Chem Study Guide

Chapter One
Topics

1. Matter
2. Mixtures (Heterogenous & Homogenous)
3. Elements and Compounds

Definitions to know:

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies volume. Matter has physical & chemical properties.

Mass is recognized and measured on earth as the weight of an object.

Chemical change is one which a substance undergoes a change in structure. Common chemical
changes are rusting, corrosion, digestion, respiration, fermentation, and photosynthesis.

Physical change is one which does not affect the structure of the substance. Common physical
changes are melting, freezing, evaporation, boiling, condensation, magnetizing, dissolving etc.

Physical Properties are properties which can be measured without changing the identity or nature
of the substance. It can be used to describe a substance.

Chemical Properties are properties which define how a substance reacts under certain
circumstances, for example how a substance reacts when heated in air.

A pure substance is just a single substance, an impure substance contains other substances mixed
together.

The melting point is one of the main properties used to identify a substance and determine it's
purity. Impurities cause changes in melting & boiling points. Impurities lower the melting point and
raise the boiling point .

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still retains the properties of that element.
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound that can exist on it's own in a free
state. Molecules typically consists of several atoms bonded together.

An element is a substance that contains only one type of atom in it's molecules, so it may not be
split into simpler substances by chemical means.

A compound contains more than one type of atom in its molecules, and can be split into simpler
substances using chemical reactions.

Heterogenous mixture is a mixture that is not the same throughout. If you take a sample
from the mixture it will not be the same.

A heterogenous mixture is a mixture of a solid and a liquid is a suspension (e.g. orange juice, mud).
A heterogenous mixture of two liquids is an emulsion (e.g. milk, butter, cream, salad dressings).

Homogenization is a process which attempts to reduce the size of the particles or droplets in a
heterogenous mixture so that they approximate the texture of a homogenous mixture. This is most
commonly done in the case of emulsions. (e.g. milk, which is a heterogenous mixture but on
inspection appears homogenous)

Homogenous mixture is a mixture that is the same throughout. If you take a sample from
any part of a homogenous mixture it will be the same. Homogenous mixtures may be
solids, liquids, or gases.

Solid homogenous mixtures include alloys (e.g. brass, bronze, yellow gold, white gold, steel,
stainless steel), which are homogenous mixtures of metals, and cement. Liquid homogenous
mixtures are solutions of one substance (solute) in another (solvent). The solvent is usually present
in larger quantity. The most common solvent is water but other examples include alcohols, acetone,
and carbon tetrachloride. Examples of liquid homogenous mixtures are crude oil, rubbing alcohol,
vinegar, sea water, tea and coffee. Gas homogenous mixtures are mixtures of gases which are
always homogenous. The best example is air.

Separation of Mixtures

Heterogenous Mixtures Homogenous Mixtures

Filtration - Distillation
Centrifugation - Crystallization
 Sublimation - Chromatography
Magnetism - Reverse Osmosis
Separatory Funnel

Separation of Homogenous
Filtration is used to separate heterogenous mixtures where there is a solid and a liquid.

Centrifugation separates substances of different densities. In a suspension, a solid is dispersed in a

liquid. If a suspension is left to stand, the solid will sink to the bottom.

Separating Funnels are used to separate a mixture of immiscible liquids.

Sublimation: Normally a solid will melt, and turn into a liquid when it is heated, If the liquid
formed is heated further, it will eventually turn into a gas.

Gases which go directly to solid and solids which go directly to gas at atmospheric pressure are
sublime. Solids which are sublime include dry ice, iodine, naphthalene (moth balls) and ammonium
salts.

Magnetism: Some substances are magnetic and others are not. Steel and iron, chromium, and other
"transitional metals" are magnetic. Other metals, such as zinc, copper, magnesium, are not. And
salts, non-metals, and other compounds are not, So if iron, for example is mixed with a salt such as
common salt (sodium chloride), the iron can be removed by using a magnet to "stir" the mixture.

Separation of Homogenous Mixtures

Simple distillation is used to separate a liquid from another liquid or a solute from a solvent. The
only requirement is that there be a large difference in boiling points.

Distillation is used when you actually want to collect the distillate in significant quantities.

Fractional distillation: When the mixture contains liquids with a similar boiling points, fractional
distillation is used. Boiling points should be at least 25 degrees apart; if not, simple distillation is
used.

Crystallization: A solute can be separated from a solvent by crystallization. When a solution is

heated or left to stand, the solvent will evaporate, leaving the solute behind. Fast evaporation (when
the solution is heated), produces smaller crystals than slow evaporation (when the solution is left to
stand).

When the solution is heated, there are some dangers:

The solution can boil over or splash, resulting in loss

The solvent will in some cases react with the solute to form a new substance - in a process
known as hydrolysis. Hydrolysis occurs whenever water reacts with anything.

Obviously crystallization results in total loss of solvent - if the solvent is to be recovered,

distillation is necessary before crystallization.

Chromatography is a method of separating substances that make up a liquid or gaseous mixture.

One common use of it is to identify components of small amounts of substances for example, to
separate and identify products of chemical reactions.

Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis works by reversing the principle of osmosis. It involves the movement of
molecules from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration until the concentrations
become equal on either side of the membrane.

Chapter Two

Topics

1. The atomic and kinetic theory of matter THE ATOMIC AND KINETIC THEORY OF
MATTER

A. Evidence for the particulate nature and the Kinetic Theory of matter

1. Diffusion in gases, liquids and solids

2. Brownian motion
3. Volume changes on dissolving solutes in solvents

B. Size of particles – the oil drop experiment

C. The physical properties of the three states of matter

 1. Particle arrangement
2. Forces between particles
3. Movement of particles
4. Temperature related to kinetic energy of particles
2. Changes of state explained on the Kinetic Theory
3. Pressure and S.V.P.

D. The Laws

1. Conservation of Matter
2. Constant Composition
3. Multiple Proportions

E. Dalton’s Atomic Theory

F. Atoms, Molecules & Formula Units

G. Chemical Formulae

H. The gas laws

What is Brownian Motion?

Brownian motion is the random, erratic movement of microscopic particles suspended in a fluid
(liquid or gas) due to collisions with the fast-moving molecules of the fluid.

Key points about Brownian motion:

1. Random Movement: Particles follow no discernible path and seem to move in a zig-zag
pattern.
2. Cause: The motion is caused by the constant and rapid collisions between the fluid molecules
and the suspended particles.
3. Particle Size: Brownian motion is more noticeable in small particles (e.g., dust or pollen)
because they are more easily affected by molecular collisions.
4. Kinetic Theory: Brownian motion provides evidence of the kinetic theory of matter, which
states that molecules of a fluid are in constant motion.

Matter is made up of very small particles in constant motion; the higher the temperature, the more
the particles move; at higher temperatures, they have more kinetic energy. The temperature of an
object is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles.
There are four states of matter - solid, liquids, gases and plasma.

In solids the particles are packed very close together in an orderly arrangement known as lattice.
Particles vibrate about fixed positions and have strong forces of attraction between them.

Solids:

1. Have a high density because the particles are tightly packed.

2. Can not be compressed because particles are already as tightly packed as they can be.
3. Do not flow because particles cannot move from their fixed positions; the forces holding them
are very strong
4. Have a fixed shape; particles have a fixed size.
5. Expand slightly on heating - because particles vibrate more and hence more space

In liquids the particles are close together but not as close as they are in solids. They can move
around in any direction; they are not in any orderly arrangement and are not fixed in position. The
forces of attraction between them are still quite strong but, again, not as strong compared to solids.

Liquids:

1. Have a medium density - particles are not as tightly packed as in solids, but not as widely
spaced as gases.
2. Can not be compressed - although particles can flow; particles are still in close contact,
though they can move from place to place.
3. Have the shape of their container, have a fixed shape.
4. Will expand slightly on heating - forces of attraction still exist, though not as strong as in
solids.

In gases the particles are very far apart with large distances between them. They move around very
quickly in all directions and the forces of attraction between them is very, very weak.

Gases:

1. Have a very low density - particles are widely spaced and represent only a small % of the
overall volume.
2. Can be compressed
3. Can flow - very low forces of attraction
 4. Have the shape of their container - diffuse to fill the shape they occupy
5. The rate of diffusion depends on temperature and on the size or particles
6. Have the size of their container
7. Expand greatly on heating if they are allowed to expand; if they ar not allowed to expand -
their pressure (pressure due to collisions with the container) increases.

You can change the state of a substance by heating or cooling it.

Measurement Of The Size of Molecules the Size of Oleic

Acid molecule
How is Oleic acid measured?
The measurement of large distances is simple. We know very well how to magnify. We use
kilometers for terrestrial applications, light years for stellar applications, and 1 parsec (3.26 light-
years) for galactic applications. On the other end of the scale, we have small measures. We can
understand millimeters and our naked eyes can see up to 0.1 mm but after that, it is very hard to
visualize.

An electron microscope is a microscope that illuminates the sample with a beam of accelerated
electrons. This allows the electron microscope to focus sharply on a very small object say an atom.
This electron can be made to have a very short wavelength, almost 100,000 times shorter

identify substances and to determine their purity. Heat that does not cause a change in temperature
is known as LATENT HEAT.
Latent Heat of fusion, vaporization, condensation, solidification etc.
For an explanation of heating and cooling curves, please visit the following website:
http://www.ausetute.com.au/heatlatent.html than the visible light, thus giving the electron
microscope a better resolution than an optical microscope. A transmission electron microscope can
achieve better than 50 Picometers (10-12) resolution and you should remember that atoms range
from 30 to 300 Pico meter.

Before the technological advancements though, we only had a rough estimate of the size of the
atom. Let’s discuss some of these methods now.

Oleic Acid molecule

Thin Film Method: Oleic Acid

The molecules of oleic acid and other such vegetable oils belong to a category called lipids. These
are commonly called ‘fat molecules’. Their structure is hydrophobic, which means that they are
poorly soluble in water. Molecules that dissolve in water are called hydrophilic. The word comes
from Greek words meaning ‘water-loving’. Fatty acid molecules such as oleic acid are interesting
because they have parts that are hydrophilic and parts that are hydrophobic.

In the picture of oleic acid, note that the oleic acid molecule is standing on the –OH end of the
molecule. This was done on purpose because when oleic acid molecules encounter water they stand
upon it with this end down. Oleic acid floats on water due to a lower density. A significant portion
of the molecule is hydrophobic. Only the –OH end is hydrophilic. Because it is so much larger than
the hydrophilic end, the entire molecule is not soluble in water. When placed on water oleic acid
molecules will stand up and support one another on end because of attractive forces between the
hydrophobic parts of the molecules. If oleic acid is dropped onto the water we make the assumption
that it spreads out to a thickness of only one molecule.

We dissolve 1 cm3 of oleic acid in 400 cm3 of alcohol to obtain a concentration of 1 part by 400.
We take a big container of water, and to the surface, we add a uniform layer of lycopodium powder.
To this, we add one drop of oleic acid. The drop quickly spreads into a thin, large circular film of
molecular thickness. These are the oleic acid molecules standing on their hydrophilic ends. We can
measure the diameter of this circle, using which we can calculate the area ‘A’.

Thickness=𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Based on the assumption that the layer is one molecule thick, we obtain the value of the size of the
oleic acid molecule. The thickness value comes out to be in the order of 10-9 m. Considering how
simple this demonstration is, this method has very good accuracy.

Using this method, the thickness of the oil drop = the length of one molecule & for a molecule of
Oleic Acid, this is 10-9 metres, which is very very small.

Pressure of Gases:

As mentioned above, particles in gases are in constant rapid motion. They collide with one another,
and with the walls of any container in which they are contained. Collisions with the walls result in
pressure. The particles in a gas are all moving about randomly. As they move around, they collide
with the walls of their container. Each collision produces a tiny force on the wall, trying to push it
outwards.

A container of gas contains many billions of particles. Each of them bumps into the walls thousands
of times every second. Although we can’t feel each individual bump, they average out to produce a
constant pressure on the walls.
Gas pressure can then be defined as the force exerted on the walls of a container by particles of a
gas.

Pressure increases with temperature because particles move faster and collide more forcibly at
higher temperatures.

Vapour Pressure:

Molecules in a liquid are in constant motion. This includes molecules at the surface. As they move,
some molecules escape into the atmosphere; some return and some do not. Some escape
completely. As a result, the space above a liquid contains molecules of the substance which have
escaped. This creates what is known as a vapour pressure.

As the temperature increases, more molecules escape, and the vapour pressure increases until the
vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure. At this point, molecules are escaping from all
parts of the liquid, not only the surface. This temperature is the boiling point of the liquid.

The evaporation of a liquid in a closed container

Now imagine what happens if the liquid is in a closed container. Common sense tells you that water
in a sealed bottle doesn't seem to evaporate - or at least, it doesn't disappear over time.

But there is constant evaporation from the surface. Particles continue to break away from the
surface of the liquid - but this time they are trapped in the space above the liquid.

As the gaseous particles bounce around, some of them will hit the surface of the liquid again, and
be trapped there. There will rapidly be an equilibrium set up in which the number of particles
leaving the surface is exactly balanced by the number rejoining it.
In this equilibrium, there will be a fixed number of the gaseous particles in the space above the
liquid.

When these particles hit the walls of the container, they exert a pressure. This pressure is called the
saturated vapour pressure (also known as saturation vapour pressure) of the liquid.

The boiling point of an element or a substance is the temperature at which the saturation vapor
pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid. A liquid in a
vacuum environment or when the atmospheric pressure is lower than standard pressure has a lower
boiling point than when the liquid is at atmospheric pressure. A liquid in a high pressure
environment has a higher boiling point than when the liquid is at atmospheric pressure. In other
words, the boiling point of liquids varies with and depends upon atmospheric pressure. Different
liquids boil at different temperatures. The normal boiling point (also called the atmospheric boiling
point or the atmospheric pressure boiling point) of a liquid is the special case in which the vapor
pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, 1 atmosphere. At that
temperature, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure
and lift the liquid to form bubbles inside the bulk of the liquid.

On a mountain top, atmospheric pressure is lower than it is at sea level, so water boils at a lower
temperature, causing food to take longer to cook.

In a pressure cooker, the pressure is higher than atmospheric, so water boils at a higher temperature,
enabling food to cook faster.

VOLATILITY:

A liquid is said to be volatile if it has a high saturation vapour pressure at room temperature. A
volatile liquid will have a low boiling point at normal atmospheric pressure, and will feel cold when
placed on the skin because it evaporates quickly. Examples of volatile liquids are ethanol, and ether.

Laws Of Chemical Combination:

The three important laws of chemical combination are:

1. Law of conservation of mass (or matter): The total mass of reactants in a chemical reaction
remains constant. Matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
2. Law of constant proportions or definite composition: A compound always contains the same
elements in the same fixed proportions by mass.
3. Law of multiple proportions: When two elements combine to form more than one compound,
the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in simple
whole number ratios.

Gas Laws

BOYLE’S LAW

If a gas is compressed to half its original volume the concentration or density of the gas is doubled.
Therefore there will be twice as many collisions with the surface causing twice the impact effect i.e.
double the pressure.

If the volume of a gas is increased by a factor of three, the concentration is reduced by the same
factor, so the chance of particle collision with the container walls is similarly reduced, so the
pressure decreases by a factor of three.

Boyle's Law states that for a fixed mass of gas at a constant temperature, the volume is inversely
proportional to the pressure.

Another way of stating the same thing is to say that P x V is a constant or P1V1 = P2V2

Stating Boyle’s Law this way makes calculations much easier.

A graph to illustrate Boyle’s Law looks like this:

CHARLES’ LAW

Consider the effect of increasing the temperature of a fixed mass of gas under constant pressure.
The particles will be moving much faster, and they will need a larger volume. Charles’ Law states
that:

The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature.
(When the temperature of a fixed mass of gas increases at constant pressure, the volume increases)

COMBINED GAS LAW

Combining Boyle’s and Charles’ Laws, we come up with a Combined Gas Law:

Using this equation, you can solve any problem relating to gases. If we say that Temperature is
constant, it becomes Boyle’s Law. If we say that pressure is constant, it becomes Charles’ Law.
Sometimes, however, all the factors change at the same time, so we use the entire equation.

We need to become familiar with the term STP – Standard Temperature and Pressure.

The nature of gases is that they can expand freely, and so their volumes very sensitive to changes in
temperature. Thus, it is normal, when comparing gases, to convert them to STP.

Standard Temperature is 0°C

Standard Pressure is 1 atmosphere, which is 760 mmHg (millimeters of mercury) or 10100pascals

or 101 kilopascals. There is no need to know what these things mean, since in calculations, they
will cancel out. Any one of them can be used.

Here is an example:

45 dm3 of propane gas at 20oC exerted a pressure of 8.5 atmospheres. When exposed to sunlight it
warmed up to 28oC and now has a volume of 60 dm3. What is the final pressure of the propane?

To solve this, display all known figures in a list; temperatures have to be converted to Kelvin

P1 = 8.5 atm. P2 = ?

V1 = 45 dm3 V2 = 60 dm3

(The cylinder only expands a little, so the change in volume can be ignored

T1 = 20oC = 273 + 20 = 293K T2 =28oC = 273 + 28 = 301K

P2 is what you are trying to find, so go back to the equation for the universal gas law and make P2
the subject of the formula.

An extension of the Kinetic theory is the Collision Theory. - reactions occur as a result of collision
between atoms and molecules in gases and liquids.
The collision theory says that the more collisions in a system, the more likely combinations of
molecules will happen. If there are a higher number of collisions in a system, more combinations of
molecules will occur. The reaction will go faster - the rate of that reaction will be higher. Reactions
happen, no matter what. Chemicals are always combining or breaking down. The reactions happen
over and over but not always at the same speed. A few things affect the overall speed of the reaction
and the number of collisions that can occur. Concentration: If there is more of a substance in a
system, there is a greater chance that molecules will collide and speed up the rate of the reaction. If
there is less of something, there will be fewer collisions and the reaction will probably happen at a
slower speed. Temperature: When you raise the temperature of a system, the molecules bounce
around a lot more (because they have more energy). When they bounce around more, they are more
likely to collide. That fact means they are also more likely to combine. When you lower the
temperature, the molecules are slower and collide less. That temperature drop lowers the rate of the
reaction. Pressure: Pressure affects the rate of reaction, especially when you look at gases. When
you increase the pressure, the molecules have less space in which they can move. That greater
concentration of molecules increases the number of collisions. When you decrease the pressure,
molecules don't hit each other as often. The lower pressure decreases the rate of reaction.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory:

Earlier we mentioned Brownian motion, and other observations which led to the theory that matter
consists of tiny particles. What are these particles?

Based on his observations, Dalton proposed the atomic theory:

Dalton's Atomic Theory

1. All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.

2. All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties
3. Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms.
4. A chemical reaction results in a rearrangement of atoms.

What is Atomicity?

Atomicity refers to the number of atoms present in a molecule of an element or a compound. It

indicates how many atoms of an element are chemically bonded together to form a molecule.

Types of Atomicity:
 1. Monoatomic: Molecules that consist of only one atom.
Example: Noble gases like Helium (He), Neon (Ne), and Argon (Ar) are monoatomic
because they exist as single atoms in their natural state.
2. Diatomic: Molecules that consist of two atoms.
Example: Oxygen (O₂), Hydrogen (H₂), and Nitrogen (N₂) are diatomic.
3. Triatomic: Molecules that consist of three atoms.
Example: Ozone (O₃), Carbon dioxide (CO₂).
4. Polyatomic: Molecules that consist of more than three atoms.
Example: Phosphorus (P₄), Sulfur (S₈), Methane (CH₄).

How to Find Atomicity:

To find the atomicity of a molecule, count the total number of atoms in a single molecule of the
element or compound.

For example:

Oxygen (O₂): There are 2 oxygen atoms in one molecule, so the atomicity is 2.
Sulfur (S₈): There are 8 sulfur atoms in one molecule, so the atomicity is 8.
Methane (CH₄): It has 1 carbon atom and 4 hydrogen atoms, so the atomicity is 5 (1 + 4).

In general, the atomicity of a compound can be determined by adding the number of atoms of each
element in its molecular formula.

Chapter 3

Atomic Structure & Bonding

Protons, electrons and neutrons. Proton number, mass number, isotopes. Electronic configuration.
Ionic and covalent bonding in simple binary compounds. Naming of ionic and binary covalent
compounds. Properties of ionic and covalent compounds. Empirical and molecular formulae. Their
relationship to giant ionic and small molecular structures. Metals and non-metals. The Periodic
Table, based on properties and explained by electronic configurations. The relationship between
valency, electronic configuration and the Periodic Table. The formulae and charges for common
ions and radicals. Valency as applied to simple covalent formulae.
A SIMPLE VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE
According to Dalton’s atomic theory, the atom is the smallest particle of matter, but more recent
discoveries than Dalton’s have determined that there are smaller particles which make up the atom.
These particles are protons, neutrons and electrons. In fact, it has been determined that the atom can
be considered as consisting of a nucleus with positively charged protons and zero-charged neutrons,
with electrons in orbits or shells around the nucleus.

The sub-atomic particles

Protons, neutrons and electrons.

The mass of these particles were originally compared to the mass of the proton which was assigned
a mass of 1 atomic mass unit. The atomic mass unit is many times smaller than a gram - 1.67377 x
10 -24 gram (g)

Relative mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
 Relative mass Relative Charge
Electron 1/1836 -1

The nucleus

The nucleus is at the centre of the atom and contains the protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons
are collectively known as nucleons.

Virtually all the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus, because the electrons weigh so
little.

Working out the numbers of protons and neutrons

No of protons = ATOMIC NUMBER of the atom

The atomic number is also given the more descriptive name of proton number.

No of protons + no of neutrons = MASS NUMBER of the atom (MASS NUMBER =

ATOMIC MASS)

In an uncharged atom, an atom that has not reacted, the number of electrons equals the number of
protons. However the

number of electrons is never referred to as the Atomic Number.

Each atom may be represented by a symbol:

How many protons and neutrons has this atom got?

The atomic number indicates the number of protons (9); the mass number indicates the number of
protons + neutrons (19). If

there are 9 protons, there must be 10 neutrons for the total to add up to 19.
The atomic number tells the identity of the atom. So if an atom has 8 protons (atomic number = 8),
it must be oxygen. If an

atom has 12 protons (atomic number = 12), it must be magnesium.

Similarly, every chlorine atom (atomic number = 17) has 17 protons; every uranium atom (atomic
number = 92) has 92 protons.

Isotopes The number of neutrons in an atom can vary within small limits. For example, there are
three kinds of carbon atom 12C, 13C and 14C. They all have the same number of protons, but the
number of neutrons varies.

Protons neutrons mass numbers

Carbon-12 6 6 12
Carbon-13 6 7 13
Carbon-14 6 8 14

These different atoms of carbon are called isotopes. The fact that they have varying numbers of
neutrons makes no difference whatsoever to the identity of the carbon atom or its properties,
because the number of protons and electrons is the same in each.

Isotopes are atoms which have the same atomic number (proton number) but different mass
numbers. They have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

Working out the number of electrons

It is the electrons that take part in chemical reactions. And so each atom with the same number of
electrons, carries out the same chemical reactions.

Atoms are electrically neutral, and the positiveness of the protons is balanced by the negativeness of
the electrons. It follows that in a neutral atom:

no of electrons = no of protons

So, if an oxygen atom (atomic number = 8) has 8 protons, it must also have 8 electrons; if a chlorine
atom (atomic number = 17) has 17 protons, it must also have 17 electrons.

The arrangement of the electrons

The electrons are found at considerable distances from the nucleus in a series of orbits called energy
levels. Each energy level can only hold a certain number of electrons. The first level (nearest the
nucleus) will only hold 2 electrons, the second holds 8, and the third also seems to be full when it
has 8 electrons. It can actually hold a maximum of 18 electrons, but for Chem 071, you can regard
it as being full when it has 8 electrons.

These orbits or energy levels can be thought of as getting progressively further from the nucleus.
Electrons will always go into the lowest possible energy level (nearest the nucleus) - provided there
is space.

Dot-and-cross diagrams

Dot and cross diagrams are one way of representing the arrangement of electrons in atoms
hydrogen and carbon, for example, can be represented in this way:

The circles show energy levels representing increasing distances from the nucleus. You could
straighten the circles out and draw the electronic structure as a simple energy diagram.

Remember, the first circle is full when it has 2 electrons, the second with 8, and the third with 8
(though it can actually hold up to 18 electrons).

To work out the electronic configuration of an atom

 Look up the atomic number in the Periodic Table - making sure that you choose the right
number if two numbers are given. The atomic number will always be the smaller number.
This tells you the number of protons, and hence the number of electrons.
Arrange the electrons in levels, always filling up an inner level before you go to an outer one.
Remember, the first circle is full when it has 2 electrons, the second with 8, and the third with
8 (though it can actually hold up to 18 electrons).
The arrangement of electrons in shells is known as the electronic configuration.

e.g. to find the electronic configuration of chlorine

The Periodic Table gives you the atomic number of 17.

Therefore there are 17 protons and 17 electrons.
The arrangement of the electrons will be 2, 8, 7 (i.e. 2 in the first level, 8 in the second, and 7
in the third).

The electronic configurations of the first 20 elements

After this the pattern alters as you enter the first transition series in the Periodic Table.

The Periodic Table:

The Periodic Table consists of elements arranged in order of increasing atomic number. It consists
of vertical columns called Groups and horizontal rows called Periods. This arrangement has been
arrived at because of trends in properties. Elements in Groups have similar chemical properties.
Periods show gradual variation in properties as you move from left to right across a period.

This table consists of the first twenty elements only, but even with that small number, it is possible
to demonstrate important chemical principles, and show the usefulness of the table in predicting
chemical properties.

Groups in the Periodic Table:

All members of a particular group have the same number of valence electrons (electrons in the
outer shell), so they will react similarly. However, these outer electrons are increasingly further
from the nucleus than as you go down a group. In addition, as you go down the group, a full shell of
electrons is added at each step, which decreases the pull of the nucleus on the outer electrons.
Because of these two factors, the outer electrons are more easily lost on the left of the table. On the
right of the table, it is more difficult to add electrons as you go down a group because the electrons
are being added to the outer shell which is further from the nucleus, and also shielded by a full shell
of electrons at each step.

o Alkali metals

For example, lithium, sodium and potassium in group I are the alkali metals. The are all shiny, less
dense than water (so they float), react with water to produce hydrogen in a reaction that produces
large amounts of heat. The resulting solution is alkaline. As you go down the group, the metals
become increasingly more reactive.

o Alkaline earths

Beryllium, Magnesium and Calcium are alkaline earths. They react similarly to the alkali metals,
but are less reactive. As an example, they react with water to produce hydrogen, producing alkaline
solution. Again, as you go down the group, the metals become increasingly more reactive.

o Halogens

Elements in group 7 are halogens. Fluorine and chlorine undergo similar reactions. For example,
both will react with sodium to produce crystalline solids – sodium fluoride and sodium chloride.
The trend in reactivity here is the opposite from that observed in group I – fluorine is more reactive
than chlorine.

Periods in the Periodic Table:

Periods are the horizontal rows in the periodic table. In each period, every element has the same
number of shells. In fact, the period number equals the number of shells. As you go across a period,
one electron is added to the outer shell. A proton is also added to the nucleus making the pull of the
nucleus on the outer electrons stronger. Therefore, it becomes more difficult to remove an electron
so metallic character decreases, and non-metallic character increases, since it becomes easier to
gain an electron.

Here is an example of the complete periodic table:

This table shows the name, symbol, the atomic number and the atomic mass of each element.

Effect of Electronic Configuration on Properties:

As you have learned before, it is the electrons that determine the chemical properties of an element.
And in fact, it is only the outer electrons, as shown in the electronic configuration that are important
in that regard. It is the outer electrons that actually participate in chemical reactions.

So if we consider sodium, for example – it has an atomic number of 11, so it has 11 electrons and its
electronic configuration is 2.8.1. It has one outer electron, or one electron in its outer shell. Only
this one electron participates in chemical reactions. This electron is lost when sodium reacts.
Because its configuration is 2.8.1 and it has 1 electron in its outer shell, it is in group 1 of the
periodic table.

Magnesium has an atomic number of 12, so it has 12 electrons, and an electronic configuration of
2.8.2. The two outer electrons participate in chemical reactions. These two electrons are lost when
magnesium reacts. Because it has 2 electrons in its outer shell, magnesium is in group 2.
Oxygen has an atomic number of 8, so it has 8 electrons, and an electronic configuration of 2.6. The
6 electrons in the outer shell participate in chemical reactions. These 6 electrons attract 2 more
electrons from another element. Oxygen has a configuration of 2.6, and is in group 6.

The dividing line between metals and non-metals has the appearance of a staircase as shown in the
diagram below:

Elements on the left side of the staircase are metals which tend to lose electrons and form positive
ions when they react. Elements on the right side of the periodic table are non-metals which lose or
share electrons when they react.

So in period 3, sodium, magnesium, and aluminium lose electrons whereas silicon, phosphorus,
sulphur, and chlorine gain or share electrons.

Elements to the left of the staircase are metals. This comprises the majority of the known elements.
Elements to the right are non-metals. Elements close to the staircase are metalloids and are either
metals with some non-metallic properties, or non-metals with some metallic properties. A good
example is silicon which is a non-metal, but conducts small amounts of electricity. The form of
carbon known as graphite has similar properties.

The electrons in the outer shell of an atom are known as valence electrons. The number of valence
electrons is equal to the group number.

The number of electrons that are gained, shared or lost by any particular atom is known as its
valency – its combining power. The valency is either the group number or 8 minus the group
number.

TRANSITION ELEMENTS (TRANSITION METALS).

The elements in the centre of the periodic table, between groups 2 and 3, are called the transition
metals. Most of the commonly used metals are there, including iron, copper, silver and gold.
Let’s consider the first transition series – from Sc to Zn.

Remember that we said that the 3rd shell of electrons can hold up to 18 electrons, but it “feels full”
with 8? Well, assuming that electrons are added to the shell with available space that is at the lowest
energy, then the 19th & 20th electrons are added to the 4th shell, giving Potassium a configuration
of 2.8.8.1 and Calcium a configuration of 2.8.8.2.

With the 21st electron, the 4th shell now has a higher energy than the 3rd shell, so the 21st electron
is added to the 3rd shell, giving Scandium a configuration of 2.8.9.2, beginning the first transition
series:

Element Symbol Electronic Configuration

Scandium Sc 2.8.9.2
Titanium Ti 2.8.10.2
Vanadium V 2.8.11.2
Chromium Cr 2.8.12.2
Manganese Mn 2.8.13.2
Iron Fe 2.8.14.2
Cobalt Co 2.8.15.2
Nickel Ni 2.8.16.2
Copper Cu 2.8.17.2
Zinc Zn 2.8.18.2
Common properties

They have partly filled inner shells (apart from Zn).

They are all metals.
They are all shiny metals with the typical metallic grey / white colour, except gold and
copper.
They are all good conductors of heat and electricity.
They have high densities.
They have high melting and boiling points.
Most transition metals form coloured compounds.
They have several stable oxidation states or valences.
Many are used as catalysts, either as the metal itself or as some of their compounds.
They form complex ions.
Magnetism only occurs among the transition elements, though not all are magnetic.
Many form compounds which are paramagnetic (have unpaired electrons).

IONIC BONDING

We have learned a bit about ionic bonding. Ionic bonding takes place between a metal and a non-
metal. The metal loses electrons, and the non-metal gains electrons.

The valency of a metal is the number of electrons it loses; the valency of a non-metal is the number
of electrons it gains (or shares). Consider for example, the reaction between magnesium and
oxygen:

2Mg (s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

Magnesium has a configuration 2.8.2

Oxygen has a configuration 2.6

Magnesium will lose 2 electrons to attain the electronic configuration of Neon. Similarly, Oxygen
will gain 2 electrons to attain the electronic configuration of Neon.

After reaction, the magnesium ion (Mg2+)and the oxygen ion (O2-) both have the electronic
configuration 2.8 (same as neon). We can say that the Magnesium ion Mg2+ & the oxygen ion O2-
are isoelectronic with Neon.

Because Magnesium loses 2 electrons, it has a valency of 2 (or strictly speaking +2).
Because Oxygen gains 2 electrons, it has a valency of 2 (strictly speaking -2)

The following table shows the electronic configurations and valencies of ions formed by atoms in
groups 1,2 & 3:

Name Ion formed Electronic Configuration of Atom Configuration of Ion Valency

Lithium Li+ 2.1 2 1
Sodium Na+ 2.8.1 2.8 1
Potassium K+ 2.8.8.1 2.8.8 1
Magnesium Mg2+ 2.8.2 2.8 2
Calcium Ca2+ 2.8.8.2 2.8.8 2
Aluminium Al3+ 2.8.3 2.8 3

This table shows the same information for atoms in groups 5, 6 & 7:

Name Ion formed Configuration of Atom Configuration of Ion Valency

Oxygen O2- 2.6 2.8 2
Sulphur S2- 2.8.6 2.8.8 2
Fluorine F- 2.7 2.8 1
Chlorine Cl- 2.8.7 2.8.8 1
Nitrogen N3- 2.5 2.8 3

For positive ions, the name is the same as that of the metal. For negative ions, the first part of the
name of the non-metal forms a root. The suffix –ide is added to this root.

Name of atom Name of Ion formed Name of a typical compound

Oxygen Oxide O2- Sodium oxide
Sulphur Sulphide S2- Magnesium sulphide
Fluorine Fluoride F- Potassium fluoride
Chlorine Chloride Cl- Calcium chloride
Nitrogen Nitride N3- Magnesium nitride

Ionic Bonding:
Inert gases are very unreactive, in other words, they do not take part in chemical reactions except
under very drastic conditions. And in reality, other atoms react to attain the electronic
configurations of inert gases. See for example, the most common reaction of a sodium atom:

Reference to the periodic table above shows the configuration of sodium atom to be 2.8.1 and the
configuration of neon to be 2.8.

Electron shells for a Sodium atom (atomic number 11, with 11 electrons)
The two structures differ in that sodium has one electron more than Neon. Sodium is only one
electron away from having the same structure as an inert gas Neon.

Sodium readily loses this one electron under the right conditions to become a sodium ion (Na+)with
a single positive charge. An ion with a positive charge is a CATION.

Chlorine 2.8.7 readily gains one electron to attain an argon configuration 2.8.8 and become a
Chloride ion Cl- with a single negative charge. An ion with a negative charge is an ANION.

Notice that when the sodium atom becomes a sodium ion, it has attained the same electronic
configuration as neon, and similarly the chlorine atom attains the same electronic configuration as
argon when it becomes a chloride ion.

In this case, the result is the formation of a compound – sodium chloride, with properties very
different from that of sodium and chlorine. Sodium and chlorine have combined to form a
compound - sodium chloride. In this compound, sodium ions and chloride are oppositely charged,
and held together by strong electrostatic forces. Sodium chloride is an ionic or electrovalent
compound. The bond between the ions is an ionic or electrovalent bond.

An ionic bond is formed when there is a transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another,
resulting in the formation of positive ions (CATIONS) and negative ions (ANIONS), held together
by strong electrostatic forces.

Electrons are lost by metals (elements on the left of the periodic table – e.g sodium, calcium,
aluminium). Electrons are gained by non-metals on the right of the periodic table – e.g chlorine,
fluorine, oxygen.

In chemical reactions between metals and non-metals, atoms react to attain the structure of the
nearest inert gas. Atoms never lose nor gain more than 3 electrons.

Covalent Bonding:

Another type of bonding is possible. Consider a nitrogen atom. From the periodic table above, we
see that nitrogen has a configuration of 2.5, which means it can attain a neon structure by gaining 3
electrons and becoming a nitride ion.

However, nitrogen in reactions where no metal is involved – only non-metals which will not lose
electrons, nitrogen can also attain a neon structure by sharing one electron by each of three
hydrogen atoms. Each nitrogen atom attains a neon structure (8 electrons in the outer shell) and
each hydrogen a helium structure (2 electrons in the outer shell). This compound, ammonia, is
formed by covalent bonding – sharing of electrons.

Metals on the left of the periodic table have 3 or less electrons in the outer shell, and they never
share electrons – they never form covalent bonds.

Non-metals with 4 or more electrons in the outer shell share electrons and form covalent bonds.
Ammonia is an example of a covalent compound. Water is another:
The properties of Ionic Compounds

The diagram on the right is typical of the giant ionic crystal structure of ionic compounds like
sodium chloride and magnesium oxide.
The alternate positive and negative ions in an ionic solid are arranged in an orderly way in a
giant ionic lattice structure shown on the left.
The ionic bond is the strong electrical attraction between the positive and negative ions next to
each other in the lattice.
The bonding extends throughout the crystal in all directions.
Salts and metal oxides are typical ionic compounds.
This strong bonding force makes the structure hard (if brittle) and have high melting and
boiling points, so they are not very volatile!
A relatively large amount of energy is needed to melt or boil ionic compounds. Energy
changes for the physical changes of state of melting and boiling for a range of differently
bonded substances are compared in a section of the Energetics Notes.
The bigger the charges on the ions the stronger the bonding attraction e.g. magnesium oxide
Mg2+O2- has a higher melting point than sodium chloride Na+Cl-.
Unlike covalent molecules, ALL ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temperature.
 They are hard but brittle, when stressed the bonds are broken along planes of ions which shear
away. They are NOT malleable like metals (see below).
Many ionic compounds are soluble in water, but not all, so don't make assumptions. Salts can
dissolve in water because the ions can separate and become surrounded by water molecules
which weakly bond to the ions. This reduces the attractive forces between the ions, preventing
the crystal structure to exist. Evaporating the water from a salt solution will eventually allow
the ionic crystal lattice to reform.
The solid crystals DO NOT conduct electricity because the ions are not free to move to carry
an electric current. However, if the ionic compound is melted or dissolved in water, the liquid
will now conduct electricity, as the ion particles are now free to move.

Typical properties of simple covalent substances consisting of small molecules!

The electrical forces of attraction, that is the chemical bond, between atoms in a molecule are
usually very strong, so, most covalent molecules do not change chemically on moderate
heating.
e.g. although a covalent molecule like iodine, I2, is readily vapourised on heating, it does
NOT break up into iodine atoms I. The I-I covalent bond is strong enough to withstand the
heating and the purple vapour still consists of the same I2 molecules as the dark coloured
solid is made up of.
So why the ease of vaporisation on heating?
The electrical forces between individual molecules are weak, so the bulk material is not very
strong physically and there are also consequences for the melting and boiling points.
These weak electrical attractions are known as intermolecular forces and are readily weakened
further on heating. The effect of absorbing heat energy results in increased thermal vibration
of the molecules which weakens the intermolecular forces. In liquids the increase in the
average particle kinetic energy makes it easier for molecules to overcome the intermolecular
forces and change into a gas or vapour. Consequently, small covalent molecules tend to be
volatile liquids with low boiling points, so easily vapourised, or low melting point solids.
On heating the inter-molecular forces are easily overcome with the increased kinetic energy of
the particles giving the material a low melting or boiling point and a relatively small amount
of energy is needed to effect these state changes.
Energy changes for the physical changes of state of melting and boiling for a range of
differently bonded substances are compared in a section of the Energetics Notes.
This contrasts with the high melting points of giant covalent structures with their strong 3D
network.
 Note: The weak electrical attractive forces between molecules, the so called intermolecular
forces should be clearly distinguished between the strong covalent bonding between atoms in
molecules (small or giant), and these are sometimes referred to as intramolecular forces (i.e.
internal to the molecule).
Covalent structures are usually poor conductors of electricity because there are no free
electrons or ions in any state to carry electric charge. An exception is Graphite which has
some delocalized electrons and does conduct electricity.
Most small molecules will dissolve in some solvent to form a solution.
This again contrasts with giant covalent structures where the strong bond network stops
solvent molecules interacting with the particles making up the material.
The properties of these simple small molecules should be compared and contrasted with those
molecules of a giant covalent nature (next section).
Apart from points on the strong bonds between the atoms in the molecule and the lack of
electrical conduction, all the other properties are significantly different!

4. Large Covalent Molecules and their Properties

(MACROMOLECULES - GIANT COVALENT NETWORKS AND POLYMERS)

The structure of the three allotropes of carbon (diamond, graphite and DIAGRAMS
fullerenes), silicon and silicon dioxide (silica)
- It is possible for many atoms to link up to form a giant covalent structure or DIAMOND
lattice. The atoms are usually non-metals.

- This produces a very strong 3-dimensional covalent bond network or lattice.

- This gives them significantly different properties from the small simple
covalent molecules mentioned above.
SILICA

- This is illustrated by carbon in the form of diamond (an allotrope of carbon). silicon
Carbon has four outer electrons that form four single bonds, so each carbon dioxide
bonds to four others by electron pairing/sharing. Pure silicon, another element
in Group 4, has a similar structure.
- NOTE: Allotropes are different forms of the same element in the same
physical state. They occur due to different bonding arrangements and so
diamond, graphite (below) and fullerenes (below) are the three solid allotropes
of the element carbon.

- Oxygen (dioxygen), O2, and ozone (trioxygen), O3, are the two small gaseous
allotrope molecules of the element oxygen.

- Sulphur has three solid allotropes, two different crystalline forms based on
small S8 molecules called rhombic and monoclinic sulphur and a 3rd form of
long chain ( -S-S-S- etc.) molecules called plastic sulphur.

- TYPICAL PROPERTIES of GIANT COVALENT STRUCTURES

- This type of giant covalent structure is thermally very stable and has a very
high melting and boiling points because of the strong covalent bond network
(3D or 2D in the case of graphite below).

- A relatively large amount of energy is needed to melt or boil giant covalent

structures. Energy changes for the physical changes of state of melting and
boiling for a range of differently bonded substances are compared in a section
of the Energetics Notes.

- They are usually poor conductors of electricity because the electrons are not
usually free to move as they can in metallic structures.

- Also because of the strength of the bonding in all directions in the structure,
they are often very hard, strong and will not dissolve in solvents like water. The
bonding network is too strong to allow the atoms to become surrounded by
solvent molecules

NAMING OF COMPOUNDS
First let’s consider compounds containing only two elements – what are known as Binary
Compounds. Examples would be

sodium chloride – NaCl

magnesium oxide – MgO

carbon dioxide – CO2

hydrogen sulphide – H2S.

Notice how these compounds are named. The first element named is in all cases, the one that is
further left or below the other in the periodic table – often a metal. The name of the first element is
unchanged. The second element has the ending of the name of the second element replaced with –
ide.

In all cases we use the ending –ide for Binary

Compounds Oxide Phosphide Chloride Nitride Iodide

So any compound that ends in –ide is a binary compound, and contains only two elements.

If a compound has a name ending in –ite or –ate, it contains more than two elements. For example
sodium sulphate contains sodium, sulphur and oxygen. Calcium hydrogencarbonate contains
calcium, hydrogen, carbon and oxygen.

In these binary compounds, sometimes a compound contains more than one atom of a particular
element.

This occurs because some elements have more than one valency – in other words they do not obey
the octet rule. These elements include carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine.

For example, we have above the compound carbon dioxide. The prefix di- indicates that the
compound contains two oxygen atoms. Here are common prefixes used:

Number Prefix
1 mono
2 di
3 tri
4 tetra
 5 penta
6 hexa
7 hepta
8 octa
9 nona
10 deca

Some common compounds are listed below; the names indicate the formulae:

Nitrogen dioxide NO2

Carbon monoxide CO
Carbon tertachloride CCl4
Phosphorus pentachloride PCl5
Sulphur hexafluoride SF6
Dinitrogen tetroxide N2O4 (Note that this is the liquid form of NO2).

Empirical & Molecular Formulae:

A chemical formula represents the actual number of atoms present in a molecule.

Formulae of these compounds is determined experimentally – the % of each element can be

determined in several different ways.

A formula determined experimentally is known as an empirical formula. It may or may not be the
molecular formula of the compound.

For example, the empirical formula of the gas ethane is CH3

In reality the molecular formula of ethane is C2H6 or 2 x CH3

CH3 is known as an empirical formula and C2H6 is the molecular formula for the gas ethane.

The molecular formula is always a simple multiple of the empirical formula.

The empirical formula is the simplest formula showing the relative proportions of atoms in a
molecule. The molecular formula actually shows the number of each type of atom present in a
molecule.
 Substance Molecular formula Empirical formula
Water H2O H2O
Methane CH4 CH4
Benzene C6H6 CH
Sulfur S8 S
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O
Butene C4H8 CH2
Ethanoic Acid C2H4O2 CH2O
Formaldehyde CH2O CH2O

For ionic compounds, the empirical formula is always the same as the molecular formula.

Not all names follow the above pattern. For example, N2O3 is known as dinitrogen trioxide, but it
is called nitrogen trioxide just as often.

Phosphorus pentoxide is P2O5

Cu2O is called copper (I) oxide.

When a metal forms more than one ion, a number is placed in brackets behind the name of the ion
to indicate the valency (combining power) of the ion. The most common ones are shown below:

Copper (I)
Copper (II)
Iron (II)
Iron (III)
Lead (II)
Lead (IV)

Before you can write a formula, it is necessary to know the valencies of common ions. You also
need a little more in depth knowledge of the Periodic Table which we learned a bit about before.
A table is shown below, with names and charges of other common ions. There are 37 ions that you
need to know the names, symbols and charges of; like the Periodic Table, there is no getting around
this. So get busy!

Some Common Positive Ions

Name Formula
Valency 1
Hydrogen ion H+
Ammonium ion NH4+
Sodium ion Na+
Potassium ion K+
Copper (I) Cu+
Silver Ag+

Some Common Negative Ions

Name Formula Name Formula

VALENCY 1 VALENCY 2
 Hydride H- Oxide ion O2-
Hydroxide ion OH- Sulphide ion S2-
Nitrate ion NO3- Sulphate ion SO42-
Nitrite NO2- Sulphite SO32-
Fluoride F- Carbonate ion CO32-
Chloride ion Cl- Hydrogenphosphate HPO42-
Bromide Br- VALENCY 3
Iodide I- Nitride N3-
Permanganate MnO4- Phosphide P3-
Bicarbonate HCO3- Phosphate PO43-
(Hydrogencarbonate)
Bisulphate HSO4-
(Hydrogensulphate)
Bisulphite HSO3-
(Hydrogensulphite)
Dihydrogen Phosphate H2PO4-

Now we need to practice writing formulae given the name of the compound.

Sodium Chloride:

Sodium has valency 1, chloride has valency 1, so the formula is NaCl

Magnesium Chloride is not so simple:

Magnesium has valency 2, chloride has valency 1, so it takes 2 chlorides to combine with each
magnesium, so the formula is MgCl2

Aluminium Oxide is not so simple either:

Aluminium has valency 3, oxide has valency 2, so it we have to consider the lowest common
multiple of 2 & 3, which is 6.

Thus it will take 2 aluminiums and 3 oxides to have a combining power of 6. The formula is
therefore Al2O3
Explain why the following compounds have the formulae shown:

Name Formula
Sodium oxide Na2O
Iron (III) oxide Fe2O3
Iron (II) sulphate FeSO4
Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2
Potassium hydrogencarbonate KHCO3
Aluminium phosphate AlPO4
Copper (I) oxide Cu2O
Sodium dihydrogenphosphate NaHPO4
Iron (III) hydroxide Fe(OH)3

In each case, it is easiest to use the criss-cross method. In this method, we write the symbols for
each atom or ion in a compound with the valency at the right of the symbol as a superscript:

For example, for Iron (III) oxide we write

Fe3O2 and then we criss-cross the valencies. Notice that we ignore the charges on each ion

Fe3 O2 so that we get Fe2O3

For Phosphorus (v) oxide, we write P5 O2 and then we criss-cross P5 O2 to get P2O5

WRITING & BALANCING EQUATIONS

When chemicals react with each other, different chemicals are made. One of the best ways to
describe what is happening is by writing a chemical equation.

Word equations

A chemical equation tells you which chemicals reacted together (the reactants) and the new
chemicals that were made in the reaction (the products).

The simplest equation is a word equation. For example:

sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride

Symbol equations

A symbol equation gives more information about what is happening in the reaction:

2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

Each of the reactants and products is shown as a formula. This formula shows how many atoms of
each element or compound are present.

The formula for sodium is Na - the same as its symbol.

The formula for chlorine is Cl2, because the halogens exist as diatomic molecules (molecules
consisting of two atoms).

You will be expected to know the following formulae for elements which exist as diatomic
molecules:

hydrogen, H2
fluorine, F2
chlorine, Cl2
bromine, Br2
iodine, I2
nitrogen N2
oxygen O2

All other elements react as if they are monatomic molecules (consist of only one atom), even
though in some cases, they are polyatomic e.g. phosphorus is P4 and sulphur is S8.

Sometimes it is useful to know whether the reactants and products in a chemical reaction are solids,
gases, liquids or dissolved in water. We can add state symbols to a symbol equation to show this.

State symbols and meaning

Symbol Meaning
(s) solid
(l) liquid
(g) gas
 (aq) aqueous (dissolved in water)

So for the reaction between sodium and water, this is the symbol equation with state symbols:

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Let's look at the steps you need to take when writing a symbol equation. We will use the reaction
between sodium and water as an example:

1. The first step is to write a word equation, showing the reactants and products.

sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

2. The next step is to write down the correct formula of the reactants and products. You must use
the valency tables and the criss-cross method in order to write the correct formulae

The formula of sodium (and all other metals) is the same as the symbol, Na.

The formula for a water molecule is H2O.

Each of the hydroxides of Group 1 metals has a formula with the metal symbol and OH for
hydroxide. So sodium hydroxide has the formula NaOH.

Hydrogen is an element that exists as diatomic molecules, so its formula is H2.

3. We can now begin to write the symbol equation:

Na + H2O → NaOH + H2

4. The final step is to balance the equation so that it has the same number of atoms of each
element on each side. This can be done by counting the number of each atom on both sides of
the equation

Sodium is balanced; there is one atom of sodium on each side

Oxygen is balanced; there is one atom od oxygen on each side

Hydrogen is off balance; there are 2 atoms of hydrogen on the left, but 3 on the right; so we need to
reduce the number of atoms of hydrogen on the right by 1.

We can do this by temporarily multiplying the H2 by a ½

Na + H2O → NaOH + ½H2

There are now 2 atoms of hydrogen on both sides of the equation. We eliminate the ½ by
multiplying the whole equation by 2:

2(Na + H2O → NaOH + ½H2) giving as a final result:

2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2

This is the symbol equation with state symbols:

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Notice that in our attempt to balance, we never change formulae, we multiply the whole formula by
a number.

Also, in using the ½ to help balance an equation; only diatomic molecules of elements can be
multiplied by ½. For example it is incorrect to multiply H2O by ½..

Let us write some equations from the practicals we have done.

1.We heated magnesium in air, producing a white ash while giving off a bright white light. The ash
is magnesium oxide:

Mg(s) + O2(g) MgO(s)

There are 2 oxygens on the left and only 1 on the right, so we multiply the oxygen on the left by ½.

Mg(s) + ½O2(g) MgO(s) . The equation is now balanced; we only need to multiply the
whole equation by 2 to get rid of the ½.

2(Mg(s) + ½O2(g) MgO(s)) giving as the balanced equation:

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

We then heated lead (II) nitrate, leaving a pale yellow solid, and giving off a brown gas (nitrogen
dioxide) which relit a glowing splint, indicating the presence of oxygen:

Pb(NO3)2 PbO + NO2 + O2

The lead is balanced. So we look at nitrogen; there are 2 on the left, but only 1 on the right. So we
place a 2 in front of the NO2

Pb(NO3)2 PbO + 2NO2 + O2

Moving on to the oxygens, we count 6 on the left but 7 on the right, so we must reduce the oxygens
on the right by 1, which we do by multiplying the O2 by ½.

Pb(NO3)2 PbO + 2NO2 + ½O2

To complete the process, we multiply the whole equation by 2 to get rid of the half

2(Pb(NO3)2 PbO + 2NO2 + ½O2), giving as the final answer:

2 Pb(NO3)2 (s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

In another experiment, we dissolved copper metal in concentrated nitric acid, leaving a blu-green
solution, and giving off brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide:

Cu(s) + HNO3 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + NO2(g) + H2O(l)

Because of the H2O, the hydrogens are off balance, and in order to balance, we need to place a 2 or
a multiple of 2 in front of nitric acid:

Lets try 2:

Cu(s) + 2HNO3 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + NO2(g) + H2O(l)

That now gives 2 nitrogens on the left, and 3 on the right, so lets try 4:

Cu(s) + 4HNO3 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + NO2(g) + H2O(l)

We are getting there; there are now 4 nitrogens on the left, and 3 on the right; we can rectify this by
multiplying nitrogen dioxide by 2:

Cu(s) + 4HNO3 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + H2O(l).

There are now 4 hydrgoens on the left and only 2 on the right, so we multiply water by 2

Cu(s) + 4HNO3 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

And now everything is balanced, because there are 12 oxygens on the left, and 12 on the right.

Lets try a partner exchange reaction:

Ca(OH)2 (aq) + FeCl3(aq) CaCl2(aq)+ Fe(OH)3(s)

This equation is full of 2’s and 3’s. consider that there are 2 hydroxides on the left, and three on the
right. In order to balance the hydroxides, we need to find a common multiple of 2 & 3, which is 6,
so that we mulriply formulae to get 6 hydroxides on both sides of the equation.

We multiply Ca(OH)2 by 3, and Fe(OH)3 by 2:

3Ca(OH)2 (aq) + FeCl3(aq) CaCl2(aq)+ 2Fe(OH)3(s)

Doing the same with Chloride, we end up with a balanced equation:

3Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 2FeCl3(aq) 3CaCl2(aq)+ 2Fe(OH)3(s)

And a redox equation:

C4H10(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

First balance the carbons, by multiplying the CO2 by 4

Then balance the hydrogens by multiplying the H2O by 5

C4H10(g) + O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(l)

We then count the oxygens on the right, and we get 13 oxygen atoms.

But there are only 2 on the left, so we must multiply the O2 by 6½.

C4H10(g) +6½ O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(l)

Then we multiply the whole equation by 2 to get rid of the half:

2(C4H10(g) +6½ O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(l))

Giving as a final product:

2C4H10(g) +13 O2(g) 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(l).

TYPES OF EQUATIONS

There are 5 basic types of equations that you need to be familiar with:

Decompostion
Combination or Synthesis
Partner Exchange
Neutralisation
Redox

Decompostion:

As the name indicates, decomposition involves the breaking down of a molecule into smaller
molecules. For example:

CaCO3(s) →CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Mg(OH)2(s) →MgO(s) + H2O(l)

2Cu(NO3)2(s) →2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g)+O2(g)

Combination or Synthesis:

Two or more smaller molecules combine to make a larger molecule. For example:

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

2H2(g) + O2(g) →2H2O(l)

6CO2(g)+6H2O→C6H12O6 + 6O2(g)

Partner Exchange:

The cations from two ionic compounds exchange anions:

AB+CD→AD+CB

For example,

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) →PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Notice that a solid product is formed from two aqueous solutions. Partner Exchange reactions only
occur when a solid product or a gas or a covalent compound is formed from two aqueous solutions.

Another example is:

CaCl2(aq) + Na2CO3→2NaCl(aq) + CaCO3(s)

3AgNO3 + FeCl3→3AgCl(s) + Fe(NO3)3(aq)

CuSO4(aq)+2NaOH(aq) →Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)

NaOH(aq)+HCl(aq) →NaCl(aq)+H2O(l) – a covalent molecule (water) is formed.

CaCO3(s)+2HNO3(aq) →Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) – a gas is given off

This is a partner exchange although one of the reactants is a solid substance.

Neutralization:

In a neutralization reaction, an acid reacts with a base to produce a salt and water. The hydrogen
ions from the acid is converted to water. For example, lets look at one of the partner exchange
reactions from above:

NaOH(aq)+HCl(aq) →NaCl(aq)+H2O(l)

Other examples include,

Cu(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq)→CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

CaCO3(s)+2HCl(aq) →CaCl2(aq)+H2O(l)+CO2(g)

Redox Reactions:

In redox reactions, several chemical changes may occur:

Oxygen may be added to or removed from another atom or compound

Hydrogen may be removed from or added to another atom or compound

Electrons may be added to or removed from an atom.

When oxygen is added or hydrogen removed or electrons removed, the change is known as
oxidation.

When oxygen is removed or hydrogen added or electrons added, the change is known as reduction.

Oxidation and Reduction always occur together, so the reactons are known as Redox Reactions.

Examples are:

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

Oxygen is added to magnesium; electrons are removed from Magnesium. Electrons are added to
oxygen, so this reaction is a Redox.

Cu(s) + 4HNO3 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Electrons are removed from copper, so this reaction is Redox

2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3

Electrons are removed from Iron and added to Chlorine, so this is Redox

2C2H5OH (l) + O2(g) 2CH3CHO (l)+ 2H2O

Hydrogen is removed from ethanol to produce ethanal

2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

In this reaction, oxygen is added to the ethane, so it is a Redox.

IONIC EQUATIONS

Ionic compounds consist of Cations and Anions. Cations are positively charged ions and Anions are
negatively charged ions.

Many of these ionic compounds dissolve in water, and when they do, their crystal structures break
up and the anions and cations move about freely in solution.
So, a reaction involving ionic compounds can be written to show the ions separately:

For example:

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3 may be written as

Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

and

2FeCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(aq) can be written as:

2Fe2+(aq) + 4Cl-(aq) + Cl2(g) 2Fe3++ 6Cl-(aq)

And

CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

Note that even though a solid such as AgCl or Cu(OH)2 really consists of ions tightly bound
together, since they are solids, they are not written as ions.

In other cases, gases are formed:

e.g.

Na2CO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq)→Na2SO4(aq)+H2O(l) + CO2(g)

May be re-written as an ionic equation:

2Na+(aq)+ CO32-(aq)+ 2H+(aq)+ SO42-→2Na+(aq)+ SO42-+H2O(l) + CO2(g)

A gas, CO2 is formed, which leaves the solution, as well as a covalent compound H2O which
removes ions from the solution.

AN IONIC EQUATION REPRESENTS A REACTION THAT WILL ONLY TAKE PLACE IF A

SOLID, A GAS OR A COVALENT COMPOUND IS FORMED.

Only if ions are removed from solution by the formation of a solid, a gas or a covalent compound.
Another reaction is:

NH4Cl(aq)+NaOH→NaCl(aq)+NH3(g)+H2O(l)

Written as an ionic equation, this becomes

NH4Cl(aq)+NaOH→NaCl(aq)+NH3(g)+H2O(l)

NH4+(aq)+Cl-(aq) +Na+(aq)+OH-(aq)→ Na+(aq)+Cl-(aq) + NH3(g)+H2O(l)

Again, a gas and a covalent compound are formed: NH3(g) and H2O(l).