TECTONICS, VOL. 21, NO. 4, 1023, 10.

1029/2000TC001259, 2002

Arc dynamics and tectonic history of Fiji based on stress

and kinematic analysis of dikes and faults of the Tavua
Volcano, Viti Levu Island, Fiji
Graham Begg1 and David R. Gray2
Victorian Institute of Earth and Planetary Sciences (VIEPS) School of Geosciences, Monash University, Melbourne,
VIC, Australia
Received 28 August 2000; revised 16 October 2001; accepted 13 December 2001; published 13 July 2002.
[1] Stress analysis of dikes and kinematic analysis of both changes in regional stress orientations and directions of
faults within the Tavua Volcano of Viti Levu, Fiji, plate motion [e.g., Goscombe and Everard, 2001]. Since
indicate an apparent migration of the causative Anderson [1936, 1951] postulated that volcanic dikes and
maximum principal stress axis (s1) from NW toward sills intrude parallel to the local s1 – s2 plane with opening of
north between 5.0 and <3.9 Ma. The dikes and their walls parallel to s3, dike trends have been used as
faults are part of successive structural and magmatic dynamic indicators to map out regional stress trajectories and
to determine principal stress directions [e.g., Ode, 1957;
events at the arc scale. We present data on the Nakamura et al., 1977, 1980; Muller and Pollard, 1977].
chronological succession of stress indicators in the The orientation and slip sense of contemporaneous strike-slip
Tavua Volcano, based on overprinting relationships faults in active arc environments may also be used to resolve
and published geochronology, which also equate with the principal horizontal stress directions responsible for their
a counterclockwise rotation of Fiji, assuming an movement [e.g., Arthaud, 1969], and to establish the regional
approximately constant N-S regional compressive stress field of the associated tectonic setting.
stress orientation during this time. The latter [3] An abundance of dynamic and kinematic indicators at
interpretation is consistent with paleomagnetism all observational scales over the Tavua Volcano, Fiji, and a
studies that require substantial counterclockwise well-defined chronology of events [Setterfield et al., 1992;
rotation of the Fiji Platform, since fragmentation of Eaton and Setterfield, 1993; Begg, 1996], allows a detailed
the formerly continuous Outer Melanesian Arc during examination of the stress history of the volcano and the island
of Viti Levu, relative to the changing plate boundaries and
the latest Miocene to earliest Pliocene. The stress data plate configurations. Dikes and sills of different composition
suggest that the Fiji platform has undergone an 50 commonly reflect the evolving magma chamber through time
rotation since 5 Ma. Given that rotation apparently and thereby provide a chronology of stress indicators that can
stopped at 3 Ma, then particularly fast rotation of therefore be used to track the regional stress field. In the
25 Myr 1 occurred from 5 Ma to 3 Ma. Recent Tavua Volcano these include precaldera absarokite (basalt)
seismicity data indicate the platform is currently subject dikes and syncaldera shoshonite and banakite dikes, which,
to N-S compression. The history of late Miocene and combined with stress orientation data from both caldera
Pliocene events in the region can be related to the collapse and postcollapse fault structures, map out the
consequences arising from collision of an island arc rotation of Fiji over at least 1.3 m.y. during the Pliocene.
with an oceanic plateau. INDEX TERMS: 8010 Structural [4] Fiji provides a unique laboratory to investigate struc-
Geology: Fractures and faults; 8155 Tectonophysics: Plate tures that have resulted from the stranding of an arc from the
motions—general; 9355 Information Related to Geographic subduction process, with later uplift, rotation, and deforma-
Region: Pacific Ocean; K EYWORDS : stress, dikes, faults, tion as a result of back arc extension and shear deformation.
kinematics, Fiji, tectonics The objectives of this paper are firstly, to document dike
orientation and fault slip data from the Tavua Volcano,
secondly, to place these data in a regional arc-scale context,
1. Introduction and thirdly, to use them to investigate the stress history and
rotation of Fiji over time. Stress orientation data show that the
[2] In oceanic plate settings, features such as dikes, sills, maximum compressive stress direction (s1) derived from
and faults in both ocean floor and volcanic arc sequences can stress indicators within the Tavua Caldera has changed
be used as kinematic and dynamic (stress) indicators to track through time because of events at the arc scale. These data
support independent paleomagnetic evidence for counter-
1
Now at Western Mining Corporation Limited (WMC) Resources, clockwise rotation of Fiji between 10 Ma and 3 Ma.
Belmont, WA, Australia.
2
Now at School of Earth Sciences, The University of Melbourne,
Melbourne, VIC, Australia. 2. Tectonic Setting of Fiji
Copyright 2002 by the American Geophysical Union. [5] The Fiji Islands are situated on a prominent offset of
0278-7407/02/2000TC001259$12.00 the convergent boundary between the Pacific and Australian

5-1
5-2 BEGG AND GRAY: FIJI ARC DYNAMICS AND TECTONIC HISTORY

Figure 1. Tectonic setting (Figures 1a –1c) and tectonic reconstructions (Figures 1d and 1e) of the Outer
Melanesian region (adapted from Hathway [1993]; reprinted with permission from the Geological
Society of London). (a) Map of the Fiji platform and north end of the Lau Ridge showing the major
islands in the Fiji area, the major early Pliocene volcanoes of Viti Levu, the major seafloor fracture zones,
and part of the spreading center of the Fiji Basin (adapted from Gill and Whelan [1989]). Shoshonitic
volcanoes, including the Tavua Volcano (T), are shown by squares and calc-alkaline volcanoes by circles.
(b) Tectonic features of the northeastern segment of the plate boundary between the Australian and
Pacific plates showing the Outer Melanesian Arc of the southwest Pacific, trenches and ridge systems,
and oceanic plateaus (adapted from Kroenke [1984]). Fiji, as part of the Fiji Platform, consists of a series
of islands at the north end of the Lau Ridge, with the North Fiji Basin formed as part of a spreading
center. (c) Present plate configuration. (d) Reconstruction at 5.5 Ma. (e) Reconstruction at 10 Ma. In
Figures 1a – 1e the Australian plate is fixed and the east-west convergence rate between plates was
assumed to be 9– 10 cm yr 1. Shading represents submarine depths <2000 m. Abbreviations are as
follows: VT, Vitiaz trench; VAT, Vanuatu trench; LR, Lau Ridge; LB, Lau Basin; TR, Tonga Ridge; FFZ,
Fiji Fracture Zone; LL, Lomaiviti lineament; V-BL, Vatulele-Beqa lineament. Long dashes denote
southern margin of the Melanesian Border Plateau (MBP). The open square (Figures 1b and 1c) denotes
the location of the Tavua Volcano.

tectonic plates (Figure 1). This offset marks a broad zone of Recent paleomagnetic data suggest that rotation of the Fiji
diffuse spreading and transform faulting [Hamburger and platform stopped abruptly at 3 Ma with the development of
Isacks, 1988] accommodating divergence of the east facing a well-defined spreading center in the North Fiji Basin
Tonga arc-trench system and the west facing Vanuatu arc- [Taylor et al., 2000].
trench system by left lateral wrenching and opening of the [6] Current seismicity data show that while NE-SW
North Fiji Basin. Active subduction is along the present-day shortening dominates in the vicinity of the left lateral Fiji
Vanuatu and Tonga-Kermadec trenches. The low level of Fracture Zone, it is progressively overshadowed by N-S
earthquake activity south of Viti Levu and the dominant shortening farther south on the Fiji Platform [Hamburger
strike-slip fault plane solutions indicate that subduction and Isacks, 1988]. The component of NE-ENE shortening
along the Hunter Fracture Zone (Figure 1c) has possibly may reflect transfer of stresses associated with sinistral slip
ceased [Hamburger and Everingham, 1986]. This means of the Fiji Fracture Zone. In the Lau Basin and eastern
that the Fiji Platform is again part of the Australian plate North Fiji Basin current stress fields indicate N-S shortening
[Rodda, 1993]. The boundary between the Pacific and and E-W extension along NW and NE striking strike-slip
Australian plates is regarded to be the seismically active faults [Hamburger et al., 1988]. Pliocene shoshonitic and
Fiji Fracture Zone [Hamburger and Everingham, 1986]. calc-alkaline volcanic centers dominantly occur along three
 BEGG AND GRAY: FIJI ARC DYNAMICS AND TECTONIC HISTORY 5-3

lineaments in the Fiji region. Seven shoshonitic and high K 1967], while further uplift associated with deformation
calc-alkaline volcanic centers define the ENE trending Viti seems to have occurred at 7.5 Ma [Hathway, 1993]. The
Levu lineament [Rodda, 1993]. The largest of these is the collisions effectively terminated subduction along the Vitiaz
shoshonitic Tavua Volcano on the island of Viti Levu (‘‘T’’ trench and led to reversal of arc polarity northwest of Fiji
in Figure 1c). This lineament extends from northwest Viti along the Vanuatu segment of the arc possibly as early as
Levu through Vanua Levu and coincides with the NE 8 Ma [Hamburger and Isacks, 1988; Gill and Whelan, 1989].
alignment of volcanic centers on the island of Tavueni. [9] At this time a new trench was established west of the
Two other lineaments, the NNW trending Lomaiviti linea- Vanuatu arc (Figure 1e) [Gill and Whelan, 1989], where
ment immediately east of Viti Levu and the ENE trending volcanism began to reflect the presence of the new sub-
Vatulele-Beqa lineament immediately south of Viti Levu duction zone during the Pliocene [Gill and Gorton, 1973].
[Gill and Whelan, 1989; Rodda, 1993], are represented by Between 8.0 and 5.5 Ma, fragmentation of the arc immedi-
island chains on margins of the Fiji Platform and are ately north of Fiji formed a transverse rift, which became a
dominated by Pliocene shoshonitic plus lesser calc-alkaline transfer zone as back arc spreading allowed the opposite
volcanism. facing Vanuatu and Tonga arcs to diverge [Whelan et al.,
[7] Further south of Viti Levu, just off the southern 1985; Gill et al., 1984]. Back arc spreading occurred initially
margin of the Fiji Platform, the Kadavu Islands lie imme- in the North Fiji Basin and later in the Lau Basin. The
diately north of the Hunter Fracture Zone and trend between spreading resulted in isolation of the inactive Vitiaz trench
NE and ENE. They are composed of basaltic to dacitic and the Lau Ridge (Figure 1b). Palaeomagnetic data indicate
shoshonitic to high-K and medium-K calc-alkaline vol- that the oldest rocks of the North Fiji Basin may be up to 8
canics ranging in age from 3.2 Ma to <1 Ma [Rodda, Ma [Malahoff et al., 1982], whereas the opening of the Lau
1993]. There is one small volcano of alkali-basalt. To the Basin is thought to have occurred between 6 and 3 Ma
west of Viti Levu, the Yasawa group of islands are domi- [Parson et al., 1990; Taylor et al., 2000], but probably closer
nated by late Miocene basaltic and andestic volcanism. to 3 Ma [Gill and Whelan, 1989]. Shoshonitic volcanism,
Post-Miocene folding about axes parallel to the NNE to normally associated with arc extension-related volcanism
NE strike of the island chain is accompanied by southeast [Morrison, 1980], occurred in Fiji as early as 5.5 Ma [Gill
over northwest thrusting [Rodda, 1993]. East of Viti Levu, and Whelan, 1989].
the islands of the Koro Sea consist of basaltic volcanoes [10] The northern part of the Lau Ridge adjacent to the
with diverse geochemistry, including tholeiitic, calc-alka- transverse rift, incorporating the Fiji Islands, underwent
line, shoshonitic, and alkaline [Rodda, 1993]. counterclockwise rotation sometime after 5.5 Ma [Whelan
et al., 1985] and is now known as the Fiji Platform (broadly
defined by the 2000 m bathymetric contour). Studies of
3. Tectonic History paleomagnetic data on Viti Levu indicate 21– 60 of
rotation during the past 3 – 5 m.y. [Whelan et al., 1985;
[8] The magmatic, sedimentological, and structural pro- Taylor et al., 2000], though Malahoff et al. [1982] claim up
cesses that formed the Fiji Platform can be viewed as part of to 90 of rotation. New data from Taylor et al. [2000]
three distinct tectonic and volcanic phases of the Outer suggest that the total counterclockwise rotation of the Fiji
Melanesian Arc [see Gill et al., 1984]: (1) Vitiaz arc phase Platform from 10 Ma to 3 Ma is 135 (±17), with the
(35 –8 Ma); (2) transitional phase (8– 3 Ma); and (3) present original arc facing east (compatible with Musgrave and
phase (3 –0 Ma). The Vanuatu, Fiji, and Tonga Islands were Firth [1999]). They suggest that some 60– 65 of this
once part of the continuous Vitiaz arc (Figure 1e), related to rotation occurred before 6 Ma. Similarly, paleomagnetic
a west dipping subduction zone composed of the Tonga data suggest that the Vanuatu island arc rotated 30 in a
trench and extending northwest along the now relict Vitiaz clockwise direction during the past 6 m.y. [Falvey, 1978], or
trench to the eastern margin of the Solomon Islands arc 39 since the late Miocene [Musgrave and Firth, 1999].
[Chase, 1971; Recy and Dupont, 1982; Colley and Hindle, Incipient northward subduction of the South Fiji Basin crust
1984; Gill and Whelan, 1989]. This arc system was active occurred along the southern margin of the Fiji Platform,
from the early Eocene to the middle Miocene [Gill and defining the Hunter Fracture Zone (Hunter Fracture Zone
McDougall, 1973], until collision with the Melanesian (HFZ); Figures 1b and 1c). Along with the Fiji Fracture
Border Plateau, immediately north of Fiji [Falvey, 1975; Zone (FFZ; Figures 1b and 1c) defining the northern margin
Gill and Whelan, 1989], and the Ontong Java Plateau, of the Fiji Platform, the two fracture zones now define the
farther north adjacent to the Solomon Islands [Falvey, southern and northern limits, respectively, of a diffuse E-W
1975; L. W. Kroenke, Geology of the Ontong-Java Plateau, left lateral transfer zone linking the divergent Vanuatu and
unpublished report 72-5, Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, Tonga trenches (Figure 1c) [Hamburger and Isacks, 1988].
1972]. The timing of these collisions is not known precisely,
but Ontong Java Plateau collision is thought to have
occurred at about 10 Ma [Kroenke, 1984, also unpub- 4. Stress and Kinematic Indicators
lished report, 1972]. The Melanesian Border Plateau may,
however, have collided with the arc east of Fiji as late as 7.5
and the Tavua Volcano
Ma [Gill and Whelan, 1989; Hathway, 1993]. In Fiji, uplift, [11] The Tavua Volcano is the largest of seven shosho-
intrusion of trondjhemite ± gabbro, and accompanying low- nitic to high-K calc-alkaline Pliocene volcanoes defining the
temperature metamorphism occurred at 10 Ma [Rodda, ENE trending Viti Levu lineament on the island of Viti
5-4 BEGG AND GRAY: FIJI ARC DYNAMICS AND TECTONIC HISTORY

Figure 2. Geological map of the island of Viti Levu (adapted from Rodda [1984]). Remnants of the
Vitiaz arc (Figure 1e) are the tholeiitic basalts of the late Eocene to early Oligocene Yavuna Group on the
west side of the island. These are unconformably overlain by rocks of the Wainimala arc (Wainimala
Group) of Hathway [1993] intruded by the Colo Plutonic Suite ranging from 12.5 to 8 or 7 Ma [Rodda
and Kroenke, 1984; Whelan et al., 1985; Rodda, 1993; Hathway, 1994], that crop out as part of a ENE
trending anticlinorium stretching across southern Viti Levu. The northern part of the island is dominated
by early Pliocene shoshonitic volcanics, including the Tavua Volcano (TC, Tavua Caldera). The bold
dashed line shows the position of the Wainimala Island arc axis and the bold arrows denote the position
of the Viti Levu Lineament. Basins are labeled as follows: A, Nadi Basin; B, Sovi Basin; C, Navua Basin.

Levu, Fiji (Figure 2). The intrusive sequence of the volcano thermal events affecting the Tavua Volcano is presented in
spans a period between 5.2 Ma and 4.4 Ma [Whelan et al., Figure 4.
1985; Setterfield et al., 1992]. Within the volcano, nested
calderas filled with shoshonitic lavas (augite andesite, Turtle
4.1. Dikes
Pool Formation of the first caldera) and banakitic lavas
(biotite andesite, Morrisons Pool Formation of the second [12] Abundant dikes of compositions equivalent to all
caldera) (Figure 3) indicate two major sequential collapse extrusive lava types of the Tavua Volcano occur within
episodes, respectively, associated with a total subsidence of the precaldera stratigraphy, but lesser numbers of dikes
3 km [Setterfield et al., 1991; Begg, 1996]. Dikes asso- occur within the caldera (Figure 3). Absarokite dikes do
ciated with each caldera stage intrude older rocks across the not occur within the Tavua Caldera, and shoshonite dikes
volcano. Collapse resulted in extensive block faulting, do not occur within the Inner Caldera. Monzonite dikes
development of a large number of steep faults, and tilting are observed at depth within the Emperor gold mine.
around the caldera margin, best exposed along the south- Crosscutting relationships consistently indicate that absar-
west margin in the workings of the Emperor gold mine okite dikes are the oldest and banakite dikes are the
(Figure 3). The Emperor low sulphidation epithermal gold youngest.
deposit formed after cessation of volcanic activity [Ander- [13] Most dikes strike obliquely to the caldera margins,
son and Eaton, 1990; Setterfield et al., 1992]. A summary and ring dikes are rare. Precaldera absarokite dikes show
of the relative timing of structural, magmatic, and hydro- WNW to NW trends, with lesser NNE-NE trends (Figure 5a).
 BEGG AND GRAY: FIJI ARC DYNAMICS AND TECTONIC HISTORY 5-5

Figure 3. Simplified geology of the Tavua Basin. Adapted from mapping by Western Mining
Corporation (Fiji) Ltd (WMC). Boundary between the precaldera (absarokite and Wainivoce Formation)
and earliest syncaldera (caldera contact breccia and Turtle Pool Formation) material is known as the
caldera contact. Abbreviations are as follows: IC, inner caldera; NNB, Natolevu North Basin; NSZ,
Nasivi Shear Zone; HBS, Homeward Bound Shear; SS, Shatter Shear; BF, Brewster fault; KF,
Koromakawa fault; LF, Lololevu fault; VF, Vunisina fault.

Though the total data mean is 311, the individual sector occur adjacent and subparallel to the caldera and may be
means all lie between 270 and 305, with the exception considered as ring dikes.
of the S sector (354). The occurrence of north trends in
the S sector and west trends in the E sector may reflect 4.2. Faults
radial geometries with respect to the center of the volcano [14] Faults in the caldera are brittle, 5 cm to 2 m wide
(now occupied by the caldera). Shoshonite (augite ande- zones consisting of varying proportions of gouge, micro-
site) dikes contemporaneous with the infill of the initial breccia, breccia ± foliated cataclasite. They are best exposed
caldera by the Turtle Pool Formation show predominant over a vertical interval of 720 m within the Emperor gold
NW strikes in all sectors (Figure 5b), though this may vary mine. Foliated cataclasites are observed at most levels of the
between WNW and NNW. Dikes with NE trends are rare. mine except within the upper 150 m. They have a crudely to
Banakite (biotite andesite) dikes contemporaneous with the well-manifested ‘‘foliation,’’ with the angle between the
infill of the inner caldera by the Morrisons Pool Formation foliation and the overall zone describing a sense of fault
show predominant NW trends, with variation between E- movement in a similar way to S-C geometries in mylonitic
W and NNW (Figure 5c). A slight preference for NE rocks [e.g., Berthe et al., 1979; Simpson and Schmid, 1983].
trends occurs in the N sector. Mapping and drilling This observation is supported by other mesoscopic sense of
indicates that occasional shoshonite and banakite dikes movement indicators such as offsets markers, tension
5-6 BEGG AND GRAY: FIJI ARC DYNAMICS AND TECTONIC HISTORY

Figure 4. Relative timing of structural, magmatic, and hydrothermal events affecting the Tavua
Volcano. Adapted from Eaton and Setterfield [1993]. Events are listed in order of relative age deduced
from field observations. Solid lines represent well-constrained event; dashed lines represent moderate to
poorly constrained event. The 40Ar-39Ar age quoted for the Emperor porphyry and epithermal activity is
the weighted mean age of six samples [Begg, 1996]. Other quoted ages are from Setterfield et al. [1992]
and Begg [1996].

gashes/veins, quartz-fiber steps and pluck marks [Tjia, Nasivi Shear Zone (NSZ), which was active prior to and
1968, 1971] on slickensided surfaces. The foliation is during the collapse and infill of the Tavua Caldera [Begg,
usually either defined by gouge and microbreccia layers 1996]. The NSZ is manifested within the caldera by a series
of different composition and/or grain size, or by quartz- of en echelon faults (Figure 3). Two splits of the NSZ, the
carbonate vein material alternating with gouge and micro- Homeward Bound Shear and Shatter Shear, pass through
breccia. Faults from deeper parts of the mine often also the precaldera stratigraphy in the northern portion of the
contain chlorite-rich bands parallel to the foliation. Several Emperor gold mine (HBS and SS; Figure 3). The Emperor
episodes of cataclasis ± cementation (generally by silicifi- gold mine is located at a pronounced intersection of regional
cation) are apparent on many faults. When exposed, faults throughgoing faults and ring faults of the caldera margin,
frequently display at least one well- slickensided surface, and represents a zone of intense faulting and fracturing.
preserving the last movement vector. Crosscutting relation- [16] Fault geometries in the Emperor gold mine form four
ships indicate that this last movement episode generally groups (Figures 5d and 6): (1) north and NNE striking
postdates epithermal mineralization. vertical to steeply east dipping ring faults; (2) NW striking
[15] The most prominent regional fault sets are steeply steeply SW dipping faults; (3) WNW striking steeply north
dipping with WNW, NW, NNE, and E-W strikes dipping faults such as the Homeward Bound Shear and
(Figure 5d). The ring fault pattern is dominantly composed Shatter Shear; and (4) thrust faults (also called flatmakes in
of a number of throughgoing regional faults, or fault sets, usage by the Emperor gold mine) with SE, south, or north
each of which occupies a portion of the overall polygonally dips <45 (typically, 20– 35), 100 m to kilometer length
shaped caldera margin. The most pronounced ring fault scales and 0.1– 3.0 m widths (Figure 6b). The largest thrust
development coincides with the mapped position of the fault, the Prince Flatmake, has strike and dip lengths of
caldera contact. Some faults impinging on the caldera 1575 m and >1500 m, respectively.
margin at a high angle to the ring faults are terminated at
the margin. These are a combination of regional through- 5. Kinematic Analysis of Faults
going faults that must predate infill of the Tavua Caldera,
and local radial faults associated with various stages of
in the Tavua Volcano
caldera collapse. A number of faults are manifested within [17] Slickenside measurements have been taken from
the caldera, and some of these are regional throughgoing faults and fault zones across the Tavua Volcano, with most
faults. The most prominent of these is the WNW trending data (>95%) from the Emperor gold mine. Where slicken-
BEGG AND GRAY: FIJI ARC DYNAMICS AND TECTONIC HISTORY 5-7

sides are observed in the vicinity of lode structures, they

generally postdate the mineralization and preserve evidence
of the last slip event to occur. Total slickenside data from
the Tavua Volcano (Figure 7a) describes dominant shallow
to moderate plunges broadly scattered 50 either side of
NNW-SSE. Kamb contouring reveals a strong, shallow
plunging maxima trending south, and weaker maxima
trending NNW-SSE and WNW (Figure 7b).
[18] Slip normal analysis was undertaken using FaultKin
(unpublished computer program, version 3.25a, developed
by R. W. Allmendinger, R. A. Marrett, and T. Cladouhos)
on the subset of this data (n = 157) that contained fault plane
orientation, slickenside lineation, and sense of movement
information. Movement senses were obtained from
observed offsets, tensional fracture orientations, quartz-fiber
steps [Marshak and Mitra, 1988], pluck and drag textures
[Petit, 1987; Angelier, 1994, Figure 4.17], and foliation
trajectories in foliated gouge and cataclasite. FaultKin was
used to calculate the principal incremental shortening axes
(P), and principal incremental extension axes (T ), and
linked Bingham axes. Each pair of P and T axes lies in
the movement plane containing the slip vector and the
normal vector to the fault plane. The axes are at 45 to
the vectors. Knowledge of slip direction is required to
distinguish between the axes. The linked Bingham axes
correspond to the directional maxima of the shortening and
extension axes for a given population of faults [Mardia,
1972]. They are the equivalent of an unweighted moment
tensor summation, where all faults are given equal weight,
and the kinematics are assumed to be scale-invariant [Mar-
rett and Allmendinger, 1990]. Marrett and Allmendinger
[1990] point out that this will affect the accuracy of the
method, as will any reorientation of the data, sampling bias
with respect to the whole fault population, or any spatial
heterogeneity of the strain. In this study, any reorientation of
the data will be minor, as there is no evidence of significant
overprinting deformation. Sampling bias has been ignored.

Figure 5. (opposite) Fault and dike strike orientation data

for the Tavua Volcano. The mapped portion of the volcano
excludes much of the eastern flank. Most information is
derived from the periphery of the Tavua Caldera. The thin
solid line encompasses >97% of data, which has been
arbitrarily divided into eight sectors to highlight spatial
changes in structure orientations about the caldera. (a)
Basalt (absarokite) dikes. (b) Augite andesite (shoshonite)
dikes. (c) Biotite andesite (banakite) dikes. (d) Faults. Data
from the W1 sector are mostly the authors’ own, while data
in other sectors are mostly derived from WMC mapping. No
account is made for dikes of different lengths. Coordinates
refer to the local WMC exploration grid, parallel to
geographic north. Roses are divided into 10 increments,
and petals are not weighted by area, tending to accentuate
dominant trends. The ‘‘n’’ value is the number of structures
per rose diagram. Approximate ages are given for each
group of structures based on field relationships and
radiometric age dates from Whelan et al. [1985] and
Setterfield et al. [1992].
5-8 BEGG AND GRAY: FIJI ARC DYNAMICS AND TECTONIC HISTORY

Figure 6. Fault populations within the Emperor gold mine. (a) Map of fault intersections at the 10 level
(240 m below sea level) Emperor gold mine constructed from underground mapping. (b) East-west
structural profile through the Emperor gold mine showing the caldera contact (delineated by breccia),
steep, anastomosing brittle faults, and the gently dipping thrust faults. Individual features are designated
by a numbering system for faults (e.g., F1, F2), thrust faults (e.g., L1, L2), and dikes (D1, D2, etc.). Some
fault and dike names can be cross-referenced using this numbering system on Figure 10.

Homogeneity of the strain in the mine was tested by boundaries (faults F1, F2, F3; Figure 6), with all the
examining the linked Bingham axes for data from different (generally smaller displacement) faults from within the
tilt blocks in the Emperor gold mine [Begg, 1996]. Moder- blocks. A good correlation exists, thus the fault kinematics
ate to good correlation exists between the dominant strain are scale-invariant.
axes clusters in each block. Weighting of the data was [19] The strain axis patterns for all slickenside data are
qualitatively assessed by comparing the kinematics of the shown in Figures 7c – 7f. While the P axis data show a
largest faults in the mine, which form reactivated block strong clustering (Figures 7c and 7d), the T axes describe a
 BEGG AND GRAY: FIJI ARC DYNAMICS AND TECTONIC HISTORY 5-9

P axes, consistent with a component of NE-ENE shortening,

and NNW extension.

6. Dikes and Faults as Stress Indicators

[20] Dike trends may be used as stress indicators [e.g.,
Ode, 1957; Nakamura et al., 1977, 1980; Muller and
Pollard, 1977; Zoback et al., 1981; Eaton, 1982, 1984;
Laughlin et al., 1983]. Anderson [1936, 1951] postulated
that volcanic dikes intrude parallel to the local s1 – s2 plane,
with either stress vertical, and with s3 horizontal, provided
the magma pressure exceeded s3 + T, where T is the tensile
strength of the rock. Similarly, with sills the s1 – s2 plane
would be horizontal and s3 therefore vertical. This is in
keeping with the Griffith crack theory [e.g., Jaeger, 1969;
Roberts, 1970; Suppe, 1985], where a fluid-filled crack will
tend to propagate perpendicular to s3, similar to a tensile
fracture. Planar discontinuities such as bedding, faults,

Figure 7. Slipline kinematic summary for all data from the

Emperor gold mine, Tavua Volcano. All plots are on equal-
area stereonets. Contour plots use intervals of 3s. Axes are
labeled as follows: P, principal incremental shortening axes;
T, principal incremental extension axes. (a) Total slicken-
sides. (b) Contoured slickenside data. (c) P axes. (d)
Contoured P axes. (e) T axes. (f ) Contoured T axes.

girdle pattern (Figures 7e and 7f ), indicating kinematically

heterogeneous faulting. According to Marrett and Allmen-
dinger [1990], this can be attributed to any of four mech-
anisms: triaxial deformation, anistropy reactivation, strain
compatibility constraints, or multiple deformations. Since
the first two of these are particularly relevant to the data set,
because of the multiplicity of fault orientations, orthorhom-
bic fault patterns [Begg, 1996], and reactivated early dike
margins and faults, the data have been separated into steep
(fault) structures (Figure 8) and gently dipping thrust fault
related structures (Figure 9). The latter formed during, or
just prior to, the recorded slip events, whereas the faults are Figure 8. Slipline kinematic summary for faults in the
reactivated older structures inherited from caldera collapse. Emperor gold mine, Tavua Volcano. All plots are on equal
The fault kinematics indicate subhorizontal shortening from area stereonets. Contour plots use intervals of 3s. Principal
an average 330/150 (Figures 8a and 8c), with perpendic- incremental shortening axes (P), principal incremental
ular subhorizontal extension (Figures 8b and 8d), while the extension axes (T ), and linked Bingham axes. (a) P axes.
thrust fault kinematics indicate subhorizontal shortening (b) T axes. (c) Contoured P axes. (d) Contoured T axes. (e)
from an average 342/162 (Figures 9a and 9c) with Fault plane solution including linked Bingham axes for
perpendicular subvertical extension (Figures 9b and 9d). cluster 1 axes. (f) Fault plane solution including linked
Both data sets show evidence of a second, smaller cluster of Bingham axes for cluster 2 axes.
5 - 10 BEGG AND GRAY: FIJI ARC DYNAMICS AND TECTONIC HISTORY

[21] Faults can also be used as dynamic indicators,

particularly using stress inversion techniques [e.g., Etche-
copar et al., 1981; Angelier, 1984, 1994; Gephart and
Forsyth, 1984; Michael, 1984; Reches, 1987]. Stress inver-
sion assumes that the shortening and extension axes indi-
cated by the slip normal analysis of large slickenline data
sets from variably oriented faults can be directly equated
with the maximum and minimum compressive stresses,
respectively. Coincidence of stress and strain axes requires
that (1) the regional stress tensor must be spatially and
temporally homogeneous and (2) that fault surface slip must
have the same direction and sense as the maximum shear
stress resolved on each surface from the regional stress field
[see Pollard et al., 1993].

6.1. Dikes
[22] On Viti Levu in the vicinity of the Tavua Volcano,
absarokite, shoshonite, and banakite dikes have dominant
NW trends (Figures 5a – 5c), indicative of a NW sH. These
trends persist across the volcano and within the Tavua
Caldera. There is some variability of the data, particularly
for the absarokite dikes (Figure 5a), possibly indicating that
a NNE-NE sH may have preceded and, in part, overlapped
with a WNW-NW sH. Regional mapping by the Fiji
Mineral Resources Department reveals that dikes of prob-
able Pliocene age throughout the Fiji Islands are dominated
by broadly NW to north trends [e.g., Bartholomew, 1960;
Coulson, 1971; Woodrow, 1976]. A second, weaker pop-
ulation of NE to east striking dikes has also been observed.
[23] Detailed study of dikes in the Emperor gold mine
reveals that dike trajectories deviate from the regional aver-
age trend in the vicinity of the caldera contact (Figure 3). This
only occurs within a radius of 1 km from the major
caldera contact fault zone on the eastern margin of the
mine, and modeling of the stress field [Begg, 1996]
suggests that this is related to modification of the regional
Figure 9. Slipline kinematic summary for thrust faults in stress field by the stresses associated with caldera collapse.
the Emperor gold mine, Tavua Volcano. All plots are on Dike orientations are therefore considered representative of
equal-area stereonets. Contour plots use intervals of 3s. the resultant stress field. Precaldera absarokite (basalt) dike
Principal incremental shortening axes (P), principal incre- trends (Figure 5a) show an almost radial geometric distri-
mental extension axes (T), and linked Bingham axes are bution, possibly because of relatively large magma pres-
calculated from thrust fault, flatcrack, and short-length (<1 sures compared with the regional deviatoric stresses [cf.
m) fracture data. (a) P axes. (b) T axes. (c) Contoured P axes. Suppe, 1985]. Alternatively, these trends can be resolved
(d) Contoured T axes. (e) Fault plane solution including into two groups, representing a WNW-NW compression
linked Bingham axes for cluster 1 axes. (f ) Fault plane direction and a weaker NNE-NE compression direction.
solution including linked Bingham axes for cluster 2 axes. The syncaldera shoshonite and banakite dikes (Figures 5b
and 5c) indicate a strong NW sH.

joints, and other dikes may cause deviations of dike 6.2. Faults
orientations with respect to the regional stresses [Pollard, [24] Steep fault and thrust fault movement senses have
1973; Suppe, 1985]. Studies of earthquake swarms in active been used to constrain the principal horizontal compression
volcanic regions have been used to infer the orientation of direction (s1) operative after infill of the caldera (Figure 10).
dikes [e.g., Hill, 1977]. In this study, the average orientation The fault data can be broken into prethrust fault, synthrust
of the principal stresses is assumed to be either horizontal or fault, and postthrust fault movements, but as both synthrust
vertical. When it is uncertain whether s1 is horizontal or fault and postthrust fault offsets indicate a similar domain of
vertical, as is the case with vertical dikes, it is instructive to compression, they are summarized on the one diagram
refer to the principal stresses as the greatest (sH) and least (Figure 10b). To satisfy the strike-slip components of move-
(sh) horizontal principal stresses, and the vertical principal ment, the faults must have moved in response to horizontal
stress (sv). compression between 332 and 002 (Figure 10b), while the
 BEGG AND GRAY: FIJI ARC DYNAMICS AND TECTONIC HISTORY 5 - 11

sense and those with dextral movement sense. A shortening

direction of 336 for thrust fault formation has been derived
from their orthorhombic symmetry (Figure 10c).
[25] The 12 difference between the slipline analysis
shortening direction indicated for the steep faults versus
that indicated for the thrust faults indicates that at least one
of fault groups is slightly noncoaxial with respect to the
regional stress. As the steep faults are older (i.e., predate
caldera collapse) these structures have been reactivated
during caldera collapse and thrust fault development, and
they are therefore more likely to be slightly noncoaxial with
respect to the regional stress field. By examination of offset
markers, prethrust fault strike-slip movement has been
documented for a number of faults, and it corresponds with
the strike-slip component of oblique-slip occurring during
caldera collapse. To satisfy this strike-slip component of
movement, the principal horizontal compression direction
must have been between 286 and 002 (Figure 10a). This
interval contains that indicated for the dikes.

7. Stress Geometries With Time

and the Tavua Volcano
[26] The occurrence of steep dikes throughout the vol-
canic history testifies to a vertical farfield s1 –s2 plane, with
horizontal s3. A horizontal s1 is consistent with both the
prethrust fault and postthrust fault oblique-slip component
of movement on steep faults. During caldera collapse,
movement on these faults would have been mostly normal,
particularly during periods of rapid collapse, when s1 would
have been (at least locally) vertical. Formation of the thrust
faults, which occurred subsequent to infill of the Tavua
Caldera, resulted from a horizontal s1 – s2 plane, vertical
extension (s3), and with s1 approximately NNW (Figure
10c). Kinematic analysis of thrust fault slickensides, which
generally overprint the mineralization associated with thrust
fault formation, indicates the same stress geometry
(Figure 8). The en echelon nature of steep faults forming
the Nasivi Shear Zone in the center of the caldera (Figure 3)
is consistent with a broadly NW-NNW shortening and a
Figure 10. Inferred stress diagrams for Emperor gold mine horizontal s1. These faults formed immediately following
faults and thrust faults. (a) Prethrust fault kinematics (see eruption of the banakite lavas in the Inner Caldera.
asterisk). (b) Synthrust fault/postthrust fault kinematics (see [27] The onset of the horizontal shortening (response to
number symbol). (c) Thrust fault kinematics (see the ‘‘at’’ horizontal s1) from the NW quarter is constrained to
symbol). Movement sense is indicated by the half arrow on sometime during building of the upper, subaerial portion
particular fault structures. Note the principal horizontal of the volcano (period of absarokite dike intrusion) shortly
stress direction (s1) occupies the region of inward directed before caldera collapse at 4.6 Ma. Apart from some local
movement, delineated by the bold circular arrow. The fluctuations during periods of rapid collapse, s1 remained
numbers in square brackets refer to the fault and dike horizontal until at least after thrust fault formation at 3.9 Ma
numbering system in Figure 6. The s1 domain for thrust [Setterfield et al., 1992; Begg, 1996]. During this time,
faults is constrained by the normals to the Prince Flatmake in flipping of the s2 and s3 axes can be invoked to explain the
block 4, and the 608W hanging wall thrust fault. variation from steep structures formed under a horizontal
s3, such as dikes and normal faults, to gently dipping sills
and thrust faults formed under a vertical s3.
thrust faults must have formed under horizontal compression
between 300 and 021 (Figure 10c). Thus the domain of 8. Implications for the Tectonic
compression for the faults is compatible with synchronous
thrust fault development. The broad range of possible short-
Development of Fiji
ening directions indicated for the thrust faults reflects the [28] Dike orientations and fault movement histories have
large strike difference between those with sinistral movement been used as the basis for stress analysis of successive
5 - 12 BEGG AND GRAY: FIJI ARC DYNAMICS AND TECTONIC HISTORY

Table 1. Stress History of the Tavua Volcano Showing the Viti Levu lineament, with an age of at least 5.2 Ma, would
Compression Direction Through Time for Particular Stress originally have had a ESE to SE trend, assuming that the
Indicatorsa Fiji Platform rotated as a coherent mass. Many of the
largest faults on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu have NE-ENE
Data Source Compression Direction Age, Ma (formerly E-ESE) strikes. Significant lateral slip on these
Absarokite dikes WNW-NW (281 – 340) 5.2 – 4.6 structures within the Fiji Platform may have ‘‘absorbed’’
NNE-NE (010 – 050) 5.2 – 4.6 some of the rotation. However, this is considered unlikely,
Shoshonite dikes NW (305 – 314) 4.6 – 4.5
Banakite dikes NW (299 – 327) 4.5 – 4.4
Prethrust faulting WNW-N (286 – 002) 4.5 – 4.4
Thrust fault fractures NW-NNE (300 – 021) 3.9
Thrust fault group geometries NNW (336) 3.9
Synthrust/postthrust faulting NNW-N (332 – 002) 3.9
Late fault slickenlines NW-NNW (307 – 341) <3.9
Late thrust fault slickenlines NNW-N (328 – 360) <3.9
Recent seismicity north (Fiji Platform) 0
NE (north of Fiji) 0
a
Absolute ages take into account field relationships as well as 40Ar-39Ar
dating results from Setterfield et al. [1992] and from Begg [1996].
Seismicity data (focal mechanism solutions) are from Hamburger and
Isacks [1988].

structural and magmatic events (Table 1 and Figure 11).

These data suggest that the NW s1 has rotated 50
(minimum 45, maximum 60) in a clockwise direction
(from WNW to NNW) since the period 5.0– 4.6 Ma, the
time of intrusion of the WNW-NW trending absarokite
dikes (Figure 11). Alternatively, these data may be con-
strued as indicating a more or less constant N-S s1, and
50 counterclockwise rotation of the Fiji Platform. This
latter hypothesis is consistent with previous suggestions by
many other workers [e.g., Falvey, 1978; Malahoff et al.,
1982; Whelan et al., 1985] that substantial counterclock-
wise rotation of the Fiji Platform has occurred since
fragmentation of the formerly continuous Outer Melane-
sian Arc during the latest Miocene to earliest Pliocene
(Figures 1c – 1e). Paleomagnetic studies [Malahoff et al.,
1982; Whelan et al., 1985, Taylor et al., 2000] and
geological reconstructions based on land geology [Green
and Cullen, 1973], and geochemistry [Gill and Gorton,
1973], have previously been used to infer up to 90
counterclockwise rotation of the Fiji Platform since the
Miocene, with best estimates considered to be 21 –60
[Whelan et al., 1985]. Paleomagnetic work by Taylor et al.
[2000] indicates up to 135 rotation between 10 Ma and 3
Ma. The latter is compatible with the current ENE-WSW
trend of the exposed axis of the lower Oligocene to middle
Miocene Wainimala arc (Figure 2). This study provides Figure 11. Stress history summary diagram for the Tavua
important constraints not only on the amount of progres- Volcano. Domains of compression axes for all stress
sive rotation, but also on the rate and timing of the indicators are arranged in chronological order from oldest
rotation. A 50 rotation since 5 Ma indicates an average (innermost) to youngest (outermost) and plotted with
of 10 Myr 1. This incorporates a period of particularly respect to present-day geographic coordinates. These data
fast rotation of 24 Myr 1 from 5.0 Ma to 3.9 Ma. are compared with shortening directions (±10) indicated in
Taylor et al. [2000], however, postulate that rotation of the recent studies of seismicity about the Fiji Platform by
Fiji platform stopped abruptly at 3 Ma with the develop- Hamburger and Isacks [1988], and typical paleomagnetic
ment of a well-defined spreading center in the North Fiji declinations (320 – 330) for 4 – 5 Ma rocks (inside circle of
Basin. This infers that the entire 50 rotation occurred geographic reference). Assuming a fixed geographic
between 5 Ma and 3 Ma, at a rate of 25 Myr 1. reference frame, there is an apparent progressive change
Knowledge of the rotation history allows for calculation of in stress orientation with time. The outer bold arrow
the original orientation of geological features, depending indicates an apparent 45– 90 clockwise rotation of s1 with
on their age of formation. For instance, the ENE trending time. ‘‘FM’’ is abbreviation for flatmake.
 BEGG AND GRAY: FIJI ARC DYNAMICS AND TECTONIC HISTORY 5 - 13

as throughout much of the rotation history such faults the opening of the North Fiji Basin behind the Vanuatu arc,
would have been unfavorably oriented for slip, having a and the left lateral slip on the E-W transfer zone incorporat-
>50 strike disparity with a N-S s1 [cf. Sibson, 1990]. ing the platform (Figure 1d). The need to accommodate
[29] The late Miocene to Pliocene geological features of northward translation of the Australian Plate resulted in N-S
the Fiji Platform, counterclockwise rotation, and the onset of compression across the growing transfer zone. Shortly
N-S compression sometime between 5.0 Ma and 4.6 Ma, before 4.6 Ma, this compression began to be felt with greater
can be understood in relation to the events precipitated by the intensity as rotation of the platform caused misorientation of
late Miocene collision between the east facing arc and the major faults and volcanic lineaments with respect to the
oceanic plateaus of the Melanesian Borderlands (Figures 1d compression. This resulted in early Pliocene basin inversion
and 1e). Collision is likely responsible for termination of [Hathway, 1993; Rodda, 1993], the decline of volcanic
Wainimala arc volcanism and late Miocene uplift, folding, activity along the Viti Levu lineament, and a period of
and faulting [Hathway, 1993; Rodda, 1993]. Subduction particularly rapid (25 Myr 1) rotation of the platform.
flipping and initiation of the Vanuatu trench is likely to have Subduction was initiated along the Hunter Fracture Zone
encouraged NE-SE extension and the formation of SE-NW [Rodda, 1993].
trending sedimentary basins (e.g., Nadi, Sovi, and Navua
Basins on Viti Levu; now trending ENE-WSW in Figure 2)
and volcanic ‘‘lineaments’’ (e.g., Viti Levu Lineament; [30] Acknowledgments. The paper is part of Ph.D. research under-
Figure 2). An E-W transfer zone, incorporating the Fiji taken by G. Begg at Monash University while on study leave from Western
Platform, connected the opposite facing Tonga and Vanuatu Mining Corporation Limited (WMC). The work was supported by an
Australian Postgraduate Research Industry Award (APRAI) and a grant
subduction zones, which began to diverge as a consequence from WMC and Emperor Gold Mining Company Limited (EGM). G. Begg
of subduction hinge migration. Counterclockwise rotation of thanks Peter Eaton for stimulating discussions and Mohammed Azam and
the Fiji Platform occurred because of the combined effect of Gabe Faga for support and geological assistance in the mine.

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