parts, making them versatile tools in various industries.

In summary, jigs and fixtures play a critical role in manufacturing and

machining industries by improving precision, repeatability, and efficiency
while ensuring safety and reducing costs."

Parameters in Resistance Welding

1) Welding current
The welding current is the most important parameter in resistance
welding which determines the heat generation by a power of square
as shown in the formula. The size of the weld nugget increases
rapidly with increasing welding current, but too high current will result
in expulsions and electrode deteriorations.
2) 2) Welding time
The heat generation is directly proportional to the welding time. Due
to the heat transfer from the weld zone to the base metals and to the
electrodes, as well as the heat loss from the free surfaces to the
surroundings, a minimum welding current as well as a minimum
welding time will be needed to make a weld. If the welding current is
too low, simply increasing the welding time alone will not produce a
weld. When the welding current is high enough, the size of the weld
nugget increases with increasing welding time until it reaches a size
similar to the electrode tip contact area. If the welding time is
prolonged, expulsion will occur or in the worst cases the electrode
may stick to the workpiece.
3) 3) Welding force
The welding force influences the resistance welding process by its
effect on the contact resistance at the interfaces and on the contact
area due to deformation of materials. The workpieces must be
compressed with a certain force at the weld zone to enable the
passage of the current. If the welding force is too low, expulsion may
occur immediately after starting the welding current due to fact that
the contact resistance is too high, resulting in rapid heat generation. If
the welding force is high, the contact area will be large resulting in

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 low current density and low contact resistance that will reduce heat
generation and the size of weld nugget. In projection welding, the
welding force causes the collapse of the projection in the workpiece,
which changes the contact area and thereby the contact resistance
and the current density. It further influences the heat development
and the welding results.
4) 4) Contact resistance
The contact resistance at the weld interface is the most influential
parameter related to materials. It however has highly dynamic
interaction with the process parameters. The figure below shows the
measured contact resistance of mild steel at different temperatures
and different pressures. It is noticed that the contact resistance
generally decreases with increasing temperature but has a local ridge
around 300°C, and it decreases almost proportionally with increasing
pressure. All metals have rough surfaces in micro scale. When the
welding force increases, the contact pressure increases thereby the
real contact area at the interface increases due to deformation of the
rough surface asperities. Therefore the contact resistance at the
interface decreases which reduces the heat generation and the size
of weld nugget. On the metal surfaces, there are also oxides, water
vapour, oil, dirt and other contaminants. When the temperature
increases, some of the surface contaminants (mainly water and oil
based ones) will be burned off in the first couple of cycles, and the
metals will also be softened at high temperatures. Thus the contact
resistance generally decreases with increasing temperature. Even
though the contact resistance has most significant influence only in
the first couple of cycles, it has a decisive influence on the heat
distribution due to the initial heat generation and distribution.
5) 5) Materials properties
Nearly all material properties change with temperature which add to
the dynamics of the resistance welding process. The resistivity of
material influences the heat generation. The thermal conductivity and
the heat capacity influence the heat transfer. In metals such as silver
and copper with low resistivity and high thermal conductivity, little
heat is generated even with high welding current and also quickly
transferred away. They are rather difficult to weld with resistance
welding. On the other hand, they can be good materials for
electrodes. When dissimilar metals are welded, more heat will be
generated in the metal with higher resistivity. This should be
considered when designing the weld parts in projection welding and

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 selecting the forms of the electrodes in spot welding. Hardness of
material also influences the contact resistance. Harder metals (with
higher yield stress) will result in higher contact resistance at the same
welding force due to the rough surface asperities being more difficult
to deform, resulting in a smaller real contact area. Electrode materials
have also been used to influence the heat balance in resistance
welding, especially for joining light and non-ferrous metals.
6) 6) Surface coatings
Most surface coatings are applied for protection of corrosion or as a
substrate for further surface treatment. These surface coatings often
complicate the welding process. Special process parameter
adjustments have to be made according to individual types of the
surface coatings. Some surface coatings are introduced for facilitating
the welding of difficult material combinations. These surface coatings
are strategically selected to bring the heat balance to the weld
interface. Most of the surface coatings will be squeezed out during
welding, some will remain at the weld interface as a braze metal.
7) 7) Geometry and dimensions
The geometry and dimensions of the electrodes and workpieces are
very important, since they influence the current density distribution
and thus the results of resistance welding. The geometry of
electrodes in spot welding controls the current density and the
resulting size of the weld nugget. Different thicknesses of metal
sheets need different welding currents and other process parameter
settings. The design of the local projection geometry of the
workpieces is critical in projection welding, which should be
considered together with the material properties especially when
joining dissimilar metals. In principle, the embossment or projection
should be placed on the material with the lower resistivity in order to
get a better heat balance at the weld interface.
8) 8) Welding machine characteristics
The electrical and mechanical characteristics of the welding machine
have a significant influence on resistance welding processes. The
electrical characteristics include the dynamic reaction time of welding
current and the magnetic / inductive losses due to the size of the
welding window and the amount of magnetic materials in the throat.
The up-slope time of a welding machine can be very critical in micro
resistance welding as the total welding time is often extremely short.
The magnetic loss in spot welding is one of the important factors to
consider in process controls. The mechanical characteristics include

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 the speed and acceleration of the electrode follow-up as well as the
stiffness of the loading frame/arms. If the follow-up of the electrode is
too slow, expulsion may easily occur in projection welding. The figure
below shows measured process parameters in a projection welding
process, which include the dynamic curves of the welding current, the
welding force and the displacement of the electrode, where the sharp
movement corresponds to the collapse of the projection in the
workpiece.

What are the various types of clamps?

C-Clamp: Shaped like the letter "C," these clamps have a screw
mechanism to apply pressure. They are often used for woodworking,
metalworking, and general-purpose holding.

Bar Clamp: Bar clamps consist of a long bar with a clamping

mechanism. They are suitable for larger projects, such as securing
tabletops, cabinet panels, or gluing large pieces of wood.

Quick-Release Clamp: These clamps have a quick-release trigger

that allows for rapid adjustment and release of the clamping pressure.
They are handy for tasks where speed is important.

Pipe Clamp: Designed to clamp onto pipes or round objects, these

clamps are commonly used in woodworking for securing edge joints
during glue-ups.

Spring Clamp: Spring clamps use spring tension to apply pressure

and are often used for light-duty tasks like holding down paper or
fabric.

Toggle Clamp: Toggle clamps have a lever-like mechanism that can

hold workpieces in place securely. They are commonly used in jigs
and fixtures for precise positioning.

F-Clamp: These clamps have an "F" shape and are versatile for a
wide range of applications, including holding materials in place while
cutting or drilling.

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G-Clamp: Shaped like the letter "G," these clamps are used for
holding objects together or securing them to a work surface.

Pneumatic Clamp: Powered by compressed air, pneumatic clamps

offer strong, consistent pressure and are often used in industrial
applications like welding and machining.

Corner Clamp: These clamps are designed to hold two pieces at

right angles, making them ideal for assembling square or rectangular
frames.

Band Clamp: Band clamps use a flexible band or strap to encircle

and apply pressure evenly around irregularly shaped objects or
assemblies, such as picture frames.

Parallel Clamp: Parallel clamps have jaws that remain parallel when
tightened, ensuring even pressure distribution across the entire
length of the workpiece. They are common in cabinetmaking and
furniture assembly.

Edge Clamp: Edge clamps are specialized for securing material

along the edge, making them useful for tasks like joining boards or
laminating.

Welding Clamp: These clamps are designed for holding metal

pieces together during welding operations, ensuring precise
alignment and strong joints.

Hold-Down Clamp: Often used on workbenches or machinery, hold-

down clamps secure workpieces in place during machining or other
operations.

These are just a few examples of the many types of clamps available,
each designed to suit specific applications and requirements. The
choice of clamp depends on the task at hand and the materials being

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 worked on.

Types of Pattern Allowances

There are several types of pattern allowances used in manufacturing and
pattern making to account for different factors and achieve desired product
dimensions. Here are some common types:

Shrinkage Allowance
Shrinkage allowance is a critical aspect of manufacturing processes that
involves compensating for the reduction in size that occurs when materials
cool and solidify after casting or molding. By intentionally increasing the
dimensions of a pattern, shrinkage allowance ensures that the final product
attains the desired size and shape, accounting for the material’s
characteristic shrinkage during the cooling and solidification stages

Machining Allowance
Machining allowance is a crucial aspect of manufacturing that involves
adding extra material to a pattern or workpiece to account for the material
that will be removed during subsequent machining operations. This
allowance ensures that the final product meets the required dimensional
accuracy and surface finish by providing sufficient material for machining
processes like milling, turning, or grinding.

Draft Allowance
Draft allowance refers to the intentional taper or angle added to vertical
surfaces of a pattern in manufacturing and pattern making. This allowance
is crucial for facilitating the easy and smooth removal of the pattern from
the mold or casting. By incorporating draft allowances, manufacturers
ensure that the pattern can be demolded without causing damage to the
mold or compromising the integrity of the final product.

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Finishing Allowance
Finishing allowance is an additional amount of material intentionally added
to a pattern or casting to account for the material that will be removed
during the subsequent finishing operations. It allows for machining,
sanding, polishing, or painting, ensuring the final product achieves the
desired surface quality, dimensional accuracy, and aesthetic appearance.
The finishing allowance plays a critical role in achieving the desired level of
refinement and appearance in a wide range of manufacturing processes
and applications.

Patternmaker’s Shrinkage Allowance

Patternmaker’s Shrinkage Allowance is a specific type of allowance used in
woodworking and pattern making. It accounts for the natural shrinkage that
occurs in wood as it dries after being machined. By adding this allowance
to the pattern dimensions, pattern makers ensure that the final product
retains the intended size and shape once the wood has fully dried.

Explain the various casting defects

Gas Porosity
When gases are trapped inside the molten metal during casting, porous
areas are formed inside the part as the casting solidifies. These gases
often show up in poorly vented areas of the casting and can occur when
too much dampness is present.

1. Blowholes
Found below the part’s surface, blowholes are large cavities that often are
not found until the part is machined or analyzed with x-rays. When covered
by thin layers of metal, blowholes are called blisters. The presence of these
holes in the casting is caused by gas entrapment.

2. Open Holes
When blowholes appear at the casting surface, they are called open holes,
caused by gas trapped in the casting during pouring.

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3. Pinholes
Smaller than blowholes, these pockets of porosities are typically less than
2mm in diameter and are often found in groups with many other pinholes.
These groupings tend to occur in the cope (upper) part of the mold in
poorly vented pockets.
Shrinkage Defects
As the metal used in casting cools, the size of the part shrinks. While this
shrinkage is normal, careful consideration is required to prevent shrinkage
in the cavity from occurring and ruining the part. Uneven shrinking can also
leave residual stresses in the part, altering the part’s performance. Keeping
the liquid metal in the mold at an even temperature is key.
4. Open Shrinkage Defects
Open to the atmosphere, air compensates for these defects as the part
shrinks leaving surface deformities on the casting. Pipes and caved
surfaces are two types of open shrinkage defects that occur on the surface
of the casting.
5. Closed Shrinkage Defects
Similar to porosity, closed shrinkage defects occur below the surface,
inside the casting. Hot spots and isolated pools of hot liquid are common
causes of closed shrinkage defects.

6. Warping
During or after solidification, a casting can take on an unwanted change in
dimension. This type of deformity can render the casting ineffective and is
often more pronounced in large, flat sections of the casting.
Metallurgical Defects
Improper cooling can change the microstructure of the finished part in
different sections.

7. Hot or Hard Spots

If sections of the casting are able to cool more quickly, hard spots can
occur due to the change in microstructure. These hard spots can add
difficulty to machining processes.

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8. Hot Tears or Cracks
As the casting cools, cracks or tears can form typically in the form of
irregular crevices in a branched pattern.

Pouring Metal Defects

Cold shuts, misruns, and slag inclusion can all occur if the molten metal
used in casting is not prepared and handled properly. Too low of
temperatures limits the amount of time the liquid metal has before
solidifying.

9. Misruns
If the molten metal is not properly heated it may not flow properly to all of
the extremities, resulting in a misrun. Castings with parts missing are a
clear sign of a misrun.
10. Cold Shut or Lap
A line or crack with a round edge on the casting surface is a good
indication of a cold shut defect. This surface defect creates a stress
concentrator that makes the overall casting weaker.

11. Slag Inclusion

Often called scabs, these irregular metallic crusts appear on the casting
surface. Only a few millimeters thick, slag inclusion or scabs are similar to
rat tails.

12. Cold Shots

Globules formed from splattering during pouring can become entrapped in
the molten liquid.
Mold Material Defects
If the mold being used is not in good condition or is not prepared properly,
the mold itself can lead to defects in the casting. Soft molds from a lack of
ramming can lead to many of these defects,

13. Cuts and Washes

These areas of excess metal appear when the molten metal erodes the
molding sand. Often the defect is tilted in one direction, showing the
direction the metal flowed as it entered the mold.

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14. Fusion
When the grains of sand in the mold fuse with the molten metal, fusion
defects occur. The casting will have a thin crust with a brittle, glassy
appearance to it. This appearance will firmly adhere to the casting.
15. Swells
As the name suggests, swells appear as an enlargement of the casting.
Swells typically have the shape of a light, smooth bulge on vertical casting
faces.

16. Run Out

When liquid metal leaks out of the mold, you have a ‘run out’ defect.
Because there is not enough molten metal left, the part typically appears
incomplete or missing.
17. Drops
Irregularly shaped projections on the cope surface of casting are called
drops. These defects occur when sand falls or drops into the casting while
the metal is still in the liquid phase.

18. Metal Penetration

If the molding sand has gaps, liquid metal will often penetrate the mold.
Look for a rough, uneven surface finish on the casting.
19. Rat Tails, Buckles, and Veins
Irregular lines or cracks on the casting are called rat tails or reins. When rat
tails are really bad, they are called buckles. Typically these defects occur
on the bottom surface of the mold.
Casting Shape Defects
Even when the mold is prepared properly, defects can occur during the
casting process.

20. Shift or Mismatch

For casting to set properly, the upper (cope) and lower (drag) parts of the
mold must line up correctly at the parting line. This type of defect is easy to
detect as the casting will look as though the mold shifted at the parting
line.

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21. Flash, Fin, and Burrs
Any unwanted and excess material attached to a cast is considered a flash,
fin, or burr. Typically a thin sheet of metal, a flash often occurs at the
parting faces.
Many different aspects of the metal casting process can lead to a defect in
the finished casting. Knowing the basics of metal casting defects gives you
an idea of what to look for when inspecting metal castings.

Stress-Strain Curve
When we study solids and their mechanical properties, information
regarding their elastic properties is most important. We can learn about the
elastic properties of materials by studying the stress-strain relationships,
under different loads, in these materials.
The material’s stress-strain curve gives its stress-strain relationship. In a
stress-strain curve, the stress and its corresponding strain values are
plotted. An example of a stress-strain curve is given below.

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Explaining Stress-Strain Graph
The different regions in the stress-strain diagram are:
(i) Proportional Limit
It is the region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law. In this
limit, the stress-strain ratio gives us a proportionality constant known as
Young’s modulus. The point OA in the graph represents the proportional
limit.
(ii) Elastic Limit
It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original
position when the load acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit,
the material doesn’t return to its original position, and a plastic deformation
starts to appear in it.

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(iii) Yield Point
The yield point is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform
plastically. After the yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation
occurs. There are two yield points (i) upper yield point (ii) lower yield point.
(iv) Ultimate Stress Point
It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure
before failure. Beyond this point, failure occurs.
(v) Fracture or Breaking Point
It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material
takes place.

what are application of submerged arc welding in details

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is a welding process that has several applications
across various industries due to its efficiency, high deposition rates, and the
quality of welds it produces. Here are some detailed applications of submerged
arc welding:

Heavy Fabrication: SAW is commonly used in heavy fabrication industries such as

shipbuilding, bridge construction, and the manufacturing of pressure vessels and
storage tanks. Its high deposition rates make it suitable for joining thick steel
plates.

Pipeline Welding: SAW is employed for welding pipelines, particularly for those
that transport oil, gas, and water. The process ensures strong and consistent welds
for long-distance pipelines.

Automotive Industry: SAW is used in the automotive sector for applications like
the manufacturing of chassis components and other structural parts that require
high-strength welds.

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Railway Industry: It is used in the production of railway tracks, rail cars, and other
components that require sturdy welds capable of withstanding heavy loads.

Aerospace: While not as common as other welding methods in aerospace, SAW

can be used for certain applications where high-strength, thick welds are needed,
like in the fabrication of aircraft landing gear.

Oil and Gas Industry: Apart from pipelines, SAW is used for welding components
in the oil and gas industry, including offshore platforms, drilling equipment, and
storage tanks.

Construction: SAW plays a role in construction, especially for welding structural

steel beams, columns, and other load-bearing components in buildings and
infrastructure.

Wind Energy: SAW is used for welding the towers and other structural
components of wind turbines, which require strong and reliable welds to
withstand environmental stresses.

Mining Equipment: In the mining industry, SAW is utilized to fabricate heavy-duty

equipment such as excavators, draglines, and haul trucks.

Nuclear Industry: SAW is employed in the nuclear sector for welding reactor
pressure vessels, steam generators, and other critical components where the
integrity of the welds is paramount.

Railway Tracks: SAW is used for welding railway tracks and switches, ensuring the
stability and safety of the rail network.

General Manufacturing: SAW is also employed in general manufacturing for

welding large and thick metal components used in various industrial machinery
and equipment.

Repair and Maintenance: It's not limited to new construction; SAW is used in the
repair and maintenance of heavy machinery and equipment.

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Submerged Arc Welding is valued for its ability to produce high-quality welds
efficiently and consistently. Its applications span various industries where strong
and reliable welding is essential for structural integrity and safety.

How SAW is different from the inert gas shielded metal arc welding

SAW (Submerged Arc Welding) and inert gas shielded Metal Arc Welding
(MIG/MAG) are both arc welding processes, but they differ in several key ways:

Arc and Shielding Method:

SAW: In SAW, an arc is formed between a continuously fed electrode and the
workpiece. The arc is submerged under a layer of granular flux, which shields the
molten weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere.
Inert Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MIG/MAG): In MIG welding (Metal Inert
Gas) or MAG welding (Metal Active Gas), an arc is formed between a continuously
fed wire electrode and the workpiece. A shielding gas, either inert (MIG) or active
(MAG), is used to protect the weld pool from atmospheric contamination.

Shielding Gas:

SAW: SAW does not use shielding gas; instead, it relies on the granular flux to
provide protection.
MIG/MAG: These processes use a continuous flow of shielding gas (argon, CO2, or
a mixture) to protect the weld from oxidation and contamination.

Application and Purpose:

SAW: SAW is typically used for heavy-duty applications and thick materials. It's
commonly used in the welding of large structural components, pipes, and

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pressure vessels.
MIG/MAG: MIG/MAG welding is versatile and suitable for a wide range of
materials and thicknesses. It is often used in automotive, fabrication, and general
manufacturing.

Welding Speed:

SAW: SAW can have a slower welding speed compared to MIG/MAG due to the
granular flux and the submerged nature of the arc.
MIG/MAG: MIG/MAG welding tends to be faster because there is no need to
manipulate a flux layer.

Weld Appearance:

SAW: SAW produces a characteristic submerged arc weld bead that is generally
flat and wide.
MIG/MAG: MIG/MAG welding can produce various weld bead shapes, including
convex and concave profiles, depending on the welding parameters.
In summary, SAW and MIG/MAG welding differ in terms of their arc and shielding
methods, application areas, use of shielding gas, welding speed, and the
appearance of the weld bead. The choice between these processes depends on
the specific welding requirements and materials being used.

Terminology used in Limits, Fits and Tolerance

What is a Limit?

Limits pertain to the permissible range of dimensions allocated to a specific

component. They effectively delineate the lower and upper thresholds

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within which the dimensions of the component must reside to align with
the desired specifications.

For a more comprehensive understanding, let's explore limits through an

illustrative example: Consider a basic cylindrical shaft. The design
specification stipulates a diameter of 20 mm, with a tolerance of ±0.2 mm.
Calculating the limits for this dimension entails the following steps:

What is Fits?

"Fits" pertains to the interrelationship between two components when

joined during assembly. The selection of a specific fit type dictates the
degree of tightness or looseness between these components, influencing
the presence of clearance or interference. A comprehensive understanding
of fits, including examples, is elucidated below:

When engineering the assembly of two components, many factors are

considered, encompassing the assembly's function, required precision, ease
of assembly, and prevailing environmental conditions.

There are the following fundamental terms which are used in Limits, fits,
and tolerance

o Basic Size
o Actual Size
o Deviation
o Allowance

Basic Size:

The basic size refers to the permissible size of a job.

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Actual Size:

The actual size of a job is obtained after the machining of a workpiece, and
if it falls outside the specified limits, the job is rejected.

Standard Organizations:

Various standard organisations exist to establish and maintain limitations

and fit, with the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) being commonly used in
India.

Deviation:

Deviation is the algebraic difference between the size and basic size of the
job and can be positive, negative, or zero.

There are four types of deviations, including Upper Deviation, Lower

Deviation, Actual Deviation, and Fundamental Deviation.

Upper Deviation:

Upper Deviation is the algebraic difference between the maximum diameter

of the job size and the basic diameter.

Lower Deviation:

Lower Deviation is the algebraic difference between the minimum diameter

of the job size and the basic diameter.

Actual Deviation:

Actual Deviation is the algebraic difference between the actual and basic
size of a job.

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Fundamental Deviation:

Fundamental Deviation is either the lower or upper deviation, shown in

relation to the zero lines.

Allowance:

Allowance is the difference in sizes or gaps between two mating parts and
can be positive or negative based on the fitting nature.

There are two types of allowances: Maximum Allowance (the difference

between the upper limit of a hole size and the lower limit of a shaft size)
and Minimum Allowance (the difference between the lower limit of a hole
size and the upper limit of a shaft size).

What Is Motion Control

Motion control exists in many automatic devices, such as robotics, CNC machines
and kinematics, among which motion control in kinematics is usually simpler.
Motion control is an important part of industrial robots and CNC machines, but in
these cases, it is more complex than when it is used with special machines that are
usually simpler in kinematics. The latter is commonly referred to as universal
motion control.

Application Of Motion Control

Motion control is mainly used in packaging, textile, assembly industry, printing
and semiconductor production. The hardware of motion control machine is usually
composed of drive system, motor, computer, PLC or programmable logic
controller running program and amplifier.

Basic Motion Types Of CNC Machine

Rapid motion

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Rapid motion is a type of control mode used to command the CNC machine to
operate at its fastest speed. It is used to minimize the non production time in the
processing cycle. Common uses of fast motion include positioning and moving
tools to and from the cutting position, moving to remove clamps and other
obstacles, and any non cutting motion that is usually during the program. Most
CNC machines use G00 as the command to start fast movement. In G00 command,
the end point of motion is given.

Straight line motion

This type of motion allows the programmer to command perfect linear motion, as
discussed earlier when we discussed linear interpolation. This joint type also
allows the programmer to specify the motion rate (feed rate) to be used during the
motion. Linear motion can be used at any time when linear cutting motion is
required, including drilling, turning straight diameter, end face or taper, and
milling straight surfaces.

Circular motion
This type of motion makes the CNC machine move in the form of a circular path.
As discussed earlier when we introduced circular interpolation, this joint type is
used to generate radius during machining.
Two G codes are used for circular motion. G02 is usually used to specify
clockwise movement, while G03 is used to specify counterclockwise movement.
To evaluate which to use, the operator only needs to view the motion from the
same angle as the NC machine. For example, if you perform a circular motion in
the XY direction on the machining center, you can view the motion from the
favorable position of the spindle. If you are moving in a circle in the XZ direction
at the turning center, you can view the movement from above the spindle.

List the various processes of metal working

"Metalworking encompasses a wide range of processes used to shape, cut, join, or

otherwise manipulate metal materials. Here are various processes of
metalworking:

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Casting:

Sand Casting
Investment Casting
Die Casting
Centrifugal Casting
Continuous Casting

Machining:

Turning
Milling
Drilling
Grinding
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)
Laser Cutting

Forming:

Forging
Rolling
Stamping
Extrusion
Bending
Swaging

Welding and Joining:

Arc Welding (e.g., MIG/MAG, TIG, Stick)

Resistance Welding (e.g., Spot Welding)
Gas Welding
Brazing

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Soldering

Sheet Metal Work:

Shearing
Punching
Blanking
Spinning
Deep Drawing

Heat Treatment:

Annealing
Quenching
Tempering
Case Hardening
Normalizing

Coating and Surface Finishing:

Plating (e.g., Electroplating)

Painting
Powder Coating
Anodizing
Galvanizing

Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing):

Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
Stereolithography (SLA)

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Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

Metal Joining (Non-Welding):

Riveting
Adhesive Bonding
Mechanical Fastening (e.g., Bolting)

Metal Cutting:

Waterjet Cutting
Plasma Cutting
Oxy-fuel Cutting
Abrasive Cutting

Metal Cleaning and Surface Preparation:

Shot Blasting
Ultrasonic Cleaning
Chemical Cleaning

Metal Recycling and Scrap Processing:

Shredding
Melting
Refining

Assembly and Fabrication:

Assembling metal components into finished products.

These processes can be combined and customized to create a wide range of metal
products, from intricate machine parts to large structural components, and they

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are used in various industries, including aerospace, automotive, construction, and
manufacturing.

1. Vacuum Grippers

The vacuum gripper has been a standard tool for robots in manufacturing
due to its high level of flexibility. The tool is made of polyurethane or rubber
suction cup to catch the objects. There are some vacuum grippers that use
closed-cells foam rubber layer, instead of the suction cups.

2. Hydraulic Grippers
Hydraulic Grippers are the ones that can apply the most strength and often
are used in applications that require a huge amount of force. The force is
provided from pumps that can generate up to 13789.51 kPa. Although their
strength, they are messier than any other gripper due to the oil that the
pumps are using. Also they need more maintenance because of the huge
amount of force that they can apply.

3. Pneumatic Grippers
Pneumatic grippers are popular due to their light weight and compact size.
They can be design for tight spaces, which can be helpful in manufacturing
industry. This kind of gripper can be open and close; because of this their
nickname is “bang bang” actuators,
given by the sound they do when the metal-on-metal is operating
4. Servo-electric Grippers
The servo-electric grippers are becoming more used in the industry; thanks
to their easy control. The gripper jaw movements are controlled by
electronic motors. These grippers are highly flexible and good for handling
different material tolerances. Also they are cost effective because they don’t
have air lines and are clean.
5. Magnetic grippers
Magnetic grippers can be configured by permanent magnets or
electromagnets. Permanent magnets, don’t need of an external supply for

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grasping, once an object is grasped there is an additional device called
stripper push which separate the object from the gripper. In the other hand,
there are the electromagnets, including a controller unit and a DC power
which can grasp magnetic objects

Electrochemical Machining (ECM):

Principle of Electrochemical Machining:

Electrochemical machining works on the Faraday law of electrolysis which

state that if two electrode are placed in a container which is filled with a
conductive liquid or electrolyte and high ampere DC voltage applied across
them, metal can be depleted form the anode (Positive terminal) and plated
on the cathode (Negative terminal). This is the basic principle of
electrochemical machining. In this machining process, tool is connected with
the negative terminal of battery (work as cathode) and work-piece is
connected with the positive terminal of battery (work as anode). They both
are placed in a electrolyte solution with a small distance. When the DC
current supplied to the electrode, metal removed from work-piece. This is
basic fundamental of electrochemical machining.

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 Diagram of Electrochemical Welding

Equipment:

Power supply:

In electrochemical machining process, a high value of direct current around

40000A and low value of potential difference around 10-25V is desirable. The
electrodes are place at a inter electro gap witch is desirable for machining. If
the inter electro gap not too small witch can generate arc or not too high

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witch is not suitable for machining. It is about 1mm. This high values DC
current is form by convert three phase AC current into DC current by using
Silicon Controlled Rectifier.

Electrolyte supply and cleaning system:

It consist piping system, storage tank, pump, control valve, pressure gauge,
heating or cooling coil etc. in the electrochemical process, the metal removed
from work-piece form sludge which should be remove form electrolyte. This
system control the flow and cleaning of electrolyte solution into the
container. Piping system is made of SS steel, Glass fiber reinforced plastic,
plastic lined MS or similar other anti-corrosive material. The tank capacity is
about 500 gallon for per 10000A of current.

Tool and Tool feed system:

Tool is made by an anti-corrosive material because it has to withstand in

corrosive environment for long time. It should also have high thermal
conductivity and easily machinable. The dimension accuracy and surface
finish of work piece is directly depends on tool dimension. Those part of the
tool, which is not required for machining, should be properly insulated
because lack of insulation tends to unwanted machining which give
dimensional inaccuracy.

Work piece and work holding system:

In this process, work piece should be well electric conductive. Only electric
conductive material can be machined by this method. Work piece take as

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anode in this process. The work holding devices should have non-conductive
property.

Application:

• ECM is used to machining disk or turbine rotor blade.

• It can be used for slotting very thin walled collets.
• ECM can be used to generate internal profile of internal cam.
• Production of satellite rings and connecting rod, machining of
gears and long profile etc.

Electrical Comparator Working Principle

April 2, 2021
Construction details : An electrical comparator consists of the following
three major parts such as

• Transducer
• Display device as meter
• Amplifier

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Transducer : An iron armature is provided in between two coils held by a
leaf spring at one end. The other end is supported against a plunger. The
two a coils act as two arms of an A.C. wheat stone bridge circuit.

Amplifier : The amplifier is nothing but a device which amplifies the given
input signal frequency into magnified output.

Display device or meter : The amplified input signal is displayed on some

terminal stage instruments. Here, the terminal instrument is meter.

Working principle of Electrical Comparator

If the armature is centrally located between the coils, the inductance of

both coils will be equal but in opposite direction with the sign change. Due
to this, the bridge circuit of A.C, wheatstone bridge is balanced.

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Therefore, the meter will read zero value. But practically, it is not possible.
In real cases, the armature may be lifted up or lowered down by the
plunger during the measurement.

This would upset the balance of the wheatstone bridge circuit. Due to this
effect, the change in current or potential will be induced correspondingly.
On that time. the meter will indicate some value as displacement.

This indicated value may be either for larger or smaller components. As

this induced current is too small, it should be suitably amplified before
being displayed in the meter.

"Abrasive slurry plays a crucial role in Ultrasonic Machining (USM) by facilitating

material removal and surface finishing through a process called abrasion. The
main functions of abrasive slurry in USM include:

Material Removal: The abrasive particles suspended in the slurry are used to
effectively remove material from the workpiece. As the slurry is subjected to high-
frequency ultrasonic vibrations, these abrasive particles impact the workpiece's
surface, eroding and gradually removing material.

Precision Machining: Abrasive slurry allows for precise and controlled material
removal, making USM suitable for intricate shapes, fine details, and tight
tolerances.

Surface Finish Improvement: Depending on the abrasive particles' size and

composition, the slurry can also be used to achieve specific surface finishes, from

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rough to highly polished, by controlling the slurry properties and machining
parameters.

Cooling and Lubrication: The slurry helps dissipate heat generated during the
machining process and provides lubrication, reducing the risk of thermal damage
to the workpiece and tool.

Debris Removal: Abrasive slurry aids in carrying away the removed material debris
from the machining area, preventing clogging and ensuring consistent cutting
action.

Overall, abrasive slurry is a fundamental component of USM that enables precise

and controlled material removal while maintaining the integrity of the workpiece."

The selection of abrasive material in ultrasonic machining (USM) is a critical

decision that depends on various factors to achieve desired machining outcomes.
Here's an explanation of how abrasive selection is typically made:

Workpiece Material: The type of material being machined is one of the most
crucial factors in abrasive selection. Different materials have varying hardness,
brittleness, and abrasion resistance. For example, harder workpiece materials may
require harder abrasives.

Material Removal Rate: The desired rate of material removal influences abrasive
choice. Coarser abrasives or those with higher cutting efficiency may be chosen
for faster material removal, while finer abrasives are used for precision finishing.

Surface Finish Requirements: If a specific surface finish is required, the abrasive's

particle size and shape play a significant role. Finer abrasives produce smoother
surface finishes, while coarser abrasives create rougher finishes.

Abrasive Hardness: Abrasives come in a range of hardness levels. Softer abrasives,

like aluminum oxide, are suitable for softer materials, while harder abrasives, like
diamond, are better for harder materials.

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Abrasive Shape: The shape of abrasive particles can impact material removal and
surface finish. Common abrasive shapes include angular, blocky, and rounded. The
choice depends on the desired cutting action and surface finish.

Abrasive Size: The size of abrasive particles affects the precision of the machining
process. Smaller particles are used for finer finishes, while larger particles are
employed for higher material removal rates.

Material Compatibility: Compatibility between the abrasive and the workpiece

material is essential to avoid chemical reactions, contamination, or excessive tool
wear. Compatibility considerations include chemical composition and reactivity.

Cost and Availability: The cost and availability of abrasives can influence the
selection, especially for cost-sensitive projects.

Tool Wear: Different abrasives may cause varying levels of wear on the machining
tool. The selection should consider tool life and the need for frequent tool
replacement.

Experience and Expertise: The experience of the machinist or manufacturing

engineer may also play a role. Knowledge of past successes with specific abrasives
can guide the selection process.

What is Sand Casting?

In sand casting, molten metal is poured into an expendable sand mould

cavity by gravity or force, solidifying to form the cavity shape part. A 3D
object formed by this process is also called casting. Most common sand
castings include engine blocks and cylinder heads.

It is the most widely used metal casting manufacturing process accounting

for a significant percentage of the total cast in weight. During the sand

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casting process, the material is heated to the correct temperature to melt
and sometimes treated to modify the chemical composition to achieve the
required material properties. Then the molten metal is poured into a mould
with the desired shape cavity to cool down and solidify.

Characteristics of search Sand casting

search Sand casting is the most versatile among the manufacturing
methods and gives engineers the freedom to design complex parts from an
unlimited number of metals and alloys.
• Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via this process
• Sand casting can be produced in a wide range of sizes, from small
statues to parts weighing over 100 tons
• Very complex parts can be produced easily and in one piece
• Low dimensional accuracy
• Poor surface finish
• Highly adaptable and could be used for handling mass production
How does the Sand casting process work?

Elements of the gating system

Metal casting gating system

search Sand casting is one of the most common metal casting processes,
and its mould is made of two halves. Two halves are contained inside a flask

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box, the upper half is called the cope, and the bottom half is called the
drag. The image below shows that the flask is divided into two halves. The
line that separates the two halves is called the parting line.

Sand casting steps

1. Pattern-making step in which a replica of the object to be cast is

made of suitable material. The pattern usually is oversized to allow for
metal shrinkage during the cooling phase
2. In the mould-making step, a sand mould is formed by packing sand
into the mould around the pattern. The sand mould is divided into
two halves, the top half is called the “Cope”, and the bottom is called
the “Drag”. When the pattern is removed from the cavity, it forms
remains for pouring the molten metal. Mould will have other features
such as Sprue, runners, gate, pouring cup, riser etc., which will be
discussed in detail later.
3. The clamping step involves the two mould halves, Cope and Drag,
securely clamped together, ready for pouring metal.
4. Pouring molten metal is maintained at a set temperature. Molten
metal is poured in quickly to avoid early solidification and
5. Poured molten metal will begin to cool and solidify once inside the
cavity. Most of the possible sand-casting defects are introduced at
this solidification stage
6. Once the cooling period elapses, the mould can be shaken
out/broken off and casting
7. Trimming involves cleaning and removing the section that is
connected to the main part, such as the runner, Sprue etc

Advantages

• Design flexibility – The size and weight of parts can range from a
few millimetres & grams to meters & many tons. The size and weight

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 of the cast are only limited by the restriction imposed by molten
metal handling and supply. Hence large parts can be produced.
• High-complexity shapes – No other process offers the same
possibilities for shaping complex features as casting that produces
near-net-shape components.
• Wider material choice – Virtually all engineering alloys can be cast
as long as it can be melted.
• Low-cost tooling – Tooling and equipment costs are low compared
to other metal manufacturing processes. Hence making it one of the
cheapest methods to achieve near-net-shape components
• Short lead time – Short lead time compared to others is ideal for
short production runs.
• Less waste – Scrap metal can be recycled
Disadvantages

• Low material strength – Parts have Low material strength due to

high porosity compared to a machined part.
• Low dimensional accuracy – Shrinking and the surface finish
dimensional accuracy is very poor.
• Poor surface finishes – Due to internal sand mould wall surface
texture.
• Defects unavoidable – Like any other metallurgical process, defects
or quality variations such as shrinkage, porosity, pouring metal
defects, surface defects are unavoidable. Porosity is higher on sand
casts than in other casting processes, such as Die casting and
investment casting.
• Post-processing – Secondary machining operation is often required
if tighter tolerance is needed to interface with other mating parts.
Processing cost is high compared to tooling and material cost
• Higher risk – Safety hazards to humans and environmental problems
• Production issues – Removal of the pattern of the thin and small
parts is challenging

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Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a welding process where the tubular
electrode is fed continuously to join two metals by generating heat
between electrode and metal.
The area of the arc and molten zone gets its protection from the
atmospheric contamination by submerging under a blanket of granular flux.
The flux layer covers the area completely preventing spatter, sparks, fumes,
and UV radiation.
Higher deposition rates than other Welding processes.
Operator friendly – no visible arc, no spatter.

Principle of Submerged Arc Welding

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SAW Equipment
Arc formation between the wire electrode and workpiece happens as in the
MIG welding process. But this process has an additional advantage of
shielding by the granular flux making the SAW welding as spatter, fumes,
and UV light free. The equipment has the following in its inventory.
Submerged arc welding can be used with DC or AC.
• Power source
• Welding torch/gun and cable assembly
• Flux hopper and its feeding
• Travel mechanism for automatic welding
1. Power Source
We need a power source for this submerged arc welding at a 100% duty
cycle. The SAW welding process is continuous and the length of one weld
may go up to 10 minutes. General power sources with a 60% duty cycle
may get derated according to the duty cycle curve of 100%. The voltage
sensing wire feeder must be used when a constant current of ac/dc
applies. The fixed speed wire feeder uses a constant voltage while the CV
system drives with direct current.
2. Welding Gun and Cable Feeder Assembly
This part of the equipment needs to carry the electrode and even flux to the
site of the arc. A small hopper for the flux is attached to the end of the
cable assembly. The bottom of the hopper has an outlet for the electrode
wire through a current pickup terminal of the arc.
The gravity comes into action for the flux feeding. The amount of flux to
feed depends upon the height of the gun held above the working station.
3. Flux Hopper
The hopper gun has a soft switch to start the weld. It may use hot
electrodes as when it touches the workpiece the feeding starts
automatically. In the automatic process, it attaches the torch to wire feed
motors and the current pickup tip for the welding process. This hopper is
normally attached to the torch which has a magnetically operated valve,
open and closed by a control system.

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4. Travel Mechanism
The process of welding is customized at a very fast pace using the travel
carriage. This may be available in tractor-like structures. The flux recovery
unit normally collects the unused flux and returns it to the hopper for
supply. The general movement of the tractor is in a horizontal direction.

Merits of SAW
The major merits hold by SAW/Submerged Arc Welding Process includes.
• Great speed, best deposition rate at a faster pace.
• Superior welding quality.
• Hardly any smoke
• Smooth, finely finished, and uniform welding with no spatter
• Safe to the welder, no spatter, no arc flash
• Automation is easy here.
• Excellent utilization of electrodes.
• No manipulative skills
• Minimal metal distortion
• Can operate the machine in windy areas
• No edge preparation of the material under 12 mm thickness

hat Are the Common Press Working Methods?

Press working operations are also called sheet metal presses operations.
This is because different operations are performed on sheets through
various press tools to get the required shape. These press working
operations are mainly divided into two categories – cutting and forming.
There are various sub operations that fall under each of these two
categories. Which working methods of sheet metal presses to choose will
vary depending on specific application requirements. So, let’s have a look at
them.

1. Sheet Metal Cutting Operations: In this press work process, the

sheet metal is subjected to tensile and compressive stresses to
break its structure and separate it into different parts. Hence, it is

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 considered an efficient material utilization operation. Sheet metal
cutting operations include:

• Punching: It is a metal fabrication process where enough shearing

force is applied on the sheet metal to produce holes and cutouts of
different sizes and shapes. Punching is performed by placing the
sheet metal between the punch and die. The punch presses drive
downward at high speed through the sheet metal to create holes.
• Blanking: This press working process removes a pre-defined part
from the sheet metal. The part is punched out with a single stroke,
using one die and punch. This method usually produces a flat shape
from a metal sheet.
• Perforating: It is the method of punching or stamping slots or holes
in a pattern, not specifically in a round shape. The wastage of
material here is minimal.
• Shearing: The sheet metal is separated into two or more pieces by
simply cutting a long line. Shearing creates clean cuts with smooth
edges. It doesn’t produce wastage in the form of chips or debris.
• Trimming: As the name implies, this process removes the excess
metal portions surrounding the formed pre-designed parts.
• Notching: This process produces desired parts by removing the
edges of the metal workpiece. Notching is a manually operated and
low-production process.
• Slitting: Slitting is similar to the shearing process. However, this
process cuts a wide coil of sheet metal into various narrow coils
using circular knives.

2. Sheet Metal Forming Operations: It is one of the most widely used

processes that cause stress below the ultimate strength of the metal,
which results in distortion. Sheet metal forming operations include:

• Bending: In this process, the sheet metal is bent into a curved form
by applying enough force. During bending, the metal’s shape is
changed, but its volume is retained as it is. Sheet metal bending can
be performed in various ways. Channel bending, offset bending,
edge bending, v-bending are some popular types.
• Drawing: This method produces vessel-shaped or thin-walled
hollow parts from a workpiece. Drawing is categorized into two types
– deep drawing and shallow drawing.

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 • Squeezing: It is the most popular and widely used process of
forming ductile metals. Squeezing has several operations, including
coining, sizing, and riveting. These operations are performed to
reduce the overall thickness of the metal.

"Designing a blanking die involves several steps to ensure that it functions

efficiently and produces accurately cut blanks from sheet metal or other
materials. Here are the key steps in blanking die design, along with suitable
components:

Determine Part Geometry:

Identify the desired shape and size of the blank.
Determine the tolerances and specifications for the finished part.

Material Selection:
Choose the appropriate material for both the blank and the die components.

Die Block Design:

Design the die block, which provides structural support for the die components.
It typically consists of a base, guide posts, and a bolster plate.

Punch and Die Cavity Design:

Create the punch and die cavity, which define the shape of the blank.
The punch is the upper tool, and the die cavity is the lower tool.
These components should precisely match the desired part geometry.

Clearance and Tolerance:

Determine the necessary clearances between the punch and die to account for
material thickness, deformation, and tool wear.
Apply appropriate tolerances to ensure accurate blank dimensions.

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Punch and Die Materials:
Select materials for the punch and die that offer wear resistance and durability.
Common materials include tool steel, carbide, or other hardened alloys.

Die Clearance:
Calculate the die clearance, which is the gap between the punch and die.
It ensures that the material can deform and flow into the die cavity without
excessive force.

Stripper Plate Design:

Design a stripper plate to assist in ejecting the blank from the die cavity after
cutting.
The stripper plate prevents the blank from sticking to the punch during
withdrawal.

Slug Removal:
Plan for the removal of the slug (the waste material) from the die.
This can be accomplished using a knockout system or other methods.

Guiding and Alignment:

Incorporate guide pins and bushings to ensure accurate alignment of the punch
and die components during operation.

Fastening and Assembly:

Specify the fasteners and assembly methods to securely hold the die components
together.
Bolts, dowel pins, and clamps are commonly used.

Lubrication:
Consider lubrication points to reduce friction and wear between the punch and
die components.

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Proper lubrication extends tool life and improves performance.

Venting:
Include vent holes or channels in the die design to allow air and gases to escape
during the blanking process, preventing vacuum effects.

Heat Treatment:
If necessary, specify heat treatment processes to harden critical components for
prolonged tool life.
Testing and Adjustment:
After the die is manufactured, test it with scrap material to ensure it produces
accurate blanks.
Adjustments may be necessary to achieve the desired part dimensions.

Die Maintenance:
Establish a maintenance schedule to inspect, clean, and repair the die as needed
to prolong its lifespan and maintain consistent performance.
Each of these steps plays a crucial role in the successful design and operation of a
blanking die, ensuring efficient and precise blank production.

The extrusion process is one of the types of bulk-forming processes in

which work metal is forced or compressed through a die hole to achieve
a certain required cross-sectional shape.
In simple words, extrusion is a metalworking procedure that involves
forcing metal through a die hole under increased pressure to compress its
cross-section.

Since, the evolution of the extrusion process, the world has become
dependent on extrusion to produce bars, tubes, and sections of any shape
either hollow or solid.

Because, this operation involves pushing or pulling of billet through the die,
the forces necessary to extrude the billet are fairly large. Hot extrusion is

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the most common method because metal deformation resistance is low at
high temperatures, while cold extrusion is generally performed on soft
metals only.

Different types of Extrusion Processes:

▪ Hot extrusion
▪ Cold extrusion
▪ Warm extrusion
▪ Friction extrusion
▪ Micro extrusion
▪ Direct extrusion
▪ Indirect extrusion
▪ Hydrostatic extrusion and
▪ Impact extrusion Process.

#1. Hot Extrusion Process:

In this Hot extrusion process, the billet is worked above its
recrystallization temperature. This hot working allows to keep the
workpiece from work hardening and makes the ram push it easily through
the die.

Hot extrusions are generally performed on horizontal hydraulic

presses. The pressure involved in this process can vary from 30 MPa to

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700 MPa. To intact the high pressure, lubrication is employed. Oil or
graphite is used as a lubricant in low-temperature extrusions and glass
powder is used for high-temperature extrusions.

The billet is supplied a heat between 0.5 Tm to 0.75 Tm to obtain a quality

operation.

Advantages of Hot extrusion Process:

▪ Deformation can be controlled as per requirements.

▪ The billet is not subjected to strengthening due to work hardening.

▪ Lesser forces are required to press.
▪ Materials with premature cracks can also be worked.
Disadvantages of Hot extrusion Process:
▪ Poor surface finish.

▪ Dimensional accuracy is compromisable.

▪ Lower container life.
▪ Possibility of surface oxidation.

#2. Cold Extrusion:

It is the process of shaping metal by striking it with a slug. This striking is
accomplished with a punch or ram in a closed cavity. The ram forces the
metal through the die cavity to transform the solid billet into a solid shape.

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In this process, the workpiece is subjected to deformation at room
temperature or slightly above room temperature.

For the forces required to be too high, a powerful hydraulic press is used in
this technique. The pressure ranges up to 3000 MPa.

Advantages:
▪ No oxidation.

▪ Improved strength of the product.

▪ Closer tolerances.
▪ Improved surface finish.
▪ Hardness is improved.
Disadvantages:
▪ Higher forces are required.

▪ More power is required to operate.

▪ Non-ductile materials cannot be worked.
▪ Strain hardening of the material being extruded is a limitation.

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Basic principles of Jigs and Fixtures design
LOCATING POINTS: Locating the work is a prime necessity and requires
suitable facilities. The correct setup ensures smooth insertion of a workpiece
in the proper position and removing a workpiece from a jig without
operational hassles or time consumption. The workpiece position needs to be
precise with the guiding tool in the jig or setup pieces in the fixture.

FOOLPROOF: A foolproof design of jigs and fixtures does not permit a tool or
workpiece to be placed in any other way other than the intended one.

REDUCTION OF IDLE TIME: Jigs and Fixtures must be designed in such a way
that ensures smooth loading, clamping, machining, and unloading of a

WEIGHT OF JIGS AND FIXTURES: A jig and fixture must be compact, easy to
handle, and low cost regarding the number of materials used without giving
up stiffness and rigidity.

JIGS PROVIDED WITH FEET: Some jigs require feet so that they can be placed
on the table firmly.

MATERIALS FOR JIGS AND FIXTURES: Jigs and Fixtures are usually created
with hardened materials to resist wear & tear and avoid frequent damage—
for example, Mild steel, Cast iron, Die steel, High-speed steel, Caesium.

CLAMPING DEVICE: A suitable clamp is rated for its strength. It should be able
to hold a workpiece firmly in its position while bearing the strain of the
cutting tool simultaneously, without springing.

Broad rules of Jigs & Fixtures Design

• Compare the production cost of work between the existing tools and
the tool to be made and see if the manufacturing price is not more than
the expected gain.
• Determine location points and outline clamping arrangement.

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 • Make sure the clamping and binding pieces are as quick to act &
efficient as possible.
• Make the jig and fixture foolproof.
• Make sure the locating points are adjustable.
• Do avoid intricate clamping arrangements.
• Round all corners.
• Make sure the operator has handles to make handling tasks easier.
• Provide ample amount of clearance.
• Provide holes for chips to escape.
• Systematically locate clamps to resist the pressure of the cutting tool
while machining.
• To avoid springing action, place all clamps in proximity opposite to the
bearing point of the workpiece.
• Test the jigs before putting them in a shop.

The 3-2-1 principle

Locating a part to be machined involves mainly three steps: Supporting,
Positioning, and Clamping.

Two main intentions when placing a job on a jig/fixture are:

• Precisely positioning the part at the desired coordinates.

• Curbing all six degrees of movement so that the part cannot budge.

An extensively used method for obtaining these objectives is the 3-2-1

principle or six degrees of freedom for part location.

Electrical discharge Machining:

Principle:

Electrical discharge machining process works on the basic principle of spark

generation and metal removed by spark erosion. EDM spark erosion is same

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as electric spark which burn a small hole in a piece of metal through witch it
contacts. The spark generated by this process produces heat, which remove
metal by erosion and evaporation. In this machining process both the work
piece and tool must be made by conductive material.

Equipment’s:

The EDM process contains following equipment’s.

ower Supply:

In a EDM process a high frequency current used to generate spark between

electrode and work piece. This spark generates heat and remove metal form
work piece.

Dielectric fluid supply and flushing system:

The dielectric fluid acts as a vehicle to drive away the chips and thus
preventing them from sticking to the surface. This fluid acts as flushing
system for chips. It also helps in increasing the metal removal rate by
promoting spark between tool and work. This fluid also works as coolant
medium.

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Tool and tool holding devices:

In EDM process, tool also erodes due to spark hence the selection of tool
depends on wear ratio, ease to tool fabrication and cost of material. The most
commonly used electrode material are Cu, Tungsten alloy, Cast Iron, Steel,
Silver tungsten alloy, graphite.

Work piece and work holding devices:

In this process only good conductors of electricity can be machined. So the

work piece should have good electric conductivity. This process does not
depend on hardness of work piece so there is no criteria of hardness.

Working:

In this process, work piece should be well electric conductive. Only electric
conductive material can be machined by this method. The working of EDM
is as follow.

• First both work piece and tool are submerged into dielectric fluid.
The dielectric fluid help to control the arc discharge. This also
removes suspended particles of work piece material and tool
from the work cavity.
• A servomechanism is used which maintains a very small gap
between the work piece and the tool. This gap is desirable for
proper arc formation. It is about the thickness of human hair.
• The tool is made as the opposite shape of work piece.

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 •A high frequency current supplied to electrode, which produces
a spark between the tool and work piece. This spark generates
high in work cavity.
• The metal removed from the work piece due to erosion and
evaporate ion.
• The chips or suspended particle between tool and work
pieceshould be removed to prevent them to form bridge that
causes short circuit. This is done by continuous supply of
dielectric fluid.
• The EDM produce a cavity slightly larger than the electrode
because of overcut.
Advantages:

•Every conductive material can be cut by this process.

• It is independent on hardness of workpiece so hardened work
piece can be machined easily.
• Complex die section and complex shapes can be produce
accurately.
• This process is burr free.
• Thin section can be easily machined without deforming the part.
Disadvantages:

• In this machining process high tool wear occurs.

• Tool wears limits accuracy and surface finish of metal.
• Only good conductors of electricity can be machined by EDM.

Single Point Cutting Tool is the most important tool in the manufacturing
industry. It is used to perform various operations like Facing, Turning, and
more.

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A single point cutting tool is the type of cutting tool or cutter that
removes material by means of one cutting edge during a single stroke of
movement. for ex: turning, facing, slotting, planning, shaping, etc.
This tool is used in Lathe, Shaper Machine.
The following Tool Geometry or Nomenclature of Single Point Cutting
Tool are:
▪ Shank
▪ It is the main body of the tool. Shank is always held in the holder. It is
the back portion of the tool which is held by the tool post
▪ Flank
▪ Flank is the surface that are vertical and adjacent to the cutting edge.
There are two types of flank i.e. Side flank (major flank) and end flank
(minor flank).
▪ Face
▪ The face is the top surface of the tool so that after cutting chips
slides over it. The faces are the horizontal surface just adjacent to the
cutting edge.
▪ Heel
▪ The heel is the intersection of the base and the flank of the tool.
▪ Nose
▪ The nose is also called the cutting point of the single-point cutting
tool. It is the intersection point of major cutting edge and minor
cutting edge.
▪ Nose Radius
▪ The nose is given radius or gives the circular arc(nose) and it is the
intersecting area of the major and minor cutting edge. By giving a
curve to the nose it will impart strength to the single-point cutting
tool. Nose radius plays an important role in the surface finish of the
final product

▪ Cutting Edges
▪ The cutting edges are prepared by grinding. It is the edge on the face
of the tool which removes the material from the workpiece.
▪ Side Cutting Edge Angle
▪ Side cutting edge angle is the angle between the side cutting edge
and the line extending the shank. The angle is measured in a plane
parallel to the base.
▪ End Cutting Edge Angle

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 ▪ End Cutting Edge Angle Is the angle between the end cutting edge
and the line passing through the tip perpendicular to the tool axis and
the angle is measured in a plane parallel to the base.
▪ Back Rake angle
▪ Back rake angle is the angle between the line parallel to the tool axis
passing through the tip and the rake face and angle are measured in
a plane perpendicular to the base.
▪ Side rake angle
▪ Side Rake Angle is the angle between the rake face and the Line
passing through the tip perpendicular axis and the angle is measured
in a plane perpendicular to the base. Normally this angle varies 5-15
degrees.
▪ Side Relief Angle and
▪ Side relief angle is the angle between the side flank and the line
passing through the tip perpendicular to the base and the angle is
measured in a plane perpendicular to the tool axis. This angle varies
in the range of 5-15°.
▪ Back Relief Angle
▪ End relief angle is the angle between the end fink and the line passing
through the tip perpendicular to the base and the angle is measured
in-plane parallel to the tool axis. There will be some elastic recovery in
the finished work and as a result of that, it will try to rub the end flank.

Why CAPP is preferred? Explain the two approaches used in CAPP

"Computer-Aided Process Planning (CAPP) is preferred in modern manufacturing
for several reasons, primarily because it enhances efficiency, accuracy, and
flexibility in the planning of manufacturing processes. Here are some key reasons
why CAPP is preferred:

Automation and Efficiency:

CAPP automates the process planning tasks, reducing the need for manual labor
and human intervention.
It streamlines the process planning process, saving time and reducing the risk of

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errors.
Automation allows for quick generation of process plans, especially for complex or
customized products.

Consistency and Standardization:

CAPP ensures consistency in process planning across different products and
projects.
It enforces standardization of manufacturing processes, leading to more
predictable and reliable results.

Improved Accuracy:
CAPP systems use computer algorithms to optimize process plans, leading to more
accurate machining sequences, tool selections, and tolerancing.
It minimizes the likelihood of human errors in process planning, which can lead to
costly mistakes during production.

Flexibility:
CAPP systems can adapt to changes in product designs or manufacturing
requirements.
They allow for quick updates and modifications to process plans, reducing
downtime and production delays.

Knowledge Capture and Sharing:

CAPP systems capture and store manufacturing knowledge and best practices,
making it accessible for future use.
This knowledge sharing ensures that valuable expertise is not lost when
experienced employees leave the organization.

Two approaches commonly used in CAPP are:

Variant CAPP:
Variant CAPP is suitable for products with a high degree of standardization and
repetition, such as mass-produced items.

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It involves creating a library of predefined process plans for standard product
variants.
When a new product is introduced, the system selects the closest matching
standard plan and adapts it to the specific requirements of the new variant.

Generative CAPP:
Generative CAPP is employed for products with varying designs or customization
options.
It generates process plans from scratch based on the specific product design and
manufacturing constraints.
Generative CAPP uses algorithms and rules to evaluate the product's features,
materials, tolerances, and other parameters to create a customized process plan.
Both approaches have their advantages and are chosen based on the nature of
the product and manufacturing environment. Variant CAPP offers efficiency for
standard products, while Generative CAPP provides flexibility for customized or
low-volume production. Ultimately, CAPP helps manufacturers optimize their
production processes, reduce costs, and enhance product quality.

What is Group Technology? Explain Opitz classification system used in GT

"Group Technology (GT) is a manufacturing philosophy and technique that aims to
improve productivity and efficiency by organizing similar parts or products into
groups and then applying common manufacturing processes to each group. The
goal is to reduce production complexity, minimize setup times, and enhance
overall manufacturing performance. One classification system used in GT is the
Opitz system, which helps in grouping similar parts or products based on their
geometric and process-related attributes.

The Opitz Classification System in Group Technology (GT) involves the following
steps:

Part Classification:
In this step, parts are classified based on their geometric shape and size attributes.
These attributes can include features like length, width, thickness, and the

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presence of holes, slots, or other geometric characteristics.

Code Assignment:
Each part is assigned a unique code based on its geometric attributes. The code is
typically alphanumeric and represents a combination of characteristics.
For example, if parts have similar dimensions and hole placements, they may
share a common code.

Creation of Part Families:

Parts with similar or identical codes are grouped together to form part families.
Part families consist of parts that can be produced using similar or common
manufacturing processes.

Process Planning:
Once part families are established, the next step is to identify the common
manufacturing processes that can be applied to all parts within a family.
This includes determining the machining operations, tools, and equipment
needed for each part family.

Tooling and Setup Standardization:

GT aims to standardize tooling and setup procedures for each part family to
minimize changeover times between different production runs.
Standardization helps reduce downtime and improve production efficiency.

Batch Production:
With Opitz classification, parts within the same family can be produced in batches,
allowing for economies of scale and reduced setup times.
Batch production improves resource utilization and reduces production costs.

Inventory Control:
By organizing production into part families and batch runs, inventory control
becomes more efficient, as it is easier to manage and monitor the inventory of

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similar parts.

Manufacturing Cell Design:

GT often leads to the creation of manufacturing cells or workstations dedicated to
producing specific part families.
These cells are optimized for the efficient production of the grouped parts, further
reducing handling and transportation between processes.

The Opitz Classification System in Group Technology is a valuable tool for

optimizing production processes, reducing lead times, and improving overall
manufacturing efficiency. It helps manufacturers identify similarities among parts
and products, enabling them to streamline operations and enhance productivity.

What is Gas Welding?

Gas welding, also known as oxy-fuel welding or oxyacetylene welding, is a

heat-based process used to cut and join metals together. It involves the
combustion of fuel gases, such as acetylene or gasoline, with oxygen to
generate heat that melts and fuses the ends of the metals. This method is
one of the oldest forms of welding and is commonly used in industries such
as automotive repair, metalworking, and construction. The process can be
performed using different gas combinations, but the most common one is
oxygen and acetylene.

Gas welding is a metal joining process conducted by melting the metals

with the help of fuel gases like acetylene, propane, or hydrogen mixed with
oxygen to produce the weld. This welding type is commonly known as ‘Oxy
Acetylene Welding’.

This is because oxygen and acetylene are the most commonly used gases in
this type. Edmund Davy discovered Acetylene in 1836 and it was brought
to practical use by 1900 with the development of the welding torch.

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A practical example of this type is depicted in the image shown below.

The green cylinder is used to store oxygen and the red is usually for
acetylene. Let us learn how this welding process works.

Working Principle of Gas Welding

The basic principle behind most types of welding remains to melt the two
metals (by heating them above their melting points), add flux, and fuse
them. Let us learn the working principle of gas welding.

The metals are melted by the heat from the reaction of fuel gas (Acetylene,
Propane, Butane, Hydrogen, etc) and oxygen. When the gases from the
cylinder stored at high-pressure are released, they flow through the torch at
high velocity and are mixed.

The mixture has high temperatures with traits of carbon dioxide, and this is
ignited by an external spark. The flame starts blowing from the torch.
The heat from this flame can be increased by increasing the pressure of the
outflow gas.

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How is gas welding done?

Gas welding is a welding process that uses a flame produced by the

combustion of a fuel gas mixed with oxygen to generate the heat required
for welding.

Advantages of Gas Welding

After learning the whole concept, we are keen to know the advantages of
the process.

o No need for a high-skill operator to operate on this machine or

setup
o Anyone can set it up as the initial cost is low compared to arc
and resistance welding machines
o One can travel with it to the site where welding needs to be
done, in other words, the machine is portable
o Easy maintenance and easy to repair.

Disadvantages of Gas Welding

We learnt the valuable advantages but unlike all other processes, this also
has some notable disadvantages.

o Welding speed is low due to the rate of metal joining.

o By the end of the welding process, there will be large heat-
affected areas.
o Welding Titanium, Zirconium, or High-Speed steel (HSS) is not
recommended for gas welding.
o It is suitable for thinner sheet metals but not thicker sheet
metals.

Applications of Gas Welding

Amidst the disadvantages, the gas welding process has found its
applications in a few notable industries.

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 o This welding process is used for joining non-ferrous metals, cast iron,
carbon steel, nickel, alloys of aluminium, etc.
o It is used to join thin metals which have as low as 1.6 mm thickness.
o It is commonly used in sheet metal industries.
o It is used to join metals with a low rate of cooling and heating.
o Sometimes, this is used to repair tools and equipment of other
welding processes.
o They are used in automobile industries, shipbuilding, heavy vehicle
manufacturing, and agricultural machinery manufacturing to weld
thinner sections.

Gas Welding vs. Arc Welding

Welding Gas Welding Arc Welding
Process
Heat Source Flame produced by a mixture of fuel gas Electric arc generated
and oxygen between an electrode and
workpiece
Fuel Source Fuel gas, such as acetylene, propane, or Electricity
natural gas
Shielding Gas May or may not require a separate Shielding gas, such as
shielding gas argon or CO2
Electrode Not applicable Consumable or non-
consumable electrode
Types of Arc Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Gas Various types, including
Welding Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), Shielded TIG, MIG, and Stick
Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), etc. welding
Application Suitable for both thin and thick Wide range of materials
Range materials and thicknesses

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Mobility Portable and can be used in various Requires a stable power
locations source and equipment
setup
Complexity Relatively simpler process Can have varying
complexity depending on
the method used
Weld Quality Generally produces less precise and Offers greater control and
aesthetically pleasing welds can produce high-quality
welds
Versatility Limited in terms of welding different Highly versatile and can
materials and applications be used for various
applications
Cost Generally lower cost due to simpler Equipment costs and
equipment and fuel gas usage electricity usage can be
higher

"Welding defects can occur during the welding process and can compromise the
quality and strength of the weld. Here is a list of common welding defects and
their possible remedies:

Porosity:
Porosity appears as small, round cavities or voids within the weld.
Remedies:
Ensure proper cleaning and preparation of base metal.
Use clean welding consumables.
Adjust welding parameters, such as gas flow rates and travel speed.
Maintain proper shielding gas coverage.

Weld Cracking:
Cracking can occur as hot cracks, cold cracks, or stress cracks, compromising weld
integrity.
Remedies:
Select appropriate welding techniques and filler materials.

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Preheat the base metal if required.
Control the cooling rate to prevent rapid cooling and thermal stress.

Lack of Fusion:
Lack of fusion occurs when the weld metal does not bond adequately with the
base metal.
Remedies:
Use proper welding techniques and angles.
Adjust welding parameters, including heat input and travel speed.
Ensure good fit-up and joint preparation.

Incomplete Penetration:
This defect occurs when the weld does not fully penetrate the joint.
Remedies:
Adjust welding parameters for deeper penetration.
Use proper joint geometry and preparation.

Undercut:
Undercutting is a groove or depression along the weld toe.
Remedies:
Maintain a consistent arc length.
Use the correct electrode angle.
Control the welding current.

Excessive Spatter:
Spatter is the unwanted metal droplets that scatter around the weld.
Remedies:
Adjust voltage and wire feed speed settings.
Use anti-spatter compounds or sprays.
Maintain proper shielding gas flow.

Slag Inclusion:
Slag inclusion occurs when slag becomes trapped within the weld metal.

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Remedies:
Properly remove slag between passes.
Ensure good joint fit-up to prevent slag entrapment.

Distortion:
Distortion results from the thermal expansion and contraction during welding.
Remedies:
Use tack welds to secure parts before full welding.
Employ proper welding sequence.
Control heat input and minimize excessive welding passes.
Weld Metal Contamination:
Contamination can result from dirty welding equipment, contaminated filler
materials, or improper storage.
Remedies:
Maintain clean welding equipment and environment.
Store filler materials properly.
Use appropriate cleaning and pre-welding procedures.

Crater Cracks:
Crater cracks occur at the end of a weld bead, typically when the arc is
terminated.
Remedies:
Employ crater fill techniques to prevent sudden arc termination.
Backstep or reduce current gradually when finishing the weld.

It's essential to identify and address welding defects promptly to ensure the
integrity of welded joints. Proper training, quality control, and adherence to
welding procedures can help prevent many of these defects. Additionally,
consulting with experienced welders and welding engineers can provide valuable
insights into defect prevention and remediation.

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Resistance welding, sometimes called electric resistance welding
(ERW),is a process by which metals can be joined together by
applying pressure and conducting a strong electric current
through the metal combination to heat up the welding joint and
melt the metals, forging them together.

It has various forms and applications, and no other materials are

needed, which makes it a highly cost effective process.

How Does Resistance Welding Work?

Resistance welding is generally used to join two plain metal work pieces
together. An electric current is delivered to the metal sheets (or any
work pieces being joined) through weld electrodes which apply force to
the sheets. This force is then converted to heat. The heat is generated
so that it melts the metal at the point where they join – the point of
‘resistance’ between the faying surfaces. The electrode then extracts
heat from the molten weld area which forms a weld nugget at the point
where it solidifies. A force is applied before, during and after a current
is applied, which confines the contact area.

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Types of Resistance Welding

There are many resistance welding processes with different uses, such
as spot welding, seam welding, and butt welding. Each one has a
different specific welding application that makes it optimal for a
particular situation.

1. Resistance Spot Welding

Resistance spot welding has been used extensively in the automotive

industry for the joining of steel and in the aerospace industry for
airframe components made from aluminium alloys. It is one of the
oldest and simplest forms of resistance welding, in which a weld nugget
is produced by passing an electric current between the two metal
components whilst they are held together between electrodes, typically
made from copper-based alloys due to its superior conductive
properties.

2. Resistance Seam Welding

Resistance seam welding is a variation of the standard spot welding

form, however instead of spot one nugget, a series of overlapping
nuggets is produced. This is usually done by replacing the conventional
spot welding electrodes with wheels, which turn as the parts are fed
between them. The process thus produces a continuous welded seam
rather than a single spot. Seam welding is often used in the production
of thin sheet, leak-tight containers such as fuel tanks, and is generally
unsuitable for welding aluminium.

3. Resistance Projection Welding

Resistance projection welding is a form of resistance welding where the

electricity, force, and weld time are concentrated on raised ‘projections’
across the surface. Projection welding is generally used for welds using
thicker materials than the thinner metal pieces that spot welding is

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usually required for, and often not metals. It is used primarily in the
electrical, automotive and construction industries.

4. Resistance Butt Welding

Resistance butt welding is a process in which the two components of

similar cross section can be joined together in one operation that takes
place simultaneously across the entirety of the affected object, rather
than just in small spots. The welding application of butt welding is often
in wires and rods with small diameter measurements, generally up to
about 16mm diameter.

5. Flash Butt Welding

Flash butt welding is similar, but in this case the energy transfer is
primarily provided by the resistance heat arising from the parts
themselves. This is a faster type of resistance welding where the welder
joins the parts by applying some pressure, then by passing a heavy
current through the joint which burns away surface irregularities. After
the weld has generated enough heat, the parts are connected by
applying heat and pressure simultaneously. This produces a forge butt
weld with no melted metal remaining in the joint.

What is meant by plastic deformation?

Plastic deformation is the permanent distortion that occurs when a material
is subjected to tensile, compressive, bending, or torsion stresses that
exceed its yield strength and cause it to elongate, compress, buckle, bend,
or twist

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Draw a neat diagram of a conventional Lathe machine used in workshops and
mention functions of different components.

What is a quick return mechanism?

In the shaper and slotter machine, a quick return motion mechanism
converts circular motion into reciprocating motion, allowing the slider to
move forward and backward. The cutting process occurs in the forward
motion, but there is no corresponding cutting in the reverse direction. A
quick return mechanism is a device that generates a reciprocating motion
in which the return stroke takes less time than the forward stroke. It uses a
system of links with three turning pairs and a sliding pair to be driven by a
circular motion source (usually a motor of some sort). With an offset crank,
a quick-return mechanism is a subclass of a slider-crank linkage.

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Applications of a quick return mechanism
Machines with quick return mechanisms can be found all over the
engineering industry. Below are the applications of a quick return
mechanism.

• Shaper
• Screw press
• Power-driven saw
• Mechanical actuator
• revolver mechanisms
• rotary combustion internal engine
• air compressor
• mechanical cutter.
Components of a quick return mechanism
The following are the key components of a quick return mechanism:

1. Crank: The crank is attached to the pinion wheel or motor and

rotates at a constant angle.
2. Slider and Slotted Bar: The slider pivots at the crank’s end. This
slider is free to move within the slotter bar. This component is
responsible for converting the crank’s circular motion into the
slotted bar’s oscillating action.
3. Connecting rod: The connecting rod’s job is to transform the
slotted bar’s oscillating action into reciprocating motion.
4. Ram: The ram reciprocates along the stroke line in a horizontal
direction.

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 Introduction to finishing processes

Finishing processes aim to alter the surface of a manufactured part in order

to achieve a particular characteristic. Commonly desired characteristics
include improved aesthetics, adhesion, solderability, chemical-, corrosion-,
tarnish- or wear-resistance, hardness, electrical conductivity, flaw removal,
and surface friction control. In limited cases, these techniques may be
applied to restore original dimensions or to salvage or repair a part.

There are two main categories of finishing processes and they largely
depend on how they affect a workpiece. These processes are either
removing/reshaping finishing or adding/altering finishing. The
removing/reshaping processes serve mainly to alter the surface of a part to
attain a desired finish by removing or reshaping it. For example, some
users desire a more polished, reshaped, smoothed or abrasive surface, or
an aesthetically enhanced exterior. A broad variety of processes are used,
but among the most common are abrasive and sand blasting, laser ablation
and engraving, polishing, and superfinishing.

Spraying

Spraying is a painting technique that employs a spraying device, usually

coupled with compressed air, to air-spray a workpiece with a choice of
coating. Coatings can differ between paint, ink, varnish, and various other
materials.

Airbrushes and spray guns are the two main devices used for industrial
spraying. They are distinguishable by their sizes and by the size of spray
the pattern they produce. While airbrushes are hand-held, they are typically
applied to projects that require a greater amount of detail such as fine art,
small nails, or photo retouching. The equipment used with spray guns is
generally quite large. Spray guns are typically well suited for covering large
surfaces with an even liquid coat. Their interchangeable heads allow users
to spray different patterns and they can be either automated or handheld.

Powder coating

Powder coating uses a free-flowing, dry powder to coat workpieces. It is

mainly used for coating metals in order to create a harder, tougher finish
than conventional paint. Some of the most common metals that undergo

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the powder coating process include household appliances, aluminum
extrusions, drum hardware, automotive and bicycle parts.

Typically, thermoplastic or thermoset polymers are electrostatically applied

and cured with heat, enabling them to flow and develop what’s known as a
“skin.” Curing time is significantly faster than it is with liquid coating. Unlike
conventional liquid paint, powder coating can keep the binder and filler
parts in a liquid suspension form without the need for a solvent. Thanks to
technological advancements, a greater scope of materials, such as
Medium-Density Fiberboard (MDF), can be applied as part of the powder
coating process.

Powder coating can produce thicker coatings than conventional liquid

coatings and, because of its powdered state, it is free from running and
sagging. The absence of solvents means that power coating releases little
or no Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) into the atmosphere, providing
remarkable cost savings in terms of pollution control equipment.
Aesthetically, there are fewer differences between horizontally and
vertically coated services when compared to liquid coated items. Powder
coating is also distinctly unique in that it facilitates a wide range of specialty
effects.

MIG Welding:

Principle:

Mig works on same principle of TIG or arc welding. It works on basic principle of
heat generation due to electric arc. This heat is further used to melt consumable
electrode and base plates metal which solidify together and makes a strong joint.
The shielded gases are also supplied through nozzle which protect the weld zone
from other reactive gases. This gives good surface finish and a stronger joint.

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Equipment’s:

Power Source:

Wire Feeder System:

Welding Torch:

Shielding Gases:

Regulators:

Working:

Its working can be summarized as follow.

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 •

First, a high voltage

current is change into DC current supply with high current at low
voltage. This current passes though welding electrode.
• A consumable wire is used as electrode. The electrode is
connected to the negative terminal and work piece from positive
terminal.
• A fine intense arc will generate between electrode and work
piece due to power supply. This arc used to produce heat which
melts the electrode and the base metal. Mostly electrode is made
by the base metal for making uniform joint.
• This arc is well shielded by shielding gases. These gases protect
the weld form other reactive gases which can damage the
strength of welding joint.
• This electrode travels continuously on welding area for making
proper weld joint. The angle of the direction of travel should be
kept between 10-15 degree. For fillet joints the angle should be
45 degree.
Applications:

• MIG is best suited for fabrication of sheet metal.

• Generally all available metals can be weld through this process.

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 • It can be used for deep groove welding.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:

• It provide higher deposition rate.

• It is faster comparing to arc welding because it supply filler
material continuously.
• It produce clean weld with better quality.
• There is no slag formation.
• Minimize weld defects.
• This welding produces very little slag.
• It can be used to make deep groove weld.
• It can be easily automated.

Disadvantages:

• It cannot be used for welding in difficult to reach portions.

• Higher initial or setup cost.
• It cannot be used for outdoor work because wind can cause
damage of gas shield.
• It required high skilled labor.

Ultrasonic machining is a non-conventional machining process in which

the abrasives hits on the workpiece to remove the material. This method of
machining resorts to percussion or hammering of abrasives against the
workpiece with the tool.

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So, we have a tool, it is not directly impacting the workpiece, but there are
some abrasive particles put in between the workpiece and the tool.

These abrasive particles are hard and they are they can retain their shape
which means they are rigid therefore, they can cause impact erosion of the
workpiece material when working in this particular mode of percussion.

So, hammering is done by a body which is known as a tool. The tool

material has been sufficiently ductile so that in itself does not undergo
brittle fracture.

Ultrasonic Machining Process Construction or Parts:

▪ Power Supply
▪ Velocity Transformer
▪ Tool
▪ Abrasive Slurry
▪ Electro-mechanical transducer
▪ Abrasive gun
▪ Workpiece

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Working of Ultrasonic Machining is: there is gap between tool and
workpiece about 0.25 mm. The tool is made up of ductile material.
Between tool and workpiece, there is a slurry of abrasive.

Abrasive gets embedded into the tool and during the downward journey of
the tool, abrasives hammer the workpiece, removing material.

This material will be flushed away from the machining area by the flow of
the slurry tool is made slightly tapered to produce straight holes.

Upon increasing the viscosity of the carrier fluid material removal rate
decreases due to difficulty in flushing. By increasing the frequency, MRR
will increase because the number of impacts per unit time will increase.

By increasing the amplitude, MRR will increase due to the increase in the
momentum of abrasives.

The amplitude of the vibration may vary from 5 to 75 µm and frequency

may vary from 19 to 25 kHz.

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By increasing the concentration of abrasives, the impact will be there at
more places which increases MRR (Material Removal Rate).

But when the concentration increases beyond a certain value, due to

Collision between the abrasives momentum is lost, decreasing the MRR.

By increasing the size of the abrasive, an impact will appear in the larger
area. But when the size increases beyond a certain value, the momentum
of abrasives will decrease.

The following advantages of Ultrasonic are:

▪ Ultrasonic Machining can be used machine brittle, non-conductive
material, Hard and Fragile material
▪ Heat is not generated in this Machining process so there is very little
or negligible physical change in the workpiece.
▪ Non-metal that cannot be machined by EDM and ECM because of
poor electrical conductivity, but can very well be machined by
Ultrasonic Machining.
▪ It is burr less and distortion fewer processes.
▪ It can be adopted in conjunction with other new technologies like
EDM, ECG, ECM.
▪ The operation is noiseless.
▪ Equipment used here in this machining can be used by skilled as well
as unskilled operators.
▪ A good surface finish and high accuracy can be achieved.
▪ Every material can be machined irrespective of its conductivity.
The following disadvantages of ultrasonic Machining are:
▪ Material Removal Rate is Low.

▪ The energy requirement for cutting is high.

▪ The softer material is difficult to machine
▪ It is difficult to drill deep holes in Ultrasonic Machining, as there is a
restriction of slurry movement.
▪ High Tool wear rate due to the movement of abrasive particles.

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What is Mechanical Comparator?

A mechanical comparator is a measuring instrument that is made up of

mechanical means like gears, levers, pinions & racks to get the
magnification. These kinds of means are mainly used for magnifying the
means’ movement to enhance the precision of the instrument. The
mechanical comparator diagram is shown below.

Working Principle

The working principle of a mechanical comparator is to use mechanical

means for magnifying small deviations. The magnifying method of the
indicator’s small movement in all mechanical comparators is affected
through gear train levers. These comparators have magnifications that
range from 300 to 1000. The mechanical comparator is also known as
“microcator” which is used for linear measurements through the relative
contact technique.

Mechanical Comparator Types

Mechanical comparators are classified into different types like the following.

• Dial Indicators.
• Read type Comparators.
• Johanson Mikro kator.
• Sigma Comparators.

Dial Indicators

A dial indicator is one type of simple mechanical comparator and it is a

sensitive & versatile instrument. It uses a gear system jointly with a pinion
& rack. This kind of comparator works on the Rack & pinion system
principle that is, the spindle’s linear movement is magnified through the
arrangement of rack & pinion.

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The dial indicator mechanical comparator is used to determine the error in
geometrical form like roundness, taper, ovality, etc. Determining the errors
is say alignment, surfaces, squareness, parallelism, etc This comparator is
used to compare two heights or distances in small limits.

• It is used for testing material’s compression & tension.

• It is used to verify the reality of milling machine arbors.
• It is used to verify the arrangement of lathe machine centers with a
bar between centers.

Read type Comparator

A reed-type mechanical comparator is used to compare the dimension of

the workpiece by typical dimensions. So, in this kind of comparator, the
outside of the comparator looks like same as other mechanical
comparators. But, its internal construction and working principle are very
simple as compared to other mechanical comparators.

In this type of mechanical comparator, the plunger’s linear movement is

simply specified through the read mechanism. At first, this comparator is
set with a known dimension. After that, the reading of the indicator is
adjusted merely to zero. Once the measured part is kept below the pointer,
then this comparator displays the difference in this dimension.

Sigma Comparator

Sigma comparator is one kind of mechanical comparator and it is

introduced by a manufacturing company of instruments in the USA. These
comparators are mainly used for measuring the roughness of the surface
by measuring the dimensional difference between the standard value &
measured value of the surface material. The magnification range of this
comparator ranges from 300 to 500. A compression spring limits the
measuring pressure. The magnification achieved depends upon the length
of the lever on both sides of the pivot.

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Advantages

The advantages of mechanical comparators include the following.

• Mechanical comparators are not expensive as compared to other

types of amplifying devices.
• These types of comparators don’t need any external electricity
supply.
• It has extremely high magnification.
• Its optical lever is lightweight.
• These are easily understood due to a linear scale.
• These are compact, strong & very easy to operate.
• They are apt for normal workshop conditions & they are handy.
Disadvantages

The disadvantages of mechanical comparators include the following.

• The mechanical comparators include more moving parts, so

eventually, the accuracy is low & the friction is high.
• The comparator accuracy will be decreased if any negligence
within moving parts.
• This comparator has more inertia so it causes the device to be
responsive to vibrations.
• This measuring instrument range is limited once the pointer moves
above a fixed scale.
• It has a high Parallax error because the pointer moves on a fixed
scale.
• It is extremely hard to integrate arrangements to adjust the
magnification.
Applications

The uses of mechanical comparators include the following.

• The reed-type mechanical comparator is mainly used for

measuring the dimensional deviation of the workpiece by the
standard dimensions.
• This comparator is used in mass production & laboratory testing for
analysis purposes.

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 • This comparator is mostly used in different manufacturing
companies like an outer rings, bearing inner, bearing cages race,
and automobile cylindrical components.
• The mechanical comparator mechanism is utilized in micators/
small spring measuring heads, ; minicators/ spring-lever indicators
& opticators/ spring-optical measuring heads.
• A mechanical optical comparator uses mechanical & optical
components to increase the plunger’s movement.
• These comparators are useful in measuring the surface roughness
by measuring the dimensional variation between the standard &
measured value of the surface material.

Mechanical Comparator Electrical Comparator

A mechanical comparator is a type of An electrical comparator is an electro-
measuring instrument that is made up mechanical measuring system that is
of mechanical means to get made up of electrical means to get the
magnification magnification.
This comparator includes a number of This comparator includes less number
moving parts. of moving parts.

There is a high rate of wear & friction There is a low rate of wear & friction
because of more moving parts available because of fewer moving parts available
in this system. in this system.
This comparator is not highly accurate. This comparator is highly accurate.
This comparator reading does not affect This comparator reading will affect by
variations within the power supply. variations within the power supply.
Its maintenance is easy. Its maintenance is not easy.
It is not expensive. It is expensive.
This does not depend on the external This comparator needs an external
current supply. current supply.
This comparator is not sensitive to
This comparator is very sensitive to vibrations due to less number of
vibrations. movable parts
The range of Magnification is fairly low
compared to the electrical type. The range of Magnification is higher.

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The Three Types Of Fit

It is common in manufacturing to produce parts that must integrate with one

another to serve a common purpose or perform one or more operations.
How these items interact is extremely important, and will affect the overall
functionality of an assembly. The relationship between two mating
components is known as “fit”, and pertains to how tight or loose the items
should be when joined together. There are three types of fit commonly
referenced in manufacturing and mechanical engineering.

Clearance Fit

Clearance fits allow for loose mating, where free movement is important
and a certain amount of play is desired. We see clearance fits called for
where elements should be able to slide in and out without obstruction, and
where alignment can be loosely guided but does not require tight precision.
Examples of clearance fit might include bolt/shaft holes where an element
will slide freely through another feature.

Interference Fit

An interference fit will be much tighter than a clearance fit. Also referred to
as a press fit or friction fit, the interference fit requires some degree of force

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to join two components. Pressing a bushing, bearing, dowel pin or other
items into their mating components are all examples of how an interference
fit can be used. Once joined, this creates a relatively solid union that would
require substantial force or potential machine operations to uncouple.

Transition Fit

A transition fit would fall between a clearance and interference fit.

Transition fits are called for when accurate alignment is critical, and mating
parts must join with greater precision. You may also see these referred to
as a slip or push fit. There will still be a greater degree of clearance than a
press/interference fit, but it will be substantially smaller and should remove
excess play or movement in the joint.

What is Investment Casting?

Investment casting is a manufacturing process in which a wax pattern is

coated with a refractory ceramic material. Once the ceramic coating
material is dry and hardened, the wax is melted out and leaves an internal
cavity the shape of the final product’s geometry. Molten metal is poured
into the cavity where the wax pattern was. The metal solidifies within the
ceramic cavity, cools, and the ceramic is removed from the metal casting.
The result of this process is a net to near-net precision metal component
which can be used for a broad range of applications in various industries.

What is the Investment Casting Process?

Investment casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is

poured into a ceramic mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired
shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is the casting, which
is broken away from the ceramic mold to complete the process. The steps
within the investment casting process are as follows:

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Step 1: Engineering Review

• The first step of this manufacturing process begins with a full Design
For Manufacturing (DFM) review with the customer.
• This would include an evaluation of print dimensions as it relates to
the investment cast process, wax injection mode build considerations
such as gate placement, post-case material requirements and
expected tolerances for fit, form and function of the part, and final
inspection criteria to determine a mutually acceptable part.

Step 2: Mold Design & Build

• The process begins with a precision-engineered wax injection mold to

produce wax patterns representing the final part.
• These design considerations are discussed with the mold builder and
a mold design is created.
• Our wax injection molds are built here at Aero Metals at our in-house
mold shop.
• The molds are designed and built to reproduce millions of wax parts
over its lifetime.

Step 3: Wax Pattern

• The wax injection mold is quantified to run production and brought to

the Wax Room for injection and assembly.
• Anywhere from one to 100 patterns are injected and placed or glued
onto a pre-fabricated wax runner system known as a “tree” in our
process.
• The populated tree of wax parts is also known a cluster (of parts).
• The tree cluster is then sent to the Dip Room for the next part of the
process.

Step 4: Ceramic Mold Construction

• The wax tree is dipped and completely enveloped into ceramic slurry,
taken out, then completely coated in sand to create the first layer of
shell, and then dried.
• This enveloping process of dip and sand is repeated 6 or 8 times with
a drying period between each one.

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 • By repeating this process, it creates a lamination effect building a
strong ceramic shell around the wax pattern as known as
“investment”. The shell now runs through our drying system for 24 to
36 hours before removing the wax from the shell.

Step 5: De-waxing

• The shell, which consists of the wax pattern and its coating of
ceramic and sand, is placed into an autoclave to quickly remove the
wax under extremely high pressure and steam heat.
• This vessel helps to hold the shell in place and the steam heat quickly
melts the wax out creating an empty ceramic mold, hence the name
“lost wax” casting.
• The ceramic shell is then moved to the foundry ovens to start the
casting process.

Step 6: Foundry & Pouring

• The mold is then placed into a high temperature oven, approximately

1000°C (1832°F), to cure (cristobalite) the ceramic mold and prepare
it for accepting molten metal.
• The cured ceramic mold is removed from the hot oven and molten
metal is immediately poured into the mold cup and its subsequent
gating system, completely filling out the mold cavity with metal.

Step 7: Shell & Casting Removal

• After the metal has cooled to the touch, the ceramic mold shell can
be broken away from the part(s), and the casting(s) removed from,
the now metal, tree.
• The ceramic shell is brittle and typically broken free by using water
jets, vibration, and other methods.
• Once the tree is clean of the ceramic, the parts are removed from the
gating system by either cutting off with a saw with vibration or liquid
nitrogen.

Step 8: Finishing

• Often, the part’s gate is removed by a grinding or machining post-cast

operation.

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 • Further finishing such as heat treatment to anneal before machining,
plating, or harden is completed before final inspection and shipping to
the customer.

What Materials can be Investment Cast?

Aero Metals can create precision metal components through investment

casting using nearly any metal. However, the advanced quality materials
we most commonly use, include:

• Stainless Steel
• Steel
• Ductile Iron
• Beryllium Copper
• Nickel-Based
• Aluminum
• Cobalt-Based
• Copper-Based

What is Investment Casting Used For?

The investment casting process is most beneficial for casting metals with
high melting temperatures that cannot be forged, pressure casted, or
molded in plaster or sand. Typical investment castings include parts with
complex geometries, such as turbine blades, firearm components, marine
parts, and other industrial components.

What are the benefits of Investment Casting?

There are many benefits associated with investment casting in the

manufacturing of precision metal components, some of which include:

• Mold design versatility

• Increased complex design capabilities
• Provides for a smoother surface (125 RMS)
• Highly accurate, repeatable-designs
• Time & cost savings versus fabrication and machining
• Produces numerous types of products
• Numerous types of metal alloys can be used

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Abrasive Jet Machining Definition:
brasive Jet Machining is a material removal process with the help of
concentrated abrasive grains enclosed in a nozzle that removes by the
action of impact erosion. In abrasive-jet machining, a high-velocity jet
containing abrasive particles is aimed at the workpiece surface under
controlled conditions.
The impact of the particles develops a sufficiently concentrated force to
perform operations such as cutting, the material is removed by the erosion
of work material with abrasive grits at a speed of 150-300m/s. The
abrasive grits are carried out in a high-velocity gas stream.

Abrasive Jet Machining Consists of the following Various Parts:

▪ Gas Supply
▪ Filter
▪ Pressure Gauge
▪ Mixing Chamber
▪ Nozzle and
▪ Abrasive

The working principle of abrasive jet machining involves the use of a high-
velocity stream of Compressed abrasives particles carried by a high-
pressure gas through a nozzle on the workpiece.

Metal will remove due to erosion by the abrasive particles that hit at a very
high speed on the workpiece. the pressure energy of the stream is
converted into kinetic energy and

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