Folds

Anticlines and synclines

Mr. Nizar Mohamad

 Folds
Folds are tilted layers developed because of tectonic activities applied on
sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks. they are common in the upper,
middle and lower parts of Earth’s crust. Folds are developed on Earth’s surface
or subsurface. The sizes of folds range from several kilometers in length such as
mountains and called major folds, to several meters that can be seen by naked
eye within outcrops and called minor folds, and some cannot be seen by naked
eyes but by microscope and these called micro folds (figure1,a,b,c). The folds
have many shapes and they are considered as good places for hydrocarbon
storage. The hydrocarbons are trapped in the top levels of the anticlines after
deformation stages. The study of folds is concentrated mainly on their
geometrical dimensions and their types. The fold’s terminology is shown in
(figure2).
Figure 1. The sizes of folds, a. major fold, b. minor fold, c. micro – fold.

a. Major fold b. Minor fold a. Micro folds in

sandstone thin - section
Figure 2. The geometrical terminology of a fold
The geometrical terminology of a fold
The axial plane: it is an imaginary plane which bisects the fold into two
halves. Each halve called limb and the line that extends above this plane is
called fold axis.
The fold axis: imaginary line which extends straightly above the axial plane
and locates on the top of the folds. The fold axis called hinge line if it is
curved side to side or downward or upward.
The hinge line: it is an imaginary curved line which extends above the axial
planes.
The limbs: limbs are tilted planes which are dipping either away from the
fold axis or dipping toward the fold axis.
The hinge zone: it is the most highly curved portion of a fold near the hinge
line.
The crest: it is the maximum point (elevation) on the fold, its elevation
measured from the Earth’s surface by meters. (figure 3).
The trough: it is the minimum point (elevation) on the fold, its depth
measured from Earth’s surface by meters.
Figure 3. (a) Road cut of a fold shows the maximum elevation which is called crest and minimum
elevation which is called trough on the white bed (for specific bed).
(b) Crest and the trough for the whole anticline (not specific bed).

Crest
Crest

Trough

Trough
The inflection point: the point at which the fold changes its curvature from
convex (anticline) to concave (syncline) (figures2,4).
The median surface: the surface that connects the inflection points and extends
perpendicular to the fold axis.

Figure 4. inflection points1,2,3 (red points) and the median surface (in dashed black line).
Crest

Inflection point – 1 Inflection point – 3

Inflection point – 2

Median surface
Trough
 Anticline and syncline

Folds are divided into anticlines and synclines.

Anticlinal fold: it is an arch-like shape, with limbs dipping away from the
fold axis. From the name, anti means against in direction and cline from
clinometer means dips (dips against each other).
Synclinal fold: it is a trough-like shape, with limbs dipping toward the fold
axis. From the name, syn means toward each other in direction and cline
from clinometer means dips (dips toward each other) (figure5a,b and 6a,b).
Figure 5a, anticlinal fold. 5b, synclinal fold

5a

5b
Figure 6a, anticlinal fold in dolomite beds. 6b, synclinal fold in marly limestone beds.

6a 6b
 Uniformly dipping beds
They are tilted beds which have only one direction of dips and appear
as a part of anticline or synclinal limb (figure7).

Figure7. uniformly dipping beds. See that the beds are dipping to east direction (090°).
west East
Non – plunging and plunging folds
Non-plunging folds: the folds which have no plunge angle because their
fold axes stay horizontal at the middle parts of the folds (figures8).
Plunging folds: folds which their fold axes plunge into Earth’s surface
with an angle called plunge angle. If the fold axis is plunged in two
directions of fold, then the fold is called doubly plunged folds (figure9).

Figure8. Non – plunging and plunging folds

Non-Plunging folds Plunging folds
Figure9. Anticline have a doubly plunged fold axis. Sheep mountain, USA, Greybull Wyoming.
Fold axis plunging to north

West East

Fold axis plunging to south

Fold Orientations
Strike line:
Intersection line between the horizontal imaginary plane and the limb of fold.
This line has directional value from 0 – 360°. (figure10).
Dip direction:
The direction at which the limb is going downward. The directional value from
0 – 360°. And it is perpendicular to strike lines.
(figure 10,11).
Dip angle:
The angle of the limb from the Earth’s surface. It means if the beds are
horizontal then the dip angle is zero, but if the beds are vertical then the dip
angle is 90°. (figure10).
The strike lines run parallel with fold axis at middle parts of folds while it cuts
the fold axis when it reaches the plunging areas (closure) (figure12).
Figure10. Strike line, dip direction and dip angle on a plane of bed.

strike Limb of fold shows how the

Dip direction horizontal plane cuts the limb
and makes strike line runs from
(north to south) (C). The
direction of water poured on
West East
yellow bed is running to east
which is dip direction of beds
Dip angle (D). . The dip angle of bed is
strike 30° from the horizontal plane
(B). .
Figure11. The Right Hand Rule explains the relationship between strike line and dip direction.

The THUMB is STRIKE and it is pointing to

East direction whereas the FINGURES are
DIP DIRECTION OF BED and pointing to
STRIKE downward with the bed to South
direction. The angle between dip
direction and strike line is 90°. The rule of
dip direction is (Dip Direction= Strike+90).
DIP DIRECTION
Figure12. Approaching strike lines toward each others near plunging areas.

The strike lines are

parallel with fold axis
(hinge line) at the middle
part of the anticline,
whereas they intersect
the hinge line near the
plunging area.
Plunging area Sheep Mountain, USA.
Questions
1. A fold has strike line of about 000°N, find the dip direction of the limb
2. Find the strike line of an anticline if its dip direction is 180°S.
3. Find the dip direction of an anticline if its strike line value is 270°W.
4. Find the dip direction of fold having strike line of about 130° SE.

NOTE: (use the right hand rule).