquiry,

observation, analysis and problem solving
 Active learning is defined as learning in which the child, by acting on objects and
interacting with people, ideas, and events, constructs new understanding.
 No one else can have experiences for the child or construct knowledge for the child.
Children must do this for themselves.
 Active Learning refers to techniques where students do more than simply listen to a
lecture.
 Students are doing something including discovering, processing, and applying
information (McKinney 2007).

Sub-section four: Characteristics of Active Learning

 Engages students beyond reading, listening, and note-taking

 Promotes deep learning, not just acquisition of facts
 Develops higher order thinking skills (e.g. analysis, synthesis, evaluation) through
intentionally designed activities
 Often involves interaction among students
 Requires students to take greater responsibility for their learning
 Teachers help students to monitor their own learning and discover what they do and do
not understand
 Helps students build competencies (e.g., problem-solving, critical thinking,
communication) as well as content knowledge

Section 1.2: Major Kinds of Teaching Principles

There are nine principles of teaching as discussed below:

1. The principle of uniting instruction with the political, economic and social policy of
the country: This indicates that instruction must be related with the life of the learners.
The curriculum of a country will not be different from a reflection of the socio-political
realities in the society. Hence the teacher has the responsibility to create the link between
the contents of instruction and the political, economic and social expectations sought to
be developed.
2. The Principle of connecting instruction with social life: The main purpose of this
principle is preparing students for productive work. This is in other words interested in
linking theory with practice like for instance; extracurricular (clubs) activities at schools.
3. The Principle of integrating instructions of different subjects: The main objectives of
school instruction are to enable the students to use facts of the different subjects
(horizontal relationship) jointly in social life. Subject integration leads to students’ unity
of thinking, outlook, skills, attitudes etc. the application of the principle requires analysis
of the syllabus in their points of contact with other subjects (their interrelations) and
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using the relations to elaborate basic terms, concepts and ideas of general importance.
This principle assists students develop a unified view of the issue under discussion.
4. The Principle of guiding the activities of learners (the principle of teacher’s leading
role and students’ independent work): The leading roles of the teacher are planning,
organizing, guiding students, encouraging, stimulating, facilitating, which are the basic
for successful learning. Learners’ self-activity is so important for the development of
initiation, creativity, etc. the principle tells us that the learners in our classrooms are not
passive recipient of knowledge.
The application of the principle requires:
 Proper planning, organizing, directing, controlling and evaluating students’ tasks;
 Conscious guidance of students learning (motives, attitudes, knowledge, capacity,
conviction etc.)
 Initiating and stimulating students’ activities/practice.
 Developing step-by-step students-self activity.
5. Principle of marking instruction comprehensive: The main educational aim of this
principle is to make the instructional process suitable for student’s demands, knowledge,
capacity, abilities, will power etc. Some of the rules in making instruction
comprehensive are to proceed from concrete to abstract, from known to the unknown,
from easy to difficult, from nearer to further, etc.
6. The principle of vividness in instruction (the principle of giving clear ideas in
instruction): Successful learning always depends on the learner’s clear perception of all
important parts of the content. Instruction should be clear so that knowledge is based on
sufficiently clear and lively perception and conception. It takes into account the
connection between sensual and theoretical and between cognition and practice in the
organization of the instructional process. This is because the elements of cognition
(sensation, imagination/thinking) are fundamentals of man’s understanding. Its
application requires the use of instructional aids as much as demonstrating to students the
concrete parts, aspects, problems or phenomenon by means of real objects, models,
charts, maps or explanations and descriptions etc.
7. The principle of understanding individual difference in instruction (the principle of
approaching students personality based upon collective activity): The teacher should
know the cognitive abilities and physical maturity of students.
Its application requires considering students’ individual difference (ability to perform a
certain task or operate a given machine) and applying different approached to address the
difference. Remember individuals greatly differ in comprehending the same thing.
8. The principle of applicability and durability of the results of instruction (the
principle of stabilizing the results of instruction permanently):
The quality of instruction is measured by its results and these results must be applicable
and durable. Instruction requires planned repetition, summary, exercise and various
applications of knowledge, abilities and skills. Its application requires keeping in mind

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the importance of stabilization (repetition, summarizing, applying) to gain a solid and

applicable knowledge and to prevent forgetting. And this influences all steps of teaching
like having interesting beginning, planned repetition, and summary, intensive exercise,
checking and evaluation, etc.
9. The principle of shaping instruction systematically according to the curriculum:

The implementation of this principle requires the study of the curriculum materials (the
syllabus, textbook, teacher’s guide and instructional materials), the development of clearly
defined objectives in all levels of planning, organization of the subject matter in line with the
students ability, maturation interest and background.

Section 1.3: Major Categories of Instructional Methods

There are two major categories of instructional methods. These are teacher-centered.

Sub-section one: Teacher-Centered Method

This is a teacher-dominated approach. The teacher monitors both their rate of classroom activity
and the pattern of classroom interaction, which will result in the immediate disappearance of the
knowledge acquired. Some educators call this method as the authoritarian method for one
person, the teacher, set the task, prescribes procedures and judge results without permitting
others to chare in the decision process. In other words, free time for independent work is given
no room, as the teacher’s presentation of new information is a highly monitored and governed
session.

In sessions of this sort, the student is an individual who passively absorbs the learning and the
teacher pours into her/him. That is to mean, in such an approach, less emphasis is given in
creating situations where by students will find answers for them and do their own learning. And
we are likely to create situations where by we think we can direct and control and be sure they
learn what they are supposed to. The teacher will do most of the talking and it is the student’s
duty to listen to what the teacher has to say, commit into memory and repeat it during recitation
periods or in examinations.

 Some characteristics of the teacher-centered methods

 There is high percentage of academic learning time;
 The teacher engages the students on the task promptly and keeps them on the activity
until its completion;
 The teacher is active in explaining, monitoring and describing;
 Interaction and socializations among or in between students is kept to the minimum as
the students are awfully busy with the tasks given by the teacher;
 Mastery learning is highly stressed;
 Use of extrinsic reward-praise, good grade;

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 Use punishment-usually hard punishment;

 Use of assessment and feedback-terminal or summative

Sub-section two: Student- Centered Method.

In the student-centered instructional method, students are active participant in their own learning
instead of passive receivers of information. Their previous knowledge and experience are so
crucial and valued since they help to construct new knowledge. And the role of the teacher is
creating conducive environment for learning and offering a guide, stage settings facilitating,
observing and evaluating his/her students in a more objective way. In other words, the teacher as
a facilitator and co-worker is not expected to only give information, but also to design
instructions that would lead students learning for understanding through debating, interrogating,
discussion, creating exploration, etc.

In general, the guiding principle of the student- centered instructional method adheres that
learning should be focusing on quality rather than on quantity and on understanding rather than
on memorization.

 Some Characteristics of the Student-Centered Methods

 Learners are actively engaged in solving problems in lieu of being receivers of
knowledge;
 Teachers produce conducive environment to learn via facilitation and guidance;
 Prior knowledge and experience of learners is integrated to the learning process;
 Students learn through the integration of theory and practice;
 Use of intrinsic reward-students motivates themselves and which in turn makes to have
effective learning;
 Use of some punishment-using reasons rather than power;
 Use of assessment and feedback any assessment is formative.

Activity two

Bring to your mind your primary and secondary school teachers. How many of them did use
teacher –centered and student-centered methods? Reflect first individually and then in pair,
lastly in group. Your reflection should consider different subjects. In addition, make a
comparison among female teachers and male teachers.

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UNIT TWO

Types of Instructional Methods

1. The Lecture Method

A face-to face teaching approach where the teacher explains, elaborates, tells the facts, events,
ideas, etc. It refers to one way flow of information (from the teacher to the student). It is a verbal
presentation about materials to be learnt.

Conditions necessitating the use of lecture method

1. The need to explain, elaborate, simplify materials, which the students are not familiar.
2. The need to cover a lot of material in a short time.
3. When there is no sufficient material for students and if it is to be covered by teacher’s
detailed preparation.
4. When there is lack of teachers.
Types of lecture methods

a. Formal (Unmodified): This is characterized by the lack of discussion or interaction in

between the teacher and the students. The teacher lectures continuously for a long time
being uninterrupted. This method is not suitable for first and second cycle students.
Because the students have less retention power and cannot concentrate for a long time.
b. Informal (Modified): Takes into account the participation of students like asking giving
suggestions and answering to questions. Here, there is an interruption. It is possible to use
such an approach in the lower grades together with other methods.

2. The Demonstration Method

It is carried out by showing some natural phenomena, real objects, models, and processes to the
learner. The method combines a verbal explanation with practical illustrations, handing or
operation of equipment or materials. It develops both mental and motor skills of the learners for
it involves observation participation and practice.

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The demonstration method has the following steps:

1. Explanation
2. Demonstration
3. the students performance
4. The instructor’s supervision.
5. Evaluation of the demonstration process.
To make this method effective, the teacher needs to:

 Determine the right time for demonstration

 Prepare the necessary materials in advance
 Make students clear with the aim of the demonstration.
 Make sure that the sitting arrangement is in order all students can see and hear.
 Be certain that the safety rules are observed
 Summarize what she/he has demonstrated.
Types of demonstration method

a. Formal demonstration: This is the case where the teacher demonstrates the lesson to his
students. It is used.

1. When there is lack of materials for each student.

2. When the materials are dangerous to be handled by students.
c. Informal Method: In such a method the learners do the demonstration themselves. The
role of the teacher will be supervising the demonstration conducted by the learners and
offering some help when the need arises.
3. The Group Discussion Method

It is a method that encourages students’ active participation in exchanging their views.

It is used for gaining new knowledge, solving problems, forming attitudes, developing the ability
of arguing interpreting, discussing gaining linguistic abilities and skills.

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There are four methods of grouping students as listed below:

 Arbitrary  according to lists of names or sitting arrangements.

 Ability  students having similar abilities sit together.
 Mixed  deliberately composed group.
 Compatibility  students who like each other or one another and work well.
The type of discussion could be in large group or small group. In the case of small group
discussion, the students are divided into small groups and make a brief discussion of a certain
issue. It helps to get the view of every student without any hesitation.

Procedures:

 Divide the class in to small groups of 3-6 pupils.

 Arrange the chairs in circle to face each other.
 Ask them to elect a chairperson and a secretary.
 Tell them the question for discussion (it should be under stood).
 Tell the amount of time they will have for discussion possibly 5-10 minutes.
 Inform them that “X” minutes are left before the time is up.
 The secretary must summarize and report the main points on the chalkboard.
 Avoid repetition.
4. Panel discussion method: It is discussion between a group of people who have a special
knowledge and interest in the topic to be discussed. It has a chairperson, panel members and the
audience. And there is a give and take with the class. It helps in facilitating learning through
sharing of knowledge and experience.

5. Debating method: Debate is a very formal approach consisting of sets of speeches by

participants of two opposing teams and a rebuttal by each participant.

Debating requires skills of:

 Critical analysis
 The art of persuasion
 Rapid rebuttal

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6. Brainstorming Method

This is a discussion in which the members of the group are encouraged to generate
different ideas on a given problem or a topic. The members relax and give their opinions freely
and without self-censoring.

Four basic Rules for Brain Storming Session:

1. Criticism is forbidden and adverse judgments of ideas must be held until the end.
2. No matter how unworkable and unacceptable the idea may seem it should be
accepted.
3. Quantity is wanted. That is the greater number of ideas; the greater will be devising
solutions for problem.
4. Combination and improvements are sought. Besides to contributing ideas of their
own, participants should suggest how others ideas could be improved.* A secretary
(other than the teacher) notes all suggestion that are advanced and later the judging
committee screens.

7. The Questioning Method: It is a method, which is conducted by asking questions. The

students ask and the teacher responds or redirects the questions. This method can be used at any
grade level if it is planned and conducted properly. The classification of questions could be:

a. Cognitive memory questions- these are narrow and need little or no thinking e.g. when
operation sunset’ was started?

b. Convergent questions: they are narrow though they may require some thinking. But, ones
thought out; there is a correct answer and usually one correct answer.

E.g. If the area of a triangle is 12cm2 and one of the sides is 4cm, find the other side.

c. Divergent question- these are wide open questions. No one can predict what the answer will
or should be. They do not have one best answer. E.g. what are the advantages of learning in
one’s mother tongue language?

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d. Evaluative Questions- these are questions that ask students to put a value on something.
These are questions in which students pass judgments on some actions.

E.g. how do you evaluate the implementation of the new curriculum in Ethiopia?

Factors that are to be considered during questioning are:

1. The question to be asked should be as precise and clear as possible

2. The question should be thought provoking and involve vital aspect of the lesson.
3. It should be in line with the level of the knowledge of the students.
4. It should not be of the type of be answered by a ‘yes’ or ‘no’
5. Prepare the question to be asked in advance.
6. Ask the question before naming the student.
7. Give time for though. Do not use a machine gun approach.
8. Involve as many students as possible.
8. Dramatization: refers to the acting out of any situation either spontaneously or with a
prepared script. The situation may be real or fictitious. It can be divided into Miming and
Acting.

 Miming: In this form of dramatization, the actor or actress speaks no word but
communicates to his/her audience thoughts and actions through movement of his/her
body gesture with his/her hands, face, and head.
 Acting: In here, there is movement and dialogue. The actor or actress utters something
accompanied by his/her physical movements in order to convey his/her message
effectively.
9. The Role Playing Method: is a deliberate acting out of a role in a classroom. It is
unrehearsed dramatization but differs from dramatization in that it does not require the
study of a script and memorization of the parts of the play. In role playing the
spontaneous action comes directly from the actor’s or actress’s creative use of his/her
own experience. This method enables the learners see the reality through the eyes of
others and is followed by discussion. The role-playing method enables the learners to see
the reality through the eyes of other. The following are examples of role-play for the
purpose of training skills inhuman relations.

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Prerequisites for Good classroom Role-playing:

1. The class should have a common interest in the issue or the problem under discussion
2. The participant’s actor’s knowledge of the issue.
3. It should be regarded as a means of learning, not as an entertainment.
10. The Problem Solving Method: encourages students to learn through finding solutions for
problems. Individuals or group of student can do it. Problem solving involves:

1. Identifying the problem.

2. Thinking of possible solutions (hypotheses or approaches to take in solving the problem).
3. Testing (verifying) the tentative solutions or approaches.
4. Rejecting the tentative solution or approaches that do not meet the requirements and
trying other new ones till the solution is achieved and this is the reason why this method
is called trial and error learning. The problem should be higher than the present levels of
the students’ knowledge so as to make students fill the gap.
11. The project Method: is an assigned activity in which a student or group of students work
on some specific task so as to produced tangible product. It is a natural and life related learning
activity that involves investigation and problem solving. This method is more applicable in the
practical fields such as technical education, agriculture and etc.

12. The Field Trip Method: In this method, students are taken out to visit places, historical
sites, factories, farms, workshops, service giving institutions, geological areas etc. and get
knowledge. It requires pre-visit arrangement (plan), the visit and after trip discussions. It helps
students to get acquainted with the actual environment.

13. Active Listening method: You give your students an activity or “job” to perform as they
listen. Sometimes this may involve an activity they need to complete as they “listen”, or it could
be a handout to fill in, a series of questions to answer, or objectives to target. Basically, the
teacher guides the students to what they should be listening for, and prepares them for what they
are about to hear, so they can listen actively.

14. Balloon Game method

The students are given the names of a number of important people who are in an imaginary
“balloon”.
The balloon is sinking, so the only way to keep it from falling to the ground is to throw out one
of the people. They have to discuss which person they would throw out first, which second, and
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which third…etc. You can do this with famous scientists, modern inventions, historical figures,
formulas, medicines…whatever you can think of! This forces the students to make a decision and
argue their position.

15. Experimentation method

An experiment is when students put a hypothesis to the test. Basically, an experiment involves
taking a theory or idea, and testing to see if it is true. It usually involves a very specific and
controlled method of procedure, and results are usually recorded. From these results, a
conclusion is derived. An experiment can also answer the question “What if?” Experiments can
take many forms. They can be scientific explorations, laboratory experiments, behavioral
experiments, educational experiments, pilot projects, and field experiments. Sometimes it can
just be trying something new and seeing if it works

16. Goldfish Bowl method:

This is a very useful exercise to use when you want to discuss a “hot topic”. Select two students
(one male and one female if possible) to sit back to back in the center of the room with other
students grouped around. Each student is assigned a particular view (or side of the issue). They
have to debate the view. If another student wants to join in, he/she goes to the center and taps the
person they want to replace on the shoulder and takes their seat. Each person should be replaced
in turn. The teacher can also intervene to get other students involved. Sometimes it is good to
let the students know the topic before so that they have time to form opinions and arguments

17. Hot Seating method

Either one member of the class is assigned to be a character or one member of each small group.
These can be from literature, a person from history, a famous scientist, or a famous
politician…any famous personality! The member is placed in the center of the room/ group to
role play the character. Other members of the class/ group direct questions to the person in the
center who has to respond as that person After 10 minutes, change the person in the center and
the character.

18. Interview method

This is a great way to get experts into your classroom. Invite a guest speaker to attend your class
who is an expert in your field of study. Tell the students ahead of time, and have them research
that topic and prepare questions to ask the guest speaker. Then, when the guest arrives, allow the
guest to do a short introduction about their area of expert. Follow this by allowing the students to
intensively interview the person. This is a great way of connecting the actual reality of your
subject to enter the class. You can interview scientists, historians, politicians, personalities
within the school surrounding!

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19. Investigation method

To investigate is to search. With this activity, you give your students a topic, theory, issue, or
idea to “investigate”. They then spend some time researching this subject in detail. You might
guide them and push them to look at the issue from every angle. Then after, they can provide
feedback about their investigation in a number of ways: an essay, a presentation, a
demonstration, a report, or any other idea they can come up with.
20. ICT Method
This is simply allowing the students to use computers to either complete an activity or to find
information. You may give them an internet search as an activity. Or you may design resource
materials for you class, with an assignment and put it on the university network so they can
complete it.
21. Jigsaw Method
You divide the class into groups. Letter name is assigned to each member. Each group is given a
“specialist” topic and each member of that group has to become an expert in that topic. You can
do this as a homework activity, or as a multi lesson activity. After they have become an expert,
you separate the “specialist” groups and form new groups. The new groups are made up of one
specialist from each of the original groups. They then work together to teach each other the
information they learned in their original group.

22. Mastery Learning method: Mastery learning is when the instructor pushes the students to
master or perfect the learning. You are designing activities that push the students to perfectly
know the information, skills, or attitudes you are teaching. In a way, you are setting the students
an achievable challenge that will make them think and master the concept.

23. Microteaching method: This is when the students model or try out different teaching
methods with a small group. There is usually a time limit of 10 to 15 minutes for the teaching to
take place. The students then give the “teacher” feedback on their mini lesson and the methods
used.
The feedback includes some positive points about the teaching, as well as constructive feedback.
This can be done in any subject and is ideal to use with students training to be teachers.

24. Mind Map method: A mind map is a visual representation of ideas on any given topic. The
students write the topic to be explored in the centre of the page, using three colors and an image
attached to the topic. Then, they branch out on sub topics, which are then broken down into
smaller sub topics. Each branch should be a separate color, with one word written above
indicating the sub topic. From these main branches, smaller branches will go off in different
directions, each with a different piece of information about that subtopic. Mind maps should be
colorful and can include pictures to help the students remember the information.

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25. Pair Discussion method: This is an activity when you put your students into pairs. This can
be done with the person they are sitting beside, or you can put them in pairs with people they
haven’t worked with before. In the pair, they will complete a task, discuss a topic, and/or prepare
feedback to the large group. This is a good activity to do before a large group discussion because
it will give shy students a chance to voice ideas with a friend before they speak in front of the
whole group. It also leads nicely into a pyramiding activity.

26. Peer Assessment method: Peer assessment is when you have your students assess each
other. This may involve them marking each other’s work, giving feedback on teaching, editing or
checking work before submission, grading presentations, and giving comments on each other’s
performance.

27. Presentation method: A presentation is an activity where students present a topic in front of
their class. This can be done individually or as a group. Students need good public presentation
skills. With a presentation, you are not just teaching the topic, but are also teaching the students
HOW to present. When giving the presentation assignment, also give clear criteria about what
makes an effective presentation. Explain about the WAY they are to deliver the information
(organization, visual aids, voice, clarity of expression, and body language).
Also give criteria about the content of the presentation (evidence of research, originality of
ideas, effectiveness of argument, ability to answer questions).

28. Reflection method: Reflection is a great activity because it allows the students to take some
quiet, personal time to “reflect” or think over what they have learned in the lesson. This can take
many forms. Reflection can be done as a thought bubble, where they write one or two things
they’ve learnt from the class on a piece of paper or yellow stick to be put on a bubble. It can be
also being done as a diary entry with questions supplied by the teacher. It might be done as a
brainstorm, or as a mind map. In any case, a reflective activity should allow the students 5 – 10
minutes to quietly look at themselves and what they learned in your lesson.

30. Self Assessment method: Self-assessment is when learners evaluate themselves and what
they have learned. One way to do this is to have the students mark their own work. The purpose
of doing this is so that the students become aware of what they know and what they don’t know!
They become owners of their own learning. Another way to do self-assessment is to have them
complete a questionnaire about themselves and their learning. Lastly, you can also have your
students grade their own performance in your lessons. Have them grade their work and then
compare it with the mark you give them.

31. Storytelling method: Storytelling can take two forms: either the instructor tells a story, or
the students tell a story. In some cases, the instructor might start the story, and have each
student contribute to the tale. It is a great way to practice language, and makes the students use

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their listening skills! Another way to use storytelling is for the instructor to read a story and then
ask the students questions after to test understanding and listening.

32. Pyramiding method: Pyramiding is a method of teaching where you start with the
individual and move to the whole group. Give your students a task to finish, a problem to solve,
an assignment to complete, or an issue to think about. They are to do this individually for a
specified amount of time. Next, have them get into pairs and compare what they have written.
As a pair, the students come up with a new answer together or verify that they have the same
answer. Have the students move into groups of four. Again, they compare their answers and
discuss. Last, get feedback from the whole class. You do not have to get every group to give an
answer. Instead, pick specific students to share important points their group raised. If it is a
problem that is solved, have one, two or three groups put their answer on the board. This can be a
great introductory activity, taking 20 minutes, or it can be expanded to last an entire class. You
can also do stages of it as homework.

33. Case Studies method: You provide the students with two or more different situations or
scenarios and the students have to study the situation and describe how they would deal with that
situation. These studies should be based on real life, and force the students to make a decision on
how they would deal with the situation.

34. Creative Writing method: Creative writing is when the students use their imagination to
create a piece of writing. This can take the form of story writing, drama presentations, poetry,
imaginary newspaper articles, magazines, creative research papers, and other fiction and
nonfiction forms of writing. It is a good way for students to put knowledge into a creative
context

35. Crossover method: Students are divided into groups to discuss a specific topic (in any
subject). After 5 minutes, 2 members of the group move to another group to share ideas from
their original group. From their sharing, more discussion is developed. After 5 minutes, they will
cross-over or “move” to another group.
This will ensure that the information you want the students to learn, travels through the entire
class. This avoids the need for a lot of feedback.

Sub-section three: Qualities of an effective teacher

• Has excellent subject knowledge or mastery

• Provides work that is challenging for students

• Has smooth relations with students

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• Manages the class well

• Plans his/her lessons well

• Adopts a variety of teaching methods and media

• Considers the needs of the different ability groups within the class

• Makes good use of a variety of questioning techniques

• Is friendly, with a sense of humor

• Gives feedback within an appropriate timescale.

• Is confident, open to suggestions, other viewpoints, etc?

Activity three

1. Identify one female model teacher and one male model teacher either from your primary
school or secondary school who fit the above mentioned criteria.
2. Classify the above mentioned types of instructional methods into teacher-centered and
student-centered.

Sub-section four: Major Criteria used for Selecting Instructional Methods

 Objectives of the lesson;

 Content of the lesson;
 Time of the lesson;
 Availability of instructional media;
 Background of the learners, etc.

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UNIT THREE

Instructional Planning
Introduction

Dear learner, welcome to the third unit. One of the essential factors that determine the quality of
education is an instructional plan. Therefore, school teachers should prepare a plan and use it
effectively so that there will be successful teaching as well as learning. In this unit, you will be
exposed to nature of instructional plan, merits of instructional plan, fundamental questions of
instructional plan, types of objectives, and types of lesson plans.

Learning outcomes: After completing this unit, the trainees will be able to:

 Discuss why teachers need to plan.

 Relate the fundamental questions of instructional planning to the actual lesson plans

 Identify the core levels of instructional planning

 Plan their lessons at different level

 Design appropriate lesson plans in their respective fields of specialization

 Assess the merits of instructional planning

 Implement lesson plans effectively

Section 3.1: Definition of a plan?

Some of the definitions of the term plan are:

 A plan is a guide map for action;

 A plan is an experience in anticipatory teaching;
 A plan is a blue print;
 A plan is a direction for future activities, etc.

Activity one

1. Create your own definitions for the word Plan.

2. What would be the challenges of teaching in the classroom without lesson plan?

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Section 3.2: Merits of an instructional plan

Different scholars have forwarded some of the following merits of having a plan

 Helps ensure subject mastery;

 Enables to select appropriate instructional methods;
 Avoids crisis in the classroom;
 Develops more confidence;
 Enables to use different instructional media;
 Realizes wise usage of time;
 Fixes the direction of teaching-learning process;
 Helps avoid needles repetition;
 Gives substitute teachers a basis for presenting real lesson;
 Gives outline to follow as one teaches a lesson;
 Enables to anticipate the implementation of activities;
 Assures the attainability of instructional objectives, etc.
1.1 Major characteristics of instructional plan

Section 3.3: major criteria that a quality plan should fit

A. Objectivity: denotes that a lesson plan should be based on the existing reality of the
country;
B. Logical Sequence: implies that contents and activities in a lesson plan should be arranged
in logical order. In other words, lesson contents should proceed from simple to difficult,
from near to far, from known to unknown, from concrete to abstract, etc.
C. Flexibility: expresses that a lesson plan should be open to make necessary amendments
when unpredictable problems face and when there is transfer of teachers.
D. Comprehensiveness: a lesson plan should include the major elements such as objectives,
contents, methods, media, time, activities, evaluation mechanisms, etc.
E. Clarity and Simplicity: an instructional plan should be written in clear and simple
languages.

Section 3.4: Fundamental Questions of Instructional Planning

There are seven fundamental questions of instructional planning as recommended by Ralph Tyler
(1949).

 Why to teach? Understanding the objectives to be achieved

 What to teach? Knowing and mastering the contents to be taught.
 How to teach? Selection of appropriate methods and media
 Whom to teach? Identifying the grade level and background of the learners.

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 When to teach? Knowing the solid number of working days and total allotted periods for
the subject.
 How much to teach? Checking the harmony among the contents in the textbook and the
total number of periods.
 Where to teach? Understanding the environment such as climate, location of the school
and the reality of the country.

Sub-section one: Types of Instructional plan

There are different types of instructional plans as mentioned below:

 Annual lesson Plan;

 Semester plan;
 Unit plan;
 Course plan;
 Periodic (daily) plan

Sub-section two: Types of instructional objectives

General Objectives: are used in preparing the annual plan. We use some of the following action
verbs:

 To know, understand, comprehend, devote, grasp, enjoy, appreciate, have faith in,
believe in, admire, develop, be familiar with, be aware of, acquire, etc.

Examples: at the end of this unit, the students will be able to know the English alphabets.

Specific Objectives: are used in preparing periodic lesson plan. Some of the action verbs used
here are listed below:

 To compare, design, infer, identify, differentiate, construct, write, debate, define, solve,
select, evaluate, draft, change, list, arrange, practice, locate, match, plan, separate,
draw, measure, express, perform, calculate, explain, etc

Examples: at the end of this lesson, the students will be able to write the first six English
alphabets.

At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to pronounce the first six English alphabets.

At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to pronounce the first six English alphabets.

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Sub-section three: Guidelines for Writing Instructional Objectives

 Objectives should be stated in terms of students’ performance;

 Objectives should be written in term of the learning outcome not in terms of the
learning process;
 Statements of objectives should be an amalgamation of subject matter and desired
behavior;
 Avoid the use of the more than one objective in one statement.

Section 3.5: Taxonomy of Behavioral Objectives

Several decades ago, as interest in defining educational objectives was increasing, a group of
experts in education led by Benjamin Bloom studied the idea of defining objectives very
systematically. They developed a taxonomy, or classification system in to ordered group or
categories, of educational objectives. Based on this classification educational objectives are
divided in to three domains such as cognitive domain, affective domain and psychomotor
domain.

Each domain is comprised of hierarchical levels which proceed from basic to more complex
learning. In real life, of course, behaviors from these three different domains occur
simultaneously. While students are writing in a psychomotor domain, they are also remembering
or reasoning cognitive, and they are likely to have some emotional response to the task as well
(affective). Therefore, many objectives are an amalgam of cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
But it often makes senses to recognize a given objectives as falling primarily into one category or
another. One reason for considering these areas separately is to accentuate the affective and
psychomotor areas, because schools often focus on cognitive changes alone.

Activity

1. What is taxonomy and why is it important in education?

2. What is the difference among the sub-levels of the cognitive domain?

Sub-section one: The Cognitive Domain

Work on the cognitive domain was completed in 1956 and is commonly referred to as Bloom’s
Taxonomy of the cognitive domain. This domain refers to behavioral objectives which involve
intellectual or mental abilities ranging from simple remembering of learnt materials to highly
creative way of combining (synthesizing) new ideas and evaluation. This is the most common
type of instructional objectives since it focuses on the transmission of knowledge and intellectual
skills, which is the most prevalent view of the role of school both today and in the past
(Jacobsen, et al; 1989:85). The same authors have mentioned their intimacy that 80 to 90% of the

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average elementary and secondary students’ school time is devoted to the achievement of
cognitive goals, of course, to the lowest level of cognitive learning. The cognitive domain has six
components.

i. Knowledge: is the lowest level of the cognitive domain. At this level students are
expected to remember, recall recognize, retrieve information such as facts, terminologies,
problem solving strategies, rules, etc. Knowledge is easiest of thinking levels, where need
to describe and identify things to show as we have remembered or learned. It is
distinguished from the remaining five which are together called intellectual abilities for
the simple reason that the later requires organized mode of operations and generalize
techniques for dealing with materials of problems. Some action verbs that describe
learning outcomes at this level include define, list, tell, describe, identify, show, label,
collect, examine, tabulate, quote, name, select, outline, state, recite, match, recall, etc.

Example: The students will be able to define terms such as diffusion and osmosis.

ii. Comprehension: This level requires that students not only remember information, but
also understand it and be able to explain or express it in their own words. At this level,
students are expected to be able to change the form of communication; translate and
restate (paraphrase) what has been read, seen, etc, connecting or making relationships
among parts of a communication, interpret, see consequences from information
(inference) and extrapolate a piece of communication. Action verbs that can be used at
this level include: summarize, interpret, associate, predict, convert, estimate, infer,
defend, explain, paraphrase, discriminate, distinguish, generalize, contrast, discuss,
differentiate, etc….

Example: the student will be able to give his/her own examples of recent Supreme Court
decisions on man’s protection under the law.

iii. Application: refers to the ability to use learnt material in new and concrete situation. At
this level, students are expected to use previously acquired information in a setting other
than the one in which it was learnt. Some of the action verbs are: change, modify, solve,
demonstrate, organize, transfer, develop, prepare, use, apply, produce, implement,
construct, conduct, perform, etc.

Example: when provided with known numbers, the students will be able to apply the formula
necessary to solve geometry problems.

iv. Analysis: refers to the breaking down of informational materials in to their component
parts, examining such information to develop divergent conclusions by identifying
motives or causes, making inferences and/or finding evidence to support generalizations.
Therefore, students are expected to identify logical errors/e.g. point out a contradiction or

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erroneous inference/ or differentiate among facts, opinions, assumptions, hypothesis and

conclusion. Students are expected to draw relationships among ideas and to compare and
breakdown, distinguish, point out, deduce, illustrate, relate, diagram, infer, separate out,
differentiate, outline, subdivide, analyze, order, classify, arrange, divide, compare etc.

Example: the students will be able to breakdown the components of the compound in to its
constituent elements.

v. Synthesis: is creatively or divergently applying prior knowledge and skills to produce a

new or original whole. Therefore, at this level students are expected to produce
something unique or original; here, they are expected to solve some unfamiliar problems
in a unique way. Some action verbs that describe learning outcomes at this level are;
categorize, create, formulate, compile, design, compose, produce, etc.

Example: the students will be able to create an environment for a hypothetical animal

vi. Evaluation: Objectives written at this level require the students to form judgment and
make diction about the values of methods, ideas people, or products that have a specific
purpose. Students are expected to state the bases for judgment (e.g. external criteria or
principles they drew up on to reach their conclusion). Some action verbs that describe
learning outcomes are: appraise, criticize, justify, compare, defend, support, contrast,
judge, validate, assess, evaluate, rank, grade, test, measure, recommend, conclude, etc.

Example: The student will be able to evaluate objectively the best of two students’ essays on
HIV/AIDS.

Sub-section two: The Affective Domain

This domain focuses on attitudes, values and feelings, (e.g. rules of respect and relationships,
getting along in groups, appreciating art and nature, sense of confidence, positive self-esteem,
and resolving moral/ethical dilemmas). Affective goals are seldom made explicit and then
consciously translated into teaching procedures. This domain consists of the following five
levels.

Receiving: The key feature at this level is that of students exhibiting a degree of open
mindedness for without this trait they may not be willing to receive the information under study.
Hence, awareness, willingness to hear, and selected attention are very important. At this level
students are expected simply to listen or be attentive. Some action verbs that describe outcomes
at the receiving level are attend, discern, be aware, hear, notice, listen, ask, choose, follow, hold,
locate, etc.

Example: the students will illustrate an awareness of the importance of ecology by supplying
pertinent newspaper clippings.

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Responding: is active participation on the part of the learners. Students attend and react to a
particular phenomenon may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or
satisfaction in responding (motivation). For example, students participate in class discussions;
give presentation, question new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them.
At this level, students are exhibiting some, interest, involvement, or even commitment. Some
action verbs at this level at this level are applaud, follow, play, comply, particle, discuss,
participate, volunteer.

For example: the students will demonstrate enjoyment of the subject by volunteering to join in
the role-playing of Ras Alula Aba Nega.

Valuing: the worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior.
This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based
on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the
learner’s overt behavior and are often identifiable. For example, one demonstrates beliefs in the
democratic process, is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity),
shows the ability to solve problems, proposes a plan to social improvement and follows through
with commitment and informs management on matters that one feels strongly about.

Objectives at this level require the students to display behavior consistent with a single belief or
attitude in situations where she/he is neither forced nor asked to comply. Here, behavior is
initiated by the students who is committed to particular position and is willing to openly discuss
and support that position. Some action verbs used here are: Act, debate, help, argue, display,
organize, convince, express, prefer, complete, demonstrate, differentiate, follow, form, initiate,
invite, join, justify, propose, read, report, select, etc.

Example: The students will demonstrate a continuing desire to learn to use the microscope by
volunteering to work after school.

Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different value, resolving conflicts
between them, and creating a unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, recasting, and
synthesizing values. Organization requires a commitment to a set of values. It involves two
important issues.

1. Forming a reason why one values certain things and not others;
2. Making appropriate choice between things that are valued and are not valued.

Students are expected to organize their likes and preferences into a value system and then decide
which one will be dominant. Some action verbs that describe learning outcomes at the
organization level are adhere, alter, arrange, compile, compare, complete, formulate, generalize,
abstract, decide, select, balance, systematize, theorize, etc.

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Example: the student will freely express her opinion to her class mate about the importance of
sex education.

Characterization: Individuals have a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is
pervasive, consistent, predictable and most importantly characteristic of the learner. Instructional
objective are concerned with the student’s general patterns of adjustment (personal, social,
emotional). In general, this level allows the students to develop personal yet global views about
such things as the nature of universe or a philosophy of life. Some action verbs that describe
learning outcomes at this level are avoid, internalize, resist, display, manage, resolve, exhibit,
require, revise, act, discriminate, display, influence, practice, etc.

Activity two

1. Discuss briefly about the hierarchical levels of the affective domain.

2. Give your own concrete examples for each level. Identify how one level is different from
the other level and why these levels are arranged in the given way.

Sub-section three: The Psychomotor Domain

It refers to skill development. For instance, kicking a ball, measuring in sciences, drawing shapes
in Mathematics, handwriting, using tools or equipment are psychomotor domain. No matter how
much information we have, without appropriate skills, we will not be able to use it. The
psychomotor behavior concerns itself with levels of attainment on neuro-muscular coordination.
As the level of coordination goes up, the action becomes more refined, speedy and automatic.
Each level is presented in the following way.

Imitation: Learners observe a skill and attempt to repeat it, or see a finished product and attempt
to repeat it while attending to an exemplar. Objectives at this level require that the student be
exposed to an observable action, and then overtly it, such as when an instructor demonstrates the
use of a microscope by placing a slide on the specimen tray. Here, students are expected to
observe and be able to repeat it (although imperfectly) the action being visually demonstrated.
This level is usually lacking neuromuscular coordination. Some of the action verbs that describe
learning outcomes at this level are copy, replicate, repeat, align, grasp, balance, hold, rest on,
follow, place, step, etc.

Example: the students will be able to familiarize themselves with soccer kicking techniques.

Manipulation: the student is required to perform selected actions from written or verbal
directions without the aid of a visual model or direct observation. Students are expected to
complete the action from reading or listening to instructions, although the behavior still may be
performed crudely and without neuromuscular coordination. The action verbs used here are the

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same as that of the limitation level except they are performed from spoken or written
instructions.

Example: Students will use the power saw safely to cut out a desired form for a bookstand.

Precision: At this level, learners independently perform the skill or produce the product with
accuracy, promotion and exactness; at an expert level. Few errors are apparent. Here the students
are expected to perform an action independent of either visual model or a written set of
directions. Proficiency in reproducing the action at this level reaches a higher level of
refinement. Students are expected to reproduce the action with control and to reduce errors to a
minimum. Expressions that describe outcomes at this level include performing the behavior:
accurately, with control, independently, errorless, proficiency, with balance, refine, succeed,
surpass, etc.

Example: Students will be able to blow the trumpet skillfully to produce a high “F” Nota for one
minute.

Articulation: The skills are so well developed that the individual can modify movement patterns
to fit special requirements or to meet a problem situation. Here, the students are expected to
display coordination of a series of acts by establishing the appropriate sequence and performing
the acts accurately with control as well as with speed and timing. Some of the action verbs used
here to describe outcomes include confidence, integration, speed, coordination, proportion,
stability, harmony, smoothness, timing, adapt, alter, change, excel, rearrange, etc.

Example: Students will be able to head the soccer ball forwards, to the left and to the right.

Naturalization: At this level, response is automatic. The individual beings to experiment,

creating new motor acts or ways of manipulating materials out of understandings, abilities, and
skills developed. One acts “without thinking”. Therefore, objectives at this level require a high
level of proficiency in the skill or performance being taught. The act is performed with the least
expenditure of energy and becomes routine, automatic, and spontaneous. Students are expected
to repeat the behavior naturally and effortlessly. Some of the action verbs here are arrange,
combine, compose, construct, create, design, originate, etc. and some of the expressions that
describe this level of behavior dare automatically, naturally, effortlessly, professionally, with
perfection, roughly, with posies, with ease, spontaneously, etc.

Example: Students will be able to catch and pass the ball accurately while on the move during a
basketball game.

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Activity three

1. Discuss clearly about the hierarchical levels of the psychomotor domain.

2. Give your own concrete examples for each level and try to relate each level with your
practical life.

3. Evaluate the balance of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains in your
respective major areas by referring to the primary school textbooks.

Activity four

1. Discuss the characteristics of any plan

2. Why do we say that teaching without written plan is sloppy and ineffective?
3. Why should objectives be stated in what the students do?

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Unit Four

Classroom Organization and Management

Introduction

This unit deals with the definition of classroom management, indicators of effective teaching,
major causes of classroom misbehavior, types of seating arrangement and preventive techniques
of classroom misbehavior. Generally, discussions on the aforementioned contents will definitely
make you good classroom manager.

Learning outcomes: After completing this unit, the trainees will be able to:

 Define classroom management

 Demonstrate some indicators of effective teaching at primary schools

 Organize their classroom for different tasks

 Identify the major causes of classroom misbehaviors

 Assess the classroom management techniques

 Major types of seating arrangements

 Manage their classes using appropriate classroom management techniques

 Apply preventive techniques of classroom management.

Section 4.1: Definition of Classroom Management

Classroom management is the art of carefully preparing, presenting, discipline and controlling
class activities. Classroom management is also the process of organizing and coordinating a class
so that there can be efficient and effective learning. Students are composed of diversified
attitude, values, maturity, age, family background, etc. Thus the teacher is highly expected to
manage such varieties of behaviors. Classroom management is also defined as the methods and
strategies. An educator uses to maintain a classroom environment that is conducive to student
success and learning. Although there are many pedagogical strategies involved in managing a
classroom, a common denominator is making sure that students feel they are in an environment
that allows them to achieve.

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Activity one

1. How do you evaluate the classroom management of your primary and secondary school
teachers? Did they treat female students and male students equally?
2. Identify some teachers who were effective in their classroom management using their
characteristics.

Sub-section one: Approaches to Classroom Management

The teacher’s personality, philosophy, and teaching style will directly affect his/her managerial
and disciplinary approach. There are different approaches to class management, all based on a
mixture of psychology, classroom experience and common sense. Their difference is only in the
relative importance given to prevention and intervention, degree of control and importance given
to prevention and intervention, degree of control and supervision exercised by the teacher. Some
of them are listed below.

1. The Assertive Approach: This approach expects teachers to specify rules of behavior
and consequences of misbehaving or disobeying and communicate them to the students
clearly. Teachers hold students accountable for their actions. The idea is for teachers to
respond to a student’s misbehavior quickly and appropriately.
2. The Behavior Modification Approach: Such an approach involves a variety of
techniques and methods, ranging from simple rewards to elaborate reinforcement
training. The assumption in this approach is that behavior is shaped by environment and
little attention is given to the causes of the problem. The basic principles are:
 Behavior is shaped by its sequences not by the causes of the problems;
 Behavior is strengthened by immediate reinforces;
 Students respond better to positive reinforces than to punishment.

3. The Group Managerial Approach: This emphasizes on the importance of responding

immediately to group behavior among students that may be inappropriate or undesirable
in order to prevent problems rather than having to deal with problems after they emerge.
The idea is, if misbehavior is not noticed, is ignored, or is allowed to continue for too
long, it often spreads throughout the group and becomes more serious and chronic.

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Activity two

Which of the above approaches do you support? Why?

Sub-section two: Organizing the Classroom

One of the vital factors is learning the environment. This implies that the teacher has to create
homely atmosphere at his/her classroom. For doing so knowledge of the different seating
arrangements is so important. In any discipline, every classroom is a mixed ability group.
Whether dealing with high flyers, or low achievers, teachers must allow for the fact that some
learners will work more rapidly and accurately than others. On the way to the ideal of
individualizing educational programs for all their learners, teachers can start by splitting their
class into groups. The amount and difficulty of work demanded from each group can then be
related to their abilities in that particular subject. There are three ways of doing this: by Rota,
quota and branching.

Rota: as in rotation of crops, refers to groups moving round the classroom from one activity to
another.

Quota: similarly requires the teacher to work out an appropriate amount of work to be
completed during a session by each group. Each learner has an assignment card or booklet,
which becomes a record of work, completed as the teacher check it.

Branching: involves starting all the class together on a particular activity, doing an exercise
from the board, or working together from a textbook.

Section 4.2: Types of Seating Arrangement

There are four most popular seating arrangements that we observe in most classrooms.

A. Row type of seating arrangement: where the students sit in rows, facing the teacher and
the chalkboard. Usually learners are arranged in accordance with their height where the
tallest seat at the back and the shortest in the front. In situations where you have students
with short-sighted, hard or hearing you need to place them in one of the front seats.

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Merits

 This type of seating arrangement seems to be convenient for formal lecture.

 It helps to have easy movement in between rows and orderly collection and distribution
of materials.

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B. Cluster Pattern of seating arrangement

This is characterized by the formulation of little cluster of students in different positions in the
class. This type of seating arrangement is very convenient for buzz group discussion.

Merits
 Students communicate easily with each other;
 Easier for students to work as a team;
 Movement from one cluster to another is not too difficult.

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C. The horse shoe pattern of seating arrangement: A seating arrangement in which

students are arranged in the form of “U” shape. In here the teacher sits at the centre.

Merits

 Used when the lesson requires a lot of discussion among the students and with the teacher
as well;
 Easy for students to consult each other.

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D. The Round table Pattern/ Circular seating arrangement

Is also good formation of groups’ discussion lessons? Unlike the horseshoe, the authority
of the teacher is completely decentralized. In sum, although many teachers may not find
it too easy varying their students seating arrangements, they should try to vary them as
much as they can.

Section 4.3: Effective Classroom Management

Effective class managers make use of one or a combination of the approaches mentioned above.
They have a well-planned and relevant lesson which they encourage students to take seriously,
who make it clear what the class rules are and teach disciplinary skills with as much care as they
teach academic skills, who realize what kind of things stimulate student attention, and who know

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and enjoy each one of their students. Being an effective class manager is not a talent, which
some people just have, and others do not-it is a set of skills and an attitude learned though
patience and practice. There are a number of things we know about effective class managers. For
instance, effective managers have a workable system of rules and procedures which the students
follow and do not ‘turn them loose’ without careful directions. They do not appear to treat
inappropriate behavior differently from the less effective managers, but they stop it sooner.

We also know that good class managers establish classroom with routines and procures which
ensure that teaching and learning take top priority, and that the students are informed about their
responsibilities for performing the work, as well as about the importance of the work to the
teacher. These good managers seem to consider the task of controlling student behavior as an
instructional challenge, which requires the same approach taken to instruction in other
curriculum areas. They analyze the task at hand, deciding what skills are necessary for the
students to perform as desired. Class management, then, involves things such as routines,
beginning a lesson, planning for instruction, lesson presentation, rapport with students, response
to questions and proper use of the chalkboard, to mention only some.

Sub-section one: What kind of learning atmosphere is ideal?

A busty class is usually a happy class. Provide activities, which stretch the students’ abilities and
afford sufficient work to keep them busy. Develop a sense of timing-know when to speed up,
slow down, or change the activity, but avoid creating pressure. In addition, rules for behavior
should grow out of the purposes of the group and should be developed jointly by the classes and
the teacher. Easily recognizable rewards should follow approved behavior without delay. Give
recognition whenever possible for superior work or behavior. Try to respond to poor work with
encouragement rather than scolding. This is possible if you as a teacher are prepared in terms of
outlines, material, equipment, and activities. Start and end on time.

Sub-section two: How should you approach Individual Differences?

Providing for individual difference is a major class-management concern, regularly cited by

teachers. Perhaps you also consider it as you major concern. Teachers always recognize and
obvious manifestation of a problem relating to individualization. Solving this critical
management problem requires understanding of both the nature of the concept of individual

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differences and the attempts to devise suitable educational arrangements. Individuals differ from
each other physically, temperamentally, intellectually, and in their special aptitude. Those
individual differences are naturally obvious in physical attributes, psychological attributes:
subject-matter knowledge, intellectual development, motivation, intellectual curiosity, study
habits, ability to think independently, creativity, and so on.

In order for teachers to make working units of instruction for individual students, therefore, they
must fully concentrate on teaching small groups and individuals. only if they have organized the
program in such a way that other students are fully self-directive, responsible for their own
behavior and for the completion of assignments, will teachers be able to concentrate on
individual students-hence respond to individual differences. Independent activities are ones that
students do without continual supervision from the teacher. While the teacher is engaged in
instructing individuals and small groups of students, the rest of the students are doing
independent activities. The following points help to create a good classroom environment if
practiced by a teacher.

1. Know your students. Learn their names immediately;

2. Be aware of students’ feelings. Pay attention to attitudes revealed in writing and
discussions. Respect the personalities of the students. Don’t talk down to them.
3. Student’s participation is necessary for good morale. Help the students to become
members of the group.
4. Emphasize the strengths of each student. Always look for the good points in a student.
Build up the confidence of each student-help him/her feel important to the group. All
people, young and old, like praises. Use it.
As a teacher you are supposed to do the following in order that you can have a good
classroom environment:
1. If you make a promise, keep it. Students expect to be, and should be, treated fairly by
their teacher. If you make a mistake, apologize. Share with the students the fact that
everyone makes mistakes.
2. Be willing to try out ideas. A teacher must be flexible. Be as creative and innovative as
you know how to be.

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3. Employ a procedure, which is friendly and informal but businesslike and consistent. Treat
all students with the same degree of fairness, impartiality, and consideration
4. The teacher should posses a good sense of humour.
5. Establish a good rapport with students so that they feel confident in approaching you with
problems or questions. Be as courteous as you expect them to be with you. Never act in
anger, or use threats as a deterrent.
6. Teacher example will set the stage for many things. Be well groomed and speak and act
like a lady or gentleman.

Activity three

Were your primary and secondary school teachers gender sensitive in managing the
classroom?

Sub-section three: Principles of Class Discipline. Here are some principles that may help the
teacher under the concept discipline clearly.

Principle 1: the aims of education and class discipline are the same: to help students become
self-directing people.

Principle 2: Discipline should be dynamic, helping students to channel their energies towards
learning goals.

Principle 3: Discipline is inseparable from teaching

Principle 4: Discipline should change with the learners’ stage of development and help them
move to the next stage

Principle 5: Behavior is determined by rational demands of the specific situations.

Principle 6: teaching effectiveness, as perceived by learners, gives the teacher classroom

authority.

Principle 7: Discipline is the ability to attend to a task.

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Principle 8: No matter what the classroom design or how learners are organized for instruction,
the principle for effective teaching and discipline apply.

Principle 9: By identifying and dealing effectively with the factors under their control and
influence, teachers can, in most cases, tip the balance in favour of discipline.

Principle 10: principle of redirection: Socialization requires the redirection of destructive

behavior into socially useful behavior.

Principle 11: Principle of agreement: ways of dealing with misbehavior should be in agreement
with developmental goals.

Principle 12: Basic disciple can be achieved only when basic needs, such as food and safety, are
met. Schools should recognize that all students need to be valued and respected as people-which
they need to have some measure of control over their lives and activities, in school and out.

Sub-section four: Leadership Styles

Teaching style is viewed as a broad dimension or personality type that encompasses teacher
stances, pattern of behavior, mode of performance, and attitude toward oneself and others. It also
refers to the choice of instructional activities and materials and methods of involving the students
in the process of instruction. A teacher and his/her students communicate under three types of
teaching styles. There are:

i. Visual: charts, demonstrations and other things that can affect the sight of the learners
assist learners.
ii. Auditory: learners are assonated by explanations of what is to come next.
Brainstorming, questioning, and debriefing allow students to make links between
what they have acquired. And
iii. Kinesthetic: the learners do their best when they touch and move. They show fewer
tendencies to learn if there is little or no external stimulation or movement.

A teacher and his/her learners communicate through various styles of classroom leadership. And
the presence or absence of relationships between or among the learners and the teacher are
influenced by the teacher’s styles of guidance. The following are some of them.

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Authoritarian style: The teacher who subscribes to this style of classroom management
determines school policy alone and assigns duties out without question in prescribed manner.
Such teachers centralize all powers in themselves and teaching is completely teacher-centered.
Students are the followers of the orders of their teacher and does the teacher impart passive
discussion listeners of the information. This type of teaching style has no place for free
discussion and expression on the part of the learners.

Where people are coerced, controlled, threatened, individuals’ initiatives may be stifled and self-
motivation may be discouraged. This may lead to low morale amongst both the staff and the
learners, which may become the root causes of strikes, riots.

The students taught by the authoritarian teachers:

 Lack the capacity for initiation and group action;

 Show no interest in their work in the absence of their teacher;
 Develop hostility and aggression towards other follow members.

Laissez-faire style: The teacher believes that there should not be rules and regulations since
everyone has an “in born sense of responsibility. Such a situation may well exist amongst
mature, experienced teachers. But how would it work with new, young teachers fresh from
“freedom years of university or college?” this is a mismanagement where the head sits back and
allows everyone to do as they please. This may lead to anarchy, and chaos, which would hardly
be conducive to them provision of quality education. But, as the laissez-faire (literally let-do)
style is opposite to the autocratic style In other words, this often considered as unorganized or
ineffective teachers. They don’t direct or guide their students’ activities. Rather they provide no
(or few) goals and directions for group of individual behaviors leave them free to do what they
like. Students taught by these teachers:

 Feel insecurity;
 Show dissatisfaction against their teachers;
 Are cooperative.

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Democratic style: in the head or teacher believes that the staff or students should be involved in
decision making process. Decisions are arrived at after consultation with the staff or and with the
students. This person allows freedom of thought and action within the frame work of the mission
and objectives of the school. This style is based on the belief that where people are committed to
the services of ideas, which they helped to frame, they will exercise self-control, self-direction
and be motivated. In sum, a teacher of this style respects the individuality of their students and
don’t impose orders or restrictions on their learners. They create such an environment in which
students freely communicate with each other. Teachers work as leaders of the group. The
teachers and students work on the principle of give and take and respect each other and let the
students share in the decision making process.

The following characteristics are developed in a democratic classroom.

 Friendliness and more cooperative atmosphere.

 High level of efficiency and habit of independent work.
 Initiative of working effectively in the absence of their teacher
 Mutual cooperation and recognition.

These three types of leadership (characteristics) overlap in the process of classroom instruction,
because teachers could not always show authoritarian, laissez-faire or democratic behavior in
their teaching. Thus, the specific conditions should be considered.

Activity four

Which style of leadership do you support? Give rationales for your preference.

Sub-section five: Controlling student-related misbehavior

There are times, however, that students may create problems that disrupt the classroom discipline
no matter how the teacher is without any of the problems listed above. This could be because the
students may have some problems related to inattentiveness, or other problems they might have
at home. The following are some of the general or classic preventive measures that you as a
teacher can use so as to help the students develop self-control.

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Sub-section six: Guideline for Effective Classroom Management

 Have a good plan;

 Have good subject mastery;
 Use rewards;
 Apply better methods of teaching;
 Respect professional code of ethics;
 Respect the students;
 Evaluate your students fairly;
 Encourage students participation;
 Keep your promise;
 Use humor, etc.

There are eight factors that provide the foundation for an effective classroom management and
discipline strategy. Each is discussed below. Addressing these enables a teacher to use the
“winning ways” in classroom management that help create an environment in which the teacher
is respected the classroom is peaceful for all and learning proceeds unhindered.

1. Letting students know classroom rules and consequences for not following them:
This critical factor, described further below, is the step through which clear and specific
classroom guidelines are established. There are three components to this. The first is
establishing classroom rules-the set of standards that all students will follow. The second
is determining the consequences if these standards are not met-the things that occur in the
situation that rules are not followed. The third is the identification of rewards those ways
in which adhering to standards is recognized and rewarded.
2. Providing instruction that matches students’ abilities

Instruction should be at a level that is not too easy for students, leading to boredom, and not too
difficult, leading to frustration. The ideal instructional level is that which is somewhat
challenging to the student and which the student can attain-consistent with the principle of the
zone of proximal development. If instructional materials are not at the appropriate level for a
student, there is a good possibility that the student will be frustrated and misbehaved. Hence,
assessing students’ knowledge levels and identifying instructional materials that will enable them
to learn in challenging ways is a key to effective classroom management.

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3. Varying the instructional approaches used in the classroom

Research shows that elementary grade children tend to be able to attend carefully to one style of
presentation for approximately 10 minutes, and secondary school students for approximately 15
minutes. When students are no longer paying attention, behavior problems occur. Hence, a
valuable strategy for preventing classroom management problems is for a teacher to vary the
style of classroom presentation and of classroom activities. If there is a change of pace with
some frequency and if students have the opportunity to move from one type of learning to
another during any class session, it is most likely that inattentiveness and restlessness will be
minimized.

4. Providing a number of learning choices

Giving students a number of choices for undertaking a class assignment enables them to choose
the one that is most personality meaningful to them and makes clear that they do have influence
on what occurs in school. It can prevent the difficult situation in which, with only one learning
path, some children do not succeed, with the result that they act out because they feel like
failures. We know from the work of Howard Gardener that children learn likelihood of a well-
managed classroom.

5. Expecting students to be responsible for their own learning and behavior

We know that the best way to foster responsible behavior is to give students responsibilities, and
the way to foster irresponsible behavior is to deny students responsibility. Teachers need to
remember that if they “demand a lot,” they will get a lot. If they “expect a lot,” they will get a
lot. But, if they “ask for little,” that is exactly what they will get. Students should be expected to
complete and turn in their homework. They should be expected to be in class on time and ready
to learn. They should be expected to try hard and apply themselves in every assignment. And,
they should be expected to help create a well-managed classroom, free of discipline problems. If
they know they are responsible for these things, there is a far greater likelihood that they will
consider them meaningful, personal priorities than if they consider them someone else’s
responsibility.

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6. Listening to what students are thinking and feeling

One of the most important things a teacher can do is to listen empathetically to students’ needs.
This has the potential for preventing or eliminating misbehavior. We need to recognize that
behavior problems occur when students feel anxious, hurt, afraid, and angry or rejected. If a
teacher listens to a child who is having negative feelings, the need to resort to misbehavior is
eliminated. This means more than simply letting the child or adolescent talk. It means having a
teacher communicate with empathy the concern the teacher feels for the student. It means having
a teacher communicate with empathy the concern the teacher feels for the student. It means
helping the student try to find an avenue to solve he student try to find an avenue to solve the
problem that is causing the negative feelings.

7. Legitimizing behavior that cannot be stopped

There are some behaviors, such as conservation among adolescents that is difficult to keep away
from the classroom. With peer culture of great significance to adolescents, they continually want
to interact with one another. There are many ways that teachers can build learning environments
that recognize the traits of students and build on the behaviors that are characteristics of groups
of learners at particular stages or of various backgrounds.

Collaborative learning, for example, enables adolescents to work together, turning their need for
peer interaction into an asset rather than a liability. Similarly, young students want to be active.
Creating learning environments that require them to be active, moving about the classroom as
they solve problems, for example, builds upon the characteristics they bring to the educational
environment.

8. Recognizing that there are some students who have serious behavior problems

It is often stated that you can best understand the patterns of behavior in a classroom if you
recognize the 80-15-5 rule. The rule states that approximately 80% of students will not be a
behavior problem in a well-managed classroom. If instruction is matched to their level of ability,
they are likely to adhere to the expectations for them and will rarely if ever be a behavior
problem. Approximately 15% of students will be a discipline problem some of the time. These
are children who may be experiencing difficulties at home or in learning, thus feeling frustrations

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that they deal with by misbehaving. Their behavior is acceptable some of the time, but not
acceptable other times. The remaining 5% are students who are under serious stress, who have
learned in the past to misbehave, or who are involved in non-school behaviors in the past to
misbehave, or who are involved in non-school behaviors (drinking, taking drugs, etc.) that lead
to significant non-school behaviors (drinking, taking drugs, etc.) that lead to significant problems
in school behavior. It is very important that teachers not develop a sense of failure due to
difficulties in dealing with this type of student. Rather help needs to be sought from
administrators at the school or from a psychologist to give the student the kind of assistance
beyond the classroom necessary to identify and address the problem.

Section 4.4: Major Causes for Classroom Misbehavior

There are two major causes for classroom misbehavior

Sub-section one: Teacher-Related Problems

Teachers can be sources for classroom misbehavior in the following aspects:

 Poor preparation;
 Ineffective style of presentation;
 Poor handling of questions;
 Nagging;
 Hasty judgment;
 Overreacting;
 Lowering academic marks;
 Corporal punishment, etc.

Sub-section two: Students-Related problems

Some of the aspects at which students can be cause for classroom misbehavior are mentioned
below:

 Cheating ;
 Lack of clear rules;
 Unclear instruction;
 Not doing assignments, home works, etc;
 Coming late;
 Quarrelling each other;
 Breaking rules and regulations;
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 Changing Seats without permission, etc.

Activity five

Discuss in pair to what extent your primary and secondary school teachers were effective in
managing disciplinary problems in the classroom.

Section 4.5: Preventive Techniques for Classroom Misbehavior

A) Some of the preventive techniques are listed below:

 Use sign;
 Approaching towards the misbehaving student;
 Boosting students interest;
 Use humor
 Reprimand;
 Placement;
 Tolerance;
 Focusing, etc.

B) In addition, teachers should apply the following preventive techniques so as to make

effective classroom management:

1. Create a warm and nurturing classroom climate.

The classroom should be a place where a student feels welcome and at home. Students need to
feel safe and accepted, so ridicule and sarcasm are not allowed. Mutual respect and the golden
Rule is the key for maintaining this climate.

2. Democratically develop a set of rules and consequences.

Teachers and students must create discipline plans including rules with clear and effective
consequences. The rules should be agreed upon and understood by everyone in the class. It
should be understood that when rules are broken, consequences will be applied fairly and
consistently.

3. Develop a daily routine, yet remain flexible

Students will often misbehave if they don’t know exactly what they should do and when.
Teachers can avoid this dilemma by installing class routines and procedures, which allow the
students to begin and complete work expeditiously.

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4. Make learning more attractive and fun for the student;

Schools exist for the students, and not for the teachers. It is important for the teacher to expend
every effort necessary to make the curriculum relevant, the lessons interesting, and the activities
enjoyable. The result will be an engaged and active participant in the learning process.

5. Deal with misbehavior, quickly, consistently, and respectfully.

Misbehavior is a disruption to my effectiveness as an educator. The time spent dealing with

misbehaving would be better spent teaching the others. Therefore, misbehavior will be dealt with
quickly and consistently with class defined consequences.

C) Techniques for Better Classroom Discipline

1. Focusing

Be sure you have the attention of everyone in your classroom before you start your lesson. Don’t
attempt to teach over the chatter of students who are not paying attention.

2. Direct Instruction

Uncertainty increases the level of excitement in the classroom. The technique of direct
instruction is to being each class by telling the students exactly what will be happening. The
teacher outlines what he and the students will be doing this period. He may set time limits for
some tasks.

 An effective way to marry this technique with the first one is to include time at the end
of the period for students to do activities of their choosing. The teacher may finish the
description of the hour’s activites with: “And think we have some time at the end of the
period for you chat with your friends, go to the library, or catch up on work for other
classes.”
3. Monitoring

The key to this principle is to circulate. Get up and get around the room. While your students are
working, make the rounds. Check on their progress.

An effective teacher will make a pass through the whole room about two minutes after the
students have started a written assignment. He/she checks that each student has started, that the
children are on the correct page, and that everyone has put their names on their papers.

The delay is important. She/he wants her students to have a problem or two finished so she/he
individualized instruction as needed.

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4. Modeling

“Values are caught, not taught.” Teachers who are counters, prompt, enthusiastic, in control,
patient and organized provide examples for their students through their own behavior. The “do as
I say, not as I do” teachers send mixed messages that confuse students and invite misbehavior.

If you want students to use voice in your classroom while they work, you too will use a quiet
voice as you move through the room helping youngsters.

5. Non-Verbal Cuing

Non-Verbal cues can also be facial expressions, body posture and hand signals. Care should be
given in choosing the types of cues you use in your classroom. Take time to explain what you
want the students to do when you use your cues.

6. Environmental Control

A classroom can be a warm cheery place. Students enjoy an environment that changes
periodically. Study centers with pictures and color invite enthusiasm for your subject.

Young people like to know about you and your interests. Include personal items in your
classroom. A family picture or a few items from a hobby or collection on your desk will trigger
personal conversations with your students. As they get to know you better, you will see fewer
problems with discipline.

7. Low-Profile intervention

Most students are sent to the principal’s office as a result of confrontational escalation. The
teacher has called them on a lesser offense, but in the moments that follow, the student and the
teacher are swept up in a verbal maelstrom. Much of this can be avoided when the teacher’s
intervention is queit and calm.

An effective teacher will take care that the student is not rewarded for misbehavior by becoming
the focus of attention. She/he monitors the activity in her/his classroom, moving around the
room. She anticipates problems before they occur. Her/his approach to a misbehaving student is
inconspicuous. Others in the class are not distracted.

There are times, however, that students may create problems that disrupt the classroom discipline
no matter how the teacher is without any of the problems listed above. This could be because the
students may have some problems related to inattentiveness, or other problems they might have
at home. The following are some of the general or classic preventive measures that you as a
teacher can use so as to help the students develop self-control.

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a) Signal interference:- in some cases a subtle signal can put an end to budding misbehavior.
The signal or body language, if successful, can stimulate the student to control him/or
herself.
b) Proximity control: place yourself close to the misbehaving student. This makes a signal
more apparent.
c) Interest boosting:- convey interest in the incipient misbehavior, directing such students so
that they will concentrate on the school work.
d) Humor:- humor is an excellent influence, especially in tense situations. However,
remember that it should not convey any irony or sarcasm.
e) Retribution:- when efforts at prevention and subtle control fall, you may occasionally
have to resort to forms or retribution. If the misbehavior is an accomplished fact, you
have no choice but to require the guilt party to suffer consequences. This is because
retribution teachers the students that they should not break rules. Retribution can have
such forms as withholding privileges, detention, putting them in a quite room for some
time, discussing in private, and sending them to the principal.
f) With-it-ness: means teacher’s knowledge and understanding of what is occurring in
his/her classroom. This refers to the ability to demonstrate that the teacher knows what
was going on. That is it is defined as a teacher’s communicating to the students by his/her
actual behavior that she/he knows what the students are doing, or has “eyes in the back of
his/her head”

D) The Least Approach:

Where:

“L” stands for leave it alone. Many actions may simply be left out.

“E” stands for end the action. Many teachers can simply end the misbehavior without undo
emotion.

“A” stands for attend more fully. i.e. a teacher must take further steps beyond merely ending
the disruption at the moment, and then it is time to get into the root of the problem.

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“S” stands for spell out direction. If the procedures listed so far do net work, it is time to
clearly tell the student what to do.

“T” stands for track (follow up). The student’s progress as she/he moves along specified
measures.

b. Planned ignoring: if it appears that the behavior will not spread to others, it is sometimes
best to ignore it.

c. Engaged time; enough work is assigned to f ill the scheduled time. This is also named as
“time on task”. As there is students work involvement exhibit fewer disciplinary problems as
there is Less chance for boredom.

The “time on task” has been known as a critical factor in learning. Active student
engagement in learning provides valuable clues as to adjust what teachers are doing with
their time.

d. Placement: the teacher has to put noisy student with a well-behaved student.

e. Hurdle lesson: due to frustration, with a particular assignment, not understood, etc then
they translate their frustration into disruptive behavior and the remedy is re-teaching.

f. Antiseptic bouncing (time out): removing the student from the rook for a few minutes
(this happens when the student becomes uncontrollable)

g. Reprimands: talk with the misbehaving student in private rather than in front of the class.

h. Stop troubles before it starts: knowing the right moment to interrupt behavior is a
valuable asset.

i. Praise: needs to be natural and sincere and should never become dull and routing. It is a
good idea to try to think of at least different but similar synonyms for “good” like “great”,
fine”, “splendid”, “remarkable”, are some examples. The way the teacher talks to the class
reflects his/her attitude to them not only in what is said, but how it is said.

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j. Facial expressions and tone of voice: are as important to communication as making sure
that attention is gained, by getting the class to stop work and listen carefully to what has to be
said.

Activity six

1. Compare and contrast the above mentioned preventive techniques for classroom
misbehavior.
2. Identify some preventive techniques for classroom misbehavior which had been used by
your primary and secondary school teachers.

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