3.

1
Deflection Instrument Fundamentals

A deflection instrument uses a pointer that moves over a calibrated scale to indicate a measured
quantity. For this to occur, three forces are operating in the electromechanical mechanism (or
movement) inside the instrument: a deflecting force, a controlling force. and a damping force.

The deflecting force causes the pointer to move from its zero position when a cur- rent flows. In the
permanent-magnet moving-coil (PMMC) instrument the deflecting force is magnetic. When a current
flows in a lightweight moving coil pivoted between the poles of a permanent magnet (Figure 3-1(a)],
the current sets up a magnetic field that in- teracts with the field of the permanent magnet. A force is
exerted on a current-carrying conductor situated in a magnetic field. Consequently, a force is exerted
on the coil turns, as illustrated, causing the coil to rotate on its pivots. The pointer is fixed to the coil, so
it moves over the scale as the coil rotates.

The controlling force in the PMMC instrument is provided by spiral springs [Figure 3-1(b)). The
springs retain the coil and poiner at their zero position when no current is flowing. When current flows,
the springs "wind up" as the coil rotates, and the force they exert on the coil increases. The coil and
pointer stop rotating when the controlling force becomes equal to the deflecting force. The spring
material must be nonmagnetic to avoid any magnetic field influence on the controlling force. Since the
springs are also used to make electrical connection to the coil, they must have a low resistance.
Phosphor bronze is the material usually employed.

As illustrated in Figure 3-2(a), the pointer and coil tend to oscillate for some time before settling down
at their final position. A damping force is required to minimize (or damp out) the oscillations. The
damping force must be present only when the coil is in motion; thus it must be generated by the
rotation of the coil. In PMMC instruments, the damping force is normally provided by eddy currents.
The coil former (or frame) is con- structed of aluminum, a nonmagnetic conductor. Eddy currents
induced in the coil former set up a magnetic flux that opposses the coil motion, thus damping the
oscillations of the coil [see Figure 3-2(b)).
3.2.
Two methods of supporting the moving system of a deflection instrument are illus- trated in Figure 3-3.

In the jeweled-bearing suspension shown in Figure 3-3(a), the point- ed ends of shafts or pivots
fastened to the coil are inserted into cone-shaped cuts in jewel (sapphire or glass) bearings. This allows
the coil to rotate freely with the least possible friction. Although the coil is normally very lightweight,
the pointed ends of the pivots have extremely small areas, so the surface load per unit area can be
considerable. In some cases the bearings may be broken by the shock of an instrument being slammed
down heavily upon a bench. Some jewel bearings are spring supported (as illustrated) to absorb such
shocks more easily.

The taut-band method shown in Figure 3-3(b) is much tougher than jeweled-bearing suspension. As
illustrated, two flat metal ribbons (phosphor bronze or platinum alloy) are
held under tension by springs to support the coil. Because of the springs, the metal ribbons behave like
rubber unde: tension. The ribbons also exert a controlling force as they twist, and they can be used as
electrical connections to the moving coil. Because there is less friction, taut-band instruments can be
much more sensitive than the jeweled-bearing type. The most sensitive jeweled-bearing instruments
give full-scale deflection (FSD) with a coil current of 25 μ.Α. With taut-band suspension FSD may be
achieved with as little as 2 µA of coil current. The fact that the spring-mounted ribbon behaves as a
rubber band makes the instrument ex- tremely rugged compared to a jeweled-bearing instrument. If a
jeweled-bearing instrument is dropped to a concrete floor from bench height, the bearings will almost
certainly be shat- tered. A taut-band instrument is unlikely to be affected by a similar fall.

3.3
Details of the construction of a PMMC instrument or D'Arsonval instrument are illus- trated in Figure
3-4. The main feature is a permanent magnet with two soft-iron pole shoes. A cylindrical soft-iron core
is positioned between the shoes so that only very narrow air gaps exist between the core and the faces
of the pole shoes. The lightweight moving coil is pivoted to move within these narrow air gaps. The air
gaps are made as narrow as possible in order to have the strongest possible level of magnetic flux
cross- ing the gaps.

Figure 3-4 also shows one of the two controlling spiral springs. One end of this spring is fastened to the
pivoted coil, and the other end is connected to an adjustable zero- position control. By means of a
screw on the instrument cover, the zero-position control can be adjusted to move the end of the spring.
This allows the coil and pointer position to be adjusted (when no coil current is flowing) so that the
pointer indicates exactly zero on the instrument scale.

Another detail-shown in Figure 3-4 is one of (usually) two or three counterweights attached to the
pointer. This is simply a machine screw along which a small screw-threaded weight can be adjusted.
The counterweights provide correct mechanical balance of the moving system so that there is no
gravitational effect on the accuracy of the instrument.
3.4
The PMMC instrument in Figure 3-5 illustrates a different type of construction. In- stead of using a
horseshoe-shaped permanent magnet, the permanent magnet is placed in- side the coil (i.e., it replaces
the soft-iron core shown in Figure 3-4). A thick cylindrical piece of soft iron surrounds the coil and the
magnet. The magnetic flux flows across the air gaps and through the soft iron, and the coil sides move
within the narrow air gaps. A
major advantage of this core-magnet type of construction is that the moving coil is shielded from
external magnetic fields due to the presence of the soft-iron cylinder. The current in the coil of a
PMMC instrument must flow in one particular direction to cause the pointer to move (positively) from
the zero position over the scale. When the current is reversed, the interaction of the magnetic flux from
the coil with that of the per- manent magnet causes the coil to rotate in the opposite direction, and the
pointer is de- flected to the left of zero (i.e., off-scale). The terminals of a PMMC instrument are identi-
fied as and to indicate the correct polarity for connection, and the instrument is said to be polarized.
Because it is polirized, the PMMC instrument cannot be used directly to measure alternating current.
Without rectifiers, it is purely a de instrument

3.5
Torque Equation and Scale

When a current / flows through a one-tum coil situated in a magnetic field, a force F is exerted on each
side of the coil (Figure 3-6(a)]:
where B is the magnetic flux density in tesla, / is the current in amperes, and / is the length of the coil
in meters.

Since the force acts on each side of the coil, the total force for a coil of N turns is

F=2BIlN newtons

The force on each side acts at a radius r, producing a deflecting torque: To2BIINr newton meters (Nm)

where D is the coil diameter [Figure 3-6(b)).

The controlling torque exerted by the spiral springs is directly proportional to the
deformation or "windup" of the springs. Thus, the controlling torque is proportional to
the actual angle of deflection of the pointer:

where K is a constant. For a given deflection, the controlling and deflecting torques are equal:

Since all quantities except @ and I are constant for any given instrument, the deflec- tion angle is

where C is a constant.

Equation 3-2 shows that the pointer deflection is always proportional to the coil current. Consequently,
the scale of the instrument is linear, or uniformly divided, that is, if 1 mA produces a 1 cm movement
of the pointer from zero, 2 mA produces a 2 cm movement, and so on (see Figure 3-6(c)). As will be
explained the PMMC instrument can be used as a de voltmeter, a dc ammeter, and an ohmmeter. When
connected with rectifiers and transformers, it can also be employed to measure alternating voltage and
current.
3.6

A galvanometer is essentially a PMMC instrument designed to be sensitive to extremely low current

levels. The simplest galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument with the type of center-zero scale
illustrated in Figure 3-7(a). The deflection system is arranged so that the pointer can be deflected to
either right or left of zero, depending on the direction of cur- rent through the moving coil. The scale
may be calibrated in microamperes, or it may sim- ply be a millimeter scale. In the latter case, the
instrument current sensitivity (usually stated in µ.A/mm) is used to determine the current level that
produces a measured deflection.

The torque equation for a galvanometer is exactly as discussed in Section 3-1. The deflecting torque is
proportional to the number of coil turns, the coil dimensions, and the current flowing in the coil. The
most sensitive moving-coil galvanometers use taut-band suspension, and the controlling torque is
generated by the twist in the suspension ribbon. Eddy current damping may be provided, as in other
PMMC instruments, by winding the coil on a nonmagnetic conducting coil former. Sometimes a
nonconducting coil former is employed, and the damping currents are generated solely by the moving
coil. In this case, the coil is shunted by a damping resistor which controls the level of eddy currents
gener- ated by the coil movements. Frequently, a critical damping resistance value is stated, which
gives just sufficient damping to allow the pointer to settle down quickly with only a very small short-
lived oscillation
With the moving-coil weight reduced to the lowest possible minimum for greatest sensitivity, the
weight of the pointer can create a problem. This is solved in many instru- ments by mounting a small
mirror on the moving coil instead of a pointer. The mirror re- flects a beam of light on to a scale, as
illustrated in Figure 3-7(b). The light beam behaves as a very long weightless pointer which can be
substantially deflected by a very small coil current. This makes light-beam galvanometers sensitive to
much lower current levels than pointer instruments.
3.7
Galvanometer voltage sensitivity is often expressed for a given value of critical damping resistance.
This is usually stated in microvolts per millimeter. A megohm sensi- tivity is sometimes specified for
galvanometers, and this is the value of resistance that must be connected in series with the instrument
to restrict the deflection to one scale divi- sion when a potential difference of 1 V is applied across its
terminals. Pointer gal- vanometers have current sensitivities ranging from 0.1 to 1 µA/mm. For light-
beam in struments typical current sensitivities are 0.01 to 0.1 µA per scale division.
3.8
Galvanometers are often employed to detect zero current or voltage in a circuit rather than to measure
the actual level of current or voltage. In this situation, the instru- ment is referred to as a null meter ot
null detector. A galvanometer used as a null meter must be protected from the excessive current flow
that might occur when the voltage across the instrument terminals is not close to zero. Protection is
provided by an ad- justable resistance connected in shunt with the instrument (see Figure 3-8). When
the shunt resistance is zero, all of the circuit current flows through the shunt. As the shunt re- sistance
is increased above zero, an increasing amount of current flows through the gal- vanometer.
Galvanometer applications have been largely taken over by electronic instru- ments that can measure
extremely low levels of voltage and current. These instruments are discussed in Section 15-4.
3.9
Ammeter Circuit

An ammeter is always connected in series with a circuit in which current is to be mea- sured. To avoid
affecting the current level in the circuit, the ammeter must have a resis tance much lower than the
circuit resistance. The PMMC instrument is an ammeter. Pointer deflection is directly proportional to
the current flowing in the coil. However
maximum pointer deflection is produced by a very small current, and the coil is usually wound of thin
wire that would be quickly destroyed by large currents. For larger currents, the instrument must be
modified so that most of the current to be measured is shunted around the coil of the meter. Only a
small portion of the current passes through the mov- ing coil. Figure 3-9 illustrates how this is
arranged.
3.10. 3.11
A shunt, or very low resistance, is connected in parallel with the instrument coil [Figure 3-9(a)]. The
shunt is sometimes referred to as a four-terminal resistor, because it has two sets of terminals identified
as voltage terminals and current terminals. This is to ensure that the resistance in parallel with the coil
(R,) is accurately defined and the con- tact resistance of the current terminals is removed from R,.
Contact resistance can vary with change in current level and thus introduce errors.
In the circuit diagram in Figure 3-9(b), R, is the meter resistance (or coil circuit re- sistance) and R, is
the resistance of the shunt. Suppose that the meter resistance is exactly 99 2 and the shunt resistance is
1. The shunt current (1) will be 99 times the meter current (/). In this situation, if the meter gives FSD
for a coil current of 0.1 mA, the scale should be calibrated to read 100 x 0.1 mA or 10 mA at full scale.
The relationship between shunt current and coil current is further investigated in Examples 3-3 and 3-4.

In the circuit diagram in Figure 3-9(b), R, is the meter resistance (or coil circuit re- sistance) and R, is
the resistance of the shunt. Suppose that the meter resistance is exactly 99 2 and the shunt resistance is
1. The shunt current (1,) will be 99 times the meter current (/). In this situation, if the meter gives FSD
for a coil current of 0.1 mA, the scale should be calibrated to read 100 x 0.1 mA or 10 mA at full scale.
The relationship between shunt current and coil current is further investigated in Examples 3-3 and 3-4.

Swamping Resistance

The moving coil in a PMMC instrument is wound with thin copper wire, and its resis- tance can change
significantly when its temperature changes. The heating effect of the coil current may be enough to
produce a resistance change. Any such change in coil resis- tance' will introduce an error in ammeter
current measurements. To minimize the effect of coil resistance variation, a swamping resistance made
of manganin or constantan is con- nected in series with the coil, as illustrated in Figure 3-11. Manganin
and constantan have resistance temperature coefficients very close to zero. If the swamping resistance
is nine times the coil resistance, a 1% change in coil resistance would result in a total (swamping plus
coil) resistance change of 0.1%.
The amuneter shunt must also be made of manganin or constantan to avoid shunt resistance variations
with temperature. As noted in Figure 3-11, the swamping resis- tance must be considered part of the
meter resistance R, when calculating shunt resis- tance values.

The circuit of a multirange ammeter is shown in Figure 3-12(a). As illustrated, a rotary switch is
employed to select any one of several shunts having different resistance values. A make-before-break
switch [Figure 3-12(b)) must be used so that the instrument is not left without a shunt in parallel with it
even for a brief instant. If this occurred, the high re- sistance of the instrument would affect the current
flowing in the circuit. More important, a current large enough to destroy the instrument might flow
through its moving coil. When switching between shunts, the wide-ended moving contact of the make-
before-break switch makes contact with the next terminal before it breaks contact with the previous
terminal. Thus, during switching there are actually two shunts in parallel with the instrument.

Figure 3-13 shows another method of protecting the deflection instrument of an ammeter from
excessive current flow when switching between shunts. Resistors R. R. and R, constitute an Ayrton
shunt. In Figure 3-13(a) the switch is at contact B, and the total resistance in parallel with the
instrument is R + R₂ + R. The meter circuit resistance remains R. When the switch is at contact C
[Figure 3-13(b)), the resistance R, is in series with the meter, and R, R, is in parallel with R + R.
Similarly, with the switch at contact D, R, is in parallel with R+ R₂+ R. Because the shunts are
permanently connected, and the switch makes contact with the shunt junctions, the de- flection
instrument is never left without a parallel-connected shunt (or shunta). In Ex-
ample 3-5 ammeter current ranges are calculated for each switch position on an Ayr- ton shunt.
3.12
The deflection of a PMMC instrument is proportional to the current flowing through the moving coil.
The coil current is directly proportional to the voltage across the coil. There- fore, the scale of the
PMMC meter could be calibrated to indicate voltage. The coil resis- tance is normally quite srmall, and
thus the coil voltage is also usually very small. Without- any additional series resistance the. PMMC
instrument would only be able to measure very low voltage levels. The voltmeter range is easily
increased by connecting a resis- tance in series with the instrument [see Figure 3-14(a)). Because it
increases the range of the voltmeter, the series resistance is termed a multiplier resistance. A multiplier
resis-
tance that is nine times the coil resistance will increase the voltmeter range by a factor of 10. Figure 3-
14(b) shows that the total resistance of the voltmeter is (multiplier nss tance) + (coil resistance).
3.13
A multirange voltmeter consists of a deflection instrument, several multiplier resistors, and a rotary
switch. Two possible circuits are illustrated in Figure 3-16. In Figure 3-16(a) only one of the three
multiplier resistors is connected in series with the meter at any time. The range of this voltmeter is

where R can be R1, R2 or R3

In Figure 3-16(b) the multiplier resistors are connected in series, and each junction is connected to one
of the switch terminals. The range of this voltmeter can also be calcu- lated from the equation V=I a (R
ab +R) where R can now be R_{1}, R_{1} + R_{2} or R_{1} + R_{2} +R 3- Of the two circuits, the
one in Figure 3-16(b) is the expensive construct. This is because (as shown in Example 3-7) all of the
multiplier resistors in Figure 3-16(a) must be special (nonstandard) values, while in Figure 3-16(b) only
R_{1} is a special resistor and all other multipliers are standard-value (precise) resistors.
3.14
Swamping Resistance

As in the case of the ammeter, the change in coil resistance (Rm) with temperature change can
introduce errors in a PMMC voltmeter. However, the presence of the voltmeter multi- plier resistor
(Rs) tends to swamp coil resistance changes, except for low voltage ranges
where Rs, is not very much larger than Rm. Rs, will also be temperature sensitive to some degree (not
as much as the copper wire coil), and in some cases it might be necessary to construct the multiplier
resistor of manganin or constantan.

Voltmeter Sensitivity

The voltmeter designed in Example 3-6 has a total resistance of

This quantity is also termed the sensitivity of the voltmeter. The sensitivity of a voltmeter is always
specified by the manufacturer, and it is frequently printed on the scale of the instrument. If the
sensitivity is known, the total voltmeter resistance is easily calcu- lated as (sensitivity x range). [It is
important to note that the total resistance is not (sensi- tivity x meter reading).] If the full-scale meter
current is known, the sensitivity can be de- termined as the reciprocal of full-scale current.

Ideally, a voltmeter should have an extremely high resistance. A voltmeter is al- ways connected
across, or in parallel with, the points in a circuit at which the voltage is to be measured. If its resistance
is too low, it can alter the circuit voltage. This is known as voltmeter loading effect.
3.15
PMMC Instrument on AC

As discussed earlier, the PMMC instrument is polarized, that is, its terminals are identi- fied as and,
and it must be connected correctly for positive (on-scale) deflection to occur. When an alternating
current with a very low frequency is passed through a PMMC instrument, the pointer tends to follow
the instantaneous level of the ac. As the current grows postively, the pointer deflection increases tó a
maximum at the peak of the ac. Then as the instantaneous current level falls, the pointer deflection
decreases toward zero. When the ac goes negative, the pointer is deflected (off-scale) to the left of zero.
This kind c. pointer movement can occur only with ac having a frequency of perhaps 0.1 Hz or lower.
With the normal 60 Hz or higher supply frequencies, the damping mechanism of the instrument and the
inertia of the meter movement prevent the pointer from follow- ing the changing instantaneous levels.
Instead, the instrument pointer settles at the aver- age value of the current flowing through the moving
coil. The average value of purely si- nusoidal ac is zero. Therefore, a PMMC instrument connected
directly to measure 60 Hz ac indicates zero. It is important to note that although a PMMC instrument
connected to an ac supply may be indicating zero, there can actually be a very large rms current flow-
ing in its coils.

Half-Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Voltmeter

The circuit in Figure 3-19 is that of an ac voltmeter employing a half-bridge full-wave rectifier circuit.
The half-bridge name is applied because two diodes and two resistors are employed instead of the four
diodes used in a full-wave bridge rectifier. This circuit pass- es full-wave rectified current through the
meter, but as in the circuit of Figure 3-18, some of the current bypasses the meter.

During the positive half-cycle of the input, diode D_{1} is forward biased and D_{2} is re- verse
biased. Current flows from terminal I through D_{1} and the meter (positive to nega- tive), and then
through R_{2} to terminal 2. But Ris in parallel with the meter and R_{2} which are connected in
series. Therefore, much of the current flowing in D_{1} passes through R_{1} while only part of it
flows through the meter and R_{2} During the negative half-cycle of the input, D_{2} is forward
biased and D_{1} is reverse biased. Current now flows from terminal 2 through R_{1} and the meter,
and through D_{2} to terminal 1. Now, R_{2} is in parallel with the series-connected meter and R_{1}
Once again, much of the diode current bypasses the meter by flowing through R_{2} * This
arrangement forces the diodes to operate beyond the knee of their characteristics and helps to
compensate for differences that might occur in the char- acteristics of D_{1} and D_{2}
3.16

3.17
Half-Wave Rectifier Voltmeter
Half-wave rectification is employed in the ac voltmeter circuit shown in Figure 3-18. RsH shunting the
meter is included to cause a relatively large current to flow through diode D, (larger than the meter
current) when the diode is forward biased. This is to ensure that the diode is biased beyond the knee
and well into the linear range of its characteristics. Diode D₂ conducts during the negative half-cycles
of the input. When conducting, D₁ causes a small voltage drop (V) across D, and the meter, thus
preventing the flow of any signifi- cant reverse leakage current through the meter via D₁. Diode D, also
protects the meter against reverse voltages.

The waveform of voltage developed across the meter and Rsy is a series of positive half-cycles with
intervening spaces, as illustrated. In half-wave rectification, 10.5(0.6371). This must be taken into
account in the circuit design calculations

3.18
Rectifier instruments use silicon or germanium diodes to convert alternating current to a series of unidirectional current
pulses, which produce positive deflection when passed through a PMMC instrument. The full-wave bridge rectifier circuit in
Figure 3-17 passes the positive half-cycles of the sinusoidal input waveform and inverts the negative half- cycles. When the
input is positive, diodes D, and D4 conduct, causing current to flow through the meter from top to bottom, as shown. When
the input goes negative, D2 and D3 conduct, and current again flows through the meter from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal. The resulting current waveform is a series of positive half-cycles with- out any intervening spaces

3.19

· The current Iₚ at the primary side is reduced proportionally by the current transformer.
· Current Iₛ from the secondary winding of the current transformer flows through the bridge rectifier
circuit, where the alternating current is converted into direct current.
· Finally, the rectified current will pass through Rₘ and the meter to display the current value.
3.20
Parallax error in deflection instruments occurs when the observer's eye is not directly aligned with the
pointer. This causes uncertainty about the pointer’s exact position on the scale, leading to differing
readings between observers for the same indication.
To minimize parallax error, well-designed instruments use a knife-edge pointer and a mirror alongside
the scale. When the observer aligns the pointer with its reflection in the mirror, their eye is directly in
line with the pointer, ensuring accurate readings.
3.21
In a PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil) instrument, the measurement accuracy is often specified
as a percentage of Full-Scale Deflection (FSD). This means that the accuracy is consistent across the
entire scale, but the absolute error remains the same, regardless of the measured value.

For example, if the instrument has a full-scale deflection for a coil current of 100 μA and is specified to
have an accuracy of ±1%, this means that the accuracy is ±1 μA across the entire scale. As a result, the
absolute error (±1 μA) remains constant, but the relative error becomes more significant for lower
readings. At low scale readings, such as 10 μA, the error of ±1 μA would represent 10% of the reading,
whereas at full scale (100 μA), the error is only 1%.
3.22
Circuit Operation of an Ohmmeter with Zero Adjust:
The ohmmeter in this description uses a battery and an adjustable resistor to maintain accuracy even as
the battery voltage decreases. The key elements of the circuit operation are as follows:
Battery Voltage Drop: In a simple ohmmeter, the scale is correct as long as the battery voltage
remains constant (e.g., 1.5 V). However, as the battery voltage decreases due to usage, the scale
becomes inaccurate because the mid-scale reading, which is supposed to represent a certain resistance,
would now represent an incorrect value.
Adjustable Resistor (R₂): To address this issue, an adjustable resistor R₂ is added in parallel with the
meter (as shown in Figure 3-22). This adjustable resistor compensates for the drop in battery voltage,
allowing the instrument to give accurate readings despite the voltage change.
Calibration (Full-Scale Deflection - FSD): With terminals A and B short-circuited (meaning zero
resistance across them), R₂ is adjusted so that the meter shows full-scale deflection (FSD). At this
point, the total circuit resistance is approximately equal to the internal resistance R₁ of the ohmmeter.
Mid-scale Measurement: When a resistance Rₓ equal to R₁ is connected across terminals A and B, the
total circuit resistance doubles. This causes the battery current to halve, which reduces both the current
through the meter Iₘ and through the parallel resistor I₂ to half of their values when A and B were
short-circuited. As a result, the mid-scale on the meter corresponds to a resistance equal to R₁, making
the measurement accurate.

3.23

A typical ohmmeter has the following characteristics:

Non-linear scale: On the left side (close to 0 ohms), the markings are very close
together, indicating small resistance values. As the resistance increases, the markings
become more spaced out, especially towards infinity (∞).

Range switch: When the switch is set to R × 1, you can directly read the resistance
on the scale. For other ranges, the value on the scale needs to be multiplied by the
range factor. For example, when selecting R × 100, the indicated value on the scale
should be multiplied by 100. If the needle points to 30 on the scale, the actual reading
is 30 × 100 = 3 kΩ.

Zero adjustment: Before use, the ohmmeter needs to be calibrated to zero to ensure
accuracy. This is done by short-circuiting the two terminals (+ and -) and adjusting
the calibration knob until the needle points to 0 Ω. When changing the measurement
range, especially when switching to or from the R × 10k range, it is essential to check
the zero adjustment again because the power supply for the circuit switches between
two batteries with different voltages (1.5V and 15V).

3.24
Circuit Operation:
Power Supply: The circuit is powered by a 15V DC supply.
Zero Control: The zero control allows for calibration. When Rx (the unknown resistance) is zero, the
pointer should read zero.
Range Selection: The range switch selects the appropriate resistor (236k, 20k, 1470Ω, 140Ω, or 14Ω)
to be included in the circuit. This determines the range of resistance that can be measured.
Measurement: When Rx (the unknown resistance) is connected, current flows through the circuit. The
amount of current is inversely proportional to Rx. The moving coil in the PMMC instrument deflects in
proportion to the current.
Scale Calibration: The scale is calibrated to display the resistance values corresponding to the
deflection of the moving coil. Each range has its own section on the scale, typically marked with
appropriate values.
Scale Readings on Each Range:
The scale readings for each range are determined by the selected resistor and the current flowing
through the circuit.
For example:
If the 236k resistor is selected, the scale would read values in the hundreds of thousands of ohms (kΩ).
With the 14Ω resistor selected, the scale would read values in the tens of ohms.
3.25
Factors Affecting Accuracy:
Internal Resistance: The ohmmeter itself has internal resistance, which affects the measured
value. This is particularly noticeable when measuring low resistance values.
 Loading Effect: The ohmmeter's internal resistance can load the circuit being measured,
altering the true resistance value. This is more pronounced with higher resistance values.
Non-Linear Scale: As mentioned earlier, ohmmeter scales are generally non-linear. This
means that the scale divisions are not evenly spaced, resulting in varying degrees of accuracy across the
scale.
Meter Movement: The sensitivity of the PMMC meter movement also contributes to accuracy.
A more sensitive movement provides better resolution and potentially higher accuracy.
Most Accurate Part of the Scale:The middle portion of the ohmmeter scale generally offers the most
accurate resistance measurement. Here's why:
Minimized Loading Effect: The loading effect is minimized in the middle range because the
internal resistance of the ohmmeter is less significant compared to the resistance being measured.
Optimal Sensitivity: The meter movement is most sensitive in the middle of its range. This
allows for finer resolution and more accurate readings.
Linearity: While the scale is still not perfectly linear, it tends to be more linear in the middle
range.
3.26
Here's the procedure for using a VOM (Volt-Ohm-Meter) as a DC ammeter:
Select DC Ammeter Function: Rotate the function selector knob to the "DC mA" or "DC A" position,
depending on the expected current range.
Select Appropriate Range: Choose the most appropriate current range based on your estimation of the
current being measured. Start with a higher range and then switch to a lower range if necessary.
Connect in Series: Unlike a voltmeter, an ammeter must be connected in series with the circuit you
want to measure. This means breaking the circuit and inserting the ammeter between the two points
where you want to measure the current.
Ensure Proper Polarity: The VOM has polarity markings (usually "+" and "-"). Connect the red lead
(positive) to the positive side of the circuit and the black lead (negative) to the negative side of the
circuit.
Read the Measurement: Observe the deflection of the pointer on the scale. The scale is usually
calibrated in mA (milliamps) or A (amps). If necessary, switch to a lower range to obtain a more
precise reading.
Disconnect: After completing the measurement, disconnect the VOM from the circuit.
3.27
(a) Using the VOM as a DC Voltmeter:
Select DC Voltmeter Function: Rotate the function selector knob to the "DC V" position.
Select Appropriate Range: Choose the most suitable voltage range based on your estimate of the
voltage being measured. Start with a higher range and then switch to a lower range if necessary.
Connect in Parallel: Connect the VOM in parallel with the component or part of the circuit where you
want to measure the voltage. This means connecting the VOM's probes across the two points between
which you want to measure the voltage.
Ensure Proper Polarity: The VOM has polarity markings (usually "+" and "-"). Connect the red lead
(positive) to the positive side of the circuit and the black lead (negative) to the negative side of the
circuit.
Read the Measurement: Observe the deflection of the pointer on the scale. The scale is usually
calibrated in V (volts). If necessary, switch to a lower range to obtain a more precise reading.
Disconnect: After completing the measurement, disconnect the VOM from the circuit.
(b) Using the VOM as an AC Voltmeter:
Select AC Voltmeter Function: Rotate the function selector knob to the "AC V" position.
Select Appropriate Range: Choose the appropriate AC voltage range based on your estimate of the
voltage being measured.
Connect in Parallel: Connect the VOM in parallel with the component or part of the circuit where you
want to measure the voltage.
Read the Measurement: Observe the deflection of the pointer on the scale. The scale is usually
calibrated in V (volts). The VOM will display the RMS (root mean square) value of the AC voltage.
Disconnect: After completing the measurement, disconnect the VOM from the circuit.
3.28
The electrodynamic instrument consists of the following parts:
Field coil: This is a stationary coil that is wound around a non-magnetic core. It is used to produce a
magnetic field.
Moving coil: This is a coil that is suspended in the magnetic field produced by the field coil. It is free
to rotate.
Pointer: This is attached to the moving coil and rotates with it. It indicates the magnitude of the current
being measured.
Control spring: This is a spring that provides a restoring force that opposes the rotation of the moving
coil.
Damping vane: This is a vane that is attached to the moving coil and is immersed in a viscous fluid. It
helps to damp out oscillations and to prevent overshoot.
When a current flows through the field coil, it produces a magnetic field. When a current flows through
the moving coil, it interacts with the magnetic field produced by the field coil. This interaction
produces a torque that causes the moving coil to rotate. The control spring opposes this rotation, and
the moving coil will come to rest at an angle that is proportional to the current flowing through the
moving coil. The pointer attached to the moving coil will then indicate the magnitude of the current.
3.29

The major disadvantages of an electrodynamic instrument compared to a PMMC instrument are the
lower sensitivity and the nonlinear scale. A major advantage of the electrodynamic instrument is that it
is not polarized; that is, a positive deflection is obtained regardless of the direction of current in the
coils. Thus the instrument can be used to measure ac or dc.
3.30

- Electrodynamic Voltmeter:
Three coils connected in series
Multiplier resistor made of manganin or constantan
High resistance, but low sensitivity (10 Ω/V at 100 mA FSD)
Measures both DC and AC RMS voltage
Not suitable for electronic circuits due to loading effect
- Electrodynamic Ammeter:
Moving coil and swamping resistance in parallel with shunt
Field coils in series with the parallel arrangement
Not affected by temperature changes
Uses manganin shunt resistor
Measures both DC and AC current
3.32

DC Power:
Constant Voltage and Current: DC power is calculated using the simple formula P=V×I (power
= voltage × current) since both voltage and current remain constant over time.
True AC Power:
Characteristics of Alternating Current: AC voltage and current change sinusoidally over time,
with a phase difference between them.
True Power Calculation: True power is calculated using P=V×I×cos(ϕ), where cos(ϕ)is the power
factor. AC measurement devices use True RMS technology to ensure accurate measurements for non-
sinusoidal waveforms.
3.33

Elimination of Measurement Errors:

Direct Proportionality to Load Voltage: By ensuring that the moving-coil current is always proportional
to the load voltage, the wattmeter maintains accuracy in its measurement of power.

Cancellation of Error Components: The additional winding effectively cancels out the influence of the
moving-coil current on the total magnetic flux. This cancellation is crucial because it eliminates errors
that would arise from the moving-coil current affecting the power measurement.

Accurate Deflection: As a result of this design, the deflection of the wattmeter needle becomes
directly proportional to the product of voltage and current (E×1), providing a true measure of power
without the errors typically introduced by the interaction between the load current and the moving
coil.
3.34

Operation:
Range Selection: The user first selects the appropriate voltage and current ranges using the switch.
This configuration determines the sensitivity of the instrument.
Torque Production: When current flows through the current coil and voltage is applied across the
voltage coil, a magnetic field is created. The interaction of these fields exerts a torque on the moving
coil.
Deflection: The torque causes the moving coil to rotate, and the attached pointer moves across a
calibrated scale. The scale is marked in units of power (usually watts or kilowatts).
Range Adjustment: The chosen ranges affect the scale's sensitivity. A higher current or voltage range
will result in a larger deflection for a given power level.
Precautions:
Correct Range Selection: It's crucial to select the correct ranges for the voltage and current being
measured. If the range is too low, the pointer could be damaged by over-deflection. If the range is too
high, the reading will be inaccurate and lack resolution.
Connection Polarity: Connect the wattmeter to the circuit correctly, ensuring that the current and
voltage coils are properly polarized. Incorrect polarity will lead to incorrect power measurements.
Loading Effect: Be aware of the loading effect of the wattmeter, especially on high-impedance circuits.
The voltage coil's resistance can introduce a slight error in voltage measurement, affecting the
accuracy of the power reading.
Calibration: Before using a multirange wattmeter, ensure it is properly calibrated against a standard.
Calibration ensures the accuracy of the readings across the different ranges.
Frequency Limitations: Electrodynamic wattmeters have some frequency limitations. If the AC
frequency is too high, the inductive effects of the coils might cause significant errors in the power
measurement.
Overload Protection: Avoid overloading the wattmeter. Exceeding the maximum current or voltage
ratings can damage the instrument.
 Công thức
Khi dòng điện I chạy qua cuộn dây một vòng nằm trong từ trường thì F là lực tác
dụng lên mỗi phía của cuộn dây F = 2BLI
Vì lực tác dụng lên mỗi phía của cuộn dây nên tổng lực tác dụng lên cuộn dây N vòng
là
F = 2BIIN
Lực ở mỗi bên tác dụng với bán kính r, tạo ra mô men xoắn làm lệch hướng:
TD= BLIN(2r)=BLIND (Nm)
N là vòng.
B là mật độ từ thông tính bằng tesla
I là dòng điện tính bằng ampe
L là chiều dài của cuộn dây tính bằng mét.
bán kính r

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