Aircraft Materials and

Processes
Day 01

Engr. Ana Pauline Soldevilla

 Table of Content

1. Metals 4. Limits and Fits

• Properties of Metal • Type of Seals
• Metalworking Process • Material
• Nonferrous Metals • Sealing Compounds
• Ferrous Metals • Properties
• Welding 5. Types of Aircraft Components
2. Wood
• Types of Wood
• Wood defects
• Types of adhesive
• Bonding Process
3. Composites
• Fiber Material
• Core Material
• Matrix Material
• Fabric Science
• Manufacturing Process
Metals
 Metals: Properties

Hardness
• Ability to resist cutting,
penetration, or abrasion
• Ex: Concrete, diamond, etc.

Brittleness
• Tendency to easily shatter or
break when bent
• Ex: Glass, ceramic, potato chip
 Metals: Properties

Malleability
• Capability of being shaped or
extended by hammering, forging,
etc. without breaking.
• Ex: Gold, clay, dough

Ductility
• The ability of a material to be
drawn or plastically deformed into
a wire without fracture.
• Ex: Aluminum, copper, iron
 Metals: Properties

Elasticity
• Property which enables a metal to
return to its original shapes when
the forces which causes the change
of shape is removed.
• Ex: Rubber, springs, guitar strings

Toughness
• The property which allows metal
to be drawn, bent or twisted into
various shapes without breaking.
• Ex: Aluminum, copper, iron
 Metals: Properties

Conductivity
• Ability to carry heat or electricity
• Ex: Copper, seawater, silver

Expansion/Contraction
• Ability to expand when heated
and contract when cooled
• Ex: Most materials and metals
 Metals: Properties

Fusibility
• Ability to be joined by melting
or heating
• Ex: Tin, silver, lead

Density
• Mass of a unit volume.
Measurement of how tightly a
material is packed together
• Ex: Lead, mercury, osmium
 Metals: Properties

What are the 5 major stresses that aircrafts are subjected to?

1. Tension: The force that is transmitted through a cable,

rope, wire or string when it is pulled tight by forces
acting from opposite

2. Compression: The application of balanced inward

("pushing") forces to different points on a material or
structure.
 Metals: Properties

What are the 5 major stresses that aircrafts are subjected to?

3. Torsion: Stress that causes twisting of an object due to

an applied torque.

4. Shear: Force tending to cause deformation of a material

by slippage along a plane or planes parallel to the imposed
stress
 Metals: Properties

What are the 5 major stresses that aircrafts are subjected to?

5. Bending: Combination of compressive and tensile forces that develop in the

direction of the beam axis under bending loads.

Engr. Ana Pauline C. Soldevilla

Metals: Metalworking Process

Wrought: physically working the Cast: pouring molten metal into

metal into shape an empty shaped space.
Metals: Metalworking Process

Hotworking

The process of hot working with metal involves the deformation of a metal at certainly
high temperature (above recrystallization point of metal) when it’s in annealed or soft
condition.
Metals: Metalworking Process

Hotworking

Processes:
1. Rolling
2. Forging
• Drop forging
• Pressing
• Hammering (Smith Forging)
• Upset Forging
Metals: Metalworking Process

Hotworking

1. Rolling - a metal forming process in

which metal stock is passed through
one or more pairs of rolls to reduce
the thickness, to make the thickness
uniform, and/or to impart a desired
mechanical property.
• Forms bars, sheets, and beams
Metals: Metalworking Process

Hotworking

2. Forging - the process in which

metals are formed and shaped using
compressive forces at temperatures
above its critical range
Metals: Metalworking Process

Hotworking

2. Forging
• Drop forging: uses a pair of
impression dies and a heavy
hammer to form and compress
metal bars or billets into complex
shapes

• Pressing: used to form large and

heavy parts. Since a press is slow
acting, its force is uniformly
transmitted to the center of the
material being pressed.
Metals: Metalworking Process

Hotworking

2. Forging
• Smith forging: a type of forging
that is usually used on small parts
because it requires a metalworker
to physically hammer a piece of
metal into its finished shape.

• Upset forging: forging an end of

a billet to reduce its height and
increase its cross section. Ideal for
longer shapes where only one
end of a part needs to be forged.
Metals: Metalworking Process

Pressed Powdered Metal Parts/ Powder Metallurgy

Powder metallurgy is a manufacturing process that produces precision and highly

accurate parts by pressing powdered metals and alloys into a rigid die under
extreme pressure.
Metals: Metalworking Process

Coldworking

A metalworking process in which metal is shaped below its recrystallization

temperature, usually at the ambient temperature.
Metals: Metalworking Process

Coldworking

1. Cold rolling: a process by which metal

is passed through rollers at
temperatures below its recrystallization
temperatures. The metal is compressed
and squeezed, increasing the yield
strength and hardness of the metal.
Metals: Metalworking Process

Coldworking

2. Cold drawing: a drawing process that's

characterized by the use of physical
force, usually in the form of a pulling
force, to stretch and manipulate metal.
Metals: Metalworking Process

Extrusion

A forming process in which we force a metal (either hot or cold) through a die. This
imparts the die shape to the extruded metal as it passes through the cavity.
Metals: Metalworking Process

Casting

Metal casting is the process of making objects by pouring molten metal into an
empty shaped space. The metal then cools and hardens into the form given to it by
this shaped mold.
Metals: Metalworking Process

Casting

1. Static Casting: A molten metal is

supplied through an opening on the
top of the mold. The mold typically
consists of two mold halves. In the
mold chamber cores can be placed
to create shapes and internal voids.
Exhaust air ducts prevent air from
being trapped, which otherwise can
create casting defects.
Metals: Metalworking Process

Casting

2. Centrifugal Casting: A motor

begins to rotate the mold, usually
made of iron, at between 250-3600
rpm and while it rotates the melt is
supplied. As a result the melt,
thanks to the centrifugal force, will
be pushed out onto the mold wall.
Metals: Metalworking Process

Casting

3. Precision Casting: a manufacturing

process in which a wax pattern is
used to shape a disposable ceramic
mold. A wax pattern is made in the
exact shape of the item to be cast.
This pattern is coated with a
refractory ceramic material.
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Recap Questions:

1. What property allows metal to be drawn, bent or twisted into various shapes without
breaking?

2. True or False: Wrought metals is when metal is physically worked into shape
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Alloy

An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements where the primary component is a metal.

 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Nonferrous metals

The term that describes metals which have elements other than iron as their base is
nonferrous. The nonferrous group includes metals such as titanium, copper, aluminum,
magnesium and alloys such as Monel and Babbitt. Aluminum is one of the most popular
nonferrous metals used in the aircraft industry.
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum and its alloys

Aluminum is a soft and lightweight metal. It has a dull silvery appearance, because of a
thin layer of oxidation that forms quickly when it is exposed to air.
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum and its alloys: Basic Designation for Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys

Peter Could Make Some Magnificent Simple Machines with Zinc Objects
Unusually
Paul Cut Some Sparkly & Magical Unused Zinc, Then ignored Others
Source: Engr. Noriel M. Purigay
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum and its alloys: Basic Designation for Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys

* For 1xxx series, the last two digits indicates hundredths above 1 percent of pure
aluminum. (1030 has 99.30% aluminum content)

Source: Engr. Noriel M. Purigay

 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum & Its Alloys

1XXX Series (Pure Aluminum):

High corrosion resistance, thermal and electrical properties, easily worked
Low strength

2XXX Series (Copper):

High strength

Intergranular corrosion when improperly heat treated

3XXX Series (Manganese):

Moderate strength & working characteristics

Non-heat treatable
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum & Its Alloys

4XXX Series (Silicon):

Welding and brazing
-

5XXX Series (Magnesium):

Good welding properties and corrosion resistant

Susceptible to corrosion at high temperatures or excessive coldworking

6XXX Series (Silicon and Magnesium):

Moderate strength, good forming, and corrosion properties

-
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum & Its Alloys

7XXX Series (Zinc) :

More strength, harder aluminum alloy
Difficult to bend and form
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum and its alloys: Aluminum Clad

AlClad: Sheets of such material are clad with a thin layer of pure aluminum with 1 % zinc
on both sides as a means of corrosion protection. These layers are permanently welded
to the base material in a rolling process at high temperature. Other than electroplated
stock, clad material can be formed. The thickness of the clad layers is about 3 or 5 % of
the material thickness.
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum and its alloys: Ways of Casting Aluminum Alloys

1. Sand Casting – most common and is used for complicated shapes or where only a
few parts are required.
2. Permanent-mold Casting - similar to sand casting but with the use of a metal mold.
Allows better accuracy
3. Die Casting: is used when small parts must be made and held to close tolerances. It
works by forcing metal into water cooled dies.
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum and its alloys: Heat Treatment

Heat Treatment: the process of heating metal without letting it reach its molten, or
melting, stage, and then cooling the metal in a controlled way to select desired
mechanical properties. Heat treatment is used to either make metal stronger or more
malleable, more resistant to abrasion or more ductile.
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum and its alloys: Heat Treatment

Types of Heat Treatment:
1. Solution Heat Treatment: Metal is heated in molten sodium or potassium nitrate
bath or in hot furnace and held to + or – 10 Farenheit degrees that temperature. The
objective of solution heat treatment or solution annealing is to dissolve the
precipitates or impurities present in the material. The solution annealed or solution
heat treated material goes into soft state after the treatment process.
2. Precipitation Heat Treatment or Age Hardening: Most commonly used
strengthening mechanisms for metals. Takes resulting material from Solution Heat
Treatment, which is after being in soft-state, and then heat it up again to medium
temperatures and then rapidly cool it down again via quenching.
3. Annealing: Softens metal; heated to 50F above critical temperature, soaked &
cooled slowly. Slow cooling.
4. Normalizing: heated 100F above critical temperature, soaked, & cooled in room
temperature. Medium-paced cooling.
5. Quenching: Rapid cooling in air, oil, water, or brine
6. Tempering: reduces brittleness of hardened metals; heated below critical
temperature, held there, and cool in room temperature.
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum and its alloys: Temper Designation System

Basic Temper Designation
• F – As fabricated
• O – Annealed
• H – Strain hardened (Non heat treatable products only)
• W – Solution heat treated
• T – Heat treated to produce stable tempers other than F, O, or H
Temper Designation for Non Heat Treatable Alloys
• H1 – Cold worked only
• H2 – Cold worked and partially annealed
• H3 – Cold worked and stabilized
The degree of hardening is indicated by a second digit following one of the above
designations:
• 2 - ¼ hard
• 4 – ½ hard
• 6 – ¾ hard
• 8 – full hard
• 9 – extra hard
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum and its alloys: Temper Designation System

Temper Designation for Heat Treatable Alloy
• T1 – Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and naturally aged to a
substantially stable condition
• T2 – Annealed
• T3 – Solution heat treated and cold worked.
• T4 – Solution heat treated and naturally aged.
• T42 – Solution heat treated from 0 temper to demonstrate response to heat
treatment by the user, and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition
• T5 – Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and artificially aged
• T6 – Solution heat treated and artificially aged.
• T62 – Solution heat treated from 0 F temper to demonstrate response to heat
treatment by the user, and artificially aged
• T7 – Solution heat treated and stabilized
• T8 – Solution heat treated, cold worked, and artificially aged
• T9 – Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and cold worked
• T10 – Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, cold worked, and
artificially aged.
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum and its alloys: Temper Designation System

Temper Designation for Heat Treatable Alloy

Ø PS: Partial solution heat treated • T1 – PS & NA

Ø S: Solution heat treated • T2 – PS, CW, & NA
Ø CW: Coldworked • T3 – S, CW, & NA
Ø NA: Natural aged • T4 – S & NA
Ø AA: Artificially aged • T5 – PS & AA
Ø ST: Stabilized • T6 – S & AA
• T7 – S & ST
• T8 – S, CW, & AA
• T9 – S, AA, & CW
• T10 – PS, CW, AA
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum and its alloys: Temper Designation System

Additional designations

• S – wrought alloys (2S,3S, 13S, 61S)

• Without S – cast alloys (43, 142, 195)
• R – wrought alloys produced by the Reynolds Metals Company (R301, R303, R353)
• H – temper designation; strain hardened by cold work. H means hard (3S1/4H, 3SH)
• T – hardened by heat treatment (14ST, 53ST)
• O – heat treatable alloy in annealed, soft state (14SO, 17SO)
• SRT – heat treated and strain hardened (17SRT, 24SRT)
• W – intermediate heat treatment (25SW, 53SW)
• clad, Alclad – coated with a thin layer of aluminum (14S clad, Alclad 17S, Clad 14S)
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Magnesium & its alloys

• Magnesium alloys are used for castings and in its wrought form is available in sheets,
bars, tubing, and extrusions.
• Magnesium is one of the lightest metals having sufficient strength and suitable
working characteristics for use in aircraft structures.
• It lacks sufficient strength in its pure state for use as a structural metal.
• In addition to cracking and corroding easily, magnesium burns readily in a dust or
small particle form. For this reason, caution must be exercised when grinding and
machining magnesium
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Magnesium & its alloys

Temper Designation for Magnesium Alloys

Ø A – Aluminum • F – As Fabricated
Ø E – Rare Earth • O – Annealed
Ø H – Thorium • H24 – Strain hardened and partially
Ø K – Zirconium annealed
Ø M – Manganese • T4 – Solution heat treated
Ø Z - Zinc • T5 – Artificially aged
• T6 – Solution heat treated and
artificially aged
Example: AZ31A-T4
• Alloyed with Aluminum
• And with Zinc
• 3% Aluminum
• 1% Zinc
• T4 – Solution heat treated
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Titanium & its alloys

• Titanium and its alloys are light weight metals with very high strength.
• Furthermore, pure titanium is soft and ductile with a density between that of
aluminum and iron.
• In addition to its light weight and high strength, titanium and its alloys have excellent
corrosion resistance characteristics, particularly to the corrosive effects of salt water.
• However, since the metal is sensitive to both nitrogen and oxygen, it must be
converted to titanium dioxide with chlorine gas and a reducing agent before it can be
used.
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Titanium & its alloys

• 3 Basic Types of Crystals
1. A (Alpha):
• all around
• resistant to oxidation
• tough & strong both cold & hot
• good weldability
2. B (Beta):
• good bendability and ductility
• strong both cold & hot
• prone to contamination
3. C (Combined):
• strong when cold and warm; weak when hot resistant to oxidation
• good forgeability & bendability
• mid contamination resistive properties.
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Nickel & its alloy

1. Monel: 68% Nickel, 29% Copper
• Can be welded
• Good machining
• High strength and corrosion resistance at high
temperatures
• Works well as gears & in exhaust systems
2. Inconel: 80% Nickel, 14% Chromium
• High strength and corrosion resistance at extremely high
temperatures
• Used in turbine engines
 Metals: Nonferrous Metals

Copper & its alloy

Excellent electrical and thermal conductivity; used for electrical wiring
1. Brass (Zinc): a copper alloy containing zinc and small amounts of aluminum, iron,
lead, man- ganese, magnesium, nickel, phosphorous, and tin
• 30 – 35% Zinc = ductile
• 45% Zinc = high strength
2. Bronze (Tin): Bronze is a copper alloy that contains tin.
• A true bronze consists of up to 25 percent tin and, along with brass, is used in
bushings, bearings, fuel-metering valves, and valve seats.
• Bronzes with less than 11 percent tin are used in items such as tube fittings.
3. Beryllium: One of the most used copper alloys. It consists of approximately 97%
copper, 2% beryllium, and sufficient nickel to increase its strength.
• Once heat treated, beryllium copper achieves a tensile strength of 200,000 psi
and 70,000 psi in its annealed state.
• In commercial aircraft, landing gear bushings and bearings made from copper
beryllium handle great compressive and wear forces despite corrosive
atmospheres and exposure to wide ranges of temperature.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Ferrous Metals
Ferrous metals refer to any metal that contains iron. Iron in its pure form is soft,
malleable, and ductile.

If carbon is added to iron in percentages ranging up to approximately 1 percent, the

product is vastly superior to iron alone and is classified as carbon steel.

How is steel made?

1. Primary steelmaking creates steel from a product called “pig iron.” Pig iron is smelted
iron, from ore, which contains more carbon than is correct for steel.
2. The steelmaker uses a system that bubbles oxygen through melting pig iron. This
process creates equal oxidization throughout the molten metal. Oxidization removes
excess carbon. It also vaporizes or binds impurities made of elements like silicon,
phosphorus, and manganese.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

SAE Classification of Steel

• The first digit indicates the main
alloying element.
• The second digit of the series
indicates the concentration of the
major element in percentiles (1 equals
1%).
• The last two digits of the series
indicate the carbon concentration to
0.01%.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Carbon

• Carbon is the most common alloying
element found in steel.
• It is the carbon in steel that allows the steel
to be heat-treated to obtain varying
degrees of hardness, strength, and
toughness.
• The greater the carbon content, the more
receptive steel is to heat treatment and,
therefore, the higher its tensile strength
and hardness.
• However, higher carbon content decreases
the malleability and weldability of steel.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Carbon

1. Low-carbon steels
• Contain between 0.10 and 0.30 percent
carbon and are classified as SAE 1010 to
SAE 1030 steel
• Primarily used in safety wire, cable
bushings, and threaded rod ends.
• Low-carbon steel is easily welded and
machines readily, but does not accept
heat treatment well.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Carbon

2. Medium-carbon steels
• Contain between 0.30 and 0.50 percent
carbon.
• Higher carbon allows steel to accept heat
treatment, while still retaining a
reasonable degree of ductility
• Especially adaptable for machining or
forging and where surface hardness is
desirable.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Carbon

3. High-carbon steels
• Contain between 0.50 and 1,05 percent
carbon
• Very hard.
• Primarily used in springs, files, and some
cutting tools.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Sulfur

• Sulfur is usually an undesirable impurity in
steel rather than an alloying element. In
amounts exceeding 0.05% it tends to cause
brittleness and reduce weldability.
• If all the sulfur cannot be removed its
effects can be countered by adding
manganese.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Silicon

• Silicon is perhaps the most common

alloying element in steel, as almost all steel
requires silicon during the manufacturing
process.
• Silicon helps to purify the iron ore during
the smelting process by deoxidizing it and
removing other impurities from it.
• When silicon is alloyed with steel it acts as a
hardener.
• When used in small quantities, it also
improves ductility.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Phosphorus

• Phosphorous raises the yield strength of

steel
• Improves low carbon steel's resistance to
atmospheric corrosion.
• However, no more than 0.05 percent
phosphorous is normally used in steel,
since higher amounts cause the alloy to
become brittle when cold.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Nickel

• Nickel adds strength and hardness to steel

and increases its yield strength.
• It also slows the rate of hardening when
steel is heat-treated, which increases the
depth of hardening and produces a finer
grain structure.
• Used in producing aircraft hardware such as
bolts, nuts, rod ends, and pins.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Chromium

• Chromium is alloyed with steel to increase

strength and hardness as well as improve
its wear and corrosion resistance.
• Used in balls and rollers of antifriction
bearings.
• Chromium is electrolytically deposited on
cylinder walls and bearing journals to
provide a hard, wear-resistant surface.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Nickel-Chromium Steel

• Nickel toughens steel, and chromium

hardens it.
• Therefore, use in high-strength structural
applications.
• Nickel-chrome steels such as SAE 3130,
3250, and 3435 are used for forged and
machined parts requiring high strength,
ductility, shock resistance, and toughness.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Stainless Steel (Corrosion Resistant Steel, CRES)

• Contain large amounts of chromium and

nickel.
• Their strength and resistance to corrosion
make them well suited for high-
temperature applications such as firewalls
and exhaust system components.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Molybdenum

• One of the most widely used alloying

elements for aircraft structural steel is
molybdenum.
• It reduces the grain size of steel and
increases both its impact strength and
elastic limit.
• Molybdenum steels are extremely wear
resistant and possess a great deal of fatigue
strength.
• This accounts for its use in high-strength
structural members and engine cylinder
barrels.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Chrome-Molybdenum

• Most commonly used alloy in aircraft.

• It machines readily, is easily welded by
either gas or electric arc, and responds well
to heat treatment.
• Ideal choice for landing gear structures and
engine mounts .
• Engine cylinders and other highly stressed
engine parts.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Vanadium

• When combined with chromium, vanadium

produces a strong, tough, ductile steel alloy.
• Amounts up to 0.20 percent improve grain
structure and increase both ultimate tensile
strength and toughness.
• Most wrenches and ball bearings are made
of chrome- vanadium steel.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Alloying agents in steel: Tungsten

• Tungsten has an extremely high melting

point and adds this characteristic to steel it
is alloyed with.
• Because tungsten steels retain their
hardness at elevated operating
temperatures, they are typically used for
breaker contacts in magnetos and for high-
speed cutting tools.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Theory of Heat Treatment

1. Hardening: heated above critical temperature, soaked, and quenched

2. Drawing/Tempering: reheated below critical temperature, soaked, and quenched
3. Annealing: heated above critical temperature, soaked, and cooled in furnace
• Process annealing: to improve ductility of wires and sheets
• Spheroidizing: for high carbon steels, to make better in machining
• Shop annealing: heating steel in a welding torch 900°F to 1000°F and dropping it
into a pail of ashes or lime to restrict the cooling rate.
4. Normalizing: annealing but cooled in normal air; the steel is harder and stronger but
less ductile than annealed material.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Hardening

Surface hardening: Treatment of steel by heat or mechanical means to increase the

hardness of the outer surface while the core remains relatively soft. The hard case resist
wear and abrasion, and the soft, tough core resist shock stresses.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Hardening

1. Case hardening
a) Carburizing: a case hardening process in
which a metal part or component of low
carbon content is heated in a carbon-rich gas
atmosphere.
• Pack carburizing: metal enclosed in
container with carbon-rich material
(charcoal) and heated
• Gas carburizing: same as pack
carburizing but with carbon oxide
• Liquid carburizing: heated in molten
salt bath of sodium cyanide or barium
cyanide
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Hardening

1. Case hardening
b) Nitriding: a heat treating process that diffuses
nitrogen (such as in the form of ammonia gas)
into the surface of a metal to create a case-
hardened surface

c) Cyaniding: a fast method of producing surface

hardness on an iron-based alloy of low carbon
content. Hardening is obtained by heating it in
contact with a cyanide salt, followed by
quenching.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Hardening

2. Induction Hardening: Induction heating is a process which is used to bond, harden

or soften metals or other conductive materials. Induction heating is the process of
heating metallic substances by means of a powerful, rapidly alternating magnetic
field. It is a differential heating, that is, the surface of the work heats up first very
rapidly and then the core of the material.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Hardening

3. Dielectric heating: Dielectric heating is similar to induction heating but is only

applicable to nonconducting materials (dielectrics) such as might be used for
electrical insulations.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Hardening

4. Shot peening: Shot peening is a recent development

that improves the fatigue and abrasion resistance of
metal parts. It is applicable on ferrous and nonferrous
parts, but is mostly used on steel surfaces.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Hardening
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Hardening

5. Burnishing: Burnishing is a cold working process in which the surface layer of a work
piece is plastically deformed by a hard tool: either roller or sliding ball. The
combination of the improved surface finish with the hardened skin provides a
significant increase in the wear resistance of the material.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Hardening
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Protection

While a number of methods are available

for surface protection, some
considerations are taken to account in
choosing which surface protection is best
suited for the part. Some of the
considerations are cost, purpose of the
part, location of the part, type of material
to used. Using the wrong surface
protection will cause premature failure of
the coating and deterioration of the part.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Protection

1. Anodizing: An electrolytic treatment in which a

part is bathed in a lead vat containing a solution
of chromic acid and water. This process forms an
oxide film on the part that protects the alloy from
further corrosion. Converts the metal surface into
a decorative, durable, corrosion-resistant, anodic
oxide finish
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Protection

2. Nickel or Chrome Plating: This plating process produces an airtight coating over the
surface that excludes moisture from the base metal
• Decorative Chrome - primarily for its appearance and surface protection
• Hard Chrome - used to form a wear-resistant surface on parts which are subject to
abrasion.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Protection

3. Cadmium Plating: This soft, silvery-gray metal is electroplated onto the steel to a
minimum thickness of 0.005 inch. It provides an attractive finish as well as protection
against corrosion. Uses galvanic action to create protective film.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Protection

4. Galvanizing: The protection afforded by this process is similar to that provided by

cadmium plating in that when penetrated, the zinc corrodes and forms an airtight
oxide film. Steel is galvanized by passing it through vats of molten zinc and then
rolling it smooth through a series of rollers.
 Metals: Ferrous Metals

Surface Protection

5. Metal Spray: Aircraft engine cylinders are sometimes protected from corrosion by
spraying molten aluminum on their surface. To accomplish this process, a steel
cylinder barrel is sand- blasted absolutely clean, then aluminum wire is fed into an
acetylene flame where the wire is melted and blown onto the surface by high-
pressure compressed air.
 Metals: Welding

Welding

1. Fusion welding: a process that uses heat to join or fuse two or more materials by
heating them to melting point
2. Non-fusion welding: adhesion of one metal to another
 Metals: Welding

Fusion Welding

1. Gas Welding
• Oxyacetylene welding
2. Electric Arc Welding
• Shielded metal arc welding
• Gas metal arc welding
• Gas tungsten arc welding
3. Electric Resistance Welding
• Spot welding
• Seam welding
4. Plasma Arc Welding
 Metals: Welding

Fusion Welding

1. Gas Welding: Oxyacetylene welding

• Acetylene: acts as fuel
• Oxygen: supports combustion
• Temperature of oxyacetylene flame ranges
from 5,600 to 6,300°F.
• The normal operating pressure for most
acetylene welding is 4 to 8 psi.
• Stored in acetone
• Flame color and pattern:
Ø Carburizing: High in acetylene; used for
brazing and soldering
Ø Neutral flame: optimal mixture; used for
welding aircraft steel
Ø Oxidizing: Rich in oxygen; used for cutting
 Metals: Welding

Fusion Welding

2. Electric Arc Welding: Shielded Metal Arc Welding (Stick)

• Most common form of welding
• For thick metals
• Used to fabricate tools and equipment
 Metals: Welding

Fusion Welding

2. Electric Arc Welding: Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG)

• For thinner metal
• Leaves no slag
• For large volume production
• Consumable electrode as filler
Metals: Welding
 Metals: Welding

Fusion Welding

2. Electric Arc Welding: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)

• No slag and splatter
• Non consumable electrode but filler may be used
Metals: Welding
 Metals: Welding

Fusion Welding

3. Electric Resistance Welding: Spot welding

• Spot welding (also known as resistance spot welding) is a resistance
welding process.
• This welding process is used primarily for welding two or more metal
sheets together by applying pressure and heat from an electric current
to the weld area.
Metals: Welding
 Metals: Welding

Fusion Welding

3. Electric Resistance Welding: Seam welding

• Seam welding is the joining of work pieces made of similar or dissimilar
materials along a continuous seam.
Metals: Welding
 Metals: Welding

Fusion Welding

4. Plasma Arc Welding

• Similar to TIG but electrode is in the body of the torch
• PAW provides an advanced level of control and accuracy using automated
equipment to produce high quality welds in precision applications.
 Metals: Welding

Non-fusion Welding

1. Torch Brazing (800F)

• Non-ferrous metal is melted with oxyacetylene torch to act as a cohesive
material
• The non-ferrous material, usually brass or bronze, is melted with an oxyacetylene
torch at a temperature below that of the base metal, but above 800 °F.
 Metals: Welding

Non-fusion Welding

1. Torch Brazing (800F)

• Brazing: capillary action to put molten metal in fitted joints
• Braze welding: filler rod is also deposited on the surface
 Metals: Welding

Non-fusion Welding

2. Torch Soldering (Below 800F)

• Soft soldering: solder is tin and lead
• Hard soldering: Hard and silver soldering are actually forms of brazing in which
the filler material melts at a temperature more than 800 °F.
 Metals: Welding

Recap Questions:

1. If you want to cut metals, what type of oxyacetylene flame should you have?
Carburizing, neutral, or oxidizing?

2. Which non-fusion welding technique is done above 800F? Brazing or soldering?

Wood
 Wood

From the very beginning of aviation wood has been used in aircraft construction. Early
aircraft designers and builders often used ash or hickory. They were looking for a type
of wood that would be relatively lightweight in addition to being very strong. Just prior
to World War I, Sitka Spruce was discovered by aircraft builders and found to be very
well suited to their needs. The strength to weight ratio was discovered to be very
favorable for aircraft use.
 Wood

Annular Rings: Growth rings or annular rings can be seen in a horizontal cross section
cut through the trunk of a tree. Visible rings result from the change in growth speed
through the seasons of the year, thus one ring usually marks the passage of one year in
the life of the tree.
 Wood

Heart Wood: The inner core of a woody stem or log, extending from the pith to the sap,
which is usually darker in color. This part of the wood contains dead cells that no longer
participate in the life processes of the tree.
 Wood

Sap Wood: the living part of a tree where the sap and water flow. All wood initially grows
as sapwood. As the tree ages, the innermost layers of sapwood turn to heartwood,
which is no longer living and does not transport nutrients. Sapwood is usually lighter in
color than the heartwood, but of equal strength.
 Wood

Plywood

• thin layers, or "plies", of wood veneer that are

glued together with adjacent layers, having
both glued with each other at right angle or at
90 degrees angle.
• Structural aircraft-grade plywood is more
commonly manufactured from African
mahogany or American birch veneers that are
bonded together in a hot press over
hardwood cores of basswood or poplar.
• • All aviation-grade plywood is manufactured
to specifications outlined in MIL-P-6070
 Wood

Laminated Wood

The lamination process differs from the plywood process in that each layer of laminated
wood is bonded with the grain running parallel with each other.
• Laminated wood is much more resistant to warping than solid wood, making it a good
substitute for solid wood components.
 Wood: Types of Wood

Types of Wood

Sitka Spruce: reference wood used for aircraft structures because it is easily worked,
uniform in texture, resistant to rotting, and has no odor. It can also be obtained in clear,
straight-grained pieces having very few defects. AC 43.13-1B outlines information
regarding acceptable wood species substitutions.
 Wood: Types of Wood

Types of Wood

Most Sitka spruce now comes from British Columbia and

Alaska due to the depletion of old growth spruce forests in
the United States, thus making quality spruce valuable and
occasionally, limited in supply.
 Wood: Types of Wood

Types of Wood

To meet the "Aircraft Sitka Spruce" grade specification, the lumber must be kiln-dried
➢ Specific gravity: >=0.36
➢ the slope of the grain: 1 to 15
➢ must be sawn vertical-grain
➢ shall have no fewer than six annular rings per inch.
 Wood: Types of Wood

Wood Assessment

According to FAA standards, a grain slope of 1:15 is the maximum allowable slope allowed
in aviation-grade wood. The slope of the grain is the amount of grain rise over the grain
length
 Wood: Types of Wood

Types of Wood

Douglas Fir
• Strength: exceeds Spruce
• May be used as a substitute size for size or smaller
• Difficult to work with, has a tendency to split/splinter
 Wood: Types of Wood

Types of Wood

Noble Fir
• Strength: slightly exceeds Spruce but deficient in shear strength
• May be used as a substitute size for size
• Satisfactory qualities
 Wood: Types of Wood

Types of Wood

Western Hemlock
• Strength: slightly exceeds Spruce
• May be used as a substitute direct substitution
• Less uniform in texture
 Wood: Types of Wood

Types of Wood

Pine, Northern White

• Strength: 85-96% of Spruce
• May be used as a substitute only in larger sizes
• Uniform and good working qualities but lacks in hardness and shock resistance
 Wood: Types of Wood

Types of Wood

White Cedar, Port Orford

• Strength: exceeds Spruce
• May be used as a substitute size for size or slightly smaller
• Gluing is difficult
 Wood: Types of Wood

Types of Wood

Poplar, Yellow
• Strength: Less than Spruce except in shear and compression
• May be used as a substitute slightly bigger
• Excellent working qualities but low in shock resistance
 Wood: Wood Defects

Wood Defects

• Checks: lengthwise separation across or crack along wood grain

• Compression failure: buckling of fibers at right angle to the grain
• Decay: destruction of wood due to organisms
• Dry rot: Any dry, crumbly rot, when wood is easily crushed into powder
 Wood: Wood Defects

Wood Defects

• Heartwood: inner core of wood with dead cells

• Knot: portion of branch embedded in wood of tree trunk
• Split: longitudinal crack induced by artificial stress
• Shakes: separation or crack along grain at common boundaries of growth ring
 Wood: Types of Adhesives

Types of Adhesive

• Casein glue: used in older airplanes; powdered glue from milk; deteriorates as exposed
to moisture
• Plastic resin glue: urea-formaldehyde resin; water, insect, and mold proof but
deteriorates in hot, moist environment
• Resorcinol: 2 part synthetic glue (resin and hardener); most water resistant; common
in repair
• Phenol-formaldehyde: most common in manufacturing aircraft grade plywood
• Epoxy resin: synthetic resin containing resin and hardener; excellent working qualities
 Wood: Bonding Process

Bonding process of wood

• Preparation of wood surface

• Utilization of good quality adhesive
• Performing good bonding technique

Applying the adhesive

• Acceptable cut of wood is cut nearly parallel

to the grain
 Wood: Bonding Process

Adhesive Time Period

1. Pot life: usable life of glue from the time it is mixed until time it is used
2. Open assembly time: allowable time between application of glue and assembly of
joint
3. Close assembly: time between assembling joint and clamping
4. Pressing time: period which parts are clamped together (curing period)
 Wood

Recap Questions:

1. What is the maximum allowable slope allowed in aviation-grade wood?

2. What is the time that describes usable life of glue from the time it is mixed until
time it is used?

3. What type of wood defect is shown?

Composites
 Composites

Composites are a combination of materials that, when put together, don’t compromise
each other’s quality or integrity. Instead, they enhance one another, providing structural
advantages that improve the durability and performance of aircraft.

Advantages
• reduces weight, that means if weight can be saved,
more cargo, fuel or passengers can be carried
• high strength to weight ratio
• reducing of parts and fasteners
• reducing wear
• corrosion resistance
Disadvantages
• generally expensive
• not easy to repair; that means you need well
trained staff, tools, equipment
• and facilities to repair composite components
 Composites

Applications range from complete airplanes such as the Beech Starship to wing
assemblies, helicopter rotor blades, propellers, seats, and instrument enclosures.
 Composites

In aircraft construction, most currently produced composites consist of a reinforcing

material to provide the structural strength, joined with a matrix material to serve as the
bonding substance. A core material may also be included as the central members in a
sandwich.
 Composites

• Laminate Composite: Also known as

Monolithic. Laminate composites consist of
two or more layers of reinforcing material
bonded together and embedded in a resin
matrix. Laminated composites are built up
to desired thicknesses by using multiple
layers of reinforcing fabrics.

• Sandwich construction: consists of two or

more laminated face sheets bonded to each
side of a relatively thick, lightweight core.
Sandwich composites offer high strength to
weight ratios as compared to solid
laminated structures.
 Composites: Fiber

1. Fiber

The structural properties of composite materials are derived primarily from the fiber
reinforcement. In a composite, the fiber, held in place by the matrix resin, contributes
tensile strength, enhancing performance properties in the final part, such as strength and
stiffness, while minimizing weight.
 Composites: Fiber

1. Fiber

• Fiberglass: The most widely used composite material is fiberglass. Fiberglass is strands
of molten silica glass spun together. It is lightweight, corrosion resistant, economical,
easily processed, and has good mechanical properties.
Ø S-glass: Very high tensile strength
Ø E-glass: high resistivity to current flow, weighs more
 Composites: Fiber

1. Fiber

• Aramid: The company called Dupont introduced aramid as Kevlar. It has high tensile
strength, good flexibility, low compressive properties, and excellent toughness
§ Aramid fibers are non-conductive and does not produce galvanic action when in
contact with metals
§ It has good strength to weight ratio, it is shatter and fatigue resistant
§ It has excellent vibration damping characteristics
 Composites: Fiber

1. Fiber

• Carbon/Graphite: a black fiber that is very strong, stiff, and used primarily for its rigid
strength characteristics.
§ High compressive strength and level of stiffness
§ Prone to galvanic corrosion
§ Used for ribs and skin surfaces of wings
 Composites: Fiber

1. Fiber

• Boron: Boron fiber manifests a combination of high strength and high elastic modulus.
A common use of boron fibers is in the construction of high tensile strength tapes.
§ Excellent compressive strength and stiffness, extremely hard
§ Hazardous and expensive
 Composites: Fiber

1. Fiber

• Ceramic: Ceramic fiber is an inorganic synthetic fiber.

§ Used when high temperature application is needed
 Composites: Core

2. Core Material

Central members in a sandwich construction. When bonded between two thin face
sheets, a component can be made rigid and lightweight.
 Composites: Core

2. Core Material

• Honeycomb Core: six sided shape similar to natural honeycombs

§ High strength to weight ratio, rigid, and corrosion resistant
§ Ribbon direction: direction which honeycomb may be pulled apart
 Composites: Core

2. Core Material

• Foam Cores: Foam core materials offer different densities and temperature
characteristics for high-heat applications and fire resistance.
§ Styrofoam: for home-built aircraft; only epoxy resin
§ Urethane: epoxy or polyester resin; cannot be cut with hot wire
§ PVC (poly vinyl chloride): both polyester or epoxy resins may be used; may be
cut with hot wire
§ Phenolic: fire resistant, low density but low mechanical properties
§ Polypropylene: for airfoil shapes; may be cut with hot wire and may use epoxy
resins but not polyester resins
 Composites: Core

2. Core Material

• Wood cores: core material made out of lightweight variants of wood

§ High compressive strength
§ Balsa wood or laminations of hard wood
 Composites: Matrix

3. Matrix Material

The matrix is basically a homogeneous and monolithic material in which a fiber system of
a composite is embedded. It holds reinforcing fibers in place and transfers stress to fibers
 Composites: Matrix

3. Matrix Material

• Thermosetting resins: uses heat to form and irreversibly set the shape of a part;
cannot be reformed
§ Polyester resins: mainly used with fiberglass and non structural applications
such as fairings, spinners, and trims
§ Epoxy resin: 2 part resin; catalyst initiates reaction of hardening; good adhesion
strength and moisture resistance; bonds dissimilar materials
§ Vinyl ester resin: increased corrosion resistance and mechanical properties
§ Phenol-formaldehyde resin: used for interior components; low smoke and
flammability properties
§ Polymide: for high temperature environment; good thermal resistance; oxidative
stability; low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Composites: Matrix

3. Matrix Material

• Thermoplastic resins: when heated, it can soften and change shape. It is used for
aircraft windshield and side windows
§ Cellulose Acetate: transparent and lightweight; tendency to turn yellow; softens
with acetone
§ Acrylic: Also known as Plexiglas, Perpex, Lucite; stiffer than cellulose acetate;
acetone does not soften it
 Composites: Matrix

3. Matrix Material

• Thermosetting curing stages:

§ A-stage: resin hardener is mixed and chemical reaction has not yet started
§ B-stage: chemical reaction has started; material is thickened and tacky. To
prevent further curing the resin is placed in a freezer at 0 °F. In the frozen state,
the resin of the prepreg material stays in the B stage.
§ C-stage: resin is fully cured. Some resins cure at room temperature and others
need an elevated temperature cure cycle to fully cure.
 Composites: Matrix

3. Matrix Material

• Working with resins and catalysts

§ Pot life: workable period of catalyzed resin
§ Shelf life: period of time unopened product is good
§ Resin rich: too much resin
§ Resin starved: not enough resin, decreased strength
§ 60:40 fiber to resin ratio: best strength properties
 Composites: Fiber

Recap Questions:

1. What are the three main components of a composite material?

2. Name one type of core material.

3. Is resin part of the fiber material, core material, or matrix material?

4. True or False: Thermosetting resins are resins that when heated again will soften and
change shape

5. What is the ideal fiber to resin ratio?

 Composites: Fiber Science

Fabric Orientation

When working with composite fibers, it is important to understand the construction and
orientation of the fabric because all design, manufacturing, and repair work begins with
the orientation of the fabric.

• Warp: threads running the length of the

fabric as it comes of the roll; stronger
than fill
• Fill/Weft: 90 deg. to warp fibers;
interweaves with warp
• Selvage Edge: tightly woven edge in warp
direction to keep edges from unraveling
• Bias: fabric orientation running 45 deg. to
warp threads; fabric may be stretched
along bias
 Composites: Fiber Science

Fabric Styles

• Unidirectional: fibers run in one

direction
• Bidirectional: fibers run in two or more
directions
• Mats: consist of chopped fibers
compressed together and typically used
in combination with woven or
unidirectional fabrics.
 Composites: Fiber Science

Pre-impregnated material

"Prepreg" is the common term for a reinforcing fabric which has been pre-impregnated with
a resin system. The resin in these materials reacts only very slowly at room temperature,
providing work-time before curing in an oven (Autoclave). The prepreg resins can only be
fully cured by heating to the prescribed cure temperature.
 Composites: Fiber Science

Fillers

Fillers are added to the resin to make application

easier, to increase pot life, and to alter the
density and weight. It lowers the weight of the
material.
• Microballoons: small spheres made from
plastic or glass Microballoons reduces the
overall weight, and they provide lower
stress concentrations throughout the
structure but do not add strength to the
composite structure.
• Chopped fibers: made from any type of
fiber cut into certain lengths, commonly
1/4 to 1/2-inch lengths. Flox is the fuzzy
fiber taken from the fabric strands. Both
chopped fibers and flox may be used when
added strength is desired.
 Composites: Fiber Science

Adhesives

• Film adhesive: Structural adhesives for aerospace applications are generally

supplied as thin films supported on a release paper and stored under refrigerated
conditions (–18 °C, or 0 °F).
• Paste adhesive: Aircraft structural paste adhesives are used to bond aluminum,
stainless steel, titanium, and composites either in rib-stiffened or honeycomb
designs. In repair, it is used if film adhesive is too difficult to apply
• Foaming adhesives: used to splice pieces of honeycomb together in a sandwich
construction and to bond repair plugs to the existing core during a prepreg repair.
 Composites: Manufacturing Process

Manufacturing Process

• Compression molding: Compression molding is a manufacturing process that uses

a male and female mold to form the part. It is normally used to manufacture a large
number of precision- formed parts.
 Composites: Manufacturing Process

Manufacturing Process

• Vacuum Bagging: most commonly used method to apply pressure to composite

repairs. With this technique, the assembly is placed into a plastic bag and the air is
then withdrawn by the use of a vacuum source.
 Composites: Manufacturing Process

Manufacturing Process

• Filament Winding: Another manufacturing method that produces incredibly strong

structures is the filament winding method. A continuous thread of reinforcing fiber
is wound around a mandrel in the same shape of the desired part.
 Composites: Manufacturing Process

Manufacturing Process

• Wet lay up: This technique simply involves the mixing of the fiber reinforcement
with the matrix, then laying the wet fabric over a surface for curing. Although this
technique is less precise than other manufacturing methods, it is the most flexible
procedure available.
 Composites

Recap Questions:

1. Give one disadvantage of composites?

2. What is the orientation called when the threads are running the length of the
fabric as it comes of the roll?

3. Give one purpose of microballoons.

Limits and Fits
 Limits and Fits

Types of Fits

• Clearance Fit – in this assembly there is a space between the two parts. The shaft is
always smaller than the part it fits into.
• Transition Fit – this is a range of fits which can be either clearance or interference.
The shaft can be larger or smaller than the part it fits into. Only a light manual
pressure is (Close Tolerance) necessary to assemble the parts.
• Interference Fit – in this assembly there is no space between the parts. The shaft is
always larger than the part it fits into. This means that mechanical pressure is
required for assembly and once assembled it is not likely to be disassembled.
 Limits and Fits

Seals

• Sealants: used to contain fuel, maintain cabin pressure, reduce fire hazards,
exclude moisture, prevent corrosion, and fill gaps and smooth discontinuities on the
aircraft exterior.
• Sealing: a process that confines liquids and gases within a given area or prevents
them from entering areas from which they must be excluded.

Types of Seals
• Packings (Running Seals): are used in units that contain moving parts, such as
• actuating cylinders, pumps, and selector valves.
• Gaskets (Stationary Seals): are used as static seals between two flat surfaces
• Wipers: are used to clean the exposed portions of piston shafts
 Limits and Fits

Types of Seals

1. Packings (Running Seals): are used in units that

contain moving parts, such as actuating cylinders,
pumps, and selector valves.
• O-ring: seals in both directions. O-rings are
the most commonly used seals in aviation.

• Backup Rings: For high pressure

applications

• V-Ring (Chevron/AN6225): one-way seals

that are installed with the open end of the
"V" facing the pressure.

• U-ring packings (AN6226) and U-cup

packings: are used in brake assemblies and
brake master cylinders.
 Limits and Fits

Types of Seals

2. Gaskets: used as static seals between two flat

surfaces; used in fluid systems around the end caps
of actuating cylinders, valves, and other units.
• Solid copper washer: commonly used for
spark plug gaskets and some hydraulic fittings
that require a noncompressible yet semi-soft
gasket.

• Cork gaskets: are often used in areas such as

between an engine crankcase and
accessories, or anywhere a gasket is required
that can occupy an uneven or varying space
• Rubber sheeting: often used anywhere a
compressible gasket is required. Its flexibility
allows it to compress easily to provide a tight
seal.
 Limits and Fits

Types of Seals

3. Wipers: clean and lubricate the exposed portions of piston shafts. By literally
wiping a surface, they prevent dirt from entering the system and help protect the
piston shaft from scoring.
 Limits and Fits

Seals: Material of Construction

1. Rubber
• Rubber is an incredibly durable material which will absorb pressure applied on it and
create an impervious seal that is increases in strength in direct proportion to the
forces exerted upon it.
• Because of their excellent flexibility, rubber O-rings are the near-universal choice for
elastomer in seals.
• An O-ring without elasticity is said to be a "COMPRESSION-SET"O-ring.
 Limits and Fits

Seals: Material of Construction

2. Non-rubber
• Only in cases where the rubber is incompatible with the fluid media does the choice
fall on non-rubber elastomers such as PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene).
• are used in applications where rubber O-rings are ineffective - e.g., in chemically
corrosive or in high temperature (up to 250 °C.) applications.
 Limits and Fits

Seals: Material of Construction

3. Metal
• For very high temperature applications (say, over 200 °C.), general practice is to
eliminate usage of any type of elastomers in seals; in such cases, all-metal seals are
used in the form of metallic bellows.
 Limits and Fits

Sealing compound

Aircraft, or airplane sealants, are a unique class of adhesives designed to reinforce and
seal aircraft parts to improve structural integrity.

These adhesives must meet Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) quality standards
and safety regulations that are unique to the aerospace industry. One of the most
unique features of aircraft sealant is its ability to withstand high and low temperatures.

Aviation sealants must also withstand the volatility and reactive nature of combustibles,
aircraft speed, and vibrations.

1. Silicone: For high temperature applications

2. Non-silicone: When no heat resistance is needed
 Limits and Fits

Sealing compound: Ingredients

Most sealants consist of two or more ingredients that are compounded to produce a
desired combination of strength, flexibility, and adherence.

• One-part Sealant: One-part sealants are prepared by the manufacturer and are
ready for application as packaged.
• Two-part Sealant: Two-part sealants are compounds requiring separate packaging
to prevent curing prior to application. The two parts are identified as the base
sealing compound and the accelerator.

*Curing is greatly retarded by temperatures below 60°F and may be accelerated by

application of heat but if it exceeds 120°F, bubbling will occur.
 Limits and Fits

Sealing compound: Application Period

• Application time: time in hours after thawing during which can be readily extruded
from the sealant gun and applied to the structure.
• Squeeze-out life: time in hours after thawing during which a faying surface can be
squeezed out of a joint when fasteners are installed.
• Tack-free: time in hours after thawing that is required for the sealant to cure
sufficiently so that it will not transfer to the finger or to a plastic film.
• Cure time: time in hours after thawing that is required for the sealant to cure firmly
enough to be handled without damage or deformation
Types of Aircraft
Components
Types of Aircraft Components

• Rotable: anything that needs periodic replacement

• Repairable: Any part that is usually repaired and then returned to service as
repaired/overhauled or even “as new” condition.
• Expendable: Any component that is usually just thrown away at the end of its
useable life, this is usually because it is not worth repairing or cannot be repaired or
overhauled due to its construction and intended use.
• Consumable: Any component that is rendered unsuitable for reuse when it’s
installed and used.