THE CELL

The cells are the basic/ functional units of life, in which all of the chemical reactions necessary for the maintenance and
reproduction of life take place. All living things are made up of cells. Some organisms consist of only one cell. Plants and animals are
made up of many cells. The human body has more than 100 trillion (10,000,000,000,000) cells.
All cells have some things in common, whether they are specialized cells or one- celled organisms. A cell as alive. It” breathes’,
takes in food, and gets rid of wastes. It also grows and reproduces (creates its own kind). And, in time, it dies
A cell is the smallest unit that is capable of performing life functions.

Core Concepts
1. Cell Theory
2. Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells
3. Cell Structure and Functions

Early Microscopy and Observations

 Before microscope, the Romans had already invented and experimented with glasses during first Century.
 Became the early form of lens ( Latin word Lentil)
 One of these glass samples involved a piece that had thick middle and thin edges. They discovered the small samples become
larger when viewed through this glass sample.
 These were not fully utilized until 13th century when they finally used in eyeglasses production.
 Roman philosopher, Seneca, who described, “letters could be magnified by a ball of crystal” glass globe of water to magnify text
in order to read books.

 In 1590, Dutch spectacle-maker Zacharias Janssen made the first compound microscope (one having more than one lens to
magnify the image that can magnify an image 30 times). It was believed that he had help from his father, Hans Janssen.

 In 1665, Robert Hooke, a British scientist, examined the

structure of thinly sliced cork under the microscope and described
small rectangular compartments which he called cellulae (Latin for
small chambers/rooms reported in his publication Micrographia.)
  In 1676, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch shopkeeper, he made his
own microscope to examine the fabric he is buying (fabric merchant)
o He examined pond water sample and saw living organisms
(protozoa and fungi), which he called animalcules (small animals).
His single-lenses magnified an image 200 times.

o He was also the first scientist to observe sperm cells and egg cells
of both animals and humans.
o He discovered that they undergo fertilization which disproved the
theory of spontaneous generation.

Development of the Cell Theory

 In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, determined that all
living plant tissue was composed of cells and that each plant arose from
a single cell.
 In 1839, Theodore Schwann, a German zoologist came to a similar
conclusion to animals.
 In 1858, the cell theory was refined by German pathologist Rudolf
Virchow, who concluded that “all cells arise from cells” and that the cell
was the basic unit of life.
 This discovery was initially made by Robert Remak in 1855 when he tried to prove the idea of cell division

3 Postulates of Cell Theory

The combined works of Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow and Remak makes up what is now known as the Cell Theory, which consists of
the following principles;

1. All organisms are made up of cells

Explanation: Schleiden (a botanist) and Schwann (a physiologist), both separately concluded that cells are the basic structural as well
as functional units of all living organisms. While Schleiden specifically studied plant tissues and proposed that all plants are composed
of cells, Schwann extended this idea to animal cells, suggesting that all animal tissues are also made up of cells. Their combined
observations led to the realization that cells are the building blocks of life.

2. The cell is the basic unit of life. (speaking both structurally as well as functionally)

Explanation: Both Schleiden and Schwann recognized that cells are not just static units but are also essential for organismal functions.
Cells carry out specific functions and activities necessary for life and the overall structure and function of an organism depend on the
interactions and activities of its cells. Energy flow occurs within all cells.

3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Explanation: Both scientists observed that cells did not arise spontaneously but instead originated from the division of pre-existing cells.
This concept, known as cell division or cell reproduction, is a fundamental process in biology and is central to the growth, development,
and reproduction of all living organisms.

PROKARYOTES vs. EUKARYOTES

Every living organism falls into one of two groups: eukaryotes or prokaryotes. Cellular structure determines which group an organism
belongs to.

1. Prokaryotes - are predominantly single-celled organisms classified in the domains Bacteria and Archaea. All prokaryotes have
plasma membranes, cytoplasm, ribosomes, a cell wall, genetic material, and lack membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotic
cells range in diameter from 0.1-5.0 µm.

2. Eukaryotes - Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. Eukaryotic cells are
typically much larger than prokaryotic cells (10-100µm) and have a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles that
allow for compartmentalization of functions.

 All life on Earth consists of either eukaryotic cells or prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotes were the first form of life. Scientists believe
that eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes around 2.7 billion years ago.

 All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, share these four features:

1. DNA
2. Plasma membrane
3. Cytoplasm
4. Ribosomes
PROKARYOTES

 While prokaryotic cells do not have membrane-bound structures, they do

have distinct cellular regions. In prokaryotic cells, DNA bundles together in a
region called the nucleoid. Prokaryotes can be split into two domains,
bacteria and archaea.

 Archaea that live in salty environments are known as halophiles.

 Archaea that live in extremely hot environments are called thermophiles.
 Archaea that produce methane are called methanogens.

Archaea are known for living in extreme environments, but they also can be
found in common environments, like soil.

 In prokaryotes, molecules of protein, DNA and metabolites are all found together, floating in the cytoplasm. Primitive organelles,
found in bacteria, do act as micro-compartments to bring some sense of organisation to the arrangement.

PROKARYOTIC Cell Features

Here is a breakdown of what you might find in a prokaryotic bacterial cell.

 Nucleoid: A central region of the cell that contains its DNA.

 Ribosome: Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis.
 Cell wall: The cell wall provides structure and protection from the outside environment. Most bacteria have a rigid cell wall made
from carbohydrates and proteins called peptidoglycans.
 Cell membrane: Every prokaryote has a cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane that separates the cell from the
outside environment.
 Capsule: Some bacteria have a layer of carbohydrates that surrounds the cell wall called the capsule. The capsule helps the
bacterium attach to surfaces.
 Fimbriae: Fimbriae are thin, hair-like structures that help with cellular attachment.
 Pili: Pili are rod-shaped structures involved in multiple roles, including attachment and DNA transfer.
 Flagella: Flagella are thin, tail-like structures that assist in movement.

EUKARYOTES

 These are organisms whose cells have a nucleus and other organelles enclosed by a plasma membrane.
 Organelles are internal structures responsible for a variety of functions, such as energy production and protein synthesis.
 Eukaryotic cells are large (around 10-100 μm) and complex. While most eukaryotes are multicellular organisms, there are some
single-cell eukaryotes.

 The primary distinction between these two types of organisms is that eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus and
prokaryotic cells do not.
 The nucleus is where eukaryotes store their genetic information. In prokaryotes, DNA is bundled together in the nucleoid region,
but it is not stored within a membrane-bound nucleus.
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Cell Membrane
-The cell membrane is a structure that forms the outer boundary of the cell and allows only certain materials to move into and
out of the cell.
-Food, oxygen and water move into the cell through the membrane. Waste products also leave through the membrane.

Cytoplasm
- is the gel-like material inside the cell membrane and outside the nucleus.
-enclosed within the cell membrane is the cytoplasm and contains the semifluid substance called the cytosol
-Within the cytosol are diff substances such as electrolytes (substances that produce electrically conducting solutions,
metabolites (substances during metabolism), RNA and synthesized proteins.
Cytoskeleton
- Cytoplasm appears to have no form however, it does have structure due to the presence of the cytoskeleton
-Contains small microfilaments and larger microtubules.
-They support the cell, giving it its shape and help with the movement of its organelles.
- Microfilament (7 nanometer )
-Intermediate Filament (8 to 10 nm) - the most stable and least soluble and provide tensile strength
-Tensile strength refers to the maximum stress that an object can withstand before it breaks
-Microtubules ( 25 nm) Are small hollow tubes.
-The wall of the microtubule is made polymerized dimers of a-tubulin and B-tubulin, two globular proteins.
-Are also structural elements of flagella, cilia and centrioles.

Centrosome
-A microtubule organizing structure found near the nuclei of animal cell and contains a pair of centrioles
- During cell division, the microtubules eventually arrange themselves in a specific manner to form centrioles.
-Centrioles help in the separation and movement of the replicated genetic materials called chromosomes to opposite poles.

Nucleus
-The largest organelle in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell is usually the nucleus, a structure that directs all the activities of the
cell and most of the genetic processes takes place in here.
- Control center of the cell
- The nuclear envelope is the boundary of the nucleus, which composed of inner and outer nuclear membranes. In between is
the perinuclear membranes.
-Chromatin strands further condense to form chromosomes during cell division. Substances that move in and out of the nucleus
pass through the nuclear pores.
Nucleolus
- Membrane-free organelle found inside the nucleus that contains fibrils and granules.
- Fibrils have DNA coding for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). The granules contain rRNA molecules with proteins coming from the
cytoplasm.
-The nucleolus is important in creating the ribosomes which are the sites of protein synthesis.
-The absence of the nucleolus will compromise the process of protein production because there is none that can produce the
ribosome.
Ribosomes
- Small non-membrane bound organelles.
- Contain two sub units
- Site of protein synthesis.
- Protein factory of the cell
- Either free floating or attached to the Endoplasmic Reticulum.
- Protein synthesis is necessary for the organism’s survival. Some proteins serves as enzymes.
Mitochondrion
- The powerhouse of the cell
- Organelles work with the mitochondrion. The food broken down by the lysosomes may be converted to ATP by the
mitochondrion. Also, the ATP produced by the mitochondrion may be used to perform primary active transport in the cell membrane,
as well as flagellar movement.
THE ENDOMEMRANE SYSTEM
-The endomembrane system endo- = “within” a group of membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cells that works together to
change, package, and transportation of lipids and proteins.
This is a group of membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cell that works together to modify, package, transport lipids and proteins.

It includes the nuclear envelope, lysosomes, and Vesicles, Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus, plasma membrane

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

-The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a folded membrane that moves materials around in the cell. The ER extends from the
nucleus to the cell membrane and takes up quite a bit of space in some cells.
-The ER is like a system of conveyor belts in a business. They act as tunnels in which materials move from one place to another
within the cell.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

- Ribosomes attached to surface
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
- No attached ribosomes

Golgi Body/Golgi Complex/Golgi Apparatus

- Modifies, packages and distributes molecules made at one location of the cell and used at another.

- Golgi bodies work closely with ER. The substance produced in the ER (Protein) enters its lumen. The substance then pinches
off to become vesicle.
-The vesicle moves toward the cis face. The golgi bodies can modify the substances in the vesicle by putting “tags” so that the
substances will be recognized and accepted in their respective destinations. Once ready, the vesicles containing the modified
substance exit at trans face.

Lysosome
- It has hydrolytic enzymes (protein that use water to break down substances) – digest food, recycle old components of the cell,
and kill invading micro organisms
- The digested food and recycled components are released into the cytosol to be used by the cell. The indigestible food stays
in the lysosomes which eventually become residual bodies. Residual bodies can be eliminated by exocytosis.
The lysosomal membrane contains a special carbohydrate covering its inner surface. This prevents the lysosome from releasing
the hydrolytic enzyme all at once. If this happens, the cell may be killed. This is why the lysosome is called the “suicide bag” of
the cell.
Peroxisomes
- These are small, round organelles enclosed in single membranes. They carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids
and amino acids. They also detoxify many poisons that may enter the body.
- Many of these oxidation reactions release hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, which would be damaging to cells; however, when these
reactions are confined to peroxisomes, enzymes safely break down the H 2O2 into oxygen and water.
Vesicles and Vacuoles
- These are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport.
- Vacuoles are somewhat larger than vesicles.
- The membranes of vesicles can fuse with either plasma membrane or other membranes within the cell.
- The vacuole does not fuse with the membranes of other cellular components.

Flagella and Cilia

- Appendages responsible for locomotion of cells.
- The locomotive action is due to the arrangement of microtubules.
- Both have the central core called anoxeme, which is surrounded by an extension of the cell membrane.

Cilia
o Short
o Used to move substances outside human cells
Flagella
o Whip-like extensions
 o Found on sperm cells

- In humans, flagella and cilia are important in reproduction. Sperm have flagella to enable them to swim. It uses its
flagellum to swim to reach the egg. In females, the cilia in the fallopian tube help move the egg or embryo toward the
uterus

Cell Wall (plant)

- Located outside the cell membrane , made of cellulose
- Cellulose is a polysaccharide, composed of long chain of carbohydrates.
- The cell wall is a rigid structure outside the cell membrane that supports and protects the cell
Chloroplast (plant)

- Chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll. This is what makes plants green.
- Chloroplasts take in sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to make oxygen and sugar (a form of food). This process is called
photosynthesis
Central Vacuole (plant)
Vacuoles store water, food, pigments, waste or other materials.

-Animals and plants have vacuole but the vacuoles in the latter are usually larger and are thus observed more easily when viewed
under microscope. In most mature plant cells, the vacuole that occupies the largest space is called central vacuole. The central
vacuole is surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast.

-Turgor Pressure is the pressure exerted onto the cell wall by water moving into the cell. The central vacuole contains a higher
solute concentration that the cell’s environment. Because of this, the water tends to move toward the cell, making the cell swell
and maintain the turgor pressure. When turgor pressure is lost, the cell wilts, Thus the entire plant wilts.
Peptidoglycan (Bacteria)
- Composed of amino acids and sugars
- This gives the cell walls of the bacteria structure and provides protection
Chitin (Fungi)
- Nirtogen-containing polyssacharide similar to cellulose which serves as structural support

Table 1. Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells and Functions

Present in
Cell Present in Present in
Function Animal
Component Prokaryotes Plant Cells
Cells
Separates cell from external environment; controls
Plasma
passage of organic molecules, ions, water, oxygen, Yes Yes Yes
Membrane
and wastes into and out of the cell
Provides structure to cell; site of many metabolic
Cytoplasm Yes Yes Yes
reactions; medium in which organelles are found
Nucleoid Location of DNA Yes No No
Cell organelle that houses DNA and directs synthesis
Nucleus No Yes Yes
of ribosomes and proteins
Ribosomes Protein synthesis Yes Yes Yes
Mitochondria ATP production/cellular respiration No Yes Yes
Peroxisomes Oxidizes and breaks down fatty acids and amino
No Yes Yes
acids, and detoxifies poisons
Vesicles and
vacuoles Storage and transport; digestive function in plant cells No Yes Yes

Centrosome Unspecified role in cell division in animal cells;

No Yes No
organizing center of microtubules in animal cells
Lysosomes Digestion of macromolecules; recycling of worn-out
No Yes No
organelles
Yes, primarily
Cell wall Protection, structural support and maintenance of cell peptidoglycan in Yes, primarily
No
shape bacteria but not cellulose
Archaea
Chloroplasts Photosynthesis No No Yes
Endoplasmic
Modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids No Yes Yes
reticulum
Golgi Modifies, sorts, tags, packages, and distributes lipids
No Yes Yes
apparatus and proteins
 Maintains cell’s shape, secures organelles in specific
positions, allows cytoplasm and vesicles to move
Cytoskeleton Yes Yes Yes
within the cell, and enables unicellular organisms to
move independently
No, except for
Flagella Cellular locomotion Some Some some plant
sperm
Cellular locomotion, movement of particles along
Cilia extracellular surface of plasma membrane, and No Some No
filtration

Animal Cell

Plant Cell