Introduction to Basic Medical Terminology

Medical terminology is the language used to describe components and

processes of the human body, medical procedures, diseases, disorders, and
pharmacology. (www.cipcourses.com)

Medical terminology is a system of words that are used to describe

specific medical aspects and diseases. It is based on standard root words,
prefixes, and suffixes.

Importance of MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY:

The purpose of medical terminology is ''to create a standardised
language for medical professionals''. This language helps medical staff
communicate more efficiently and makes documentation easier

Medical Terminology can help to reduce errors from poor communication

or poor documentation and this ensures staff can quickly and accurately
review a patient’s medical history and begin diagnosing and treating the
patient.

Important reasons to learn medical terminology include:

❖ Speaking the Standardized “Language of Medicine”

❖ Improved Patient Safety.
❖ Improved Patient Experiences.
❖ More Efficient Care.
❖ Accurate and safe documentation.

Medical terminology can look and sound complex, but it's important to be able to
break words down and understand their roots, prefixes and suffixes to prevent any
misunderstandings or errors.
 Basic Medical Terminology
Medical Terms:
• Words that are frequently used among health practitioners.

Medical Root Words:

• A base part of the medical word that conveys meaning

Example:

Cardi/o - Related to the heart.

Encephal/o - Related to the brain.

Medical Prefixes and Suffixes:

• Letters added to the beginning or at the end of a medical word to
modify the meaning

Example: Appendicitis - appendix (organ) – body organ / root term

itis (suffixes) – means inflammation

= Appendicitis – means iflammation of the appendix

Dyspnea – Dys (prefixes) - means difficulty

pnea (root term) – means breathing

= Dyspnea – means difficulty in breathing

Medical Abbreviations & Acronyms:

• A shorthand version of comon medical terminology

Example:

CPR - Cardiopulmonary resuscitation BP - Blood pressure.

Medical Terminolgy
Common medical term Meaning
Abrasion A cut or scrape that typically isn’t
serious.

Abscess A tender, fluid-filled pocket that forms

in tissue, usually due to infection.

Acute Signifies a condition that begins

abruptly and is sometimes severe, but
the duration is short.

Benign Not cancerous.

Biopsy A small sample of tissue that’s taken

for testing.

Chronic Signifies a recurring, persistent

condition like heart disease.

Contusion A bruise.

Defibrillator A medical device that uses electric

shocks to restore normal heartbeat.

Edema Swelling caused by fluid accumulation.

Embolism An arterial blockage, often caused by a

blood clot.

Epidermis The outer layer of the skin.

Fracture Broken bone or cartilage.

Gland An organ or tissue that produces and

secretes fluids that serve a specific
function.

Hypertension High blood pressure.

Inpatient A patient who requires hospitalization.

Intravenous Indicates medication or fluid that’s

delivered by vein.

Malignant Indicates the presence of cancerous

cells.

Outpatient A patient who receives care without

being admitted to a hospital.

Prognosis The predicated outcome of disease

progression and treatment.

Relapse Return of disease or symptoms after a

patient has recovered.

Sutures Stitches, which are used to join tissues

together as they heal

Transplant The removal of an organ or tissue from

one body that is implanted into
another.

Vaccine A substance that stimulates antibody

production to provide immunity
against disease.

Zoonotic disease A disease that is transmissible from

animals to humans.
Medical root words

Common medical root word Meaning

Cardi/o Related to the heart.

Derm/a/o, dermat/o Pertaining to the skin.

Encephal/o Related to the brain.

Gastr/o Related to the stomach.

Hemat/o Pertaining to blood.

My/o Related to muscle.

Oste/o Related to bone.

Pulmon/o Refers to the lungs.

Rhin/o Related to the nose.

Sclerosis Hard or hardening.

Stasis Slowing or stopping the flow of a

bodily fluid.

Therm/o Indicates heat.

“The main part or stem of a word is called a root word. A root word conveys the
essential meaning of the word and frequently indicates a body part. A medical word
may include multiple roots. This frequently occurs when referencing more than one
body part or system A root is the foundational element of any medical term. Roots
often indicate a body part or system.”
Medical Prefixes and Suffixes

Common medical Prefixes and Meaning

Suffixes
A-, an- Lack of or without.

-ation Indicates a process.

Dys Abnormal, difficult, or painful.

-ectomy Surgical removal of something.

-ismus Indicates a spasm or contraction.

Poly Many.

Pseudo False or deceptive, usually regarding

appearance.

-plasty Surgical repair.

-pathy Disease or disease process

Retro- Behind or backward.

Micro- Small in size

Macro- Large in size..

-itis: Signifies inflammation. Indicates heat.

-lysis: Decomposition, destruction, or

breaking down.

-ology: The study of a particular

concentration.

-osis: Indicates something that is abnormal.

Medical Abbreviations and Acronyms
ALS: Advanced life support.
Bl wk: Blood work.
BMI: Body mass index, a measure of body fat based on height and
weight.
BP: Blood pressure.
CPR: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation, a life-saving technique that’s also
called mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
C-spine: Cervical spine.
DNR: Do not resuscitate, a medical order indicating providers should not
perform CPR.
ED/ER: Emergency department or emergency room.
EKG: Electrocardiogram, a way of monitoring the heart and testing for
problems.
HDL-C: High-density lipoprotein cholesterol, often called “good” cholesterol.
HR: Heart rate, expressed as beats per minute.
LDL-C: Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, often called “bad” cholesterol.
Lytes: Electrolytes.
NICU: Neonatal intensive care unit, a specialized unit that cares for premature
infants.
OR: Operating room where surgeries are performed.
Pre-op: Preoperative.
Psych: Refers to psychiatry or the psychiatric ward.
PT: Physical therapy, a type of treatment to help patients move and feel
better.
Rx: Prescription, usually for medication but can also signify another
treatment.
Stat: Immediately.
LESSON 1: THE FUNDAMENTALS
OF MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
For a layperson, learning medical language may seem difficult, but it becomes
easier as one gets to know the origin and meaning of medical terms. For
healthcare professionals, it’s already second nature. Most of the medical terms
are borrowed from Latin and Greek, but it’s unnecessary for you to learn these
languages to become experts in the use of and understanding of medical
terms. All you need to do is to study and learnword parts.

SECTION 1.1: SIMPLIFIED MEDICAL

SIMPLIFIED MEDICAL LANGUAGE
The building block for most medical terms is the word root, or the primary
body of a word. At times, a medical term can be made up of compound words.
A compound word may consist of two-word roots, such as in the case of
collarbone (collar + bone). To facilitate the pronunciation of words, a
combining vowel is placed in between word roots. A significant number of
medical terms use the vowel “o”. However, it’s good to note that “o” isn’t the
only vowel.

The following table demonstrates examples of roots and combining forms.

Root Word Combining Vowel Form Meaning Use in a Word
Acr + O Acr/o Extremity acrocynosis
Psych + O Psyhc/o Mind psychology
Chol + E Chol/e Bile cholesterase

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

Prefixes and suffixes may accompany a word root to alter its meaning. A prefix
is attached before the word, while a suffix is placed at the end of a word root.
Sometimes, aword may consist of a prefix and a suffix only.
Prefix Combing form Suffix Medical word
electro cardi/o gram electrocardiogram
hyper - emia hyperemia

By now, you’ve already learned word parts. Word roots, combining forms,
prefixes, andsuffixes are all word parts.
GUIDELINES ON MEDICAL TERMS
Building words follows certain guidelines. Some common rules in word
building.
Guidelines Examples
Linking In most leuk/o + cyte leukocyte
combining forms instances, the cardi/o + logy cardiology
combining vowel
is retained amid
combining forms.

Linking Use a combining crani/o + tomy craniotomy

combining vowel derm/a + tology dermatology
forms and if the suffix
suffixes begins with a
consonant.

Linking Omit the appendic/o + itis appendicitis

combining combining vowel enter/o + ic enteric
forms and if the suffix
suffixes begins with a
with initial vowel.
vowels

Linking other Usually, prefixes dys + pepsia dyspepsia

word need not be intra +dermal intradermal
parts and changed when
prefixes linked with
other word parts.
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY ON MEDICAL SPECIALISTS
AND THEIR SPECIALTIES

Identifying medical specialists and their specialties is made easy by recognizing the
meanings of the suffixes attached to the word root.
For example, the suffix -logy refers to the “study or science of.” Anesthesiology is
the branch of medical science that specifically deals with the study of anesthesia or
anesthetics. On the other hand, the suffix -logist means “one who studies” or
“specialist.” An anesthesiologist is a physician who specializes in anesthesia. It’s
important not to confuse anesthesiologist with anesthetist. The suffix -ist means “one
who”; hence, an anesthetist is one who administers anesthesia.

SUFFIXES: MEDICAL SPECIALISTS AND THEIR SPECIALTIES

Medical Specialists Medical Specialists
Suffix Meaning Example Suffix Meaning Example
-er, -ist one who internist -ac, -al, -ic, pertaining to obstetrica
ical
-iatrician practitioner pediatrician -logic, -logical pertaining to psychological
the study of
-logist one who pulmonologist -iatrics, -iatry medical pediatrics
studies, pediatrics profession or
specialist treatment
logy study or gynecology
science of

The following table lists some of the most common combining forms associated with
medical specialties and specialists.

Combining Meaning Medical Specialty Medical Specialist

cardi/o heart cardiology cardiologist
dermat/o skin dermatology dermatologist
esthesi/o feeling or sensation anesthesiology anesthesiologist
gynec/o female gynecology gynecologist
immune/o immune immunology immunologist
ophthalm/o eye ophthalmology ophthalmologist
ur/o urinary tract or urine urology urologist
Medical Terminology for Surgical Procedures

A significant number of medical terms refer to surgical procedures. Generally,

the suffixes used will give you an idea about the type of surgery or procedure
performed. For instance, the suffix -ectomy means surgical removal. Polypectomy
and adrenalectomy refer to the excision or removal of polyps and adrenal glands,
respectively. Surgical procedure terminology is always a combination of body organ
“roots words” and a suffix.

Suffix Meaning Sample of Surgical

Procedures
-centesis surgical puncture to aspirate Paracentesis is a puncture of
or remove fluid the peritoneal cavity to
remove fluid for diagnostic or
therapeutic purposes
-ectomy excision (surgical removal or Excision of the appendix is
cutting out) referred to as an
appendectomy.
-lysis process of loosening, freeing, This suffix can also mean
or destroying dissolving or destruction, as in
hydrolysis
-pexy surgical fixation (securing in a Nephropexy is a surgical
fixed position) fixation of a kidney that
descends when the patient
stands up
-plasty surgical repair Rhinoplasty is a plastic surgery
of the nose and is done for
several reasons
-rrhaphy suture (fusing a wound by Herniorraphy is surgical repair
stitches) of the hernia with suture of
the abdominal wall.
-scopy visual examination with the Colonoscopy is a means of
use of a lighted instrument visualizing the colon with the
use of a fiber-optic instrument.
-stomy creation of an opening Colostomy is a surgical
procedure that creates an
opening for the colon or large
intestine through the
abdomen.
-tome an instrument used for cutting A microtome is used to cut
thin sections of tissue.
-tomy incision (cutting into tissue) Sternotomy is an incision of
the sternum usually performed
during heart surgery.
-tripsy surgical crushing, breaking, or Lithotripsy is the surgical
pulverizing crushing of a renal calculus or
stone.
Medical terminology for Body structure
Combining Meaning Sample for
word body structure
aden/o gland Adenopathy refers to the
enlargement of the glands
angi/o vessel Angioplasty is a procedure
used to reestablish blood flow
through partially or fully
blocked blood vessels.
bi/o life or living Biopsy is a procedure used to
extract cells or tissues for
examination.
blephar/o eyelid Blepharitis is an infection of
the eyelids.
cerebr/o, encephal/o brain Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear,
colorless fluid found in the
brain and the spinal cord.

Encephalopathy is a general
term that refers to a disorder
or disease of the brain.
col/o colon or large intestine Colitis is an inflammation of
the colon’s inner lining.
faci/o face Facial relates to the face
hepat/o liver Hepatomegaly is enlargement
of the liver.
mamm/o, mast/o breast Mammogram is an x-ray of the
breast.

Mastitis is an infection of the

breast tissue.
muscul/o, my/o muscle The musculoskeletal system is
an organ system responsible
for movement and activity.

Myosin is one of the muscle

proteins
myel/o bone marrow or spinal cord Myelogram is a means of
examining the spinal canal
using a combination of dye
and x-ray.
oste/o Bone Osteoporosis is a disease that
weakens the bones, thereby
increasing the risk for
fractures.
tonsil/o tonsil Tonsillectomy is the surgical
removal of the tonsils
trache/o trachea (windpipe) Tracheitis is an inflammation
of the trachea
 vas/o Vessel Widening of the blood vessels
is known as vasodilation.
pulm/o, pulmon/o, pneum/o, lungs Pulmonary refers to the lungs.
pneumon/o
Pneumatic refers to gas or air.

Pneumothorax is the
accumulation of air or gas in
the chest.

Medical terminology on Symptoms and Diagnosis

Symptom and diagnosis are common terms used in the medical field. A symptom
indicates a disorder or disease in which changes in health status are perceived by
the client. For instance, a client says: “My stomach hurts.” Diagnosis, on the other
hand, is the scientific determination of a disease process or condition after
evaluation. “Peptic ulcer disease” is an example of a medical diagnosis.

Suffix Meaning Sample for

Symptoms &
Diagnosis
-algia, -dynia pain Arthralgia is joint pain. Vulvodynia is
a chronic pain condition affecting a
woman’s external genitalia
-cele hernia (results when organ pushes Omphalocele is an abdominal wall
through the organ or muscle that defect in which the abdominal organs
contains it) protrude through an opening at the
base of the umbilical cord.
-ectasia, -ectasis dilatation Telangiectasia is the dilation of the
superficial blood vessels.

Lymphangiectasis is the dilation of

the lymphatic vessels.
-edema swelling Edema denotes the presence of
excess fluid in the tissues, causing
swelling.

Angioedema involves the precipitous

swelling of the tissues under the skin,
usually due to an allergic reaction.
-emia condition of the blood Anemia refers to a decrease in red
blood cells or hemoglobin in the
blood.
-emesis vomiting Emesis denotes vomiting.
 Hyperemesis means excessive
vomiting
-ia, -iasis condition Hysteria is a mental disorder
attributed to women in the
nineteenth century.

Filariasis is a parasitic disease caused

by microscopic worms.
-itis inflammation Inflammation of the voice box or
larynx is known as laryngitis.
-ith stone or calculus Fecalith is a hard mass consisting of
feces.
-malacia soft, softening Chondromalacia patella is the
softening of the cartilage underneath
the knee.
-mania excessive preoccupation Pyromania is a compulsion to set
things on fire.
-megaly enlargement Cardiomegaly is the enlargement of
the heart
-oid resembling Mucoid means similar to mucus
-oma tumor Lymphoma refers to a group of blood
cancers originating from the
lymphatic system.
-osis condition (usually an abnormal Psychosis is a group of disorders
condition, occasionally refers to an affecting the mind.
increase)
-pathy disease Cardiomyopathy is a group of
diseases affecting the cardiac muscle.
-penia deficiency Neutropenia refers to abnormally low
levels of neutrophils, a type of white
blood cell.
-phobia abnormal fear Phobia refers to extremely strong
fear or dislike of something. Fear of
being in an enclosed space or area is
known as claustrophobia.
-ptosis prolapse (sagging) Drooping eyelids is ptosis.
-rrhage, -rrhagia excessive bleeding Hemorrhage means bleeding, which
can be external or internal.
-rrhea flow or discharge Amenorrhea is the absence of
menstrual flow.
-rrhexis rupture Rupture of the bowels is referred to
as enterorrhexis.
-spasm cramp, twitching Vasospasm is the spasm of the blood
vessels.
-stasis stopping, controlling Hemostasis is the normal bodily
response to stop bleeding or
hemorrhaging.
Miscellaneous Medical term

Suffix Meaning Sample

miscellaneous
term
adip/o, fat adipose, hyperlipidemia
amyl/o starch amylase
glyc/o sugar hyperglycemia
hemat/o blood hematology
lact/o milk lactation
litho/o stone lithotripsy
micro small Microscopy
muc/o mucus mucous
prote/o, protein/o protein proteolysis, proteinuria
pyr/o fire pyromania
-ac, -al, -an, -ar, -ary, -eal, -ic, - pertaining to iliac, dermal, median, ulnar,
ive, -tic capillary, meningeal, hepatic,
invasive, cyanotic
-ase enzyme lipase, amylase
-eum, -ium membrane peritoneum, myocardium
-ia, -ism condition or theory paranoia, dwarfism
-iac one who suffers Hemophiliac
-opia vision hyperopia
-ose sugar fructose
-ous pertaining to or characterized cancerous
by
-y state or condition atrophy
ESSENTIAL PREFIXES AND MORE

NUMBERS AND QUANTITIES

PREFIXES: NUMBERS AND QUANTITIES

NUMBERS

Prefix Meaning Example Word Association

mono-, uni- one mononuclear, Mononuclear refers to a cell made up of one

unilateral nucleus.
Unilateral means one side.

bi-, di- two bicuspid, Bicuspid means having two cusps, as in the
disaccharide bicuspid valves of the heart.

A disaccharide is a type of carbohydrate that is

made up of two simple sugars.

tri- three tricuspid Tricuspid means having three cusps, as in the

tricuspid valve of the heart.

quad-, quadri-, four quadriplegia The paralysis of all four extremities is known as
tetra- quadriplegia.

centi- one hundred, one- centigrade The centigrade or Celsius scale is a unit of
hundredth measurement for temperature, which is divided
into 100 degrees.

PREFIXES: NUMBERS AND QUANTITIES (continued)

NUMBERS

Prefix Meaning Example Word Association

milli- one-thousandth milliunit A milliunit is 1/1000 of a unit.

QUANTITIES

diplo- double diplopia Diplopia means double vision or the perception

of two images of a single object.

hemi-, semi- half, partly hemiparesis, semi- Hemiparesis refers to weakness of one entire
fowler’s side of the body.

Semi-fowler’s position is a position assumed

when a client is supine on a bed with the head of
the bed elevated at about 30–45 degrees.
 hyper- excessive, more hyperglycemia Hyperglycemia is excessive blood sugar.
than normal

hypo- under, less than hypoglycemia Decreased blood sugar in the blood is
normal known as hypoglycemia.

multi-, poly- many multigravid, Multigravid means multiple pregnancies.

polyuria
Polyuria means excessive production or passage
of urine.

nulli- none nulliparous A woman who hasn’t

given birth is referred to as nulliparous.

pan- all pancytopenia Pancytopenia occurs when all blood cell types
are decreased.

primi- first primigravida Primigravida refers to a woman

being-pregnant-for-the-firsttime.

super-, ultra- excessive, above superior, Superior vena cava is a large-diameter blood
or superior supraspinatus, vessel that drains blood from the upper parts of
ultraviolet the body.

Ultraviolet light is a form of radiation.

POSITION OR DIRECTION

PREFIXES: POSITION OR DIRECTION

Prefix Meaning Word Association

ab- away from Abduction is movement of a body part away from the
midline.

ad- toward Adduction is movement of a body part toward the

midline.

ante-, pre- before in time or in place Antepartum refers to the period before childbirth.

Preoperative refers to the period before surgery.

circum-, peri- around The circular movement of a body part is known as

circumduction.

Periorbital edema is swelling around the eyes.

contra- contralateral Contralateral pertains to the opposite side.

dia- through Diaphoresis is the passage of moisture through the

pores of the skin.
 ecto-, ex-, exo-, extra- outside, without, away from Ectoderm is the outermost primary germ layer of the
embryo.

Exocrine glands secrete substances externally through a

duct.
en-, end-, endo- inside Endolymph is-the-fluid-found-within-themembranous
labyrinth of the ear.

epi- above, on The outermost layer of the sclera is known as episclera.

hypo-, infr-, sub- beneath, under Hypodermis refers to the area below the skin.

Infraclavicular pertains to the area below the clavicle.

Subdural hematoma results from the collection of blood

beneath the skull.

inter- between Interphalangeal joints are formed between the

phalanges.

intra- within Intraosseous means within the bone.

PREFIXES: POSITION OR DIRECTION (continued)

Prefix Meaning Word Association

ipsi- same Ipsilateral pertains to the same side

meso-, mid- middle The middle tissue layer during embryonic development is
the mesoderm.

para- near, beside, or abnormal Paralysis is the loss of motor function in a body part.

per- through or by Percutaneous means through or via the skin.

post- after, behind Postoperative means after surgery.

retro- behind, backward Retrograde means going back in position or time.

super-, supra- above, beyond Superficial indicates being near or on

the-surface,-as-in-superficial-veins.

Supraclavicular means above the clavicle.

sym-, syn- joined, together The relationship between two dissimilar organisms
pertains to symbiosis.

Syndactyly is a condition where two or more digits of

the hands are fused.
trans- across Transference occurs when one’s feelings are
unconsciously redirected to another.
MISCELLANEOUS PREFIXES

MISCELLANEOUS PREFIXES

Prefix Meaning Word Association

Description

anti-, contra- against Antidiuretics are medications that decrease or inhibit urination.

Contraception refers to methods or devices that prevent

pregnancy.

brady- slow Bradypnea means decreased respiratory rate.

dys- bad,-difficult Difficulty-swallowing-is-referred-to-asdysphagia.

MISCELLANEOUS PREFIXES (continued)

Prefix Meaning Word Association

eu- good, normal Eupnea pertains to normal respirations.

mal- bad Malabsorption results from the inability of the

gastrointestinal tract to properly absorb food nutrients.

pro- favoring, supporting Probiotics are live microorganisms that

are­believed­to­be­beneficial­to­one’shealth.

tachy- fast Tachypnea refers to abnormally fast respirations.

Time

ante-, pre-, pro- before Antemortem means before death.

Premature births refer to neonates being born before 37

weeks of gestation.

post- after or behind Postpartum pertains to the period immediately after birth.

Size

macro-, mega-, large or great Macrocephaly refers to a condition where the head is
megalo- abnormally large.

Megaloblasts are abnormally large red blood cells.

Large blood cells in the bone marrow are referred to as

megakaryocytes.
 micro- small Microcephaly is a condition where the head is abnormally
small.

Negation

a-, an- no, not, without Apathy pertains to lack of or absence of emotion.

Analgesia refers to absence of sensibility to pain.

in- not or inside (in) Indifferent pertains to having no interest.

Intubate means putting a tube inside an airway.

COMBINING FORMS FOR COLORS

Medical terms also utilize combining forms for colors. Unlike the combining forms discussed
in the earlier chapters, these forms are not generally used in everyday conversations. Most
of these forms are used in the health sciences. The following table lists the most common
combining forms for colors and their meanings.

COMBINING FORMS FOR COLORS

Combining
Form Meaning Examples Word Association

alb/o, albin/o, white albinism, Albinism is a genetic disorder resulting in minimal or

leuk/o (leuc/o) leukocytosis absence of skin, hair, or eye pigmentation.

An increase in the white blood cell count is known as

leukocytosis.

chlor/o green chlorophyll Chlorophyll is the green coloring matter found in leaves
and plants.

cyano/o blue cyanosis Lack of oxygen in the blood can cause a bluish
discoloration of the skin
and mucous membranes known as cyanosis.

erythr/o red erythema Erythema refers to the redness of the skin or mucous
membrane.

melan/o black melanin Melanin is a dark brown or black substance that forms a
natural part of a person’s hair, skin, and eyes.

xanth/o yellow xanthophyll The yellow pigment in plants is xanthophyll.

Xanthophobia is the fear of the color yellow.

COMBINING FORMS AND RELATED SUFFIXES

COMBINING FORMS AND RELATED SUFFIXES

Combining
Form Suffixes Meaning Examples

cyt/o -cyte cell karyocyte

gen/o beginning, origin produced genetic carcinogenic

by or in producing or spermatogenesis
-genic forming

-genesis

COMBINING FORMS AND RELATED SUFFIXES (continued)

Combining
Form Suffixes Meaning Examples

gram/o to record a record

instrument for recording
-gram process of recording

-graph
echocardiogram electrocardiograph
-graphy echocardiography

kinesi/o -kinesia movement, motion bradykinesia

-kinesis

leps/o -lepsy seizure epilepsy

lys/o destruction, dissolving that lysozyme

which destroys process of cytolysin hemolysis hemolytic

-lysin
destroying
-lysis
capable of or producing
-lytic destruction

malac/o soft, softening abnormal

softening
-malacia osteomalacia

megalo/o -megalo large, enlarged, enlargement megaloblasts

metr/o measure, uterine, tissue endometrium goniometer

-meter instrument used to

measure process of densitometry
measuring
-metry

path/o -pathy disease coagulopathy

 phag/o eat, ingest eating, phagocytosis dysphagia
swallowing
-phagia,
-phagic, -phagy

phas/o -phasia speech aphasia

pleg/o -plegia paralysis hemiplegia

schis/o, schiz/o, -schisis split, cleft schizophrenia

schist/o

scler/o hard hardening scleroderma atherosclerosis

-sclerosis

scop/o to examine, to view

-scope instrument used for viewing microscope

process of examining visually

-scopy bronchoscopy

troph/o -trophic, -trophy nutrition hypertrophy

MISCELLANEOUS COMBINING FORMS

MISCELLANEOUS COMBINING FORMS

Combining Meaning Word Association
Form
aer/o air Aerobic microorganisms are those that need oxygen in order to survive.

blast/o embryonic Erythroblasts are immature red blood cells.

form
cancer/o, cancer Carcinogenic means any substance or agent that can cause cancer.
carcin/o

cephal/o head Cephalohematoma is the collection of blood under the skull.

cry/o cold Cryosurgery utilizes extreme cold temperature to destroy or remove diseased
tissue.

crypto/o hidden Undescended­or­“hidden”­testis­is­referred­to­ascryptorchidism.

dips/o thirst Excessive thirst is polydipsia.

electr/o electricity Electrocardiography is a test that detects problems with the electrical activity of the
heart.

fibr/o fiber Fibrous pertains to anything that contains, resembles,-or-consists-of-fiber.

hist/o tissue Histology is the study of the microanatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals.

myc/o fungus The branch of botany that focuses on the study of fungi is mycology.

narc/o stupor Narcotics may cause stupor or insensibility.

necr/o dead Necropsy or autopsy is the examination of a person who has died.

optic/o, opt/o vision The optic nerve carries electrical impulses from the eye to the brain.

Optometry is concerned with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of eye and
vision problems.

phon/o voice Bronchophony refers to the normal voice sounds heard over the bronchus.

phot/o light Phototherapy or light therapy pertains to treatment using a special kind of light.

py/o pus Pyogenesis refers to pus formation.

therm/o heat Thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature.

top/o position, A topical medication is applied to the skin.

place
trache/o trachea A tracheostomy is a surgical procedure that creates an opening in the trachea
(windpipe) to facilitate breathing.
DIAGNOSIS, INTERVENTION, AND
HUMAN BODY TERMS
DIAGNOSES AND INTERVENTIONS
To better understand medical terms related to diagnoses and interventions, you
need to familiarize-yourself-with-the-definitions-of-the-following-terms:
• Normal range: acceptable limit
• Pathologic: pertains to a condition involving a disease process
• Diagnosis:-naming-a-disease-or-condition-based-on-scientific-evaluation
• Prognosis: anticipated outcome of a disease

BASIC EXAMINATION PROCEDURES

When a healthcare practitioner checks for signs of a disease, they usually perform
two basic functions:

➢ measuring vital signs

➢ performing a physical examination.

Vital signs are clinical measurements that indicate the state of a client’s life-
sustaining functions. There are three to six signs being measured, depending on the
institution’s protocol. The basic ones are pulse, respiration, and temperature. Some
facilities include blood pressure, oxygen saturation, and pain.

Vital Sign Points To Remember

Pulse QQ may be abbreviated as P

QQ refers to recurrent expansion of an artery referred to as heart beats

QQ pulse rate (PR) is the number of heart beats per minute

Respiration QQ may be abbreviated as R

QQ denotes the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body

QQ otherwise known as ventilation or breathing

QQ measured by counting the rise and fall of the chest during breathing
 Temperature QQ
defined-as-the-balance-between-heat-lost-and-heatproduced by the body
QQ thermometer

Q therm/o = heat

Q
-meter = instrument used to measure
QQ different routes of measurement: oral, axilla, rectal, tympanic

QQ measured in Centigrade and Fahrenheit

Physical examination is a means of gathering clinical data from the client using the
examiner’s senses, namely the senses of sight, hearing, and touch.

Technique Sense Involved Skill Example

Inspection sight Eyes are used to observe. Checking for skin color

Palpation touch Hands-are-used-to-feelfor Feeling for lumps

the texture, size, consistency,
and location of body parts.

Percussion hearing The-fist-or-fingertips-areused Performing­“kidneypunch”­

to tap the body part to
determine the size, borders,
and consistency of body
organs.
Auscultation hearing A stethoscope is used to Listening for breath sounds
listen for sounds within the
body.
THE BODY AS A WHOLE
ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY
The human body is made up of structures that come together to make up a whole. These structures
start from the smallest unit, which is an atom, to the largest, most complex unit, the human
organism. The body is made up of many levels of structural organization: cells make up tissues,
tissues form organs, organs form body systems, and the body systems make up an organism.
Organism refers to an individual being with life.

The basic unit of life is the cell. Cells divide until they mature. Some cells can divide without limit.
These are referred to as stem cells. These specialized cells are ample in a fetus and in newborn cord
blood. Cytology refers to the study of the formation, structure, and function of cells.

A-group-of-similar-cells-that-work-together-and-perform-a-specific-function-forms-thenext level of
organization, tissues. Histology is the study of the microscopic structure of tissues. There are four
types of tissues according to function: connective, epithelial, muscular, and nervous.

Organs are formed when two or more tissue types work together to accomplish a particular
function. The heart, lungs, and skin are examples of organs.

A set of organs that have a collective function make up a body system. Body systems will be
discussed in detail in the later sections. The major body systems are listed as follows:
➢ Muscular system
➢ Skeletal system
➢ Cardiovascular system
➢ Lymphatic system
➢ Respiratory system
➢ Digestive system
➢ Urinary system
➢ Reproductive system
➢ Integumentary system
➢ Nervous system
➢ Endocrine system

The organism or the human body is the largest and the most complex level in the organizational
structure. It’s composed of different body systems.

There-are-instances-when-tissues-or-organs-are-abnormally-formed.-The-prefix-ana- and suffix--

plasia are commonly used to describe these abnormalities. Ana- means upward, excessive, or again,
while -plasia refers to development or formation of tissue. The following word parts are frequently
used to describe abnormal tissue development.

Word Part Meaning Example

a- without Aplasia denotes underdeveloped organ or tissue.

-plasia formation Dysplasia refers to abnormal development of

tissues.
dys- bad
 hypo- below normal The underdevelopment of organ or tissue is
known as hypoplasia (a less severe form of
aplasia).
hyper- above normal An increase in the number of cells is known as
hyperplasia.

-trophy nutrition An increase in the size of cells is referred to as

hypertrophy.

Directional terms denote the position of a structure in relation to another

structure
➢ Abduction: movement of body parts away from the midline
➢ Adduction: movement of body parts toward the midline
➢ Inversion: turning inward
➢ Eversion: turning outward
➢ Palmar: pertains to the palm of the hand
➢ Plantar: pertains to the sole of the foot
➢ Supination: turning upward
➢ Pronation: turning downward

Planes
The orientation of the body can be described using terms such as plane and aspect.
Reference-planes-are-imaginary-flat-surfaces-that-divide-the-body-into-portions-or-sides.The three
reference planes are:

➢ Frontal/coronal plane: splits the body into front and back portions
➢ Transverse plane: splits the body into upper and lower portions
➢ Sagittal plane: splits the body into right and left sides
➢ These planes form aspects used to identify locations:
➢ Anterior (front)
➢ Posterior (behind)
➢ Lateral (side)
➢ Medial (middle)
➢ Superior (uppermost)
➢ Inferior (lowermost)

BODY FLUIDS
Combining Form/
Word Part Meaning Word Association

-crine secrete endocrine

lacrim/o tear, tearing, crying lacrimation

-emia condition of the blood anemia

hem/o blood hemoglobin

 lymph/o lymph lymphatic

muc/o mucus mucolytic

-poiesis production erythropoiesis

-poietin substance that causes production erythropoietin

py/o pus pyorrhea

sial/o saliva sialography

ur/o urine urinary

BLOOD
Blood carries oxygen, nutrients, vitamins, antibodies, and other substances to different parts of the
body. It also helps carry carbon dioxide and other wastes away. Select word parts pertaining to
blood are found in the following table:
Combining Form Meaning Word Association

coagul/o coagulation coagulopathy

cyt/o cell cytology

erythr/o red erythrocyte

hem/a, hemat/o blood hematology

immun/o immune immunization

leuk/o white leukocyte

thromb/o clot (thrombus) thrombocyte

Suffix

-cyte cell cytology

-osis increased or abnormal leukocytosis

-penia deficiency leukopenia

-poiesis production hematopoiesis

BODY DEFENSES AND IMMUNITY

Susceptibility and resistance are two essential terms related to body defenses.
Vulnerability to a disease or disorder is known as susceptibility, while resistance
refersto­the­body’s­natural­ability­to­fight­microorganisms­or­toxins.­The­body­has­t
wo-defensemechanisms, nonspecific resistance and specific (selective) resistance,
otherwise known as immunity.
 BODY DEFENSES

Nonspecific Defenses Specific Defenses (Immunity)

QQ Intact skin Natural Artificial

QQ Tearing of the eyes QQ Active (contracting a QQ Active (antigens)
QQ Urinary system disease)
QQ Passive (antibodies)
QQ Mucous membranes QQ Passive (maternal
antibodies)
QQ Digestive system

QQ Respiratory system

QQ Lymphatic system
MUSCULOSKELETAL,
CIRCULATORY, AND
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM TERMS

THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

Musculoskeletal refers to the muscles and the skeleton. The musculoskeletal
system protects, supports, and aids in the movement of body parts. Apart from these
functions, the musculoskeletal system, particularly the bones, are essential in
hematopoiesis or blood production (hemat/o = blood, -poiesis = production). The
bones also function to store fat in the bone marrow and to store and release
minerals. The musculoskeletal system involves all the muscles, bones, joints, and
other related structures.

MAJOR BONES OF THE BODY

The human body is made up of 206 bones. There are two main divisions of the human skeleton: axial
and appendicular.
Axial skeleton

➢ consists of 80 bones, including the bones of the skull, hyoid bone, auditory ossicles
(bones of the ears), vertebral column, sternum, and ribs
➢ functions include central weight-bearing, and protection and maintenance of
posture
Appendicular skeleton

➢ consists of 126 bones, including the shoulder girdle (scapula and clavicle), upper
and lower extremities, and the pelvic bones
➢ functions include balance, stability, movement, and manipulation

The following table lists the major bones of the body, the meanings of their names, and word
associations.
Bone Combining Form Common Name Word Association

Bones of the Axial Skeleton

cranium crani/o skull craniotomy

costa cost/o rib intercostal

sternum stern/o breastbone sternotomy

 spine (vertebrae) rachi/o, spin/o backbone spondylosis
spondyl/o, vertebr/o

cervical cervic/o spinal bones cervicalgia

thoracic thorac/o spinal bones thoracolumbar
lumbar
lumb/o spinal bones lumbosacral
sacrum
sacr/o spinal bones sacroiliac
coccyx
coccyg/o tailbone coccygeal

Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton

clavicle claviculo/o collarbone clavicular

scapula scapul/o shoulder blade subscapular

Bones of the Upper Extremities

humerus humer/o upper arm bone humeral

radius radi/o radial

ulna uln/o ulnar

carpals carp/o wrist bones carpophalangeal

metacarpals metacarp/o bones of the hand

phalanges phalang/o bones-of-the-fingers phalangitis

CARTILAGE
Cartilage is a dense, elastic connective tissue that covers and protects the ends of
long bones. The skeleton of the embryo is made up largely of cartilage. As one
matures, the cartilage is replaced with bones, except for some structures such as the
external ear and the nasal septum. The medical term chondral refers to cartilage.

MUSCLES, ARTICULATIONS, AND ASSOCIATED STRUCTURES

Muscles-consist-of-cells-and-fibers-that-contract-and-produce-body-movement.-
The-threetypes of muscles are:
Cardiac muscle
➢ heart muscle
Smooth muscle
➢ otherwise known as visceral or involuntary muscle found in the internal
organs such as the stomach
 Skeletal muscle

➢ the only muscle that can be controlled voluntarily attached to the

bones

Fascia
is­a­fibrous­tissue­that’s­responsible­for­covering,­supporting,­separating,­andallowin
g muscles to slide easily.
Tendons, on-the-other-hand,-are-tissue-fibers-that-connect the muscles to the
bone.
Articulation, commonly known as joint, is the connection made between bones.
Articulations that have cavities between adjoining bones are known as synovial
joints.

Ligaments are bands of connective tissues responsible for connecting bones and
cartilages and, at the same time, are essential in supporting and strengthening
joints.

DISEASES, DISORDERS, AND DIAGNOSTIC TERMS

Although the most common cause of musculoskeletal problems is injury, other
pathologies—such as infections, malignancies, and connective tissue disorders, to
name a few—can also affect the muscles and the bones.

Fractures and dislocations are the most common traumatic injuries sustained by
the bones. For the muscles, sprain and strain are usual occurrences. An injury to the
spinal cord is life-threatening. Cord injury may cause paralysis or paresis below the
injured part. para = beside quadri-, tetra- = four plegia = paralysis paresis =
weakness
❖ Paraplegia: paralysis of both legs
❖ Quadriplegia/tetraplegia: paralysis of upper and lower extremities
❖ Paraparesis: weakness of the both legs
❖ Quadriparesis/tetrapresis: weakness of all four extremities

In-the-previous-sections,-you-learned-that-the-suffix--itis means-inflammation.-Study-thefollowing
list of infections affecting the musculoskeletal system:

cellul/o (little cell) + itis = cellulitis

my/o (muscle) + itis = myocellulitis
oste/o (bone) + itis = osteitis
chondro/o (cartilage) + itis = osteochondritis
Several types of malignancies or tumors affect the muscles and the bones. They
may be classified-as-primary (starts from the bones) or secondary (starts from
another tissue, but metastasizes to the bone).

Sarcomas = tumors that originate from the connective tissues, such as muscles and
bones
Chondrosarcoma = chondro + sarcoma (masses of cartilage)
Fibrosarcoma = fibro + sarcoma- (tumor-with-fibrous-tissue)

Alterations with metabolism can lead to bone destruction and problems with bone
formation. The following combining words are associated with bone disorders arising
from metabolic problems:
deformans (deformity/-disfiguring)- :- osteitis deformans
malacia (softening) : osteomalacia
-porosis (thinning) : osteoporosis

In some instances, clients are born with developmental defects that cause skeletal
malformation.-Here-are-some-examples:
Spina bifida bifida: divided into two parts
Scoliosis scoliosis: curvature
Kyphosis kyphos: hunchback
Muscular dystrophy dys (bad) + trophy (nutrition)
Craniocele crani/o (skull) + -cele (herniation)
Tarsoptosis tars/o (ankle) + -ptosis (prolapsed)
Any disease of the joint is known as arthropathy. Describe the following medical
terms based on the meanings you learned in the previous chapters. Remember that
arthr/o refers to the joint.
Arthroscopy
Arthroscope
Arthrotomy
Arthritis

Arthritis-denotes-any-joint-inflammation.-There-are-several-types-of-arthritis:
Osteoarthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis
Spondylarthritis
Polyarthritis

Other connective tissue disorders include the following:

Bursitis: inflammation-of-the-bursa
 Lupus erythematosus: autoimmune disease involving the connective tissues
Gout: acute form of arthritis caused by a metabolic disease
Ankylosis: stiffening of the joints

SURGICAL AND THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS

Orthopedic surgeons perform surgical procedures to restore bones to their normal
function

-plasty: repair
-ectomy: removal or excision
-otomy: creation of opening
centesis:- extraction of fluid from a body c

The following are common surgical procedures associated with the musculoskeletal
system:

vertebroplasty vertebro + plasty repair of the vertebrae

arthroplasty arthro + plasty repair or reconstruction of a joint

tendoplasty tendo + plasty repair of tendons

myoplasty myo + plasty repair of muscle

tendomyoplasty tendo + myo + plasty repair of the tendons and the muscles

cranioplasty cranio + plasty repair of the skull

bunionectomy bunion + ectomy excision of a bunion

ostectomy osteo + ectomy excision of a bone

costectomy cost + ectomy excision of a rib

craniectomy crani + ectomy excision of a skull segment

laminectomy lamina + ectomy removal of a lamina (portion of the vertebra)

diskectomy disk + ectomy total excision of an intervertebral disk

chondrectomy chondro + ectomy excision of a cartilage

arthrocentesis arthro + centesis extraction-of-accumulated-fluid-in-thesynovial joint

 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The circulatory system is made up of the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic
system. This body system functions to maintain homeostasis by:
❖ Transporting oxygen, nutrients, vitamins, antibodies, and other substances
❖ Taking away waste and carbon dioxide

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Structures of the Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular (cardio + vascul + ar) system consists of the heart and the
blood vessels.

Heart
The heart is an organ in the chest that pumps blood through the veins and arteries. It
has four chambers:
❖ Right and left atria (plural for atrium)
❖ Right and left ventricles

Atrial and ventricular refer to the atrium and ventricle, respectively. Atrio +
ventricular (AV) valves are found between the atria and the ventricles. These valves
are made up of cuspids (small flaps that make up the AV valves).-

tricuspid tri (three) + cuspid valve on the right side of the heart
bicuspid bi (two) + cuspid valve on the left side of the heart,
otherwise known as mitral valve

Semilunar valves- regulate the flow of blood to and from the lungs:
❖ Pulmonic valve: controls the flow of blood to the lungs
❖ Aortic valve: controls the flow of blood into the aorta
The pericardium (peri + card + ium) is a double membrane that surrounds the
heart and the great vessels. The heart wall is made up of several layers:
❖ Epicardium: outer layer
❖ Myocardium: muscular middle layer
❖ Endocardium: inner layer
Blood Vessels
The circulatory system is made up of five types of blood vessels that transport blood
throughout the entire body:
❖ Arteries: carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the different body parts
❖ Arterioles: small blood vessels that connect the arteries to the capillaries
❖ Capillaries: smallest blood vessels where oxygenation and nutrients occur
❖ Venules: small blood vessels that connect the capillaries to the veins
❖ Veins: carry deoxygenated blood from the different parts of the body to the
heart

Note that the pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries deoxygenated blood
and the pulmonary vein is the only vein that carries oxygenated blood.

The coronary arteries carry oxygenated and nutrient filled blood to the
myocardium (heart muscle).
The following table lists the combining forms associated with the blood vessels.

Combining Form Meaning Word Association

angi/o, vas/o, vessel An angiogram is a radiologic test that views

vascul/o blood-flow-within-the-veins-or-arteries.

aort/o aorta An aortogram is an invasive procedure in which a catheter is

placed in the aorta and a contrast material is injected.

arter/o, arteri/o artery Arteriosclerosis refers to the thickening, hardening, and loss of
elasticity of the arterial walls.

arteriol/o arteriole Arteriolopathy refers to any disease of the arterioles.

ather/o yellow, fatty plaque The build-up of plaque in the arterial walls is known as
atherosclerosis.

phleb/o, ven/o vein Phlebitis or venitis-is-the-inflammation-of-theveins.

venul/o venule Venulitis is-inflammation-of-the-venules.-

Diseases, Disorders, and Diagnostic Terms

Cardiomyopathy is the general diagnostic term used to identify a disease of the

heart muscle. The following are examples of cardiomyopathy. Note the meaning of
the suffix--itis.
• Myocarditis: inflammation of the myocardium (heart-muscle)
• Endocarditis: inflammation of the endocardium
• Pericarditis: inflammation of the pericardium
There are several tests used to diagnose cardiac problems. Some of the most
common tests include:
 Electrocardiogram electr/o + cardi/o + -gram
• measures the electrical activity of the heart
• electrocardiography: a noninvasive procedure used to record electrical
activity of the heart
• electrocardiograph: record of the heart’s electrical activity
Echocardiogram echo + cardi/o + -gram
• record of the heart’s sonogram
• echocardiography: the use of sound waves to produce live images
of the heart
Positron emission tomography

• is useful in examining the flow of blood in the heart and blood vessels
a radioactive element is used
Cardiac catheterization
• a procedure in which a catheter is moved through a blood vessel to the
heart to diagnose heart disorders

Study the following list of diseases and disorders affecting the heart:
QQ Angina pectoris
Arrhythmia Fibrillation
Cardiomegaly Heart-murmur
Congenital heart defects Hyperlipidemia
Congestive heart failure Hypertension
Coronary artery disease Infarction
Coronary heart disease Myocardial ischemia
Septal defect Shock

The distribution of blood to the various parts of the body is influenced by the
diameter of the blood vessels:
Vasoconstriction: decrease in the diameter of a blood vessel
• vaso + constriction
Vasodilation: increase in the diameter of a blood vessel
• vaso + dilation

Angiomas are benign tumors made up of blood vessels (hemangioma) or lymph

vessels (lymphangioma).
There are several radiologic studies involving the blood vessels. These include:

aortography aorto + x-ray of the aorta with aortogram record produced

graphy the use of a contrast
dye
arteriography arterio + x-ray of the arteries arteriogram image produced
graphy using a radiopaque
material
angiocardiography angio + x-ray of the heart and
cardio + great vessels using a
graphy dye

Surgical and Therapeutic Interventions

Healthcare technology has greatly improved in the past few decades, leading to
major advances in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Cardiopulmonary
pertains to the heart and lungs.
Cardiopulmonary bypass: a technique that temporarily takes over the function of
the heart and the lungs during surgery
Cardioversion: a procedure in which an electric current is used to reset the
heart’s rhythm back to its normal pattern
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation: a series of lifesaving actions that improve a
client’s chances of survival after a cardiac arrest Heart problem are corrected
using several medications, including the following:
Digoxin: a cardiac glycoside used in the treatment of clients with congestive
heart failure and/or dysrhythmia
Nitroglycerin: a vasodilator often given to clients with angina pectoris

For blood vessel problems, these medications are frequently used:

Thrombolytics (thromb/o + lytic): medications that dissolve clots
Vasodilators: medications that dilate the blood vessels
Antihypertensives: medications that decrease blood pressure
Diuretics: medications that facilitate excretion of water by the kidneys
Antilipidemics: medications that decrease cholesterol levels

Vascular problems that cannot be corrected with medications may need to be

treated using some of these procedures:

angioplasty angio + plasty repair of the blood vessels

atherectomy ather/o + ectomy insertion of a specialized catheter to

remove plaque from the arterial lining

aortoplasty aort/o + plasty repair of the aorta

phlebectomy phleb + ectomy excision of a vein or a vein segment

hemorrhoidectomy hemorrhoid + ectomy excision of a hemorrhoid

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Otherwise known as “the­lymphatics,” the lymphatic system performs the following
functions:
Return the fluid that escaped from the blood vessels back to circulation
Defend the body against disease

STRUCTURES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Lymph: fluid that circulates in the lymphatic system
Lymph vessels: thin tubes that carry lymph and white blood cells
Lymph nodes: small round glands that filter lymph throughout the body
Tonsils: collections of lymphoid tissue found in the pharynx
palatine tonsils: located at the back of the throat
pharyngeal tonsils: commonly referred to as “adenoids”
Thymus: gland in the upper chest cavity that processes lymphocytes
Spleen: produces antibodies and lymphocytes
The following table lists some word parts related to the lymphatic system:

Word Part Meaning Word Association

adenoid/o adenoids Adenoidectomy is the surgical removal of the

adenoids.

cervic/o neck or the uterus Cervicalgia means neck pain.

Inflammation-of-the-cervix-is-known-ascervicitis.

home/o sameness Homeostasis refers to the ability of the

physiological system to maintain internal
stability.
lymphat/o lymphatics A disease or enlargement of the lymph nodes is
lymphadenopathy.

splen/o spleen Splenomegaly is the enlargement of the spleen.

thromb/o thrombus, blood clot Thrombolysis is the breakdown of blood clots.

Diseases, Disorders, and Diagnostic Terms

Any disease involving the lymph nodes is referred to as lymphadenopathy. Study the following table
for additional terms referring to pathological terms and diagnoses related to the lymphatics.
 lymphoma lymph + oma cancer that originates from the lymphatic
system

lymphadenoma lymph + aden + oma tumor of the lymph node

lymphangitis lymph + ang + itis acute-or-chronic-inflammation-of-thelymphatic

vessels

lymphadenitis lymph + aden + itis inflammation-of-the-lymph-nodes

lymphedema lymph + edema Accumulation of lymph in the tissue that

results in swelling.

Elephantiasis is a form of edema caused by

parasites.
lymphangiography lymph + angio + graphy radiologic study of the lymphatic vessels and
nodes using a contrast dye

lymphangiogram lymph + angio + gram x-ray of the lymphatic vessels and nodes

Surgical and Therapeutic Interventions

Antibiotics or anti-infective medications are the usual lines of treatment for infections of the lymph
nodes and lymph vessels.

In more severe problems of the lymphatic system such as cancer, excision of the affected lymphatic
structure may be necessary. Recall the meaning of the following terms:
Lymphadenectomy

Splenectomy

Tonsillectomy

Adenoidectomy
 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Otherwise known as the pulmonary system, the respiratory system (spir/o =
to breathe) functions primarily to deliver oxygen to the body tissues and get rid of
carbon dioxide. This function is achieved through breathing or ventilation. There
are two processes involved in ventilation:
Inspiration/inhalation: movement of air into the lungs
Expiration/exhalation: movement of air out of the lungs
A pulmonologist (pulmon/o + -logist) is a specialist in the anatomy, physiology, and
pathology of the lungs, while a respiratory therapist evaluates and treats respiratory
disorders at the direction of a physician.

STRUCTURES OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system consists of the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The
following diagram illustrates the movement of air into the respiratory tract with the
associated structures.

FIGURE 2—Upper and Lower Respiratory Systems

The following respiratory structures are important to note:

Diaphragm
serves as the main muscle of respiration
separates the abdominal cavity from the thoracic (thora/o = chest) cavity
Pleura: membrane that surrounds the lungs
 Lungs
a pair of large, spongy organs used for gas exchange
the right lung has three lobes while the left lung has two lobes
Sinuses
lighten the weight of the skull
Four sinuses: frontal, ethmoid, maxillary, sphenoid
para + nasal sinuses
(para = beside, nas/o = nose, -al = pertaining to)
- the-frontal-and-maxillary-sinuses-are-air-
filled-paired-cavities-locatedaround the nose
Pharynx: throat
Larynx: voice box

Study the combining forms of the following respiratory structures along with the word
associations and their meanings.

Combining Meaning Word Association

Form
alveol/o alveolus/alveoli Alveolar ventilation refers to the volume of gas expired from the alveoli.

bronch/o, bronchus/bronchi A bronchodilator is a medication that opens up the bronchioles.

bronchi/o
Bronchitis is the inflammation of the bronchialtubes.

bronchiol/o bronchiole Inflammation-of-the-bronchioles-is-known-asbronchioloitis.

epiglott/o epiglottis Epiglottitis is a life-threatening condition in which the epiglottis swells.

laryng/o larynx (voice box) Laryngospasm is the uncontrolled and involuntary muscular contraction
of the vocal folds.

lob/o lobe The surgical removal of a lobe of an organ is referred to as lobectomy.

nas/o, rhin/o nose The nasopharynx refers to the upper part of the throat behind the nose.

Combining Meaning Word Association

Form
phren/o diaphragm The phrenic nerve supports the movement of the diaphragm.

pleur/o pleura Pleuritis or pleurisy is-the-inflammation-of-thepleura or the lining of the

lungs.
 pharyng/o pharynx (throat) Pharyngitis is­the­inflammation­of­the­pharynx,­otherwise­known­as­“sore
throat.”

pneu/o, lung Pneumonia is the infection of one or both lungs.

pneumon/o,
pulm/o, The medical specialty that deals with diseases involving the respiratory tract
pulmono/o is known as pulmonology.

trache/o trachea Tracheostomy is a surgical procedure that creates an opening in the trachea.

DISEASES, DISORDERS, AND DIAGNOSTIC TERMS

Two of the most common noninvasive measurements used to collect data about a
client’s respiratory status are oximetry and spirometry.
Oximetry
measurement of the blood oxygen saturation in the arteries
oximeter: a device used to measure oxygen saturation of the blood
Spirometry (spiro + metry)
Measurement of airflow taken in and exhaled from the lungs
spirometer: instrument used for measuring air inhaled to and exhaled out of
the lungs

The suffix pnea denotes breathing. Study the following list for medical terms
pertaining to respirations.

eupnea eu- (normal) eu + pnea normal respirations

dyspnea dys- (bad) dys + pnea labored-and-difficult-breathing

apnea a- (absence) a + pnea temporary absence of breathing

orthopnea orth/o- (straight) ortho + pnea difficulty-breathing-in-any-position

other than upright or sitting
position
bradypnea brady- (slow) brady + pnea abnormal breathing, less than 12
breaths per minute

tachypnea tachy- (fast) tachy + pnea respirations more than 20

breaths per minute

hyperpnea hyper- (more than hyper + pnea abnormally deep or rapid

normal) respiration
Aside from the previous list, the following terms are frequently used in relation to the
respiratory system:
hyperventilation (hyper + ventilation): excessive ventilation of the lungs
hypoventilation (hypo + ventilation): insufficient exchange of oxygen and
carbondioxide in the lungs
hypoxia (hyp + ox + ia): diminished oxygenation to the tissues
anoxia (an + ox + ia): extreme form of hypoxia, severe lack of oxygen in the
tissues
Similar to the circulatory system, the respiratory system can be afflicted with a
number of disorder.
Review the definitions of the following respiratory disorders:
Adult respiratory distress syndrome Emphysema
Asthma Influenza
Atelectasis Nasal polyp
Bronchiectasis Pleuritis
Bronchography Pneumoconiosis
Lung carcinoma Pulmonary embolism
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Severe acute respiratory
syndrome
Silicosis Sudden infant death
syndrome
Tuberculosis

SURGICAL AND THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS

Asphyxia denotes a severe decrease in the supply of oxygen in the body secondary
to abnormal breathing. Methods used to address this problem may include the use of
the Heimlich maneuver or, in severe cases, endotracheal intubation.
Heimlich maneuver
otherwise known as abdominal thrust
first-
aid-procedure-used-to-remove-airway-foreign-body-obstruction,-such-as-in
the case of choking
Endotracheal intubation (endo = inside + trache/o +
al):-insertion-of-artificial-airwayinto the trachea
nasotracheal intubation (nas/o = nose)
insertion of an airway tube through the nose
 orotracheal intubation (or/o = mouth)
insertion of an airway tube through the mouth

Ventilator

an-apparatus-used-to-administer-artificial-respiration-in-cases-of-respiratoryfailure

In severe cases, respiratory disorders may need to be treated surgically. The following table lists
some of the most common surgical procedures related to the respiratory system.

Surgical Procedure Word Parts Definition

tracheotomy trach/o + tomy creation of an opening in the trachea

tracheostomy trach/o + ostomy creation-of-artificial-airway-in-thetrachea

biopsy percutaneous bi + o + o/psy per removal of small tissue for examination

+ cutane/o
puncturing the skin to obtain a sample of the tissue

pneumonectomy pneumon/o + ectomy removal of all or part of the lungs

lobectomy lob/o + ectomy removal of a lobe of the lung

rhinoplasty rhin/o + plasty surgical repair of the nose

pneumocentesis pneum/o + centesis puncture-of-the-lungs-to-remove-fluid

thoracentesis thorac/o + centesis puncture of the chest cavity to drain fluid

Respiratory disorders may also be treated with medications. Review the purpose of
the following drug classifications:
Decongestants de + congest + ant
Antitussives anti + tussive
Antihistamines anti + histamine
Bronchodilators broncho + dilat/o + or
Mucolytics muco + lys/o + tics
DIGESTIVE, URINARY, AND REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM TERMS

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system is responsible for the provision of water, nutrients, and minerals to the body.
Alimentation (alimentum = to nourish) is the term used for the process of giving or receiving
nutrition, while metabolism is used to describe all the body processes involved in maintaining life.

There are four processes involved in digestion:

Ingestion: taking-foods-or-fluids-orally
Digestion: physical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller components that can be
absorbed in the bloodstream
Absorption: passage of food molecules from the small intestine into the blood and lymph
capillaries
Elimination: removal of food particles that were not digested through defecation

Nutrients are classified into three major categories. They’re further broken down into simpler
substances known as enzymes.

The following table summarizes nutrient classifications and their specific enzymes (-ase =
enzyme).

Nutrient Classification Associated Enzyme/s Word Parts

carbohydrates lactase (breaks down lactose) amylase lact + ase amyl + ase
(breaks down starch)

proteins protease proteinase prote + ase protein + ase

fats lipase lip + ase

Word Part Meaning Word Association

-ation action or process Defecation is the process of passing out stool or feces via the
anus.

bil/i, chol/e bile The biliary system consists of the liver, gallbladder, and the bile
duct.

cirrh/o orange-yellow Liver cirrhosis refers to the chronic scarring and damage to the
liver.
 de- down, from, reversing, or The removal of an amino group from a molecule is known as
removing deamination.

glycos/o sugar Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose for cellular metabolism.

-orexia appetite Anorexia is the loss of appetite.

-pepsia digestion Dyspepsia is the term used to describe indigestion or painful

and upset stomach.

vag/o vagus nerve The vasovagal syncope is the sudden loss of consciousness
caused by affectation of the vagus nerve.

viscer/o viscera Visceral pain is a pain that originates from body organs.

Structures of the Digestive System

The structures of the digestive system can be divided into two categories: alimentary
tract and the accessory organs of digestion.

Alimentary Tract
The alimentary tract, otherwise known as the digestive tract, starts from the mouth
and continues down to the anus.
Intestinal intestin/o = intestines + -al
Gastrointestinal gastr/o = stomach + -al
The alimentary canal consists of two parts, the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract.

Upper Digestive Organs Word Part Word Association

Gastrointestinal
Tract
lips cheil/o cheilosis

teeth dent/i, dent/o, odont/o dentistry

gums gingiv/o gingivitis

tongue gloss/o, lingu/o glossitis

mouth or/o, stomat/o oropharynx

esophagus esophag/o esophagitis

stomach gastr/o gastroenterologist

Lower intestines intestin/o, enter/o intestinal, enteritis

Gastrointestinal
Tract duodenum duoden/o duodenal

jejunum jejun/o jejunostomy

ileum ile/o ileostomy

 colon or large col/o, colon/o colonoscopy
intestine

appendix append/o, appendic/o appendectomy

cecum cec/o ileocecal

sigmoid colon sigmoid/o sigmoidectomy

anus or rectum proct/o proctologist

rectum rect/o rectal

anus an/o anal

Accessory Organs of Digestion

Proper digestion and absorption of nutrients is aided by the secretion of substances
by the accessory organs of digestion. These organs include the liver, gallbladder,
pancreas, and salivary glands. The following table lists the word parts related to the
accessory organs of digestion.

Word Part Meaning Word Association

cholecyst/o gallbladder Cholecystectomy is the surgical removal of the

gallbladder.
choledocho/o common bile duct The presence of gallstones in the common bile
duct is referred to as choledocholithiasis.
hepat/o liver Hepatitis refers to the inflammatory condition
of the liver.
pancreat/o pancreas Pancreatography is the radiographic
examination of the pancreas.
sial/o salivary gland Sialorrhea refers to excessive salivation.

Diseases, Disorders, and Diagnostic Terms

Diseases and disorders of the digestive system are usually diagnosed through
radiology or endoscopy.

Radiologic studies of the digestive system (-graphy = process of recording):

Esophagography: esophagi/o + graphy
Sialography: sial/o + graphy
Endoscopic examinations (-scopy = visual examination):
Esophagoscopy: esophag/o + scopy
Gastroscopy: gastr/o + scopy
Colonoscopy: colon/o + scopy
 Sigmoidoscopy: sigmoid/o + scopy
Proctoscopy: proct/o + scopy

The presence of stones in the digestive organs is a common occurrence (lith/o =

stone). The following are examples:
Cholelithiasis: chole + lith + iasis
choledocho + lith +
Choledocholithiasis:
iasis
Pancreatolithiasis: pancreato + lith +
iasis
Diabetes mellitus is a group of diseases that pertain to the body’s utilization of
glucose.
Lack of insulin or insulin resistance results in hyper + glycemia (hyper = increased,
glyc/o = sugar, emia = blood). Hyperglycemia may lead to the following signs and
symptoms (poly = excessive):
Poly + phagia (eating)
Poly + uria (urination)
Poly + dipsia (thirst)
The-prefix-hyper is also used in the following disorders (hyper = excessive or
increased):
Hyperlipidemia: hyper + lipid + emia
increased level of lipids in the blood, including cholesterol and triglycerides
Hyperemesis: hyper + emesis
excessive vomiting

Other health concerns related to the digestive system include:

Obesity Emaciation
Anorexia nervosa Bulimia
Malabsorption Malnutrition Dehydration

Surgical and Therapeutic Interventions

Some clients may need to be fed via an enteral (enter/o = intestine) feeding tube.
The three most common types of feeding tubes are:
Nasogastric: naso + gastr/o + ic
Nasoduodenal: naso + duoden/o + al
Nasojejunal: naso + jejun/o + al
 Selected surgical procedures include:

esophagostomy esophag/o + stomy

gastrostomy gastr/o + stomy

jejunostomy jejuno/o + stomy stomy = formation of an opening

colostomy col/o + stomy

ileostomy ile/o + stomy

vagotomy vag/o + tomy tomy = creation of incision

gastroplasty gastr/o + plasty plasty = repair

lithotripsy lith/o + tripsy tripsy = surgical crushing

appendectomy append/o + ectomy

cholecystectomy cholecyst/o + ectomy

gastrectomy gastr/o + ectomy ectomy = excision

hemorrhoidectomy hemorrhoid/o + ectomy

pancreatolithectomy pancreat/o + lith + ectomy

laparoscopy lapar/o + scopy scopy = visual examination

Some gastrointestinal problems may be treated with medications. These

medications include:
Antidiarrheal (anti + diarrheal)
relieves diarrhea
Antiemetic (anti + emetic)
relieves or prevents vomiting
Emetic
induces vomiting
Laxative
promotes bowel movement
Purgative/cathartic
promotes complete bowel emptying
URINARY SYSTEM
The urinary system, otherwise known as the renal system, serves many purposes.
One of these purposes is the elimination of waste products through urin + ation.
Other functions include:
Regulation of blood pressure, blood volume, and blood pH
Production of red blood cells (erythropoiesis = erythro + poiesis)
Synthesis of vitamin D

Urea: end product of waste excretion by the kidneys

Urology: branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases
of the urinary tract and the urogenital system

Urologist: a physician who specializes in diseases of the urinary tract and the male
reproductive system

Study the following word parts pertaining to the urinary system.

Word Part Meaning Word Association

albumin/o albumin Albuminuria is a pathologic condition wherein an

abnormal amount of albumin is present in the
urine.
-ation process Urination is the act of voiding.
-esis action, process, or Increased excretion of urine is known as diuresis.
result of
glycos/o sugar The presence of glucose in the urine is
glycosuria.
olig/o few, scanty Oliguria is the reduction of urine volume.
ur/o urine or urinary tract The formation of urinary stones is known as
urolithiasis.
urin/o urine Urinal is-a-fixture-used-for-urination,-especially
by males.
-uria urine or urination The presence of blood in the urine is referred to
as hematuria.

STRUCTURES OF THE URINARY TRACT

The major structures of the urinary system include:
Right and left kidneys: produce hormones, absorb minerals, filter blood, and produce
urine
Right and left ureters: passageways of urine
Bladder: urine storage
 Urethra: the tubular passage through which urine is expelled from the body

The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. It has three functions, namely:

1. Glomerular filtration
2. Tubular reabsorption

3. Tubular secretion

The following table lists the word parts associated with the urinary system

Combining Name of Word Association

Form Structure

cyst/o bladder Cystogram is an x-ray examination of the urinary bladder.

glomerul/o glomerulus Inflammation-of-the-glomeruli-is-known-asglomerulonephritis.

nephr/o, kidney A nephrologist is a physician who specializes in treating

ren/o diseases of the kidneys.

Kidney failure is otherwise known as renal failure.

pyel/o renal pelvis Pyelitis is-the-inflammation-of-the-renalpelvis.

ureter/o ureter Ureterectomy is the excision of the ureter.

urethr/o urethra Irritation-and-inflammation-of-the-urethra-isknown as
urethritis.

DISEASES, DISORDERS, AND DIAGNOSTIC TERMS

There are several tests used to diagnose diseases of the urinary system. One of the most
common tests is urinalysis (urin/o + analysis). This test needs a urine specimen, which can
either be a voided specimen or catheterized specimen.
The-presence-of-abnormal-substances-in-the-urine-provides-significant-information-aboutthe
client’s health status. Several examples are listed as follows:

Glycosuria glyc/o + uria sugar in the urine

Proteinuria protein/o + uria protein in the urine
Hematuria hem/o + uria blood in the urine
Albuminuria albumin/o + uria albumin in the urine
Pyuria py/o + uria pus in the urine
Ketonuria keton/o + uria ketones in the urine
Radiography and ultrasonography are also used to aid in the diagnosis of disorders
of the urinary system. Some of these tests include:
Renal angiography
Nephrotomography
Intravenous urography
Nephrosonography

Visualization procedures may also be used, namely:

Cystoscopy
Urethroscopy

Since-the-urinary-system-is-responsible-for-filtration-of-the-blood-and-excretion-of-w
asteproducts, stone (lith) formation isn’t uncommon.
Urolithiasis: presence of urinary stones
Cystolithiasis: presence of stones in the urinary bladder
Nephrolithiasis: presence of stones in the kidneys

Other pathological conditions related to the urinary system include the following:

Nephromalacia nephro + malacia softening of the kidneys

Nephromegaly nephron + megaly enlargement of the kidneys
Nephritis nephron/o + itis inflammation-of-the-kidney
Dysuria dys + uria painful urination
Polyuria poly + uria excessive urination
Anuria an + uria absence of urination
Oliguria oligi + uria diminished urine formation
Uremia ur/o + emia uric acid in the blood

SURGICAL AND THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS

Surgical procedures and medications have been used to treat disorders of the
urinary system.

Insertion of tubes or urinary diversion is a common procedure. Some examples

include:
Urethral catheterization
Ureteral catheterization
 Suprapubic catheterization
Percutaneous nephrostomy

In extreme cases, when the kidneys are unable to excrete waste products from the
blood, dialysis may be necessary. dia = through lysis = freeing or destroying

Hemodialysis hemo + dia + lysis The use of a machine to filter blood

Peritoneal dialysis periton/o + eal The use of the peritoneum as a filter

A number of surgeries have been utilized to treat problems involving the urinary
system. Some of these include

Word Parts Word Association

cyst/o = bladder -stomy Cystostomy is the surgical creation of an

nephr/o = renal new opening into the bladder.
pelvis pyel/o = renal opening
pelvis lith/o = stone The creation of a new opening into
the renal pelvis of the kidney is
referred to as nephrostomy or
pyelostomy.
-tripsy surgical Lithotripsy is the surgical crushing of a
crushing stone.

-tomy Nephrotomy is an incision of the kidney.

incision

-pexy Nephropexy is the term used to

surgical-fixation describe surgical attachment of a
prolapsed kidney.
-plasty Surgical reconstruction of the
surgical ureters is known as ureteroplasty.
repair

Some substances affect the formation and excretion of urine. Diuretics promote
urination, while antidiuretics inhibit urination. Examples of diuretics include coffee,
tea, alcohol, and water.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The reproductive system’s main function is production of offspring. Specific

organs, known as gonads and genitalia, serve to fulfill this function.
Gonads: internal reproductive organs
testes produce spermatozoa (sperm cells)
ovaries produce ova (egg cells)
Genitalia: external reproductive organs

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system functions to enable procreation and to support the
development and nourishment of the fetus during pregnancy and following childbirth.

STRUCTURES
Gynecology (gynec/o = female; -logy = study of) is the branch of medicine that deals
with the diseases and routine physical care of women’s reproductive systems, and
the specialist responsible is referred to as a gynecologist.

Study the following word parts pertaining to the structures of the female reproductive
system.
WORD PARTS SPECIFIC TO THE FEMALE GENITALIA

Female Genitalia Meaning Word Association

cervic/o cervix Cervicitis is-the-inflammation-and-irritationof the cervix.

colp/o vagin/o vagina Repair of the vaginal wall is colporrhaphy.

Vaginitis is-the-inflammation-of-the-vagina.

gynec/o female The medical practice concerned with the female

reproductive system is gynecology.

hyster/o, uter/o uterus Hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus.

metro/o uterine tissue Irregular uterine bleeding in between regular menstrual

periods is known as metrorhaggia.

oophor/o, ovar/o ovary Oophoritis or ovaritis-is-the-inflammationof the ovaries.

salping/o uterine/fallopian tube Salpingectomy is the surgical removal of the Fallopian tubes.

vulv/o vulva/external genitalia Removal of the female external genitalia is known as

vulvectomy.
 WORD PARTS SPECIFIC TO THE FEMALE GENITALIA (continued)

Female Genitalia Meaning Word Association

Other Word Parts

-cidal killing Bactericidal agents kill bacteria.

cyst/o, vesic/o bladder, cyst, or sac A vesicovaginal fistula-is-an-abnormalopening between the

vagina and the bladder.

genit/o genitals The term genitourinary refers to the genital and urinary
organs.

gonad/o genitals or reproduction Gonadotropins are hormones that stimulate the gonads to
perform their reproductive and endocrine functions.

men/o month Menstruation refers to the monthly shedding of the uterine

lining.

-plasia development or formation Endometrial hyperplasia is the thickening of the inner lining
of the uterus.

rect/o rectum Rectovaginal fistulas-are-abnormal-tractsthat connect the

lower gastrointestinal tract with the vagina.

urethr/o urethra Urethrocele refers to the prolapse of the female urethra

into the vagina.

urin/o urine The urogenital system refers to the organ system consisting
of the reproductive and the urinary organs.

The female reproductive system consists of external and internal structures. The
external genitalia, otherwise known as the vulva, structures include:
Mons pubis
Labia (labium = lip)

majora

minora
Clitoris
Gland openings (Bartholin’s, Skene’s gland)

Internal structures include:

Right and left ovaries
Functions
ovulation
production of hormones
 estrogen and progesterone

Right and left fallopian tubes

Uterus
Three layers
endometrium endo + metr + ium (endo = inside)
myometrium myo + metr + ium (my/o = muscle)
perimetrium peri + metr + ium (per = around)
Vagina
Special glands

The capability to reproduce begins at puberty. For females, this stage is

characterized by the start of menstruation or menses (men/o = month). The term
menopause, on the other hand, is the time that marks the end of the menstrual
cycle.

Diseases, Disorders, and Diagnostic Terms

Examination of the female reproductive system may include physical assessment

and pelvic examination that can be done unaided or with the use of instruments.

Examination of the cervix and the walls of the vagina may be done with a vaginal
speculum. Collection of uterine and/or vaginal wall tissue for cytologic examination is
known as a Papanicolaou smear/test (abbreviated form = Pap smear).

Visual (-scopy) and radiologic examinations of the structures of the female

reproductive tract include:
Procedure Meaning Instrument Used

colposcopy Examination of the cervix using a colposcope

special magnifying device
(microscope)
laparoscopy Surgical diagnostic procedure used laparoscope
to examine the abdominal
structures
hysteroscopy Direct visualization of the cervical hysteroscope
canal and the uterine cavity
hysterosalpingography X-ray examination of the uterus and
fallopian tubes with the use of a
radiopaque dye
Pain, bleeding, and abnormal vaginal discharge are usual gynecologic concerns that
warrant a visit to a gynecologist. Aside from the gynecologic problems previously
mentioned, menstrual irregularities are also common. Examples of these
irregularities include:
men/o = month amenorrhea Absence of menstruation
-rrhea = discharge dysmenorrhea Difficult-or-painful-menstruation
-rrhagia = menorrhagia Abnormally heavy menstruation
hemorrhage
metr/o = uterine metrorrhagia Abnormal uterine bleeding
tissue
Study the following list of diseases and disorders affecting the female reproductive system.

Cervical polyp Endometritis

Cervicocolpitis Fistula
Colpitis vesicovaginal
Cystocele rectovaginal
Endometriosis urethrovaginal
Oophoritis Hysteroptosis
Oophorosalpingitis
Myoma
Ovarian carcinoma
Premenstrual syndrome
Ovarian cyst
Salpingitis
Pelvic-inflammatory-disease
Salpingocele
Uterine-fibroid
Uterine cancer
Vulva

Surgical and Therapeutic Interventions

Gynecological concerns may be treated using several methods.
Common Gynecological Concerns Interventions
infertility in vitro fertilization
amenorrhea and menopause hormone replacement therapy
prevention of pregnancy and sexually Contraception
transmitted illness natural
artificial
Some gynecological problems may need to be treated with surgery. The following list
outlines several surgeries related to the female reproductive system.
Word Part Surgical Procedure Meaning
-plasty = surgical colpoplasty surgical repair of the vagina
repair
-rrhaphy = suture colporrhaphy suture of the vagina
salpingorrhaphy suture of the uterine tube
-ectomy = excision hysterectomy excision of the uterus
oophorectomy excision of one or both ovaries
salpingectomy excision of the fallopian tube
salpingo- excision of the ovary and its fallopian tube
oophorectomy
vulvectomy excision of the vulva

Pregnancy and Childbirth

The branch of medicine that deals with the care of women during pregnancy and
childbirth is obstetrics, and the specialist is an obstetrician.

Pregnancy, otherwise referred to as gestation, begins at conception and ends at

childbirth. Prior to conception, fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube and is followed
by implantation of the zygote in the endometrium. The implanted embryo is called a
fetus after eight weeks. The presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) in
the urine or blood may be a presumptive sign of pregnancy. The average duration of
gestation from the fertilization date is 266 days, or about three trimesters.
Ultrasonography is a useful diagnostic tool in monitoring the fetus’ development
throughout the pregnancy.

The suffix natal refers to birth. Examples of relevant terms include:

Prenatal (pre + natal) period occurring before birth

Postnatal (post + natal) period occurring after birth

Perinatal (peri + natal) period occurring immediately before and after birth

Neonatal (neo + natal) period occurring from the birth of the child to one month

Parturition pertains to childbirth:

Antepartum (ante + partum) before childbirth

Postpartum (post + partum) after childbirth

Gravidity pertains to the number of times a woman has been pregnant. Gravida
may be used to refer to a pregnant woman.

Primigravida (primi + gravida) a-woman-who-is-pregnant-for-the-first-time

Multigravida (multi + gravida) a woman who has been pregnant more than once

Parity denotes the number of births a woman has had after 20 weeks of gestation.
The combining form -para is used to describe a woman who has given birth:

Unipara (uni + para) a woman who has given birth to one child

Multipara (multi + para) a woman who has had multiple births

Nullipara (null/o + para) a woman who has never given birth

Prior to giving birth, the pregnant woman goes through the labor process. The
stages of labor include:
1. Cervical dilation
2. Expulsion of the fetus
3. Expulsion of the placenta

Fetal presentation refers to the part of the fetus’ body that’s closest to the birth
canal:
Cephalic presentation
Breech presentation
Shoulder presentation

The two types of delivery are:

Vaginal
Cesarean section (C-section)

The list below presents the most common obstetric terms:

Abruptio placentae Amnion
Amniocentesis Amniotomy
Cesarean section Chorionic villus sampling
Down syndrome Episiotomy
Erythroblastosis fetalis Fetal monitoring
Placenta previa
Female Breasts

The female breasts are paired mammary (mamm/o = breast) glands that are essential in lactation
(lact/o = milk + ation).

Common medical terminologies pertaining to the breasts are as follows:

Medical Term Word Parts Meaning

mammography mamm/o + graphy radiographic examination of the breast

lumpectomy lump + ectomy removal of a breast lump or tumor

mastectomy mast/o + ectomy removal of the breast
mastalgia mast/o + algia pain in the breast
mastodynia mast/o + dynia
mammalgia mamm/o + algia
painful breast
mastitis mast/o + itis inflammation-of-the-breast
mastoptosis mast/o + ptosis sagging breasts
mastopexy mast/o + pexy surgical procedure to lift the breasts

mammoplasty mamm/o + plasty surgical repair of the breasts

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system is essential in the production of male sex hormones
and the production, sustenance, and delivery of sperm for reproduction.

Structures
The male reproductive system also consists of internal and external organs.
External organs include:
Penis
Scrotum

Internal organs include:

Testis
Epididymis
Vas deferens or ductus deferens
Accessory glands
seminal vesicles
 prostate gland
bulbourethral glands

The following table pertains to the word parts and word associations related to the
male reproductive organs.
Word Part Meaning Word Association
gon/o genitals or reproduction Gonads refer to the reproductive
organs, namely the testes or ovaries.

orchi/o, orchid/o, testes Orchitis is-the-inflammation-of-thetestes.

test/o, testicu/o Orchidopexy is-the-surgical-fixationof an
undescended testis.
Testosterone is the primary male hormone.
Testicular pertains to the testicles.

pen/o penis Penile pertains to the penis.

prostat/o prostate Prostatectomy is the surgical removal of
the prostate gland.
scrot/o scrotum, bag Scrotal pertains to the scrotum.
semin/o semen The semen is otherwise referred to as
seminal fluid.
ser/o serum Serology pertains-to-the-scientificstudy or
diagnostic examination of blood serum.

spermat/o spermatozoa (sperm) Spermatogenesis is-defined-asthe

formation of mature functional sperm.

urethr/o urethra Urethral pertains to the urethra.

vas/o vessel or duct The vas deferens carries sperm from the
testicle to the urethra.

Diseases, Disorders, and Diagnostic Terms

The following list enumerates the most common disorders of the male reproductive system

Anorchidism an + orchid/o + ism

Aspermia a + sperm + ia

Benign prostatic hyperplasia prostat/o + ic hyper + plasia

Cryptorchidism crypt/o + orchid/o + ism

Hydrocele hydr/o + cele

Intersexuality inter + sex/o + al + ity

 Orchitis orchi/o + itis

Prostatic carcinoma prostat/o + ic carcin/o + oma

Prostatitis prostat/o + itis

Testicular cancer testicul/o

Testicular torsion testicul/o

Surgical and Therapeutic Interventions

Disorders of the male reproductive system may be treated with surgery. Several surgical
interventions are as follows:

Word Part Surgical Procedure Meaning

-ectomy = excision orchidectomy/ orchiectomy surgical removal of the testicle

prostatectomy removal of all or part of the prostate

vasectomy removal of all or part of the vas deferens

-plasty = surgical repair orchidoplasty plastic surgery of the testis

-pexy = surgical-fixation orchiopexy surgical-fixation-of-an-undescended testis

-ostomy = new opening vasovasostomy surgical means of reconnecting the ends of severed
ductus deferens

circum = around circumcision removal of the foreskin that covers the head of the
penis

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES OR INFECTIONS

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) or infections (STIs) are named as such because these are
disorders acquired through sexual contact. These disorders directly affect the genitourinary system.
Common symptoms of STDs or STIs include urethr + itis in males and vagin + itis in females.
Causative microorganisms include bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi, or parasites.

Common STIs and their causative agents:

Bacteria

Gonorrhea

Syphilis Chlamydial infection Chancroid

Virus

Acquired-Immunodeficiency-Syndrome
Genital herpes

Genital warts

Hepatitis-B,-C,-D
Protozoa

Trichomoniasis (trich/o = hair)

Fungi

Candidiasis

Parasites

Pubic lice
INTEGUMENTARY, NERVOUS, AND
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM TERMS
INTRODUCTION
The preceding chapters have acquainted you with medical terms pertaining to the
digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems. This section will help you recognize
medical terminologies related to the integument, brain, spinal cord, special senses,
and the glands.

THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The skin, otherwise referred to as the integument, is the biggest organ of the
body. The other structures included under this system include the appendages of the
skin, hair, nails, and the sweat and sebaceous glands.

The skin has several functions including the following, which are presented as a
mnemonic:
D vitamin synthesis
Elimination of wastes
Regulation of body temperature
Makes information readily available
Acts as a barrier

STRUCTURES OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The skin has two layers:
QQ Epidermis epi + dermis (epi = above, derma = skin)
thin, outer layer of the skin
primarily consists of keratin, a sclero + protein
composed-of-five-layers-(from-the-deepest-to-the-most-superficial)
stratum basale
stratum spinosum stratum = layer
stratum granulosum strata = plural form
stratum lucidum
stratum corneum
 Dermis
thick layer under the epidermis
consists of connective tissue containing lymphatics, nerves, blood vessels,
hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands
Beneath the dermis is the subcutaneous adipose tissue.
sub (below) + cutane (skin) + ous + (pertaining to)
adip/o (fat)
stratum= layer QQ strata=

plural form

The accessory skin structures are:

Hair: filament made up of protein that grows from follicles in the skin
Nail: a keratinized structure found at the end of toes and fingers
Sebaceous glands: glands that produce oil or waxy substance, called sebum
Sweat glands/sudoriferous glands: essential in temperature regulation and
waste elimination through perspiration
eccrine glands: open directly to the skin
apocrine glands: open into the hair follicles
The following table lists the word parts and word associations pertaining to the
structures of the integumentary system.

Combining Forms/
Suffixes Meaning Word Association

adip/o, lip/o fat Adipocytes are fat cells.

axill/o axilla (armpit) Axillary pertains to the armpit or axilla.

cutane/o, derm/a, skin Cutaneous horns are hard conical projections from the skin.
derm/o, dermat/o
Dermatitis is a group of diseases that
results-in-skin-inflammation.

Dermatology is the branch of medicine that deals with the skin,

nails, hair, and their diseases.

erythemat/o erythema or redness Systemic lupus erythematosus or lupus

is-a-chronic-inflammatory-disease-thatattacks the immune
system.

follicul/o follicle Inflammation-of-the-follicles-is-known-asfolliculitis.

 ichthy/o fish Ichthyosis is a group of skin disorders
typified-by-having-dry,-scaly,-or-thickenedskin.

kerat/o tissue containing Seborrheic keratosis is a common noncancerous skin growth in

keratin older adults.

onych/o, ungu/o nail Onychia is-the-inflammation-of-the-nailfolds.

Unguis incarnates refers to an ingrown fingernail-or-toenail.

pil/o, trich/o hair The pilomotor muscles are responsible for the erection of skin
hair.

Trichology is the science that deals with the structure, function,

and diseases of the skin.

seb/o sebum Seborrheic dermatitis is a skin condition that frequently causes

scaly patches and red skin, commonly in the scalp.

sept/o infection/septum Septicemic or hemorrhagic rash refers to a cluster of tiny blood

spots similar to pinpricks in the skin caused by infection in the
blood.

xer/o dry Simple dry skin is known as xeroderma.

-derm skin or germ layer Embryonic germ layers:

QQ endoderm: innermost layer

QQ mesoderm: middle layer
QQ ectoderm: outermost layer

-static keeping stationary Fungistatic medications, commonly prescribed in fungal skin

infections, are antifungal drugs that stop the growth of fungus.

DISEASES, DISORDERS, AND DIAGNOSTIC TERMS

The skin, being the body’s physiological defense against the external environment,
can be exposed to numerous factors that can lead to disorders and diseases.

Skin Lesions

Visible abnormalities of the skin are collectively known as skin lesions. Lesions can
be primary or secondary.
Primary lesions are initial reactions to a problem that changes one of the
components of the skin.
Examples:
Macule:-flat,-circumscribed,-and-discolored-area-of-the-skin-that-is-less-than1
cm in diameter
Papule: elevated, circumscribed, and discolored area of the skin with no
visible-fluid
Plaque: elevated and circumscribed patches greater than 1 cm in diameter
Wheal: irregularly shaped and elevated lesions commonly seen in allergic
reactions
Bulla: a fluid filled, elevated skin lesion greater than 1 cm in diameter
Vesicle: a fluid filled, elevated skin lesion less than 1 cm in diameter
Pustule: vesicles that are filled with pus or cloudy fluid
Secondary lesions- result from modification of the primary lesion caused by
trauma or other external factors.
Examples:
Atrophy: thinning of the epidermis
Ulcer: skin erosions that are irregularly shaped and may extend up to the
bones, as in the case of pressure ulcers
Fissures: splits in the skin
Scales: dry fragments of epidermis that have been sloughed off

Injuries to the Skin

Since the skin is exposed to several external factors, skin injuries such as wounds
and burns are common. A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin. There are
several types of wound, as indicated by the following terms:
Laceration: tearing of body tissue
Incision: a surgical cut or clean-cut wound
Puncture: a small hole caused by a small object
Abrasion: shallow wounds or scrapes that tear or rub off the epidermis
Contusion: rupture or damage to the blood vessels caused by trauma, but the skin
remains intact; otherwise known as a bruise
Burns: tissue injuries caused by extreme exposure to heat, chemicals, radiation,
electricity, and sunlight.
Types of burns include:
Superficial partial- thickness (1st degree):-confined-to-the-dermis-only
Deep partial-thickness (2nd degree): involves the dermis
Full-thickness (3rd degree): involves the epidermis, dermis, and at times,
the subcutaneous tissue
 Deep full-thickness (4th degree): both the epidermis and dermis have
been sloughed off and the damage extends to the muscles and bones

The extent of burns may be estimated using the Rule of Nines. See Figure 12-11 in
your textbook.

Note: The Rule of Nines is used to estimate the total body surface area affected by
a burn in an adult whose height and weight are proportional. Modifications are
needed in estimating the extent of burn injuries in children and infants

Skin Disorders
The following are typical skin disorders
Abscess
Albinism Cellulitis
Contact dermatitis Cyanosis
Dermatitis Discus lupus erythematosus
Frostbite Furuncle
Hypopigmentation Ichthyosis
Lipoma Lyme disease
Malignant melanoma Mycodermatitis
Necrosis Pediculosis
Petechiae Psoriasis

Disorders of the Accessory Skin Structures

Additional disorders of the integumentary system, particularly the accessory
structures, are discussed in Chapter 12 of your textbook. Study the following
disorders.
Acne vulgaris Folliculitis
Hidradenitis Onychomycosis
Onychopathy Seborrhea
Seborrheic dermatitis Trichosis
SURGICAL AND THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS
There are numerous types of interventions used to treat skin disorders and diseases.
Several forms of surgeries may be employed to treat these problems, including:
Suturing
joining the lips or edges of a wound by stitching
Stapling
using surgical staples to close the edges of an open wound
Liposuction (lipo + suction)
otherwise known as suction-assisted lipectomy
surgical removal of adipose tissue
Biopsy
removal of a small amount of tissue for examination
Cryosurgery (cry/o + surgery)
otherwise referred to as cryotherapy
using extreme cold to destroy abnormal or deceased tissue
Curettage
surgical cleaning or scraping with the use of a curette
Debridement
removal of unhealthy tissue from a wound to enhance healing
Dermabrasion
a procedure used to resurface the skin with the use of a rotating device
Electrosurgery (electr/o + surgery)
refers to several modalities that use electricity to cause destruction of tissue

Aside from surgery, skin disorders may also be managed with medications. These
medications may be given using different routes, which may include:
Oral: medications administered via the mouth
Topical: drugs administered directly on the skin
Transdermal: medications that are administered on the intact skin to be absorbed
and delivered via the circulatory system

The most common classifications of medications or drugs administered are:

Antimicrobials: prevent infection
Bacteriostatic: drugs that inhibit the growth of bacteria
 Bactericidal: drugs that kill bacteria
Antiperspirants: substance s that counteract perspiration

Additional treatment options may include:

Collagen injections: used to smooth out wrinkles
Electrolysis (electr/o + lysis)
means of destroying hair follicles through electric current

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND PSYCHOLOGIC

DISORDERS
The nervous system is a complex system that primarily serves as the body’s control
center,-both-physiologically-and-psychologically.-More-specific-functions-include:
Storage and processing of information
Stimulation of movement
Maintenance of homeostasis
Control of behavior, mood and thinking

Control of the nervous system can be categorized into:

Somatic nervous system
responsible for voluntary movements such as movement of the
musculoskeletal system
Autonomic nervous system
controls involuntary movements such as breathing

Two types of nerve fibers that transmit impulses are:

Sensory or afferent
receptors that receive information from the sensory organs and transmit this
information to the central nervous system
Motor or efferent
neurons that transmit information from the central nervous system to the
muscles and glands
STRUCTURES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Two types of cells make up the nervous system, the neurons and neuroglial cells.
Neurons (neur/o = nerve)
transmit impulses to and from the brain
structures of a typical neuron:
dendrites: responsible for transmitting impulses to the cell body
soma or cell body: contains the nucleus
axon: conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body
myelin sheath: aids in the conduction of nerve impulses
neurilemma: also called the sheath of Schwann, it’s the outermost
layer of the axon
Glial or neuroglial cells
primarily functions to support the neurons

The following table presents the word parts and word associations related to the
nervous system and psychological disorders.
Combining
Forms Meaning Word Associations
aut/o self Autoimmune diseases refer to disorders in which the body’s
immune system destroys healthy cells.
cerebell/o cerebellum Cerebellar stroke is a result of interruption of blood supply
to the cerebellum.
cerebr/o, brain Cerebral edema is the accumulation of excessive
encephal/o fluid-in-the-brain.
cervic/o neck Pain in the neck is generally referred to as cervicalgia.

coccyg/o coccyx Persistent pain in the coccyx or tailbone is coccydynia.

crani/o cranium Craniotomy is the surgical removal of a part of the skull.

dendr/o tree Dendrites are small projections of a nerve cell that are
essential for nerve transmission.
dur/o dura mater The outermost layer of the meninges is the dura mater.

gli/o neuroglia or Glial cells function to support and insulate neurons.

sticky
substance
 lumb/o lower back The lumbosacral region-of-the-spine-consists-of-fivelumbar
vertebrae and the sacrum.
mening/o meninges Inflammation-of-the-protective-membranes-of-thebrain
and spinal cord is known as meningitis.
ment/o, mind Mentation refers to mental activity or the process of
psych/o thinking.

Psychology is the science that deals with the study of the

mind and behavior.
myel/o bone marrow A-general-term-referring-to-inflammation-of-the-spinalcord
or spinal cord is referred to as myelitis.
nerv/o, nerve Neuritis is-the-inflammation-of-the-peripheral-nerves.
neur/o
phren/o mind or The study of the skull’s structure relative to one’s character
diaphragm and mental faculties is phrenology.
physi/o nature Physiology is the branch of science that deals with the
natural and normal functions of living organisms.
sacr/o sacrum The sacrum is otherwise referred to as the sacral area.

spin/o spine The term spinal pertains to the spine.

thorac/o thorax Thoracotomy is a surgical procedure used to open the
chest cavity.
ventricul/o ventricle A neurosurgical procedure that involves the creation of an
opening within the cerebral ventricle is known as
ventriculostomy.

The nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Central Nervous System

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. Both of
these structures are protected by:
Bones
the cranium or skull encases the brain
the spinal vertebrae protect the spinal cord
Cerebrospinal fluid: clear, colorless body fluid produced by the ventricles of
the brain
 Meninges: membranes that line the skull and spinal cord
dura mater: outermost layer of the meninges
arachnoid: middle layer
pia mater: innermost layer

Brain
Parts and Functions of the Brain
Cerebrum: largest and uppermost part of the brain
frontal lobe: controls cognitive skills including problem solving, memory,
language, and judgment
parietal lobe: integrates sensory functions and processes language
occipital lobe: center of the visual perception system
temporal lobe: responsible for auditory perception
Diencephalon: upper end of the brain stem
thalamus: transmits sensory impulses from receptors in the different parts of
the body to the cerebral cortex
hypothalamus: produces hormones and regulates body temperature
Brainstem: posterior part of the brain that adjoins with the spinal cord
midbrain: associated with hearing, vision, alertness, wakefulness, and
regulation of temperature
pons: transmits information from the cortex and cerebellum
medulla oblongata: regulates breathing and heart and blood vessel function
Cerebellum: coordinates and regulates muscular activity

Spinal Cord
Transmits information to the brain through the spinal tracts
A cylindrical structure found in the vertebral column

Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves and ganglia outside the
brain and the spinal cord.

There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves:

8 cervical
12 thoracic
 5 lumbar
5 sacral
1 coccygeal

DISEASES, DISORDERS, AND DIAGNOSTIC TERMS

This section pertains to the diseases, disorders, and diagnostic terms pertaining to
the nervous system, including psychological problems.

Nervous System

Common diagnostic procedures involving the nervous system include:

Examination of the cerebrospinal fluid
chemical analysis and microscopic examination may help indicate the
presence of infection
lumbar puncture or spinal tap
-procedure used to collect cerebrospinal fluid
Electroencephalography (EEG): electro + encephalo + graphy
monitoring method to record electrical activity of the brain
Scans used to assess the structural changes of the spinal cord and the brain
computed tomography
magnetic resonance imaging
Several disorders pertaining to the nervous system include:
Hematoma: collection of blood outside the blood vessels
epidural: accumulation of blood between the dura mater and the skull
subdural: buildup of blood below the dura mater
intracerebral: bleeding within the brain
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA): cerebro + vascul + ar)
commonly referred to as stroke

disruption of the normal blood supply to the brain

transient ischemic attack (TIA)
Brief interruption in cerebral blood flow
Hydrocephalus: accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the skull
Aneurysm: weakening and bulging of the cerebral artery
 Spinal cord injuries
potential causes include:
excessive-hyperflexion
hyperextension
vertical compression

Study these disorders related to the nervous system.

Akinesia Anesthesia
Aphagia Aphasia Bradykinesia
Brain tumor Cephalalgia Cerebral concussion
Cerebral contusion Cerebral hemorrhage Cerebral palsy
Coma Diplegia Dyslexia
Dysphagia Dysphasia Electromyography
Encephalitis Encephalocele Encephalomalacia
Encephalomeningitis Encephalopathy Epilepsy
Hemiplegia Hyperkinesia Meningitis
Meningocele Multiple sclerosis Myasthenia gravis
Myelitis Myelography Narcolepsy
Neuralgia Neuritis Neuropathy
Parkinson’s disease Peripheral neuropathy Shingles

Psychological Disorders
psych/o = mind
otherwise referred to as mental illness, mental disorders, or psychiatric disorder
patterns of thought or behavior that are outside the expected norms and impair the
individual’s ability to function in ordinary life
Psychological-disorders-can-be-classified-into:
Neurodevelopmental disorders: disabilities associated with the growth and
development of the brain or central nervous system
dementia
autism
attention-deficit-disorder
 Anxiety disorders: disabilities characterized by significant feelings of worry,
anxiety, or fear
post-traumatic stress disorder
dissociative disorder
obsessive-compulsive disorder
phobias
agoraphobia
zoophobia
phobophobia
arachnophobia
acrophobia
claustrophobia
pyrophobia
Eating disorders: pertains to abnormal eating habits that negatively impact a
person’s health
anorexia nervosa
bulimia
Mood disorders: otherwise known as affective disorders, which collectively
describes all types of depression and bipolar disorders
clinical depression
mania
pyromania
kleptomania
bipolar disorder
Sexual disorders: diseases characterized by diminished or disturbance in sexual
desire that’s unrelated to a general medical condition
paraphilia
Somatoform disorders (somat/o = body, form = shape): disorders that cause
unexplained physical symptoms
somatic symptom disorder
illness anxiety disorder
neurasthenia (neur + asthenia)
pseudomania (pseudo + mania)
 Personality disorders: maladaptive patterns of behavior and cognition that affect
a person’s ability to form normal and healthy relationships
paranoia
antisocial personality disorder

SURGICAL AND THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS

Surgery may be indicated for some disorders of the nervous system. Some of these surgeries are
presented in the following table:
Craniotomy crani/o + tomy surgical opening into the skull

craniectomy crani/o + ectomy removal or excision of a part of the skull

Cranioplasty crani/o + plasty surgical repair of the skull

Neuroplasty neur/o + plasty plastic surgery to repair a nerve

neurorraphy neur/o + rrhapy suturing of a cut nerve

Neurolysis neuro + lysis breaking down or destruction of nervous tissue

Additional interventions include the following:

Shunts: a small passage that allows movement of fluid from one body part to another
ventriculoperitoneal shunt (ventricul/o = ventricle, periton/o = peritoneum, -eal = pertaining
to) used in the treatment of hydrocephalus
Shunts cerebrospinal fluid from the ventricles of the brain to the peritoneum
transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (trans = across + cutane = skin + ous = pertaining to)
using electric current to stimulate the nerves for therapeutic purposes

stereotactic radiosurgery

the use of ionizing radiation to treat functional abnormalities and small tumors of the brain

Medications used to treat nervous system disorders include:

Analgesics: pain relievers

Hypnotics: produce a calming effect

Anticonvulsants: relieve or prevent convulsions

Antipyretics: relieve fever

 SPECIAL SENSE ORGANS OF THE PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Special senses refer to senses that have specialized organs dedicated to them.
These senses include the senses of sight, taste, hearing, smell, and touch.

EYES
The organs of the visual system are the eyes. Aside from providing vision, they also
enable photo-response functions.

Eye Structures
The eyes are made up of these external structures:
Pupil: opening in the middle of the iris
Iris: colored circle that surrounds the pupil
Sclera: tough, white, outer covering of the eye
Conjunctiva: thin, mucous membrane that lines the eyelid
Lacrimal glands: produces lacrimal fluid-(tears)
Lacrimal duct: a short tube in the inner corner of the eyelid that serves as a
passageway of tears
Lacrimal sac: receives tears from the lacrimal duct
Nasolacrimal duct: transports tears from the lacrimal sac of the eye into the nasal
cavity

The eyeball is made up of several layers, namely:

Sclera
Cornea: the transparent, anterior part of the eye that refracts light
Choroid: vascular layer of the eye that supplies blood to the retina

Internal structures of the eye include:

Lens: transparent structure posterior to the iris that bends light rays
Anterior chamber: the compartment between the cornea and the iris that’s filled
with aqueous humor
Vitreous chamber: the compartment behind the lens and anterior to the optic nerve
that is filled with a gel like substance known as the vitreous humor
Retina: thin layer of tissue that lines the posterior portion of the eye where
stimulation by light occurs, leading to the sensation of vision
 Optic nerve: known as the second cranial nerve, it carries visual information from
the eye to the brain
Optic disc: the part of the eye where the optic nerve crosses the retina
The following table lists the common word parts pertaining to the eyes.

Combining Form Meaning Word Association

choroid/o choroid Choroidal melanoma is a primary cancer of the eye.

chrom/o color Chromotherapy or color therapy is the use of colors to

promote healing.
conjunctiv/o conjunctiva Inflammation-of-the-conjunctiva-is-conjunctivitis or pink
eye.
corne/o, kerat/o cornea The presence of an open sore in the cornea is known as
a corneal ulcer.

Keratoconus is a condition in which the cornea

progressively thins.
dacry/o, tear The tear sac is also known as the dacrocyst.
lacrim/o
Lacrimation is the secretion of tears.
ir/o, irid/o iris Iritis is-the-inflammation-of-the-iris.
ocul/o, eye The oculomotor nerve is responsible for the movement
ophthalm/o of the eyeballs and the eyelids.

Ophthalmology is the science that deals with the

anatomy, functions, and disorders of the eyeball and its
orbit.
opt/o, optic/o vision Optometry is the practice responsible for examining
visual defects of the eye and prescribing corrective
lenses.

An optician is-responsible-for-designing,-fitting,and
dispensing corrective lenses for correcting a person’s
vision.
presby/o old or old age Presbyopia is the gradual loss of one’s ability to focus on
objects that are nearby.
pupill/o pupil Pupillometry refers to the measurement of pupil size.

retin/o retina Retinopathy refers to a disorder of the retina that may

result in visual loss.
ton/o tone or tension A tonometer is an instrument used to measure the
intraocular pressure in the eye.
Diseases, Disorders, and Diagnostic Terms

Eye disorders are frequent occurrences. Common tests to check for the presence of
vision problems include:
Routine physical examination
Snellen chart: an eye chart used to measure visual acuity
visual fields assessment
ophthalmoscopy: examination of the internal structures of the eyes using an
ophthalmoscope
Qtonometry: test used to measure intraocular pressure using a tonometer
The most common refractive disorders of the eyes are:
Myopia: nearsightedness
Hyperopia: farsightedness
Astigmatism: uneven focusing of the image resulting in blurred vision

Review the additional irregularities or abnormal conditions of the eye.

Amblyopia
Presbyopia
Blepharitis
Cataract
Color-vision-deficiencies
achromatic vision
achromatopsia
Daltonism
Conjunctivitis Glaucoma Hordeolum
Macular degeneration Nyctalopia Photophobia
Ptosis Retinal detachment Retinopathy
Surgical and Therapeutic Interventions

Blepharoplasty: surgical repair of droopy eyelids

Keratoplasty: otherwise known as corneal transplant, a surgical procedure to
replace part of the cornea with corneal tissue from a donor
Ophthalmic cryosurgery: using extreme cold for the excision of cataract
Cryoextraction: the surgical removal of a cataract with the use of a cryoprobe
Intraocular lens transplant: a surgical procedure that involves placing an artificial
lens inside the eye
Laser retinal photocoagulation: using a laser to seal or destroy abnormal leaking
blood vessels in the retina
Laser-assisted in-situ keratomileusis (LASIK): a pain-free procedure that reshapes
the cornea to allow the light entering the eye to be focused on the retina

Eye medications frequently prescribed for therapy are:

Mydriatics: drugs that cause dilation of the pupils
Miotics: agents that cause constriction of the pupils

THE EARS
Aside from being the organs of hearing, the ears are also essential in maintaining a
sense of equilibrium.

Ear Structures

The human ear is made up of three general parts: external, middle, and inner.
External ear: outer, visible part of the ear
pinna/auricle
tympanic membrane: otherwise called the eardrum, receives sound waves
from the outer air
Middle ear: consists of three ossicles, which transmit sounds from the outer to the
inner ear
malleus
 incus
stapes
Inner ear: contains the organs for hearing and balance
semicircular canals: organ of balance
cochlea: receives sounds in the form of vibrations
The following table lists common word parts pertaining to the structures of the ears.

Combining Form/ Suffix Meaning Word Association

acoust/o, audi/o hearing The acoustic or vestibulocochlear nerve serves the organs of
equilibrium and hearing.

An audiometer is an instrument used to measure hearing acuity.

adenoid/o adenoids Adenoidectomy is the surgical removal of the adenoids.

aur/o, auricul/o, ot/o ear Aural pain refers to earache.

Auriculotherapy is a healthcare procedure in which the auricle is

stimulated to diagnose and treat other health problems.

An otoscope is a device used to look into the ears.

cerumin/o ear wax Ceruminolytics are substances used to soften the cerumen.

cochle/o cochlea Cochlear implants are electronic medical devices that are used
to replace the function of the impaired inner ear.

myring/o, tympan/o eardrum Myringitis is-the-inflammation-of-the-tympanicmembrane.

Tympanoplasty is the surgical repair of the tympanic membrane.

Diseases, Disorders, and Diagnostic Terms

Diagnosing ear disorders may be accomplished using several methods. Some of
these methods include:
Otoscopic examination or otoscopy: (oto + scop + ic), (oto + scopy)
test that involves looking into the ear with an otoscope or auriscope
Audiometer: (audio + meter)
electronic device used to measure hearing
audiologist: a medical professional trained to identify, diagnose, treat, and
monitor disorders of the auditory system
Tuning fork tests: assess hearing loss
 Weber’s test: detects unilateral hearing loss
Rinne’s test: differentiates between conductive and sensorineural hearing
loss
Otitis (oto + itis) is the general term used to describe inflammation of the ear.
Otitis externa: infection of the external ear
Otitis media: inflammation of the middle ear
myringitis (myring/o + itis): inflammation of the tympanic membrane
mastoiditis (mastoid/o + itis): inflammation or infection of the mastoid bone
Otitis interna: inflammation of the inner ear
Other ear disorders include:
Otosclerosis (oto + sclerosis)
abnormal bone growth in the middle ear, causing disruption of the sound to
travel from the middle to the inner ear
Tinnitus: hearing an external sound when there is no external sound present; can
be perceived as ringing, buzzing, or clicking sound
Vertigo: sensation of feeling off balance

Surgical and Therapeutic Interventions

Hearing aids are electronic devices commonly used for clients with partial hearing
loss. These devices amplify sounds, which help enhance hearing. For clients with
complete hearing loss, cochlear implants may be indicated.

Surgical procedures involving the ears include:

Otoplasty: (oto + plasty)
otherwise known as ear pinning
the ears are surgically moved closer to the head
Tympanostomy: (tympan/o + ostomy)
otherwise referred to as myringotomy
creation of incision or opening in the tympanic membrane to relieve the
pressure caused by buildup of fluid or pus

To treat bacterial infections, antibiotics are prescribed. Ceruminolytics (cerumin/o +

lytics), on the other hand, are substances that are instilled into the eardrum to soften
or loosen the cerumen or ear wax.
The Skin
The skin, being the largest organ of the body, contains receptors that respond to
specific stimuli:

Types of Meaning sensory cells or organs

Receptors Word Parts responsive to:
chemoreceptor chem/o chemical stimuli

mechanoreceptor mechan/o mechanical distortions such as touch or

pressure
nociceptor noc/i + damaging or painful stimuli
receptor
thermoreceptor therm/o temperature changes

*photoreceptor phot/o light (only the eyes have these receptors)

THE MOUTH AND NOSE

The taste buds, the organs of taste, have chemoreceptors that are found on the
surface of the mouth and the nose. The four basic taste sensations are sweet,
sour, bitter, and salty.

The organ for olfaction, the sense of smell, is the nose. Disorders pertaining to the
sense of smell include:
Anosmia: receptor loss of the sense of smell (an + (-osmia = sense of smell))
Hyperosmia: receptor abnormally increased sensitivity to odors (hyper + osmia)
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine (endo + crine) system, otherwise known as the hormonal
system, is essential in the regulation of body activities through the production and
release of chemical substances known as hormones. Unlike exocrine glands,
endocrine glands are ductless and secrete their hormones directly to the
bloodstream. A dysfunction (dys = bad) of the endocrine glands can lead to:
Hyposecretion: deficiency in hormone production
Hypersecretion: excess in hormone production

STRUCTURES OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Hormones secreted by the endocrine glands primarily affect a specific organ or
structure, referred to as the target organ.

The release of hormones by the endocrine glands can be achieved in two ways:
The nervous systems initiate the release of hormones.
The pituitary gland, or the master gland, stimulates the other glands to produce
hormones.
Major Glands of the Endocrine System Hormones Produced

pituitary or hypophysis antidiuretic hormone, growth hormone

pineal melatonin
thyroid thyroxine
parathyroid parathyroid hormone
islets of Langerhans insulin
adrenal glands adrenaline/epinephrine, cortisone
ovaries estrogen
testes androgen

The following table lists the word parts pertaining to the endocrine system

Combining Forms Meaning Word Association

aden/o gland Adenocarcinoma is a type of cancer that starts in the

glands.
adren/o, adrenal/o adrenal glands Adrenalectomy is the surgical removal of one or both
adrenal glands.
andr/o male or masculine Aging-related hormonal changes in men is referred to as
andropause.
gigant/o giant Gigantism refers to abnormally large growth secondary to
excessive production of growth hormone.
Combining Forms Meaning Word Association
gonad/o gonad Gonadotropins are hormones that act on the gonads.

insulin/o insulin An increase in the amount of circulating insulin in the blood is known
as hyperinsulinism.
iod/o iodine Iodized salt is a form of table salt in which iodine was added.

myx/o mucus Myxedema is a condition where mucopolysaccharides are deposited

in the dermis, causing swelling of the affected area.

pancreat/o pancreas Pancreatitis is-inflammation-of-the-pancreas.

parathyroid/o parathyroid Parathyroidectomy is the surgical removal of one or more
parathyroid glands.
pituitar/o, pituitary gland Excessive production of growth hormone is known as
hypophys/o hyperpituitarism.
ren/o, nephr/o kidney Renal failure is otherwise known as kidney failure.

Nephrology is the branch of medicine that is concerned with the

diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the kidneys.

thyr/o, thyroid/o thyroid gland Thyroiditis is-the-inflammation-of-the-thyroidgland.

toxic/o poison Toxicology is the science concerned with the study of the adverse
effects of chemical substances to living organisms.

DISEASES, DISORDERS, AND DIAGNOSTIC TERMS

Examination of the endocrine glands usually involves the use of invasive
procedures, such as extraction of blood to measure hormone levels. However, unlike
most glands, the testicles and the thyroid glands are accessible through routine
physical examination. A thyroid gland that has a normal function is referred to as
euthyroid. Abnormal findings include enlargement and the presence of masses. The
following terms pertain to the thyroid gland:
Hyperthyroidism: (hyper + thyroid/o + ism)
a condition which involves over activity of the thyroid gland
exophthalmos (ex + ophthalmos) protrusion of the eyeballs
Classic finding with
Hyperthyroidism
goiter: enlarged thyroid gland
Hypothyroidism: (hypo + thyroid/o + ism)
Insufficient hormone production by the thyroid gland
Aside from health conditions affecting the thyroid gland, diabetes is also a common
disorder affecting the endocrine system. Note the difference between diabetes
insipidus and diabetes mellitus.
 Diabetes insipidus: deficiency of antidiuretic hormone leading to frequent
urination
Diabetes mellitus: deficiency or improper use of insulin resulting in
hyperglycemia
Classic Signs and Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus

Signs and
Symptoms Word Parts Meaning
polyuria -uria (urination) frequent urination
poly +
polydipsia -dipsia (thirst) excessive drinking or thirst
(many)
polyphagia -phagia (eating) excessive hunger or increased appetite

hyperglycemia hyper (increased) glyc/o (sugar) abnormally high blood glucose level

-emia (blood)

glycosuria glyc/o (sugar) -uria (urination) excretion of sugar in the urine

Other disorders of the endocrine system are outlined as follows.

Acromegaly Adenoma Cretinism
Dwarfism Gigantism Hyperinsulinism
Hyperparathyroidism Hypoglycemia Hypoparathyroidism
Hypopituitarism Myxedema Thyrotoxico

SURGICAL AND THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS

The-usual-first-line-of-treatment-for-endocrine-disorders-is-medication-therapy:
Antithyroid drugs: indicated for hyperthyroidism
Insulin: may be administered via injection or pump for clients with type 1 diabetes
Hypoglycemic medications or glucose-lowering agents: given for clients with type
2 diabetes

For other endocrine system disorders, surgery may be necessary.

Surgery/ Procedure
Word Parts Meaning

hypophysectomy hypophys/o (pituitary) surgical removal of the pituitary

gland
thyroidectomy thyroid/o (thyroid) + ectomy excision of the thyroid gland
(excision/
adrenalectomy adren/o (adrenal removal) excision of an adrenal gland
glands)
adenectomy aden/o (gland) surgical removal of a gland
References:

• en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology

• https://www.indeed.com/basic-medical-terminology-list

• Student manual ICD-10 -Medical Terminolgy 3rd Edition

• Human Anatomy & Physiology 11th Edition by Elane N. Marieb