Chapter 3

Cells

Cells
 A cell is the unit of
 A cell continually carries out
activities essential for life, as
well as specialized functions, and adapts to
changing conditions
 Cells interact to form tissues, organs, and
organ systems

 The human body consists of 30 trillion cells that vary

considerably in shape and size, yet have much in
common
 Differences in cell make different
possible
 control a cell’s actions and
responses

3.2: A Composite Cell

 In general, a cell consists of three main parts:
- : Contains DNA (genetic material) and directs cell’s activities
- : Organelles and fluids that make up the majority of the cell; between nucleus and
cell membrane
- : Boundary that encloses the cell
- Within the cytoplasm are specialized organelles (little organs) that perform specific functions for the
cell
- Organelles are suspended in a fluid called the
Cell Membrane
 Also called
 Defines the boundary
 Regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell
 Participates in , method of communication with other cells
 Helps cells adhere to other cells
 General Characteristics:
 Extremely thin, flexible, and elastic
 – regulates entry/exit of substances
 Has complex surface features, with adaptations to surface area

Cell Membrane Structure: Lipids

 The basic framework of the cell membrane consists of a
 Hydrophillic Phosphate “head”
 Hydrophobic fatty acid “tail”
 Lipid-soluble molecules (respiratory gases, steroid hormones) the
lipid portion of the membrane
 Cell membrane is to water-soluble molecules
o Embedded cholesterol molecules stabilize the membrane, and help make it less permeable to
water-soluble substances
Cell Membrane Structure: Proteins
 Proteins are classified by their relationship to the phospholipid bilayer:
 Integral: span width of bilayer; may protrude on 1 or both sides
 Transmembrane: integral proteins that protrude on both sides
 Peripheral: associate with the outside of one membrane surface
 Membrane proteins vary in function:
 Receptors or growth factors on the cell surface, starting signal transduction
 Transport ions or molecules across cell membrane, such as ion channels
 Glycoproteins are used for ; this helps identify cells as “self,” protecting them
from attack by the immune system
 Proteins that protrude into the cell will anchor supportive rods and tubules, forming a cytoskeleton
 (CAMs) help determine one cell’s interactions with other
cells.
Cytoplasmic Organelles
 Mitochondria
 “Powerhouses” of the cell
 Change shape continuously
 Carry out reactions where
is
used to break down food
 Provides for cellular energy
 Ribosomes
 Made of protein and RNA
 Sites of synthesis
 Found at two locations
 Free in the cytoplasm
 As part of the
endoplasmic reticulum
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
 Fluid-filled tubules for
carrying substances
 Two types of ER
 endoplasmic
reticulum
  Studded with ribosomes
 Synthesizes
 endoplasmic reticulum
 Functions in lipid metabolism and detoxification of drugs and pesticides

 Golgi Appartus
 Lysosomes
 Contain produced by ribosomes
 Packaged by the Golgi apparatus
 Digest worn-out or nonusable materials within the
cell
 Peroxisomes
 Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
 harmful substances such as
and formaldehyde
 Break down free radicals (highly reactive
chemicals)
 Large numbers found in Liver and kidney cells

 Cytoskeleton
 Network of protein structures that extend throughout the cytoplasm
 Provides the cell with an internal framework
 Three different types of elements
 (smallest)
 Most involved in cell motility and cell shape change
 Intermediate filaments
 Help form desmosomes
 (largest)
 Cell shape and organelle distribution
  Centrioles
 Rod-shaped bodies made of
 Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during
cell division

Cellular Projections
 Not found in all cells
 move materials across the cell
surface
 Located in the respiratory system to move
mucus
 propel the cell
 The only flagellated cell in the human
body is sperm
 are tiny, fingerlike extensions of
the plasma membrane
 Increase surface area for absorption

The Nucleus
 Control center of the cell
 Contains
 Three regions
 Nuclear envelope (membrane)
 Nucleolus
 Chromatin
 Nuclear envelope (membrane)
 Barrier of the nucleus
 Consists of a
 Contains nuclear pores that allow for
exchange of material with the rest of the cell
  Nucleoli
 Nucleus contains one or more nucleolus
 Sites of assembly
 Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm
through nuclear pores
 Chromatin
 Composed of
 Scattered throughout the nucleus
 Condenses to form chromosomes when the cell divides
3.3: Movements Into and Out of the Cell

 The cell membrane is a , which controls which substances pass through it

 Mechanisms of movement across the membrane

 Passive, requiring no energy from the cell
 Diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion
 Osmosis
 Filtration

 Requires cellular energy
 Active transport
 Endocytosis
 Exocytosis
Diffusion

 Movement of molecules or ions in a liquid or gas

 Moving the concentration gradient
 Caused by the random motion and collisions of particles
 Requires a
  At diffusional equilibrium,
 particles have become
 they continue to move, but there is no net change in concentration

 Diffusion across cell membranes occurs only if cell membrane is to the substance, and
there is a concentration gradient

Exchange of O2 and C O2 Between the Capillaries &

Body Cells
 Cell membrane permeable to the gases
 Concentration gradient
 Movement of the gases

Facilitated Diffusion
 Use to carry the substances across the phospholipid bilayer
 Glucose and amino acids, cannot pass through the phospholipid bilayer
 Water-soluble or too large; they require the help of a carrier molecule
 to transport ions across the cell membrane
 The number of carrier molecules in the cell membrane limits
Osmosis - Special case of diffusion

 Water moves from an area of water concentration (where there is osmotic

pressure and fewer solutes) to an area of water concentration (where there is
osmotic pressure and more solutes)
  During osmosis, water moves from a region of solute concentration to a
region of solute concentration
 The membrane is permeable to but impermeable to the solutes
 Osmotic pressure is the pressure needed to lift a volume of water; more impermeable solutes creates
more pressure

Types of Osmotic Solutions

 A solution with the same osmotic pressure as body fluids is called ; 0.9% NaCl
solution is isotonic to human cells
 A solution with higher osmotic pressure than body fluids is ; cells placed in a
hypertonic solution with lose water and shrink
 A solution with lower osmotic pressure than body fluids is ; cells placed in a
hypotonic solution will gain water and swell
Passive Mechanisms: Filtration

 The process of forcing molecules through membranes due to

 Filtration is used by the body to produce tissue fluid from blood plasma; water and small solutes are sent
through the walls of capillaries, to deliver O2 and nutrients to the cells, while large particles, like plasma
proteins, remain in the capillaries
 Particles are generally limited in movement by their in the filtration process

Active Mechanisms: Active Transport

move substances
from a region of lower concentration to a region of
higher concentration, and need ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) as an energy source
 As much as of a cell's energy may be
used to fuel this process
 Substances moved by active transport: Na+¿¿,
+¿ ¿
K , Ca+2, H +¿¿ , some sugars, and some amino
acids
Active Mechanisms: Endocytosis & Exocytosis
 In endocytosis and exocytosis, large substances are moved into or out of a cell without crossing the cell
membrane
 In , molecules that are too large to be transported by other means are conveyed
inside a vesicle that forms from a section of the cell membrane
 Pinocytosis
 Phagocytosis
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 s is the movement of materials out of the cell in a that fuses with the
cell membrane and opens up to the outside to secrete the material
Phagocytosis

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis