Received: 1 May 2023

DOI: 10.1049/hve2.12405

ORIGINAL RESEARCH
- -Revised: 8 August 2023 Accepted: 16 September 2023

- High Voltage

A new technique for fault diagnosis in transformer insulating oil

based on infrared spectroscopy measurements

Mohamed M. F. Darwish1 | Mohamed H. A. Hassan1 | Nagat M. K. Abdel‐Gawad1 |

Matti Lehtonen2 | Diaa‐Eldin A. Mansour3,4

1
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Abstract
Engineering at Shoubra, Benha University, Cairo,
Egypt
Condition monitoring of the insulating system within power transformers has a massive
2
importance according to the electrical utilities. Dissolved gas analysis (DGA) is frequently
Department of Electrical Engineering and
Automation, School of Electrical Engineering, Aalto used for this purpose. However, DGA lacks the necessary level of accuracy to identify all
University, Espoo, Finland equipment faults, particularly in their initial stages of degradation. Also, it does not have
3
Department of Electrical Power Engineering, the capability for real‐time monitoring and relies on manual sampling and laboratory
Egypt‐Japan University of Science and Technology testing, causing potential delays in fault identification. Additionally, the interpretation of
(E‐JUST), New Borg El‐Arab City, Egypt
DGA data necessitates specialised expertise, which may pose difficulties for smaller
4
Department of Electrical Power and Machines entities that have limited access to resources. Therefore, the contribution of this research
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tanta
University, Tanta, Egypt
is to use infrared spectroscopy measurements as a new effective technique substituting
the DGA method for fault diagnosis in insulating oil. The inception faults that were
Correspondence considered in this study were the electrical fault (discharges of high energy) and the
Mohamed M. F. Darwish and Matti Lehtonen. thermal fault (300°C < Temperature < 700°C). Regarding that, two test cells were crafted
Email: [email protected] and especially for serving the simulation processes inside the laboratory for both types of
[email protected]
inception faults. Subsequently, six samples of pure paraffinic mineral oil were taken to be
degraded in the laboratory. Following that, all of them besides another sample that were
Associate Editor: Qing Yang
not subjected to any kind of faults were taken to be examined by Fourier transform
Funding information infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy to obtain an overview of the oil's behaviour in each fault
Science, Technology & Innovation Funding case. After that, the FTIR analysis was initially verified utilising the DGA method. Then,
Authority, Egypt, Grant/Award Number: 31292 for further affirmation, the dielectric dissipation factor (DDF) for all samples was
measured. In the final analysis, the verification tests provide experimental evidence about
the outperformance of this new optical technique in detecting the transformer's inception
faults in addition to proving its potential for being a superior alternative to the well‐
known traditional diagnostic techniques.

1 | INTRODUCTION condition monitoring of a power transformer's insulating

system has massive importance according to the electrical
Without a sherd doubt, power transformers are the main utilities. This is due to the huge information the insulation's
equipment within power transmission as well as distribution state provides about the troubles that already exist within the
networks since they serve as a vital link in a long chain of other transformer. Thus, as early as these problems are well detected,
equipment that provides electrical energy to customers. the transformer's probability of being suddenly brought out of
Accordingly, it is very important to ensure the optimum service decreases in a significant way. Actually, there are several
operation of power transformers [1]. In fact, the insulating diagnostic techniques by which the transformer's condition can
system of power transformers is frequently exposed to fault be evaluated [2, 3]. Up to the present time, the most popular
occurrences due to various causes, and each cause has its diagnostic technique utilised worldwide for detecting the
impact on the transformer's condition. Therefore, the transformer's inception faults is the dissolved gas analysis

-
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
© 2024 The Authors. High Voltage published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Institution of Engineering and Technology and China Electric Power Research Institute.

High Voltage. 2024;9:319–335. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/hve2 319

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- DARWISH ET AL.

(DGA). This technique is capable of predicting the type of since only one case of degradation severity was considered for
inception fault that occurred based on the concentrations each fault type. Also, the FTIR analysis was confirmed with
of certain fault gases dissolved in the oil. The concentrations of only one diagnostic technique.
such gases are measured via a device called gas chromatog- According to the plentiful survey mentioned above and the
raphy (GC), and then the analysis is conducted utilising one or authors' knowledge, no one in the previous works has deeply
more of the methods that lie under the umbrella of the DGA discussed the capability of monitoring the transformer incep-
technique. Generally, there are several traditional DGA tion faults based on the oil insulation's spectrum utilising any
methods such as the Doernenburg ratio, Duval triangles, key of the various optical spectroscopy techniques. In this regard,
gas, the international electrotechnical commission (IEC) ratio, the new proposed investigation has covered the lack in this
Duval pentagons, and Roger's ratio [4–6]. However, the ac- research area by utilising the FTIR spectroscopy technique to
curacy of the mentioned DGA methods is somewhat low comprehensively study the effects of various types of trans-
compared to the other diagnostic techniques. Fortunately, after former inception faults on the transformer oil's spectral
the implementation of the internet of things (IoT), artificial behaviour.
intelligence (AI), and machine learning (ML) in such traditional Therefore, the contribution of this paper is as follows:
DGA methods, diagnostic accuracy was much improved [7–
10]. Despite the high dependence on the DGA technique in � Degrading six samples of pure paraffinic mineral oil elec-
detecting transformer inception faults, it has many drawbacks. trically and thermally inside the laboratory utilising special
Actually, it is a destructive expensive technique that requires an test setups.
experienced operator to conduct the measurements; also, it is � Examining all of the degraded samples besides a reference
time‐consuming since the GC device takes a large amount of sample by FTIR spectroscopy according to the ASTM
measuring time [11, 12]. Further, it is not an eco‐friendly E1252‐98 standard in order to study the oil's spectral
technique by the way as it utilises toxic organic solvents be- behaviour in each fault type [23].
sides other resources. These disadvantages have forced � Confirming the FTIR analysis initially through the DGA
immediately the researchers to find other alternatives to be method utilising a GC according to the ASTM D3612‐02
utilised in monitoring the condition of power transformers. standard [24]. Thereafter, for further verification, the
Lately, optical spectroscopy techniques have attracted most of DDF for all of the oil samples was estimated with an LCR
the attention towards efficient monitoring of the insulating metre according to the IEC 60247 standard [25].
system quality within power transformers. Since such tech- � Checking the reliability of this new optical technique in
niques are non‐destructive, easy to be conducted, cost‐ discriminating between transformer inception faults besides
effective, and eco‐friendly besides having high accuracy in being an alternative to the well‐known traditional diagnostic
material characterisation [13, 14]. methods.
In this regard, the authors in Ref. [15] have tried to predict
the type of fault via the Duval triangle method based on the
intensities of the dissolved gases absorbance peaks utilising the 2 | SAMPLES PREPARATION AND
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Furthermore, EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
in Ref. [16], the transformer oil's quality was evaluated based
on its molecular structure with the aid of FTIR spectroscopy. For ensuring the applicability of the FTIR spectroscopy for
Also, the spectrum of such optical techniques can be correlated being an alternative to the well‐known conventional diagnostic
with the output of some traditional diagnostic techniques such techniques, six samples each of which was 400 mL of pure
as total acid number (TAN) and dielectric dissipation factor mineral oil (Shell Diala S2 ZU‐I Dried) were degraded in the
(DDF) as in Refs. [17, 18]. Moreover, ultraviolet‐visible (UV‐ laboratory utilising experimental setups that were crafted
Vis) spectroscopy was utilised in detecting the transformer oil especially for conducting the following types of faults. For
quality based on the by‐products formed within the oil due to more details, three of the samples named S2, S3, and S4 were
thermal ageing [19]. However, in Ref. [20], the transformer degraded electrically through different numbers of repeated
health index was calculated based on the number of ageing by‐ high‐voltage impulses (discharges with high energy). On the
products that were formed within each oil sample utilising UV‐ other hand, the rest of the samples named S5, S6, and S7 were
Vis spectroscopy. Concerning Raman spectroscopy, it was subjected to various periods of thermal overheating (300°C <
utilised also in determining the thermal ageing stage of oil‐ Temperature < 700°C) to be degraded thermally.
paper insulation [21]. Last but not least, the role of optical
spectroscopy techniques in detecting transformer inception
faults was introduced by our research group in Ref. [22]. The 2.1 | Electrical degradation
FTIR spectra of mineral oil samples that have been electrically
as well as thermally degraded were utilised in the discrimination According to the IEC and the institute of electrical and elec-
between those types of inception faults. However, this inves- tronics engineers (IEEE) standards, the electrical faults that
tigation has some drawbacks that have been fulfiled in this commonly happen within power transformers were classified
current work. These drawbacks are as follows: the oil's spectral into three classes depending on the energy level of the elec-
behaviour for each fault type was not studied comprehensively trical discharges [5, 26]. For more details, the classes under the
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DARWISH ET AL.
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umbrella of electrical fault type starting from the one with the positive polarity through a needle‐to‐plate electrode configu-
lowest energy level until reaching the one with the highest ration of 1 mm gap distance keeping a time interval of 30 s
energy level are partial discharge, discharges of low energy between impulses. Then, by reaching the end of the degrada-
(D1), and discharges of high energy (D2), respectively. There- tion process, the plunger of the syringe was pressed gently to
fore, to comprehensively study the impact of electrical fault on guarantee that most of the formed gases were dissolved into
mineral oil's behaviour, the worst electrical fault type which is the oil. Furthermore, the impulse voltage applied during this
D2 was conducted in the laboratory via the test platform accelerated impulsive degradation was a standard lightning
shown in Figure 1 according to IEC 60060‐1 [27]. impulse of 70 kV peak value as well as a front time and tail
time of 1.2 and 50 μs, respectively, according to the IEC
60060‐1 [27].
2.1.1 | Test cell specifications Anyway, the three samples S2, S3, and S4 that were utilised
in this kind of degradation were subjected to different numbers
It is clear from the scheme of the electrical fault experimental of repeated electrical impulses. The samples have been
setup depicted in Figure 1 that the test cell is composed of only degraded by 30, 45, and 90 impulses to study the behaviour of
two parts. The first part (upper part) is a PA6 Nylon cover mineral oil comprehensively when subjected to this kind of
consisting of a needle high‐voltage electrode made from steel fault. In addition, the waveforms of all impulses in each elec-
with a 0.01 mm tip radius and a 1.5 mm diameter. Besides, a trical fault condition were monitored carefully during the test
conical funnel with a 20° slope angle is already carved in the utilising the Tektronix DPO 7104C Digital Phosphor Oscil-
cover and connected to a syringe of 100 mL via an air‐bleeding loscope of 10X attenuation based on the measuring system that
pipe with a three‐way valve. The second part (lower part) is a will be described in the next sentences for ensuring that the
PA6 Nylon foundation where at its centre, there is a brass specifications of the high‐voltage impulse were nearly constant
circular plate electrode with a 20 mm diameter earthed through during the deterioration process for all oil samples. For more
an earthing system of 0.5 Ω. Also, upon the foundation the details, the measuring system that was utilised in this work was
body of the test cell in which the oil is placed exists. It is a calibrated to achieve the measuring requirements in the IEC
transparent Perspex vessel of 100 mm inner diameter, 5 mm 60,060‐2 and is composed of the following components.
thickness, 70 mm height, and a total capacity of 550 mL. Also, Firstly, an impulse voltage divider (high voltage capacitor) with
there are two O‐Rings for preventing the evolved gases from a 255 voltage dividing ratio is connected directly in parallel
escaping out of the vessel and the external gases from entering. with the test cell as shown in Figure 1 to reduce the peak of the
Note that the clearance and creepage distances were taken into impulse wave from 70 kV to about 275 V. Secondly, a coaxial
consideration during the design phase for minimising the risk cable (transmission system) which is connected to the divider's
of flashover [16, 28]. low voltage arm for transferring the output signal to an
attenuator of 10X attenuation further reduces the peak level
from 275 V to about 28 V before entering the oscilloscope to
2.1.2 | Experiment procedure prevent overloading the oscilloscope's input circuitry. Note
that the coaxial cable, the attenuator, and the oscilloscope's
For simulating the electrical fault of class D2, firstly, the test cell input each of them have a surge impedance of 50 Ω to provide
was cleaned very well; then, 400 mL of pure mineral oil was approximately a zero‐reflection coefficient (proper impedance
poured slowly into the Perspex vessel. Following that, the test matching throughout the system) and prevent the measured
cell was well‐sealed with bolts and nuts. After the test cell was wave from reflection that can lead to signal distortion, standing
sealed completely, the degradation was performed through the waves, and inefficient power transfer. Subsequently, for
impulse voltage test system shown in Figure 1. The oil within ensuring that the entire waveform is visible and well‐scaled on
the test cell was subjected to repeated high‐voltage impulses of the screen without any distortion or clipping, the oscilloscope
was properly configured by setting up the voltage and time per
division to 10 V and 2 µs, respectively [29].

2.2 | Thermal degradation

Thermal faults refer to the faults that frequently happen within

power transformers whose hotspot temperature can lead to the
thermal decomposition of the insulation materials or metals.
Indeed, they were classified into three categories based on the
temperature level of the faults according to the IEC and IEEE
standards [5, 26]. These categories, which are T1, T2, and T3,
have temperature levels as follows: below 300°C, from 300°C
to 700°C, and above 700°C, respectively. In this investigation,
FIGURE 1 Scheme of the electrical fault experimental setup. the immersed heating method which is widely used for
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322
- DARWISH ET AL.

generating thermal faults in the laboratory was employed to is sufficient to initialise vapour nucleation. Therefore, the heat
conduct the T2 thermal fault with the aid of the experimental energy is dissipated via vaporisation and strong oil convection.
setup depicted in Figure 2 for studying the thermal fault effect Since vaporisation normally absorbs large amounts of heat
on the mineral oil's behaviour. Actually, the basis for choosing energy, as the input power increases, the surface heat flux in-
the T2 thermal fault among the three types of transformer creases but with a minimal increase in the heating element's
thermal faults is as follows. Firstly, the T2 thermal fault is surface temperature. Thus, the heating element's temperature
widely adopted in the literature instead of the T1 and T3 in the nucleate boiling region remains almost constant ‘satu-
thermal faults. Regarding the T1 thermal fault, it was widely rated’ even with input power largely rising and has an upper
adopted in the literature as its effect on the oil's molecular limit temperature at the critical surface heat flux point known
structure is very low, and since the main goal of this work is to as the Nukiyama temperature. This temperature is 330ºC (al-
study the thermal effect on the mineral oil's molecular struc- ways about 40ºC higher than the liquid's boiling point). Hence,
ture behaviour, the T1 thermal fault will not be suitable with the temperature in the nucleate boiling region approximately
our research goal. Concerning the T3 thermal fault, it is diffi- remains between 320ºC and 330ºC. Following this stage, the
cult in the laboratory to go beyond the T2 thermal fault level by liquid should be in the transition boiling stage; however, in a
the immersed heating method. The underlying reason behind practical situation if the input power to the heater is individ-
that returns to the pool boiling phenomenon that limits the ually controlled, the heating process will follow the first and
temperature of the immersed heating element as reported in second stages and once the Nukiyama temperature is reached.
Refs. [28, 30, 31]. Where the input power approaches 1200 W or surface heat flux
In general, pool boiling is defined as boiling from a heated of 102 W/cm2, any small increment of the input power causes
surface submerged in a large volume of stationary liquid. a sudden jump to the heating element's surface temperature to
Subsequently, the immersed heating technique resembles a the film boiling region, and the transition boiling region is
pool boiling process. Theoretically, the pool boiling process missed.
passes through four stages which are natural convection, Consequently, the transition boiling's temperature range is
nucleate boiling, transition boiling, and film boiling, respec- missed in the immersed heating process. Within the film
tively. However, practically, the temperature range within the boiling stage, the heating element is covered by a stable vapour
transition boiling stage will be missed as illustrated with the aid film through which the heat energy is transferred by radiation
of Figure 3. For more details, the natural convection starts heat transfer. Accordingly, the heating element's surface tem-
when the input power is below approximately 290 W or the perature would significantly increase at a temperature normally
surface heat flux is below 25 W/cm2, where the heating ele- higher than 1000ºC as the input power (surface heat flux) in-
ment's temperature is below the mineral oil's boiling temper- creases. Note that based on many previous investigations, this
ature which is about 290ºC. In this stage, the heat energy is extremely high temperature may lead to inhomogeneous tem-
dissipated by the oil's light natural convection and as the input perature distribution along the heating element, and the hot-
power increases the heating element's temperature also in- spot temperature may reach the burnout temperature. In this
creases in a nearly linear way. Once the input power reaches way, 330ºC (Nukiyama temperature) is the highest stable
above 290 W, the nucleate boiling stage is initialised where the temperature that can be achieved by the immersed heating
heating element's temperature becomes greater than the oil's element in mineral oils which is located within the temperature
boiling temperature. Certainly, this difference in temperatures range of the so‐called T2 thermal fault (300–700ºC). While the

F I G U R E 3 Heating element's temperature‐input power relationship

FIGURE 2 Scheme of the thermal fault experimental setup. (pool boiling curve).
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DARWISH ET AL.
- 323

temperature range between the Nukiyama temperature (330ºC) under test. So, when the oil temperature approached 110°C,
and the burnout temperature (normally higher than 1000ºC) the power supply was disconnected until the oil was cooled
could not be reached, hence the T3 thermal fault cannot be down to room temperature (nearly 25°C), and then the heating
generated in the laboratory. In other words, heating beyond could be restarted.
1200 W is less controllable as compared to the situation below This was repeated until the total time of heating reaches
1200 W. In this regard, the experimental setup was utilised to the designated thermal fault duration. Note that after each
generate specifically the T2 thermal fault. heating period, the test cell was placed in cold water keeping its
upper part above the water level beside a fan directed towards
it to decrease the cooling period as much as possible. More-
2.2.1 | Test cell specifications over, after each cooling period and before the start of the next
heating period, the plunger of the syringe was compressed
It is obvious from the scheme of the thermal fault experi- gently to ensure that most of the formed gases were dissolved
mental setup depicted in Figure 2 that the test cell is composed into the oil. Regarding the above condition, the designated
of two parts. The first part which is the upper cap is a PA6 heating period for each oil sample was subdivided into small
Nylon lid consisting of the following: the power supply con- heating periods. For more details, in each small heating period,
nections and copper clamps that hold a heating element in a the heating element was powered for about 3 min followed by
70‐turn coil shape (the coil size is 5 mm in diameter, 70 mm in a 30‐min cooling period. In this investigation, the three oil
length, and made from Kanthal A‐1 resistive wire of 0.6 mm samples S5, S6, and S7 were subjected to localised overheating
diameter). Moreover, there was a terminal for the thermom- of 40, 60, and 90 min total heating durations, respectively, to
eter, a type K thermocouple with a temperature range from comprehensively study the behaviour of mineral oil when
−200°C to 1260°C, and a reverse funnel shape of 20° slope subjected to this fault type, and bearing in mind that the pre-
angle, which is already excavated in the cap itself and con- viously mentioned heating durations were achieved after 14,
nected to a syringe of 100 mL via an air bleeding pipe with a 20, and 30 cycles of heating and cooling, respectively.
three‐way valve. The second part (lower part) consists of the
following: a PA6 Nylon foundation upon a transparent Perspex
vessel of 100 mm inner diameter, 5 mm thickness, 70 mm 3 | CHARACTERISATION OF OIL
height, and a total capacity of 550 mL. Also, there are two O‐ SAMPLES
Rings for preventing the evolved gases from escaping out of
the vessel and the outside gases from entering. The O‐Rings After the degradation processes of the oil samples whose
are placed as follows: one of them is attached to the down- conditions are summarised in Table 1, test specimens were
side of the top cap to block the gap between the cap and the extracted from the test cells via a 100 mL glass gas‐tight sy-
vessel, whereas the other one is attached to the downside of ringe according to the ASTM D3613‐98 after the test cells
the vessel to block the gap between the vessel and the Nylon remained undisturbed for about 16 h. This was done to allow
foundation [28, 32]. for complete mixing and obtain a homogeneous sample be-
sides allowing the fault gases in the system to reach a quasi‐
equilibrium state [33]. For more details, the procedure
2.2.2 | Experiment procedure considered in taking the test specimens will be illustrated in the
next sentences. First of all, the upper cover of the test cell was
In the beginning, the vessel was well cleaned, then 400 mL of opened and then the syringe was positioned in the middle of
pure mineral oil was poured slowly into the test cell. Subse- the Perspex vessel to ensure that the test specimen obtained is
quently, the test cell was well sealed by bolts and nuts. After representative of the bulk from which it was taken. Following
that, the test was conducted to generate the T2 thermal fault as
seen in Figure 2. Firstly, the thermal fault was generated by
injecting controlled input power into the heating element TABLE 1 The degradation condition of each oil sample.
during the heating period ranging from 295 to 305 W. It has Number of
been found that this range of power lets the heating element Sample impulses/
reach the onset of the saturation region in the input power‐ name Fault type heating duration
heating element temperature relationship shown in Figure 3 S1 Normal case Not degraded
[30]. The previously mentioned range of power has been
attained by approximately adjusting the voltage of a 50‐Hz S2 Electrical 30 impulses
fault
single‐phase variable AC power supply (autotransformer) in S3 45 impulses
the range from 41.6 to 42.25 V which has let a passage of
S4 90 impulses
current through the heating element nearly from 7.11 to 7.23
A, respectively. Secondly, for keeping the vessel at a safe S5 Thermal fault 40 min heating
temperature away from its melting point since the oil was in S6 60 min heating
direct contact with the vessel's inner walls, a thermometer was
S7 90 min heating
utilised to monitor the surface temperature of the oil sample
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324
- DARWISH ET AL.

that, the piston was pushed back slowly to pull out only 10 mL be divided into three main subregions which are as follows: the
of oil to avoid air bubbles being formed. near‐IR (NIR) region, the mid‐IR (MIR) region, and the far‐IR
Subsequently, the syringe was kept vertical and then the (FIR) region. In order to conduct the FTIR qualitative mea-
piston was carefully depressed to eject any air bubbles present surements for comprehensively studying the spectral behaviour
within the oil. Indeed, the previous steps were repeated until of the oil samples in the MIR range (from 2.5 μm (4000 cm−1)
the syringe was filled to its full capacity. Afterwards, the syringe to 50 μm (200 cm−1)) and comparing them together, a con-
was sealed with a Luer lock fitting immediately to minimise its stant volume of 20 μL was taken from each sample [36]. Then,
exposure to the atmosphere and protect the test specimen the characterisation process was carried out via the Agilent
from environmental contaminants. Actually, for each oil Cary 630 FTIR with its diamond attenuated total reflectance
degradation condition, there were two oil specimens preserved (ATR) according to the ASTM E1252‐98 standard [23]. The
in two separate syringes, one syringe was kept for the DGA reason behind choosing the MIR range specifically among the
test, while the other one was utilised to fill glass test tubes three main subregions was as follows. Most of the molecules at
fitted with screw caps to be utilised in the FTIR and DDF room temperature are in the vibrational ground state, and the
tests. Thereafter, all the test specimens were properly labelled transition from this vibrational state to the next vibrational
and stored in a cardboard box to be protected from sunlight to state is known as the fundamental transition (mode). The
avoid photodegradation. fundamental transition is of great importance for IR spec-
In this way, the specimens were ready to be examined as troscopy since it is the highest in intensity. In fact, such a
soon as possible via the following diagnostic techniques. transition within the molecules of mineral oils is always
Firstly, the chemical structure of the oil specimens was char- monitored in the MIR range [37].
acterised via FTIR spectroscopy according to ASTM E1252‐98
[23]. This characterisation was conducted to observe the
changes that occurred in the chemical structure of each oil 3.1.1 | Principle of operation
sample to find a methodology that helps in discriminating
between transformer inception faults via this optical method. As illustrated in Figure 4a, FTIR spectroscopy is composed of
Then, to initially confirm the FTIR spectroscopy analysis, the four main parts which are a source of polychromatic IR radia-
samples were analysed through the DGA method utilising a tion, a spectral analyser (Interferometer), a sample compart-
GC according to ASTM D3612‐02 [24]. Secondly, for further ment, and lastly, a radiation detector. Indeed, the MIR source
verification, the DDF test was performed according to IEC commonly used is the Globar whose typical operating tem-
60247 for each oil sample [25]. perature is about 300 K [37]. The IR beam incoming from the
source is immediately collimated and then directed towards the
interferometer. This Michelson's interferometer consists of
3.1 | FTIR spectroscopy technique three main parts, the first part is a beam splitter which is placed
at an angle of 45° and acts as a partially reflecting mirror, it splits
FTIR spectroscopy is a non‐destructive optical instrument the whole IR radiation into two equal beams, one half is
mainly utilised for particular purposes such as measuring the transmitted to the movable mirror and the second half is
basic properties of a molecule, quantitative analysis of known transmitted to the fixed mirror. After that, the two beams are
species within the material, compound identification, and reflected to the splitter again where they are recombined and
finally, structural elucidation [34]. This optical technique de-
pends on measuring the Infrared (IR) radiation transmitted or
absorbed by a certain material, which is mainly due to the
vibrational and rotational absorption bands of its molecules, as
a function of wavelength (λ) or its reciprocal which is termed
as wavenumber (ν). Furthermore, the plot resulting from such
a measurement is so called the FTIR spectrum, and it is
commonly presented with the Transmittance (T ) of the IR
radiation on the ordinate and the wavenumber on the abscissa.
T is the ratio between the radiant power transmitted by a
certain sample (I ) and the total radiant power incident on it (I0)
as clear from Equation (1) [35].

I
T¼ ð1Þ
I0

For more supplementary information, IR radiation is

electromagnetic radiation in the range of wavelengths (wave-
numbers) from approximately 0.78 μm (12,800 cm−1) to F I G U R E 4 FTIR spectrophotometer: (a) Its schematic diagram and
1000 μm (10 cm−1). However, this range of wavelengths can (b) Scheme of its ATR accessory.
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DARWISH ET AL.
- 325

directed towards the sample compartment. Subsequently, por- analyser according to method C (Headspace Sampling) in the
tions from certain wavelength components in the whole IR ASTM D3612‐02 standard. The process of determining
radiation are absorbed by the sample's molecules, and the rest of the concentrations of dissolved gases was performed via the
the radiation is transmitted and directed towards the detector headspace GC (DANI GC1000 DPC Digital Gas Chromato-
[38]. The methodology through which the final spectrum is graph along with the DANI HSS 86.50 static headspace
obtained from the detector will be discussed more deeply. sampler). For more details, only the concentrations of the
Firstly, when the two beams are reflected from the mirrors hydrocarbon gases were considered for each oil sample, while
and recombined again at the splitter, a phase difference is the concentration of the Hydrogen gas (H2) which is an air gas
observed between them, since the paths they travelled are not was neglected for more accurate analysis as it may have a
of the same length. However, the main reason for this phase misleading impact on the whole study [24].
difference is the movable mirror movement. If the movable
mirror's distance from the splitter is equal to that of the fixed
mirror, the two beams will be in a phase resulting in 3.3 | Dielectric dissipation factor test
constructive interference, and the light power signal detected at
the detector will be of its maximum value. On the other hand, The tan‐delta (tan δ) or the dielectric dissipation factor (DDF)
if the movable mirror is displaced by λ/4 consequently the is an important electrical dimensionless ratio through which
phase difference becomes λ/2, and destructive interference the condition of the dielectric material can be determined.
between the two beams will result and the light power signal Basically, the dielectric loss of the insulation is the power
detected will be of its minimum value. But in fact, the movable dissipated via the insulating medium once it is subjected to an
mirror is always in continuous motion, forming at the detector alternating voltage. Good dielectrics usually have a very low
an oscillating light power signal (Interferogram) for each DDF. On the other hand, a high DDF may indicate that there
wavelength component within the whole IR radiation [14, 35]. are problems in the insulation's structure. Anyway, the DDF
For more information, the interferogram is a plot of the light test in this investigation was performed on all of the faulted oil
power intensity versus the optical path difference between the samples according to the IEC 60,247 besides the equipment's
two mirrors which is known as retardation. Finally, the detector user guides utilising the test setup which is composed of the
receives the overall interferogram which is due to the combi- Agilent E4980A precision LCR metre along with the Agilent
nation of all of the interferograms (cosine waves) produced 16452A liquid test fixture [25, 40].
from each wavelength component. Then, the overall interfer- While taking measurements, approximately 3.4 mL from
ogram is converted into an electrical signal, and by computing the oil sample was injected into the liquid test fixture. Then,
the Fourier transform of such signal, the FTIR spectrum is the LCR metre was set to the parallel circuit mode. This is to
simply generated [39]. measure the parallel equivalent capacitance (CP) in (F) besides
measuring the parallel equivalent resistance (RP) in (Ω) for the
oil dielectric. After selecting the circuit mode, the test was
3.1.2 | Experiment procedure performed for each oil sample in the frequency ( f ) range from
20 Hz to 2 MHz to study the oil dielectric's behaviour
The characterisation has been performed as follows: firstly, a comprehensively. Finally, for each oil sample, the DDF values
volume of 20 μL from the oil sample was placed in the ATR (represented by DDDF in the formula) corresponding to the
accessory as obvious in Figure 4b. Next to that, the IR beam whole range of frequency were simply calculated with the aid
was allowed to travel in the crystal which is a transparent of Equation (2) [25].
medium of a higher refractive index than that of the oil sample
until it struck the interface between the crystal and the oil 1
DDDF ¼ ð2Þ
medium at an angle greater than the critical angle. At that 2 � π � f � RP � C P
moment, attenuated total reflectance occurred, and the IR
beam was reflected internally into the crystal (denser medium).
Despite the internal reflection being total, an electromagnetic
wave called an evanescent wave penetrated the oil medium at 4 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
the point where the IR beam contacts the interface and was
partially absorbed by the oil sample. Finally, the reflected beam 4.1 | FTIR spectroscopy
carried the absorption information of the sample and was
collected at the detector for obtaining the FTIR spectrum of 4.1.1 | Mineral oil composition
the oil under test.
In general, the mineral oil's molecule is mainly composed of
three main hydrocarbon compounds with around 25 carbon
3.2 | Dissolved gas analysis method atoms per molecule as illustrated in Figure 5 [41, 42]. The first
one is the paraffinic compound, which is an open‐chain
For confirming the reliability of FTIR spectroscopy results, the aliphatic saturated hydrocarbon compound whose carbon
mineral oil samples each of 100 mL were examined via the GC atoms are bonded together through (C–C) sigma bonds (a type
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326
- DARWISH ET AL.

of single covalent bond) in straight or branched lines. Secondly,

the naphthenic compound, which is a cyclic aliphatic saturated
hydrocarbon compound whose carbon atoms are linked
together for forming a ring where within each ring, 5, 6, or 7
carbon atoms are attached through C–C sigma bonds.
Finally, there is the aromatic compound, which is a cyclic
aromatic unsaturated hydrocarbon compound whose carbon
atoms are bonded together as benzene rings where within each
ring 6 carbon atoms are attached through double covalent
bonds (C═C). One is a sigma bond which is formed from
localised electrons that are shared between only the two carbon
atoms of the bond (presented as a solid line). The other one is a
pi bond (a type of single covalent bond weaker than the sigma
type) which is created due to the 6 delocalised pi electrons
shared between all of the carbon atoms, and they are roaming
freely within a doughnut shape (drawn as a dashed line) [36].

4.1.2 | Molecular structure of the utilised mineral

oil

According to the FTIR spectrum of the reference sample that is

apparent in Figure 6a, six important peaks were observed along
the whole range of wavenumber from 4000 cm−1 to 400 cm−1.
Such peaks whose details are summarised in Table 2 were suf-
ficient for the molecular structure characterisation. In general,
four of them are located in the vicinity of the functional group
region (from 4000 cm−1 to 1400 cm−1), and the rest are located in
the fingerprint region (from 1400 cm−1 to 600 cm−1) [37, 38].
The first peak (at 3175 cm−1) is mainly due to the stretching
mode of the sigma bonds between the carbon and hydrogen
atoms (C–H) within the aromatic compound. Furthermore, the
second peak (at 2924 cm−1) represents the stretching mode of
the C–H sigma bonds in both the methyl (CH3) and methylene
(CH2) groups within the aliphatic compound.
In fact, this peak represents the total concentration of C–H
bonds within the aliphatic compounds generally without
specifying the percentage of each of the methyl and methylene
groups from this concentration [38]. So, the judgement on the
oil type cannot depend on this peak only. Subsequently, F I G U R E 6 FTIR spectral behaviour in the range of 4000 cm−1–
the third peak (at 1607 cm−1) is due to the stretching mode of 400 cm−1: (a) No‐fault case, (b) electrical fault cases, and (c) thermal fault
cases.
the C═C bonds within the aromatic compound that appears at
TABLE 2 Wavenumbers of functional groups observed in IR spectra.

Wavenumber Functional Vibration Relative

(cm−1) group mode intensity Species
3175 ═CH C–H stretching Weak Aromatics

2924 C–H C–H stretching Strong Aliphatics

1607 C═C C═C stretching Weak Aromatics

1457 CH2 C–H bending Medium Aliphatics

(scissoring)

1377 CH3 C–H bending Medium Aliphatics

(wagging) (alkanes)

724 CH2 C–H bending Weak Aliphatics

(rocking) (alkanes)
FIGURE 5 The typical molecule of mineral oil.
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DARWISH ET AL.
- 327

a very weak intensity as the previous aromatic peak. The reason matching with the progression by which the oil samples were
for that is during the refining process, the aromatic and pol- degraded in both fault types. Similarly, the same situation
yaromatic contents are reduced to nearly 5% to enhance the occurred with aromatic peaks located at the wavenumber
stability and dielectric properties of the oil as most of these 3175 cm−1 in case of the thermal fault. Indeed, this is because
compounds are detrimental [43]. The fourth peak (at in some cases where a molecule contains multiple normal vi-
1457 cm−1) is mainly due to the bending mode of the C–H bration modes, some of these modes may occur at the same
sigma bonds in the CH2 groups within the aliphatic com- wavenumber which is known as degenerate modes. Accord-
pound. Similarly, the judgement on the oil type cannot be ingly, the transmittance intensities of the individual peaks
based on this peak only, since both paraffinic and naphthenic corresponding to the stretching and bending modes of the
compounds have CH2 groups in their structure [14, 36]. bonds within the different functional groups in a certain oil
Anyway, by entering the fingerprint region, the scene became specimen under test are varied randomly from another spec-
more clear. The fifth peak noticed (at 1377 cm−1) is mainly due to imen of the same volume taken from the same oil sample
the bending mode of the C–H sigma bonds in the CH3 groups (same degradation condition). For example, if two oil speci-
within the aliphatic compound. Based on the intensity of this mens of the same volume are taken from the same oil sample
peak, which is nearly half the intensity of the previously (same degradation condition), they may not have identical
mentioned peak, a decision was taken that the utilised mineral oil spectra, but certainly, the overall intensity of aliphatic (or ar-
is paraffinic since the CH3 groups are only found in the paraffinic omatic) peaks of both specimens will be the same [37].
compounds. Bearing in mind that, if the concentration of the Hence, the variation of the intensities is not a problem
naphthenic compounds is greater, the intensity of this peak will anymore, since this variation cannot alter the total concentra-
not be found or found with very weak intensity. The last peak tion of bonds already existing within the oil sample under
which is an important peak (at 724 cm−1) represents the bending characterisation [23]. Moreover, it is not accurate to compare
mode of the C–H sigma bonds in the CH2 groups within a long the changes that occurred in the molecular structure of the oil
open chain aliphatic compound [36, 38]. Certainly, the decision based on the alteration that happened to the intensity of certain
that was taken was confirmed by this peak. individual peaks. As such, a change does not represent the
actual change that occurred in the molecular structure of the
oil and is not a condition to be compatible with the gradual
4.1.3 | Spectral response due to electrical and increase in the degradation severity. Otherwise, for an equitable
thermal faults comparison, the overall alteration that happened in all of the
individual peaks (for each sample's spectrum) must be
The spectra of all electrical fault cases along with the no‐fault considered in the comparison instead. Based on that, the
case are depicted in Figure 6b. It is obvious from the spectra overall alteration that occurred in the aliphatic, as well as the
that there is a noticeable significant random reduction in the aromatic peaks, was considered in this investigation for
aliphatic peaks (not completely compatible with the degrada- studying the alteration that happened in the molecular struc-
tion sequence), which means a reduction in the aliphatic bonds ture of the oil due to degradation.
(aliphatic compounds decreased) within the oil molecules. Fortunately, it is observed, after utilising this methodology,
Concerning the two aromatic peaks that appeared at wave- that the overall alteration in both fault types is completely
numbers 3175 cm−1 and 1607 cm−1, respectively, there is a compatible with the gradual increase in degradation degree.
continuous decrement in the peaks (completely compatible For more details about this methodology, the total trans-
with the degradation sequence) until they completely dis- mittance intensity of all individual peaks representing the
appeared in S4 [14]. aliphatic C–H bonds within each oil sample was taken as an
Regarding the degradation via the thermal fault, the spectra indication of the concentration of the aliphatic compounds
of the samples together with the no‐fault case are presented in presented. In the same way, the total transmittance intensity of
Figure 6c. It is apparent from the spectra that there is a random all individual peaks representing the aromatic C–H bonds and
slight reduction in the aliphatic peaks (not completely the aromatic C═C bonds within each oil sample was taken as
compatible with the deterioration sequence). Subsequently, the an indication of the concentration of the aromatic compounds
aromatic peaks shown at the wavenumbers 3175 cm−1 and found.
1607 cm−1, there is a visible peak increment at the wave- Furthermore, additional analysis was performed based on
number 1607 cm−1 (inversely matches with the degradation the same concept in which the total area under all of the in-
sequence). For the peaks at the wavenumber 3175 cm−1, there dividual peaks representing the aliphatic C–H bonds within
is also an increment in the peaks (inversely quasi‐compatible each oil sample was taken as an indication of the concentration
with the deterioration sequence) [36]. of the aliphatic compounds. Also, the total area under all of the
individual peaks representing the aromatic C–H bonds and the
aromatic C═C bonds within each oil sample was taken as an
4.1.4 | Analysis interpretation indication of the concentration of the aromatic compounds
found. This analysis was conducted to validate the reliability of
First of all, it is obvious from the above spectra that the analysing the variation that occurred in the FTIR spectra by
reduction in most of the aliphatic peaks is not completely comparing the overall alteration that happened in all of the
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328
- DARWISH ET AL.

peaks instead of comparing the alteration that occurred in were increased in the case of thermal degradation (total
certain individual peaks. Note that the total transmittance of transmittance decreased below the normal case).
aliphatic peaks as well as aromatic peaks besides the total area Also, Figures 7e,f show the rates of increment, as well as
under such peaks is presented in Table 3. the decrement in the total transmittance. The reason behind
the opposite alteration that occurred in the aromatic com-
Analysis via total intensity method pounds will be clarified in depth next. Concerning the degra-
By just looking at Figure 7, which illustrates the influence of dation via electrical impulses, the bond breakage that was
each fault type on the total transmittance intensities of the responsible for the reduction in the aromatic compounds
aliphatic as well as the aromatic compounds, it can be noticed occurred in two stages. First, the flow of the electrical arc
from the bar graph shown in Figure 7a that the total trans- (electrons of high energy) established an interruption to the
mittances of the aliphatics in the electrical fault cases have continuous pathways of the overlapping p‐orbitals within the
much higher values than that of thermal fault cases, which aromatic ring. This interruption made the 6 pi electrons unable
means that there is a higher reduction in the aliphatic com- to delocalise over the entire conjugate system and became
pounds within the oil samples that were subjected to electrical localised electrons. Consequently, the aromatic ring converted
deterioration. Secondly, the rate by which the total trans- from a stable resonance hybrid structure with 6 C═C bonds of
mittance increases is high concerning the cases of the electrical the same length between the carbon atoms to an unstable
fault type which is clear from Figures 7b,c. It is obvious from contributing resonance structure with only 3 C═C bonds (due
those figures that the aliphatic compounds are reduced at a to the localised pi electrons) and 3 C–C bonds. At this stage,
much higher rate in the case of electrical degradation, by the probability of the ring being thermally decomposed
approximately 2.4 from the rate of reduction in the case of the became higher than before. Secondly, the high heat energy
thermal fault. In fact, this returns to the high temperature of generated during the fault was sufficient to break most of the
the electrical degradation which is greater than 1000°C [5, 22]. ring's C–C bonds (90.2 kcal/moL), C–H bonds (110.7 kcal/
This temperature was responsible for generating much heat moL), and some of the ring's C═C bonds (174.5 kcal/moL).
energy that was capable of breaking a large amount of the C–C This results in a high decrement in the aromatic compounds
bonds (90.2 kcal/mol) and C–H bonds (101.1 kcal/moL) until they completely disappear [4, 36].
resulting in a significant reduction in the aliphatic compounds For the samples degraded by overheating, the low heat
with a very high rate. energy generated during the fault has a very low probability of
Conversely, the low temperature of the thermal fault type breaking the bonds of the stable aromatic ring which are the
(approximately 320°C) was responsible for generating lower C═C bonds (174.5 kcal/moL) and the C–H bonds (110.7 kcal/
heat energy which was only capable of breaking a small amount moL). Instead, each carbon atom within most of the cyclo-
of the C–C bonds (mostly within paraffinic compounds) and hexanes (naphthenic ring with 6 carbon atoms) breaks down
very few quantities of the C–H bonds that result in a moderate one of its two aliphatic C–H bonds. Consequently, additional
reduction in the aliphatic compounds with a very low rate [36, weak pi bonds were formed between the naphthenic carbon
44]. Furthermore, the bar graph in Figure 7d represents the atoms that were already joined together with strong sigma
alteration that happened in the aromatic compounds which bonds. This results in the formation of aromatic rings that are
provides valuable information that can be utilised in differ- more stable utilising only 49.8 kcal/moL [36, 45]. In this way,
entiating between the two kinds of faults. Concerning the an increment occurred in the aromatic compounds but in very
electrical degradation, there is a reduction that occurred in few quantities, since there were only small quantities of the
the aromatic compounds (total transmittance increased above naphthenic compounds within the utilised mineral oil. For
the normal case). On the contrary, the aromatic compounds more details, Figures 8a,b show the impacts of the electrical

TABLE 3 Results of all diagnostic techniques presented as follows: FTIR spectroscopy, gas chromatography (GC), and LCR metre.

Total transmittance of peaks (a.u.) Total area under peaks (a.u.)

Sample name Aliphatics Aromatics Aliphatics Aromatics Total concentration (ppm) DDF (at 50 Hz)
S1 2.1528708 1.980181 133.0378758 0.475889782 4 0.000415452

S2 2.687951 1.984868 67.47266973 0.374375825 1042 0.000572962

S3 2.847887 1.99317 64.63545354 0.162991021 4193 0.000785602

S4 3.204721 1.995007 28.22514177 0.145798879 5423 0.000983151

S5 2.403468 1.977135 106.8145382 0.642862595 19 0.000567815

S6 2.474257 1.968355 98.48623247 0.911948033 27 0.000719565

S7 2.578586 1.963025 90.15792671 0.97346403 45 0.000871314

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DARWISH ET AL.
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F I G U R E 8 Effect of fault's temperature on mineral oil's molecule

structure: (a) Large amounts of heat energy generated during electrical
degradation, (b) high reduction in the aliphatic and aromatic bonds,
(c) moderate heat energy produced during thermal degradation, and
(d) small reduction in aliphatic bonds and new benzene ring formed.

fault on the mineral oil molecule. Similarly, the thermal over-

heating impacts on the mineral oil molecule can be seen in
Figures 8c,d.

Analysis via total area method

Figure 9 illustrates the influence of each fault type on the total
area under the transmittance peaks of the aliphatic as well as
the aromatic compounds. It can be noticed from the bar graph
shown in Figure 9a that the total aliphatic areas of the electrical
fault cases have much lower values than that of the thermal
fault cases, which means a higher reduction in the aliphatic
compounds. Secondly, the rate by which the total area de-
creases is high concerning the cases of electrical fault which is
clear from Figures 9b,c. It is obvious from those figures that
the aliphatic compounds are reduced at a much higher rate in
the case of electrical deterioration by a factor of approximately
2.3 from the rate of reduction in the case of the thermal fault.
This reduction factor is nearly equal to that obtained by the
previous analysis. Moreover, it is clear from the bar graph
presented in Figure 9d, which provides the alteration that
happened in the aromatic compounds, that there is a reduction
in the aromatic compounds (total area decreased below the
normal case) concerning the electrical fault cases. On the other
hand, the aromatic compounds have increased in the cases of
thermal fault (total area increases above the normal case). Also,
Figures 9e,f show the rates of the decrement, as well as the
increment in the total area. Fortunately, the opposite behaviour
noticed for the aromatic compounds is the same behaviour
observed in the previous analysis. Thus, the same trend is
obtained by both methodologies, and this initially validates the
F I G U R E 7 Influence of each fault type on aliphatic as well as aromatic reliability of analysing the variation that occurred in the FTIR
compounds based on total transmittance intensity (Noting that “r” refers to spectra by comparing the overall variation that happened in all
the linear correlation coefficient): (a) Total transmittance of aliphatic peaks, of the individual peaks. To check the accuracy of both methods
(b) electrical degradation and total transmittance of aliphatic peaks, and to what extent they are compatible with the gradual in-
(c) thermal degradation and total transmittance of aliphatic peaks, (d) total
transmittance of aromatic peaks, (e) electrical degradation and total
crease in fault severity, the linear correlation coefficient (r,
transmittance of aromatic peaks, and (f) thermal degradation and total absolute value) was evaluated for both methodologies. As
transmittance of aromatic peaks. illustrated in Table 4, the two methods have high linear
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330
- DARWISH ET AL.

T A B L E 4 Comparison between linear correlation coefficients (r) of

the methods utilised in FTIR analysis.

Total transmittance of
peaks Total area under peaks
Fault type Aliphatics Aromatics Aliphatics Aromatics
Electrical fault 97.2729% 91.4572% 94.3096% 88.5425%

Thermal fault 98.603% 95.5235% 97.8631% 96.081%

correlation coefficients, but the total intensity method has a

little bit higher values for both fault types. Therefore, both
methods are applicable in analysing the variation that occurred
in the FTIR spectra; however, it is recommended to use the
total intensity method because it is higher in accuracy.

4.2 | Validation of FTIR analysis

Without sherd doubt, the alteration that occurred in the

aliphatic, as well as the aromatic compounds within the mineral
oil molecule, must be balanced by an opposite variation in the
by‐products formed due to the propagation reactions of the
free radicals generated during the pyrolysis and oxidation
processes [4, 22, 44–46]. So, in the next sections, the alteration
in the fault by‐products in all their forms (gases, liquids, and
solids) was studied to confirm the reliability of the above‐
performed analysis on the outcomes obtained from FTIR
spectroscopy characterisation.

4.2.1 | Dissolved gas analysis stage

The first stage in the affirmation process is to study the vari-

ation that happened in the gaseous by‐products [47]. In this
regard, the total concentrations of hydrocarbon gases dissolved
in each oil sample presented in Table 3 were compared.
Figure 10 illustrates the effect of each fault type on the pro-
duction behaviour of gaseous by‐products. It can be observed
from Figure 10a that there is a huge difference between the
amounts of hydrocarbon gases generated in each fault type. As
obvious, the total amount of hydrocarbon gases in S2 (least
electrical fault case in severity) is 23 times that in S7 (extreme
thermal fault case). Also, it is clear from Figures 10b,c that the
rate by which the gases were created due to electrical arcing is
about 142 times the rate by which gases were generated due to
local overheating. In fact, the underlying reason behind such a
huge difference in the total amount of hydrocarbon gases is
definitely the severe thermal decomposition (pyrolysis) to
which the oil samples were subjected during the electrical
F I G U R E 9 Influence of each fault type on aliphatic as well as aromatic degradation. There was a cleavage of C–C and C–H bonds in
compounds based on total area under transmittance peaks (Noting that ‘r’ large quantities within the aliphatic and aromatic compounds
refers to the linear correlation coefficient): (a) Total area under aliphatic besides the moderate cleavage of the C═C bonds within the
peaks, (b) electrical degradation and total area under aliphatic peaks,
aromatic compounds. This is due to the significant heat energy
(c) thermal degradation and total area under aliphatic peaks, (d) total area
under aromatic peaks, (e) electrical degradation and total area under that has been generated along with the role of electrons' flow
aromatic peaks, and (f) thermal degradation and total area under aromatic described previously. Consequently, this results in the forma-
peaks. tion of free alkyl radicals in large quantities via hydrogen
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DARWISH ET AL.
- 331

well as the solid by‐products. In fact, as the amounts of these by‐

products increase within the oil insulation, the power loss (DDF)
increases. Generally, the DDF value can be taken as an indication
of the by‐product quantities formed in each oil sample [48, 49].
Anyway, it is clear from Figure 11a that the insulating material
seems to be stable throughout the whole range even after the
electrical fault. However, at the frequency of 50 Hz, there is a
slight increment which is completely compatible with the
sequence of the degradation's severity. Similarly, it is obvious
from Figure 11b that the insulating material seems to be stable
over the whole range of frequency even after the thermal fault.
Also, a slight increment was noticed at 50 Hz that is fully
matching with the sequence of thermal degradation. For the
variation to be comprehensively studied, the DDF values of all of
the oil samples at the frequency of 50 Hz (illustrated in Table 3)
were compared together as clear in the bar graph depicted in
Figure 11c. It can be observed that the electrical fault cases have
slightly higher values of DDF than the thermal fault cases.
Additionally, the increment rate in the DDF values due to
the electrical fault is not much greater than that of the thermal
fault as apparent in Figures 11d,e. Indeed, what made the gen-
eration rates of the fault by‐products to be very close to each
other can be explained as follows. Concerning the solid by‐
products, they were generated on a very large scale in the elec-
trical fault cases as compared to the cases of the thermal fault as
F I G U R E 1 0 Effect of each fault type on the production behaviour of obvious in Figure 12. The huge difference is due to the signif-
gaseous by‐products: (a) Total concentration of hydrocarbon gases, icant number of free alkyl radicals formed due to the thermal
(b) electrical degradation and concentration of hydrocarbon gases, and decomposition of the aliphatic as well as aromatic compounds
(c) thermal degradation and concentration of hydrocarbon gases.
within mineral oil in case of electrical degradation. Some of
those radicals react with oxygen through oxidation reactions to
produce peroxy radicals. After that, the peroxy radicals and the
abstraction and radical decomposition propagation reactions. free alkyl radicals combine forming stable compounds (solid by‐
Afterwards, some of these radicals were involved in termina- products). These products are mainly carboxylic acids (formed
tion reactions in which they react with each other and with on a wide scale) and some other products such as ketones and
hydrogen radicals to generate huge quantities of hydrocarbon aldehydes that gave the oil its dark colour. In contrast, for
fault gases such as methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), ethylene thermal overheating, the decomposition was very low and
(C2H4), and acetylene (C2H2) [1, 22, 46]. confined to the aliphatic compounds only resulting in a much
In opposition, during the thermal fault cases, low heat lower number of free alkyl radicals being formed. This is the
energy has been generated that results in a small amount of reason behind the pale yellow colour of the oil sample since only
C–C bonds cleavage (mostly within paraffinic compounds) a few solid by‐products were formed [43, 44].
besides a few cleavages of the C–H bonds within all of the Concerning the liquid by‐products, they have been gener-
aliphatic compounds and approximately no C═C bonds ated in small quantities in both fault types. However, aromatic
breakage within the aromatic compounds. Consequently, this compounds that already exist in the oil's molecular structure
results in the formation of a small number of free alkyl have a great impact on the DDF of the liquid dielectric. In fact,
radicals where a few of them were involved in termination the DDF of an oil sample is directly proportional to the
reactions to form a small amount of the hydrocarbon fault concentration of the aromatic compounds within it [50].
gases. In the final analysis, the alteration in the GC results is Considering the electrical fault cases, there is a reduction in the
compatible with the alteration in the aliphatic and aromatic aromatic compounds. On the other hand, there is an increment
compounds illustrated through the FTIR analysis. In this way, in the aromatic compounds considering the thermal fault cases.
the reliability of the FTIR analysis was tentatively confirmed This opposite variation in the aromatic compounds is the
[4, 44, 45]. reason behind the unexpected DDF values measured in the
thermal fault cases which are quietly close to the values of
the electrical fault cases. In the final analysis, the alteration in
4.2.2 | Dielectric dissipation factor stage the DDF results is compatible with the alteration in the
aliphatic as well as the aromatic compounds explained via the
In the second stage of the verification process, the main concern FTIR analysis. In this way, the reliability of the FTIR study in
is to carefully study the alteration that took place in the liquid as this work was well confirmed [43].
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332
- DARWISH ET AL.

F I G U R E 1 2 Oil's colour gets darker as the concentration of the

ageing by‐products increases within it: (a) No‐fault case (transparent),
(b) extreme condition of thermal fault (pale yellow), and (c) extreme
condition of electrical fault (light brown).

It is obvious that FTIR spectroscopy is superior over the

traditional techniques such as DGA and LCR tests in detecting
the small variations that happened to the oil after its subjection
to light electrical and thermal faults. Actually, this returns to the
high sensitivity of the FTIR characterisation process which is
always performed on the microscopic scale that includes the
studying of individual molecules and providing detailed in-
formation about the local properties and interactions within
the sample. Therefore, FTIR spectroscopy could be successful
in the discrimination process between the electrical and ther-
mal faults with a high accuracy that could not be obtained with
conventional diagnostic techniques.

4.3 | Key findings

After the reliability of the FTIR spectroscopy analysis was

confirmed, the authors came up with a great methodology that
is summarised in the flowchart shown in Figure 13. Through
this methodology, the discrimination between the transformer
inception faults via FTIR spectroscopy became a fact. First of
all, before a power transformer becomes in service, a sample
from its oil insulation should be characterised by FTIR spec-
troscopy as a reference; then, the total transmittances of the
aliphatics and aromatics should be calculated and recorded.
After that, at different time intervals, oil samples should be
F I G U R E 1 1 Dielectric dissipation factor: (a) Electrical fault (20 Hz–
2 MHz), (b) thermal fault (20 Hz–2 MHz), (c) all samples (at 50 Hz), (d) its taken, characterised and their total transmittances recorded.
relationship with electrical degradation (at 50 Hz), and (e) its relationship From such historical data, the inception fault type can simply
with thermal degradation (at 50 Hz). be predicted by plotting these data in a bar graph. If the total
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DARWISH ET AL.
- 333

aromatic peaks) instead of comparing certain individual

peaks.
� The FTIR spectra of the faulty samples can be analysed by
either comparing the total transmittance intensity of the
peaks or comparing the total area under peaks, but it was
found that the comparison based on the total transmittance
intensity is more accurate.
� The aliphatic compounds are reduced at a much higher
rate in the case of electrical degradation by approximately
2.4 from the rate of reduction in the case of the thermal
fault.
� The aromatic compounds are reduced in the electrical fault
case, unlike the thermal fault case in which aromatic com-
pounds are increased (opposite behaviour).
� The detection process of light inception faults can be con-
ducted via FTIR spectroscopy with great accuracy based on
the alteration in the aliphatic as well as the aromatic com-
pounds that happened in a specific oil sample. Also, it can
be a superior alternative to the well‐known traditional
diagnostic techniques.

F I G U R E 1 3 Flowchart of the methodology proposed for utilising the In future work, the reliability of other spectroscopy tech-
FTIR spectra in the discrimination between transformer inception faults.
niques such as PL spectroscopy and UV‐Vis spectroscopy in
discriminating between transformer inception faults will be
transmittance of the aliphatics is highly increased, this may considered. Besides making some important modifications in the
point out that there is an electrical fault, otherwise the fault setups utilised in conducting the inception faults to be suitable
type may be a thermal fault. for performing online monitoring via FTIR spectroscopy.
In the previous stage, the fault type is initially determined,
and to confirm such a decision, the following step should have A C K N OWL E D G E M E N TS
proceeded. If the total transmittance of the aromatics is The authors thank the Science, Technology & Innovation
decreased, the decision will go to the thermal fault or else an Funding Authority (STIFA), Egypt, under a grant (31292) for
electrical fault will be predicted. In this way, the inception fault their support.
type within a power transformer can be determined precisely
in an easy procedure and low cost unlike the traditional C O N FL I C T O F I N TE R E S T S TA TE M E N T
techniques utilised. From the authors' point of view, the The authors declare no potential conflict of interest.
proposed methodology may be more effective if online
monitoring on the site is considered instead of offline moni- DA TA AVA I L A B I L I T Y S TA TE M E N T
toring [14]. The data that support the findings of this study are available
from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

5 | CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE O R CI D

WORK Mohamed M. F. Darwish https://orcid.org/0000-0001-
9782-8813
In this contribution, the electrical, as well as thermal faults that Mohamed H. A. Hassan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-
frequently happen in the oil‐immersed transformers, was 4942-6849
conducted in the laboratory on pure paraffinic mineral oil Diaa‐Eldin A. Mansour https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3894-
samples utilising special test cells. Next, the faulty samples 4299
besides a reference sample were taken to be characterised with
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