12/1/2023 Resistance
Calculation
Measurement Data Processing
Intasar Ul Haq
GROUP 1
Contents
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 2
2. Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Measurement model .................................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Identification and quantification of uncertainty sources .............................................................. 2
2.3 Desired relative expanded uncertainty ......................................................................................... 3
2.4 Criteria for selection of best Instrument ....................................................................................... 3
3. Instrument Data Evaluation ................................................................................................................ 3
3.1 Uncertainty calculations................................................................................................................ 3
3.2 Minimum number of measurement calculations ......................................................................... 4
3.3 Best estimate for resistance .......................................................................................................... 5
4. Resistance Calculations ....................................................................................................................... 5
4.1 Combined standard uncertainty for voltage and current ............................................................. 5
4.2 Effective degrees of freedom calculations .................................................................................... 6
5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 7
6. References ........................................................................................................................................... 8
7. Appendices .......................................................................................................................................... 8
1
1. Introduction
Electrical resistance plays a pivotal role in the functionality of electronic devices' circuitry. Deviations
from the proper resistance level within a device's circuit can lead to malfunctions. A specialised
measuring instrument is essential to assess whether a circuit maintains the correct resistance.
Measuring resistance involves the use of instruments such as analogue or digital multimeters. These
universal instruments measure resistance, current, voltage, and various other parameters, making
them adaptable to diverse situations.
It is important to note that resistance measurement does not directly assess the circuit's resistance
value. Instead, it calculates resistance by measuring the current and voltage applied to the circuit
according to Ohm's law. For this study, our measurement model is based on Ohm's law. as mentioned
in the methodology section. [1]
2. Methodology
2.1 Measurement model
Most multimeters have the capability to measure both voltage and current. We can calculate the
resistance of an electronic device through the fundamental formula of Ohm’s law. In this report, this
formula is used as a measurement model.
𝑈
𝑅= 𝐼
(1)
Where:
R is resistance measured in Ohms (Ω)
U is the voltage measured in Volts (V)
I is the current measured in Amperes (A)
2.2 Identification and quantification of uncertainty sources
From the measurement model stated above, it is clear that uncertainty in both current (I) and voltage
(U) contribute to the uncertainty in resistance (R). Therefore, the standard uncertainty of resistance R
can be calculated using the following equation (2):
𝑢(𝑈) 2 𝑢(𝐼) 2
𝑢(𝑅) = 𝑅 × √( 𝑈
) +( 𝐼
) (2)
Uncertainty of both voltage and current can be measured using the following equations (3) and (4):
𝜎(𝑈) 2 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑈 2 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟𝑈 2
𝑢𝑐 (𝑈) = √( ) +( ) +( ) (3)
√𝑛 √12 √3
𝜎(𝐼) 2 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝐼 2 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟𝐼 2
𝑢𝑐 (𝐼) = √( ) +( ) +( ) (4)
√𝑛 √12 √3
2
2.3 Desired relative expanded uncertainty
This measurement model's relative expanded uncertainty at a 95% confidence level was fixed at 0.015.
(1.50%). It can be calculated using equation (5):
𝑈(𝑅)
𝑅
= 0.015 (5)
2.4 Criteria for selection of best Instrument
To select the suitable instrument(s) at an expanded uncertainty of 0.015 at a 95% interval, the coverage
factor is assumed to be 1.96 (k=1.96). Thus, uncertainty in resistance can be calculated using the
following equation (6):
𝑈(𝑅) = 𝑢𝑐 (𝑅) × 𝑘 (6)
Thus using equation (2) and equation (6), we can obtain:
2 2
𝑈(𝑅) 𝑢(𝑈) 𝑢(𝐼)
= 1.96 × √( ) +( ) = 0.015
𝑅 𝑈 𝐼
2 2
𝑢(𝑈) 𝑢(𝐼) 0.015
√( ) +( ) = ≈ 0.00765
𝑈 𝐼 1.96
Assuming both components contribute equally to relative uncertainty, the above equation can be
simplified into:
√𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 ≈ 0.00765
2𝑥 2 ≈ 5.86 × 10−5
𝑥 ≈ 0.0054
Thus, a suitable instrument should have:
𝑢(𝑈) 𝑢(𝐼)
< 0.0054 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < 0.0054
𝑈 𝐼
3. Instrument Data Evaluation
3.1 Uncertainty calculations
In this study, three digital multimeters were selected from Fluke Corporation, a distinguished American
manufacturer specialising in producing high-quality measurement and diagnostic equipment,
including electronic test tools. [2]
The chosen instruments are the following:
Instrument 1 Fluke 117 Electrician's Multimeter with Non-Contact Voltage [3]
Instrument 2 Fluke 87V MAX True-RMS Digital Multimeter [4]
Instrument 3 Fluke 107 Pocket Digital Multimeter [5]
Generally, all the above multimeters do an excellent job and provide valid results. Relative and
combined uncertainty calculations were performed assuming that the value of n goes to infinity for A-
type uncertainty, using equations (3) and (4) and as illustrated below for Instrument 1:
3
0.52 0.012 0.252
𝑢𝑐 (𝑈) √ 𝑛 + 12 + 3
= < 0.0054 𝑉
𝑈 50
As n goes to infinity:
2 2 2
√0.5 + 0.01 + 0.25
∞ 12 3
< 0.0054 𝑉
50
0.0029 V < 0.0054V
The uncertainty calculations have demonstrated that the contribution of B-type uncertainties does not
exceed predefined values for Instrument 1 and Instrument 2 in the case of voltage measurement.
Similarly, for the current measurement, the contribution of B-type uncertainties does not exceed
predefined values for Instrument 2. Thus, as per the uncertainty criteria, Instrument 2 provides the
most suitable results for both voltage and current measurements, as highlighted in Table 2.
In the case of uncertainty calculations, B-type uncertainty values arising from instrumental error are
the most significant contributors to combined uncertainty. Table 2 also shows that the B-type
uncertainty value resulting from instrumental resolution is negligible and can be disregarded in
calculations.
Mean
1. instrument 2. instrument 3. instrument
Nr Variable measured
value Resol. Inst. Err Stdev Resol. Inst. Err Stdev Resol. Inst. Err Stdev
1 voltage (V) 50 0.01 0.25 0.5 0.0001 0.025 0.1 0.01 0.5 0.7
2 current (A) 5 0.001 0.05 0.02 1.00E-07 0.01 0.004 0.01 0.075 0.05
Table 1: Instruments studied in this report and their respective errors.
Voltage
B type B type Instrumental Standard Relative
Mean value
Resolution/ V Error/V uncertainty/ V uncertainty
Instrument 1 50 2.89E-03 0.144 0.144 0.0029
Instrument 2 50 2.89E-05 0.014 0.014 0.0003
Instrument 3 50 2.89E-03 0.289 0.289 0.0058
Current
B type B type Instrumental Standard Relative
Mean value
Resolution/ A Error/A uncertainty/ A uncertainty
Instrument 1 5 2.89E-04 0.029 0.029 0.0058
Instrument 2 5 2.89E-08 0.006 0.006 0.0012
Instrument 3 5 2.89E-03 0.043 0.043 0.0087
Table 2: Uncertainty Calculation for voltage and current.
3.2 Minimum number of measurement calculations
From the primary criteria set, Instruments 1 and 2 are deemed suitable for voltage calculation, while
Instrument 2 is the only instrument deemed suitable for current calculation. The next step is to
calculate the minimum number of measurements needed. A calculation for the minimum number of
voltage readings for Instrument 1 is performed using the formula below:
4
2 2 2
√0.5 + 0.01 + 0.25
𝑛 12 3
< 0.0054
50
0.52 0.012 0.252
√ + + < 0.027
𝑛 12 3
0.52
+ 0.0208 < 0.0729
𝑛
𝑛 > 4.80
Thus, the minimum number of voltage readings required for Instrument 1 is n = 5.
Similar calculations were performed to determine the minimum voltage and current readings
required for Instrument 2. The results are given in Table 3 below.
Minimum number of readings required
B type Instrumental Combined B type limited relative min. no of
Mean value B type Resolution
Error Uncertainty uncertainty2 readings
Instrument 1 Voltage/ V 50 2.89E-03 0.144 0.0208 0.0729 5
Instrument 2 Voltage /V 50 2.89E-05 0.014 2.08E-04 0.0729 1
Instrument 2 Current /A 5 2.89E-08 0.006 3.33E-05 0.0007 1
Table 3 Minimum number of measurements
Although the minimum number of measurements required for Instrument 2 is 1, 3 readings are taken
for each component to obtain a standard deviation for these components. 3 is the minimum number
of readings required to obtain standard deviation.
3.3 Best estimate for resistance
Using Ohm’s law, the best estimate for Resistance from Equation 1 would be.
𝑈 50.0 𝑉
𝑅= = = 10.0 𝛺
𝐼 5.0 𝐴
4. Resistance Calculations
4.1 Combined standard uncertainty for voltage and current
For voltage, the combined standard uncertainty for Instrument 1 is calculated using the following:
0.5 2 0.01 2 0.25 2
𝑢𝑐 (𝑈) = √( 5 ) + ( ) +( ) ≈ 0.2662 V
√ √12 √3
For voltage, the combined standard uncertainty for Instrument 2 is calculated using the following:
0.1 2 0.0001 2 0.025 2
𝑢𝑐 (𝑈) = √( 3 ) + ( ) +( ) ≈ 0.0595 𝑉
√ √12 √3
For five measurements, the combined uncertainty in Instrument 1 is approximately 4.5 times larger
than in Instrument 2.
For current, combined standard uncertainty for Instrument 2 is calculated using:
5
2 2 2
0.004 1.0 × 10−7 0.01
𝑢𝑐 (𝐼) = √( ) +( ) +( ) ≈ 0.00622 𝐴
√3 √12 √3
4.2 Effective degrees of freedom calculations
For effective degrees of freedom calculations, the Welch Satterthwaite equation was used:
𝑢𝑐4 (𝑦)
𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑢4 (𝑥𝑖 )
(7)
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑣𝑖
Effective degrees of freedom calculations were performed for both variables. For A-type uncertainties,
the degrees of freedom equal the number of measurements minus one, and for B-type uncertainties,
the degrees of freedom are to be infinite. The final result for degrees of freedom is truncated to a
whole number.
Effective Degrees of freedom for voltage:
0.05954
𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝑈) = 4 ≈ 2.26 = 2
0.0584 (2.89×10−5 ) 0.0144
+ +
2 ∞ ∞
Effective Degrees freedom for current:
0.006224
𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝐼) = 4 ≈ 105.12 = 105
0.002314 (2.89 × 10−8 ) 0.0064
+ +
2 ∞ ∞
Using Ohm’s law, the uncertainty in resistance can be calculated using the following equation (8):
𝜕𝑅 2 𝜕𝑅 2
𝑢𝑐 (𝑅) = √( ) × 𝑢𝑐 (𝑈)2 + ( ) × 𝑢𝑐 (𝐼)2 (8)
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝐼
1 2 𝑈 2
𝑢𝑐 (𝑅) = √( ) × 𝑢𝑐 (𝑈)2 + (− 2 ) × 𝑢𝑐 (𝐼)2
𝐼 𝐼
1 2 50.0 2
𝑢𝑐 (𝑅) = √( ) × (0.0595)2 + (− ) × (0.00622)2 = 0.0172 𝛺
5.0 5.02
From uncertainty in resistance, we can calculate effective degrees of freedom for resistance using
Welch Satterthwaite equation (7):
0.01724
𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝑅) = 4 4 ≈ 17.34 = 17
0.24 × 0.0595 (−2.0)4 × (0.00622)
4 +
521
From Student’s t-table[6], the coverage interval (k) for 17 degrees of freedom at a 95% confidence
level equals 2.110. Using the value of coverage interval (k), expanded uncertainty for resistance is
calculated using equation (6) :
𝑈(𝑅) = 0.0172 × 2.110 = 0.0363 𝛺
6
The relative standard resistance uncertainty at a 95% confidence level is calculated.
𝑈(𝑅) 0.0363
= ≈ 0.00363 < 0.015
𝑅 10.0
Since the relative uncertainty value didn’t exceed the desired value of 0.15%, this instrument can be
deemed suitable for precise and accurate resistance measurement.
5. Conclusion
In this study, the electronic device's resistance value with expanded uncertainty at a 95% confidence
level is:
𝑅 = 10.0000 𝛺 ± 0.0363 𝛺
This was determined by measuring the voltage and current using three digital multimeters from Fluke
Corporation. All three multimeters can provide us with resistance values; however, Instruments 1 and
2 only met the desired relative expanded uncertainty of 0.0015 at a 95% confidence level for voltage
measurements. Meanwhile, only Instrument 2 met the same criteria for current measurements.
Upon meeting the required criteria, the minimum number of measurements required for both
instruments was performed, which showed that 5 measurements were required for Instrument 1.
However, for Instrument 2, the minimum number of measurements required was only 1; however, to
obtain the standard deviation, 3 measurements were selected to be suitable for both current and
voltage readings using Instrument 2.
Instrument 1 can measure voltage within desired uncertainty limits but not current within desired
uncertainty. On the contrary, Instrument 2, which can measure both current and voltage within desired
uncertainty limits, can be employed. Since these devices are very costly, procuring two instruments is
not cost-effective. Hence, it would be logical to opt for Instrument 2, as it can provide the necessary
measurements without needing an additional device.
Combined Uncertainty and corresponding degrees of freedom values for voltage, current and
resistance calculated for Instrument 2 are as follows:
Standard Uncertainty Degrees of freedom Veff
Voltage (V) 0.0595 V 2
Current (A) 0.00622 A 105
Resistance (Ω) 0.0172 Ω 17
The coverage factor, k, for resistance values, was determined to be 2.11 at a 95% confidence level.
7
6. References
1. How to measure resistance. Available at: https://www.hioki.com/euro-
en/learning/methods/resistance-measurement-methods.html (Accessed: 01 December 2023).
2. Fluke Electrical Test Tools & Industrial Engineering Solutions. Available at:
https://www.fluke.com/en-us (Accessed: 01 December 2023).
3. Fluke 117 multimeter for electricians, Fluke. Available at: https://www.fluke.com/en-
us/product/electrical-testing/digital-multimeters/fluke-117 (Accessed: 01 December 2023).
4. Fluke 87v max true-RMS digital multimeter, Fluke. Available at: https://www.fluke.com/en-
us/product/electrical-testing/digital-multimeters/87v-max (Accessed: 01 December 2023).
5. Fluke 107 mini multimeter: Best pocket multimeter (2023) Fluke. Available at:
https://www.fluke.com/en-us/product/electrical-testing/digital-multimeters/pocket-107 (Accessed:
01 December 2023).
6. T score table - T critical value T TABLE. Available at: https://www.ttable.org/ (Accessed: 01
December 2023).
7. Appendices
All data used for calculations can be accessed from the Excel spreadsheet through the following link.
MDP Calculations (2).xlsx
