lOMoARcPSD|33230170

Unit-2 - Lecture notes 5

Information Systems Management (Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

BBA V SEM

UNIT – 2 (SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT)

Concept

A system is an integrated set of components or entities that interact to achieve a

particular goal. Systems have characteristic such as boundaries, inputs, outputs,
methods of converting input into output and system interfaces. System is composed of
interrelated and interdependent subsystems. Eg. College Class, Business

Boundary: Every system has boundary that defines its scope of activities.

Subsystem: System may consist of numerous subsystem which has elements,

interactions and objectives. Subsystem perform specialized task related to the overall
objective of the total system.

Interface is a connection at system or subsystem boundaries. An interface serves as a

medium to convey the output from one system to the input of another system.

Characteristics of a system:

1. Organization: It implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components

that helps to achieve objectives.

2. Interaction: It refers to the manner in which each component functions with other
components of the system.

3. Interdependence: It means that parts of the organization or computer system

depend on one another. They are coordinated and linked together according to a plan.
One subsystem depends on the output of another subsystem for proper functioning.

4. Integration: It refers to the holism of systems. It is concerned with how a system is

tied together.

5. Central Objective: A system should have a central objective. Objectives may be real
or stated. Although a stated objective may be the real objective, it is not uncommon for
an organization to state one objective and operate to achieve another. The important
point is that users must know the central objective of a computer application early in the
analysis for a successful design and conversion.

Elements of a System:

1. Outputs and inputs: A major objective of a system is to produce an output that has
value to its user. In order to get a good output, inputs to system must be appropriate. It

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

is important to point out here that determining the output is a first step in specifying the
nature, amount and regularity of the input needed to operate a system.

2. Processors: It is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of

input into output. It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify
the input totally orpartially, depending on the specifications of the output. In some
cases, input is also modified to enable the processor to handle the transformation.

3. Control: The control elements guide the system. It is the decision-making subsystem
that controls the pattern of activities governing input, processing, and output.

4. Feedback: Feedback measures output against a standard in some form of cybernetic

procedure that includes communication and control. Feedback may be positive or
negative, routine or informational. Positive feedback reinforces the performance of the
system. It is routine in nature. Negative feedback generally provides the controller with
information for action.

5. Environment: The environment is the “supra-system” within which an organization

operates. It is the source of external elements that impinge on the system. In fact, it
often determines how a system must function.

6. Boundaries and Interfaces: A system should be defined by its boundaries- the limits
that identify its components, processes, and interrelationships when it interfaces with
another system.

Type of Systems

On basis of their elements:

1.Abstract/Conceptual

It is an orderly arrangement of inter dependent ideas or constructs which may or may

not have any counter part in the real world. They may be formulas of relationships
among sets of variables or models – the abstract conceptualization of physical
situations.

2.Physical Systems

Physical systems are tangible entities that may be static or dynamic in operation. They
are generally concrete operational systems made up of people, material, machine,
energy and other physical things. They display some activity or behaviour.

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

On basis of interactive behavior

1.Open System

An open system has many interfaces with its environment. It permits interaction across
its boundaries; it receives inputs from and delivers outputs to the outside. It is one that
interacts with its environment and thus exchange information, material or energy with
the environment. They change their organization in response to changing conditions.

2.Closed System

A closed system is isolated from environment influences. It is one that does not
interacts with its environment. These systems are relatively isolated from environment.
It is completely self-contained. This is only of theoretical interest as in reality systems
exhibit different degrees of openness.

On basis of Formality

1.Formal System

It represents the hierarchy of the organization in the form of organization charts that
help to understand the structure of the organization.The organization charts represents
the relationship among the various levels of management in the form of boxes and
straight lines. Formal information system is composed of:

 information resources (archives, databases),

 information users (internal or external to the organization),
 information needs of users (employees or managers),
 communication subsystem (technology).
It is characterized by the following features:

performs the functions of identification, diagnostics, and problem solving,

resources and information needs of users are thematically related to various
fields of management (for example: finance, human resources, production),
 it is located in the organizational structure of the company as a IT division or
IT department, but it can also function in a distributed system.
Formal information system is used primarily for analysis, preparation and transfer of
information. One of many tasks of managers is development of various types of
presentation of the facts of any field of activity, reports, analyses, draft decisions.

2.Informal System

It is an employee based system which is designed to meet the personal and vocational
needs of the employee. It also helps in identifying and solving the work related to
problems of employees. Informal information system covers all areas of the organization
that is not described by the formal organizational structure (organizational chart,
procedures, work descriptions). Any contact between employees, customers or

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

suppliers which are not described in operational procedures enforced in the

organization is a manifestation of the informal information system.

Examples of such informal communication may be:

 casual conversation,
 rumours about employees, customers, competitors,
 exchange of news on topics unrelated to work,
 messages in social media and blogs,
 conversation over coffee or lunch, etc.

On basis of Working/Output

1.Deterministic System

It is one in which occurrence of all events is known with certainty. In such a system,
given a description of the system state at a particular point of time of its operation, the
next state can be perfectly predicted.

Eg. A computer program which performs exactly according to a set of instructions.

2. Probabilistic System

It is one in which occurrence of events cannot be perfectly predicted. Though the

behavior of such system can be described in terms of probability, a certain degree of
error is always attached with the prediction of the behavior of the system.

• Eg. A set of instructions given to a person who may not follow the instructions
exactly as given

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC)

The System Development Life Cycle is the process of developing information systems
through investigation, analysis, design, implementation, and maintenance.

1. Preliminary Investigation

The preliminary investigation is a way of handling the user’s request to change, improve
or enhance an existing system. The objective is to determine, whether the request is
valid and feasible before any recommendation is made to do nothing, improve or modify
the existing system, or build altogether a new one. Problem Initiation includes to define
necessary input, output, storage etc. Define what the problem really is. State a goal to
be achieved. A problem initiation will describe:

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

Required input (what data has to be acquired to produce the output?)

Required output (i.e. what information is the system supposed to produce?)

Problem analysis breaks the problem down into its parts and describes them.

Customers typically know what they want, but not what software should do, while
incomplete, ambiguous or contradictory requirements are recognized by skilled and
experienced software engineers.

2.System Analysis

Analysis is a detailed study of the various operations of a business activity (system),

along with its boundaries. The objective of this phase is to determine exactly what must
be done to solve the problem.System analysis involves a detailed study of:

 The information needs of the organization and its end users.

 Existing information systems (their activities, resources and products).

 The expected information system (in terms of capabilities of IS required to meet

the information needs of users).

 It involves the following primary activities like:

(i)Requirement Analysis:

• Gathering Information
• Define Software requirement.
• Prioritize requirements.
• Generate & Evaluate alternatives.
• Review recommendations with management.

The key responsibility is to prepare SRS(system requirement document) that captures

complete description about how the system is expected to perform.

(ii) Feasibility Study

Feasibility study is the process of determining whether a system is appropriate in the

context of organizational resources and constraints and meets the user requirements.

The basic objective of feasibility study is to identify whether the proposed system is
feasible and will be more appropriate than the existing one, before the commitment of
organizational resources to the system.Feasibility study covers:

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

 Organizational : The extent to which a proposed information system supports the

objective of the organization’s strategic plan for information systems determines
the organizational feasibility of the system project

 Economic: In this study, costs and returns are evaluated to know whether returns
justify the investment in the system project.

 Technical: Whether reliable hardware and software, capable of meeting the

needs of the proposed system can be acquired or developed by the organization.

 Operational: The willingness and the ability of the management, employees,

customers, suppliers, etc., to operate, use and support a proposed system come
under operational feasibility.

3.System Design

System design specifies how the system will accomplish this objective. System design
consists of both logical design and physical design activity, which produces 'system
specification' satisfying system requirements developed in the system analysis stage.It
includes:

• User Interface Design

• Data Design

• Process Design

• Technical System Specifications

The output from this phase is DDS(Design Document Specification) and DAD (Detailed
Architecture Design) which in turn works as an input to next phase.

4.System Development

Actual code which is documented in SCD(Source Code Document).

5.Sytem Testing

The system should be tested with some test data to ensure its accuracy and reliability.
In fact, construction of the system takes place on the basis of the system design
specifications. So in this phase, the various directions as per system specifications are
followed. During testing, experienced testers start to test the system against the
requirements.The testers aim to find defects within the system as well as verifying
whether the application behaves as expected and according to what was documented in
the requirements analysis phase.

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

6.System Implementation

Implementation refers to post-development process of guiding a client to use the

software or hardware that was purchased.This includes Requirements Analysis, Scope
Analysis, Customizations, Systems Integrations, User Policies, User Training and
Delivery.The Implementation Phase includes: Hardware and software installation,User
Training,Documentation

7.System Maintenance

System maintenance involves the monitoring, evaluating and modifying of a system to

make desirable or necessary improvements. In other words, maintenance includes
enhancements, modifications or any change from the original specifications.This is an
on-going process, until the system stabilizes.

MODELS

1.WATERFALL MODEL

Waterfall model approach became popular in 1970s.The waterfall model is a sequential

design process, used in software development processes, in which progress is seen as
flowing steadily downwards (like a waterfall). The model states that the phases are
organized in a Linear Order. In other words, the output of one phase becomes the input
for the next phase.

Waterfall Model - Application

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

Every software developed is different and requires a suitable SDLC approach to be

followed based on the internal and external factors. Some situations where the use of
Waterfall model is most appropriate are −

 Requirements are very well documented, clear and fixed.

 Product definition is stable.

 Technology is understood and is not dynamic.

 There are no ambiguous requirements.

 Ample resources with required expertise are available to support the product.

 The project is short.

Advantages

 Easy to understand and implement.

 Widely used and known

 Reinforces good habits: define-before- design, design-before-code

 Identifies deliverables and milestones

 Document driven

 Phases are processed and completed one at a time.

 Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood.

 Clearly defined stages.

 Well understood milestones.

 Easy to arrange tasks.

 Process and results are well documented.

 Provides structure to inexperienced staff

 Sets requirements stability

 Good for management control (plan, staff, track)

 Works well when quality is more important than cost or schedule

Disadvantages

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

 It is difficult to define all requirements at the beginning of a project

 This model is not suitable for accommodating any change

 A working version of the system is not seen until late in the project’s life

 It does not scale up well to large projects.

 Real projects are rarely sequential.

 High amounts of risk and uncertainty.

 Not a good model for complex projects.

 Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of
changing. So risk and uncertainty is high with this process model.

 It is difficult to measure progress within stages.

 Cannot accommodate changing requirements.

 No working software is produced until late in the life cycle.

 Integration is one big bang at the end

 Little opportunity for customer to preview the system (until it may be too late)

2.V-MODEL

The V-model is a type of SDLC model where process executes in a sequential manner
in V-shape. It is also known as Verification and Validation model. It is based on the
association of a testing phase for each corresponding development stage. Development
of each step directly associated with the testing phase. The next phase starts only after
completion of the previous phase i.e. for each development activity, there is a testing
activity corresponding to it.

Verification: It involves static analysis technique (review) done without executing code. It
is the process of evaluation of the product development phase to find whether specified
requirements meet.

Validation: It involves dynamic analysis technique (functional, non-functional), testing

done by executing code. Validation is the process to evolute the software after
completion of the development phase to determine whether software meets the
customer expectations and requirements.

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

So V-Model contains Verification phases on one side of the Validation phases on the
other side. Verification and Validation phase joined by coding phase in V-shape. So it is
called as V-Model.

Why preferred?
 It is easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase of V-Model has
specific deliverables and a review process.
 Proactive defect tracking – that is defects are found at early stage.
When to use?
 Where requirements are clearly defined and fixed.
 The V-Model is used when ample technical resources are available with technical
expertise.
Advantages:
 This is a highly disciplined model and Phases are completed one at a time.
 V-Model is used for small projects where project requirements are clear.
 Simple and easy to understand and use.
Disadvantages:
 High risk and uncertainty.
 It is not a good for complex and object-oriented projects.
 It is not suitable for projects where requirements are not crear and contains high
risk of changing.

3.SPIRAL MODEL

The spiral model, also known as the spiral lifecycle model, is a systems development
method (SDM) used in information technology (IT). This model of development
combines the features of the prototyping model and the waterfall model. The spiral
model is intended for large, expensive, and complicated projects. It allows incremental

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

releases of the product or incremental refinement through each iteration around the
spiral. The spiral model has four phases. A software project repeatedly passes through
these phases in iterations called Spirals.

Advantages

 Spiral Life Cycle Model is one of the most flexible SDLC models in place.
Project monitoring is very easy and effective.

 Each phase requires a review from concerned people. This makes the model
more transparent.

 Risk management is one of the in-built features of the model, which makes it
extra attractive compared to other models.

 Changes can be introduced later in the life cycle as well.

 Project estimates in terms of schedule, cost etc become more and more realistic
as the project moves forward and loops in spiral get completed.

 It is suitable for high risk projects, where business needs may be unstable.

 A highly customized product can be developed using this.

 Strong approval and documentation control.

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

Disadvantages

 Cost involved in this model is usually high.

 Skills required, to evaluate and review project from time to time, need expertise.

 Rules and protocols should be followed properly to effectively implement this

model. Doing so, through-out the span of project is tough.

 It is not suitable for low risk and small projects.

 Amount of documentation required in intermediate stages makes management of

project very complex affair.

When to use Spiral model:

 When costs and risk evaluation is important

 For medium to high-risk projects

 Long-term project commitment unwise because of potential changes to economic

priorities

 Users are unsure of their needs

 Requirements are complex

 New product line

4.PROTOTYPE MODEL

In the prototyping approach, a prototype of the system is developed, instead of the

complete system. A prototype is a comprehensive system· and does not include all the
requirements of the user. This model is based on the evolutionary method of system
development.The model, in general, has the following four steps.

 Identify the user's basic information requirements

 Develop the initial prototype system

 Use of the prototype system to refine the user's requirements

 Revise and enhance the prototype system

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

Advantages

 Reduces risk of incorrect user requirements

 Customers can “see” the system requirements as they are being gathered

 Good where requirements are changing/uncommitted

 The designer and implementer can obtain feedback from the users early in the
project development.

 Prototyping can improve the quality of requirements and specifications provided

to developers. Early determination of what the user really wants can result in
faster and less expensive software.

Disadvantages

 An unstable/badly implemented prototype often becomes the final product.

 Difficult to know how long project will last

 Users can begin to think that a prototype, intended to be thrown away, is actually
a final system that merely needs to be finished or polished.

 The start up costs for building a development team focused on prototyping may
be high. Many companies have to train the team for this purpose which needs
extra expensive?

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

5. Iterative Enhancement Model/Increment Model

In an iterative enhancement model, the system is developed in increments and each

increment adds some functional capabilities to the system, until the full system is
developed. Additions and modifications can be done at each step. To begin with, only a
subset of the overall problem is considered in developing the system. The selected
subset may be one of the important subsets, which may contain some of the key
aspects of the problem.

Advantages

 Some working functionality can be developed quickly and early in the life cycle.

 Results are obtained early and periodically.

 Parallel development can be planned.

 Progress can be measured.

 Less costly to change the scope/requirements.

 Testing and debugging during smaller iteration is easy.

 Easier to manage risk - High risk part is done first.

 With every increment operational product is delivered.

 Risk analysis is better.

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

 It supports changing requirements.

 Better suited for large and mission-critical projects.

Disadvantages

 More management attention is required.

 System architecture or design issues may arise because not all requirements are
gathered in the beginning of the entire life cycle.

 Not suitable for smaller projects.

 End of project may not be known which is a risk.

 Highly skilled resources are required for risk analysis.

 Projects progress is highly dependent upon the risk analysis phase.

When to use?

 Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood.

 When the project is big.

 Major requirements must be defined; however, some details can evolve with
time.

6.RAPID APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT MODEL (RAD)

The RAD (Rapid Application Development) model is based on prototyping and iterative
development with no specific planning involved. The process of writing the software
itself involves the planning required for developing the product.

Rapid Application Development focuses on gathering customer requirements through

workshops or focus groups, early testing of the prototypes by the customer using
iterative concept, reuse of the existing prototypes (components), continuous integration
and rapid delivery.

In the RAD model, the functional modules are developed in parallel as prototypes and
are integrated to make the complete product for faster product delivery. Since there is
no detailed preplanning, it makes it easier to incorporate the changes within the
development process.

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

RAD projects follow iterative and incremental model and have small teams comprising
of developers, domain experts, customer representatives and other IT resources
working progressively on their component or prototype.

The most important aspect for this model to be successful is to make sure that the
prototypes developed are reusable.
RAD model distributes the analysis, design, build and test phases into a series of short,
iterative development cycles.

The following pointers describe the typical scenarios where RAD can be used −

 RAD should be used only when a system can be modularized to be delivered in

an incremental manner.

 It should be used if there is a high availability of designers for modeling.

 It should be used only if the budget permits use of automated code generating
tools.

 RAD SDLC model should be chosen only if domain experts are available with
relevant business knowledge.

 Should be used where the requirements change during the project and working
prototypes are to be presented to customer in small iterations of 2-3 months.

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

The advantages of the RAD Model are as follows −

 Changing requirements can be accommodated.

 Progress can be measured.

 Iteration time can be short with use of powerful RAD tools.

 Productivity with fewer people in a short time.

 Reduced development time.

 Increases reusability of components.

 Quick initial reviews occur.

 Encourages customer feedback.

 Integration from very beginning solves a lot of integration issues.

The disadvantages of the RAD Model are as follows −

 Dependency on technically strong team members for identifying business

requirements.

 Only system that can be modularized can be built using RAD.

 Requires highly skilled developers/designers.

 High dependency on modeling skills.

 Inapplicable to cheaper projects as cost of modeling and automated code

generation is very high.

 Management complexity is more.

 Suitable for systems that are component based and scalable.

 Requires user involvement throughout the life cycle.

 Suitable for project requiring shorter development times.

DECISION MAKING

Decision-making is an integral part of modern management. The term decision making

means - the process of deciding about something important, especially in a group of
people or in an organization.Decision-making involves the selection of a course of

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

action from among two or more possible alternatives in order to arrive at a solution for a
given problem”.

Decision Making Process

 Identify the problem: At this stage a manager should identify and define the real
problem.

 Diagnose the problem: Diagnosing the real problem implies analyzing it in terms
of its magnitude, its urgency and its relation with other problems.

 Discover Alternatives: the next step is to search for various possible alternatives,
time and cost constraints should be kept in mind.

 Evaluate alternatives: It is the process of measuring the positive and negative

consequences of each alternative.

 Select the best alternative: after evaluation, the optimum alternative is selected,
that will maximize the results.

 Implement and follow up: selected decision is implemented by allocating

resources and assigning responsibilities to individuals.

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|33230170

Downloaded by Tanmay Agrawal ([email protected])