Anatomy

and
Physiology
for Nursing Students

Nur Eldeen M. Echeverria, MAN

 Anatomy and Physiology
Modules
Introduction to AnaPhy Digestive System Nervous System

Cells and Tissues Endocrine System Special Senses

Respiratory System Urinary System Skeletal System

Cardiovascular System Fluids and Electrolytes Muscular System

Lymphatic System Integumentary System Reproductive System

 MODULE 1
Introduction to
anatomy and physiology
 WHAT

Anatomy is the study of

the structure , or HOW
physical form of the
body The function, or physiology
of each body part and the
body as a whole is
dependent on the anatomy
WHY of those parts; in other
words, structure determines
This text will help you learn function
structures and functions so you
can understand the role of
individual organs and body
systems and how they interact to
support life
INTRODUCTION

As a science, anatomy extends from the earliest examinations of sacrificial

victims to the sophisticated analyses of the body performed by modern
scientists. It has been characterized over time, by a continually developing
understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. The field
of Human Anatomy has a prestigious history, and is considered to be the most
prominent of the biological sciences of the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from examination of
animals through dissection of cadavers to technologically complex techniques
developed in the twentieth century.

Anatomy and Physiology are major parts of the Science of Biology (study of
living organisms, both plants and animals).
Anatomy deals with the body structures like the heart, muscles and the brain, and
the relationships between these body structures. The word “anatomy” comes from
the Greek word “anatomia” where “ana” means to separate or apart from and
“temnein” meaning to cut up or to cut open or dissect the part of the body for
study. It is also rooted in another Greek word “anatome” meaning apart for “ana”
and to cut open for “tome”. It is generally considered a branch of biology that is the
consideration of the structure of living things. Human Anatomy is the study of the
structure and shape of the body and its parts and their relationship with one
another.

Anatomy is the scientific discipline that investigates the structure of the body. It
covers a wide range of studies, including the body parts, their microscopic
organization and the processes by which they develop . It examines the relationship
between the structure of a body part and its function.
2 BASIC APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF ANATOMY:

1. SYSTEMIC ANATOMY is the study of the body by systems, such as

cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal and muscular system

2. REGIONAL ANATOMY is the study of the organization of the body by

areas. Within each region, such as the head, abdomen, or arm, all
systems are studied simultaneously . This is the approach taken in most
medical and dental schools.

SURFACE ANATOMY also called superficial anatomy and visual anatomy is

the study of the external features of the body. It deals with the
anatomical features that can be studied by sight
 2 GENERAL WAYS TO EXAMINE THE STRUCTURES OF A LIVING
PERSON:

1. SURFACE ANATOMY is the study of external features, such as bony

projections, which serves as landmark for locating deeper structures ;
also called superficial anatomy and visual anatomy is the study of the
external features of the body. It deals with the anatomical features that
can be studied by sight

2. ANATOMICAL IMAGING involves the use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic

resonance imaging (MRI), and other technologies to create pictures of
internal structures , such as when determining if a bone is broken or a
ligament is torn. Both surface anatomy imaging provide important
information for diagnosing disease.
Physiology is concerned with the functions of the body parts. Generally, function is
determined by the structure. This means that it is equally important for any anatomy
and physiology student to have a fair knowledge of the different body structures that
comprise the human body in order to fully comprehend or understand how the
human body functions as a whole.

Physiology is the scientific discipline that deals with the processes or functions of
living things. The major goals are:
1. To understand and predict the body’s responses to stimuli and
2. To understand how the body maintains internal conditions within a narrow range
of values in the presence of continually changing internal and external
environment.
Human Physiology is the study of a specific organism, the human

Cellular Physiology and Systemic Physiology are subdivisions that emphasize specific
organizational levels.
 HUMAN ANATOMY HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

Gross anatomy Cellular physiology

Microscopic anatomy Developmental physiology

Cytology Pathological physiology

Histology

Developmental anatomy

Pathological anatomy
GROSS ANATOMY – is the study of structures observed with the naked eye, without using any instrument or
gadget to aid in the observation.
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY – is the study of structures observed with the aid of a microscope or other similar
devices or equipment that aid to magnify very small things, which the naked eye may not see.
CYTOLOGY – is the study of cells and the different cellular organelles inside a single cell

HISTOLOGY – is the study of tissues that make up the different organs of the human body

DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY – is the study of the structural changes from conception in the mother’s womb to
birth
PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY – is the study of structural changes caused by diseases and other illness states

CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY – is the study of interactions or relationships of cell parts and components and the
specific functions of the cellular organelles and the cell in general
DEVELOPMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY – is the study of the changes in function that occur as an organism develops
(walk, run, jump). These changes happen over time.
PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY – is the study of the changes in function that happen as organs grow old or
become sick or ill. Changes happen because there is a disease process going on . It is important to understand
how disease develops.
Anatomy and Physiology are always inseparable. The
parts of your body form a well-organized unit, and
each of those parts has a job to do to make the body
operate as a whole. Structure determines what
functions can take place.
PHYSIOLOGY

Is the study of how the body and its parts work or function. It is concerned
with the functions of the body parts.; (physio = nature; ology= study of).

TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGY

- CELL PHYSIOLOGY it is the study of the function of the cell.

- SPECIAL PHYSIOLOGY this is the study of the function of specific organs.

- SYSTEMIC PHYSIOLOGY It includes all the aspects of the functions of the

body systems.

- PATHOPHYSIOLOGY IS THE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF THE DISEASE

 LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION

- ATOMS: tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form molecules such as

water, sugar and proteins.

- CELLS: the smallest unit of all living things

- TISSUE: consist of groups of similar cells that have common function

(connective, muscular, and neural)

- ORGAN: is a structure composed of two or more tissue types that performs a

specific function for the body.

- ORGAN SYSTEM: is a group of organs that work together to accomplish to

accomplish a common purpose

- ORGANISM: represents the highest level of structural organization

Human Anatomy
This is the branch of anatomy that is most popular throughout the world and for
obvious reasons. We as humans are always curious as to how our body works and how
it functions. However, before you know how the parts of the body work you need to
know the structure or form. This is where human anatomy comes in. The way the
human body is organized is a special system in itself. We start from the cell, which is
the building block of the body. Cells come together to form tissues, tissues form organs
that combine to form organ systems. These 11 body systems then form the human
body.
 Levels of Structural
Organization
Atoms
Cells are
combine to
made up of
form
molecules
molecules

Tissues Organs are

consist of made up of
similar different
types of types of
cells tissues

Organ systems Human

consist of organisms are
different made up of
organs that many organ
work together systems
closely
 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION of the HUMAN BODY
Levels of Structural Organization

1. CHEMICAL LEVEL

It is the simplest level of the structural ladder. The structural and functional
characteristics of all organisms are determined by their chemical
composition. Involves the unique interactions among atoms and how they
are combine to form molecules such as water, proteins and sugar. Individual
cells are basically composed of atoms like carbon, nitrogen, Sulphur, and
others. This is important because a molecule ‘s structure determines its
function.
2. CELL LEVEL

Cells are the basic structural and functional units of organisms such as plants
and animals. Molecules associate in specific ways to form microscopic cells ,
smallest units of all living things. Molecules can combine to form organelles ,
which are the small structures that make up some cells. All cells have some
functions , but individual cells vary widely in size, shape, and their particular
roles in the body.
3. TISSUE LEVEL

A tissue is a collection of similar cells bound by supporting matrix that

performs a specific common function. Similar cells are uniformly spaced and
bound together as tissue by non living matrix, which the cells secrete. 4
principal types of tissue:
1. Epithelial tissues cover the body and organ surfaces, lines body cavities
and lumina, form various glands and are involved with protection,
absorption, excretion and secretion
2. Connective tissues bind, support , protect body parts
3. Muscle tissues contract to produce movement of body parts and allow
locomotion
4. Nervous tissues initiate and transmit nerve impulses that coordinate body
activities
4. ORGAN LEVEL

An organ is a structure composed of two or more tissue types that are

integrated to perform a specific function for the body. They together
perform one or more common functions. Vital body organs are those that
are important for critical body functions. Extremely complex functions
become possible.

Examples of vital organs are the heart to pump blood, the kidneys to filter
blood, the liver to process food and break down worn blood cells, the lungs
to exchange gases we breathe, and the brain to control and relate body
functions. Any change in the function of these vital organs will spell death to
the person.
5. ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL

A system is an organization of two or more group of organs and its associated

structures working as a whole to perform a common function or a set of
functions. It is a group of organs classified as a unit because of a common
function or set of functions. An example of a system is the cardiovascular
system which includes the heart, the blood vessels, and the blood. Some
organs serve more than one body system. Not only are these vital organs and
systems formed by this time they are also functional.
6. ORGANISM/ORGANISMAL LEVEL

Organ systems make up the living human being, or the organism, which
represents the highest level of structural organization, the organismal level. It
is the sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive.

An organism is any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of

one cell , such as the bacterium, or of trillion of cells , such as a human. The
human organism is a complex of organ systems that are mutually dependent
upon one another.
 ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW

Integumentary System

The Integumentary system is the external covering of

the body includes the skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands
and serves to protect the body, regulate body
temperatures, eliminate body wastes, and receive
certain stimuli like touch, temperature, pressure and
pain. It waterproofs the body and cushions and protects
the deeper tissues from injury. With the help of sunlight,
it produces Vitamin d. It also excretes salts and urea in
perspiration and helps regulate body temperature.
Temperature, pressure, and pain receptors located in the
skin alert us to what is happening at the body surface.

.
Skeletal System

The Human Skeletal system includes bones,

cartilage, joints and ligaments and serves to
provide body support and protection, allow
movement and leverage, produce blood cells, and
store minerals. It supports the body and provides
a framework that the skeletal muscles use to
cause movement. It also has a protective function
( ex. Skull encloses and protects the brain).
Hematopoiesis or formation of blood cells, goes
on within the cavities of the skeleton are the site
s where blood cells are formed. The hard
substance of bones acts as a storehouse for
minerals.

.
Muscular System

The human Muscular system involves all

skeletal muscles of the body and tendons and
functions to effect body movements, maintain
posture, and produce body heat. The muscles
of the body have only one function- to
contract or shorten. When this happens,
movements occur. Hence, muscles can be
viewed as the “machines” of the body. The
mobility of the body as a whole reflects the
activity of skeletal muscles, the large fleshy
muscles attached to bones.

.
Nervous System

The Nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord,

nerves and the sensory organs like the eyes and the
ear and functions to detect and respond to changes
in internal and external environments, enable
reasoning and memory, and regulate body activity. It
is the body’s fast acting control system. The body
must be able to respond to irritants or stimuli
coming from outside the body and from inside the
body.

.
Endocrine System

The human Endocrine system includes all

hormone-producing glands and functions to
control and integrate body functions. It
controls body activities, but it acts much
more slowly. The endocrine glands produce
chemical molecules called hormones and
release them into the blood to travel to
relatively distant target organs. The
endocrine glands include the pituitary,
thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, thymus,
pancreas, pineal ovaries (female), and
testes (male).

.
Cardiovascular System/Circulatory System

The Circulatory system is made up of heart, the

blood vessels that carry the blood, and the blood
and its constituents and functions to transport
respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes and hormones.
It also protects against disease and fluid loss and
helps regulate body temperature and acid base
balance. WBC and chemicals in the blood help to
protect the body from such foreign invaders as
bacteria, viruses, and tumor cells. The heart
propels blood out of its chambers into blood
vessels to be transported to all body tissue

.
Lymphatic System

The role of lymphatic system complements

that of the cardiovascular system. Its organs
include lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and
other lymphoid organs such as the spleen
and tonsils. When the fluid is leaked into
tissues from the blood, lymphatic vessels
return it into the bloodstream so that there
is enough blood to continuously circulate
through the body. The lymph nodes and
other lymphoid organs help to cleanse the
blood and house white blood cells involved
in immunity

.
Respiratory System

The Respiratory system involves the

body organs concerned with the
movement of respiratory gases to and
from the pulmonary blood. It
functions to supply oxygen to the
blood, eliminate carbon dioxide and
help to regulate acid-base balance.

.
Digestive System

The Digestive system involves the body

organs that render ingested foods
absorbable and serves to mechanically and
chemically break down food for cellular
consumption and eliminate undigested
wastes. It is basically a tube running
through the body from mouth to anus. The
oral cavity and accessory organs break
down food and deliver the resulting
nutrients to the blood for dispersal to body
cells.

.
Urinary System

The urinary system includes the

organs that operate to remove wastes
from the blood and to eliminate urine
from the body. It regulates the
chemical composition, volume and
electrolyte balance of the blood and
helps to maintain acid-base balance of
the body. It removes the nitrogen-
containing wastes from the body in
urine. It is often called excretory
system.

.
Reproductive System

The Reproductive system includes

all body organs that produce, store,
and transport reproductive cells
and functions to reproduce the
organism and produce sex
hormones. The role is to produce
offspring. The male produces
sperm. The female ovaries produce
eggs or ova. The uterus provides
the site for development of the
fetus (immature infant) once
fertilization has occurred.

.
 OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

ORGAN SYSTEM MAJOR COMPONENT ORGANS FUNCTION

Integumentary system Skin, nails, and hair; cutaneous • Protects deeper organs from injury due to
sense organs and glands bumps, chemicals, bacteria, and
Provides protection , dehydration (drying out)
regulates temperature, • Excretes salts and urea
prevents water loss, and • Helps regulate body temperature
helps produce vitamin D. • Produces vitamin D

Skeletal system Bones, associated cartilages, • Supports and protects internal organs
tendons, ligaments, and joints • Provides levers for muscular action
Provides protection and • Stores minerals (calcium and others)
support, allows body • Cavities provide a site for blood cell
movements, produces formation
blood cells, and stores
minerals and adipose
tissue.
 OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
ORGAN SYSTEM MAJOR COMPONENT ORGANS FUNCTION
Muscular system Muscles attached to the • Skeletal muscles contract, or shorten; in
skeleton by tendons doing so, they move bones to allow
Produces body movements, motion (running, walking), grasping and
maintains posture, and manipulating the environment, and facial
produces body heat. expression
• Generates heat

Nervous system Brain, spinal cord, nerves, • Allows body to detect changes in its
special sense organs and internal and external environment and to
A major regulatory system sensory receptors respond to such information by activating
that detects sensations and appropriate muscles or glands
controls movements, • Helps maintain short-term homeostasis of
physiological processes, and the body via rapid transmission of
intellectual functions. electrical signals
 OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
ORGAN SYSTEM MAJOR COMPONENT ORGANS FUNCTION
Endocrine system Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, • Promotes growth development; produces
adrenal glands, and pineal chemical “messengers “ (hormones) that
A major regulatory system glands; ovaries, testes, and travel in the blood to exert their effects on
that influences metabolism, pancreas various target organs of the body
growth, reproduction and • Plays a role in regulating long-term
may other functions. homeostasis

Cardiovascular system Heart, blood vessels, and blood • Primarily a transport system that carries
blood containing oxygen, carbon dioxide,
Transports nutrients , waste nutrients, wastes, ions, hormones, and
products, gases and other substances to and from the cells
hormones throughout the where exchanges are made; pumping
body; plays a role in the action of the heart propels blood through
immune response and the the blood vessels
regulation of body • Protects body with blood clots, antibodies,
temperature. and other protein molecules in the blood
 OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
ORGAN SYSTEM MAJOR COMPONENT ORGANS FUNCTION
Lymphatic system Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, • Picks up fluid leaked from the blood
spleen, thymus, and tonsils vessels and returns it to the blood
Removes foreign substances • Cleanses blood of pathogens and other
from the blood and lymph, debris
combats disease, maintains • Houses cells that act in the immune
tissue fluid balance and response to protect the body from foreign
absorbs dietary fats from substances (antigens)
the digestive tract
 OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
ORGAN SYSTEM MAJOR COMPONENT ORGANS FUNCTION
Respiratory system Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, • Keeps the blood continuously supplied
bronchi, and lungs with oxygen while removing carbon
Exchanges oxygen and dioxide
carbon dioxide between the • Contributes to the acid-base balance of
blood and air and regulates the blood via its carbonic acid/bicarbonate
blood pH buffer system

Digestive system Mouth, esophagus, stomach, • Breaks down ingested foods to tiny
small and large intestines, and particles, which can be absorbed into the
Performs the mechanical accessory organs (teeth, salivary blood for delivery to the body’s cells
and chemical processes of glands, liver, gallbladder, and • Undigested residue leaves the body as
digestion, absorption of pancreas) feces
nutrients, and elimination
of wastes
 OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
ORGAN SYSTEM MAJOR COMPONENT ORGANS FUNCTION
Urinary system Kidneys, ureters, urinary • Filters the blood and then rids the body of
bladder, and urethra nitrogen-containing wastes (urea, uric
Removes waste products acid, and ammonia), which result from the
from the blood and breakdown of proteins and nuclei acids by
regulates blood pH, ion the body’s cells
balance, and water balance. • Maintains water, electrolytes and acid-
base balance of blood

Reproductive system Male: testes, scrotum, penis, • Produces germ cells (sperm) for producing
and duct system, which carries offspring
sperm to the body exterior • Produces germ cells (eggs) for producing
offspring; the female uterus houses a
Female: ovaries, uterine tubes, developing fetus until birth
uterus and vagina
 OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM MAJOR COMPONENT ORGANS FUNCTION
Female reproductive system Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, • Produces oocyte and is the site of
vagina, mammary glands and fertilization and fetal development,
associated structure produces milk for the newborn; produces
hormones that influence sexual function
and behaviors.

Male reproductive system testes, scrotum, penis, and duct • Produces and transfers sperm cells to the
system, which carries sperm to female and produces hormones that
the body exterior influence sexual functions and behaviors.
MAINTAINING LIFE
8 NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS

1. Maintaining boundaries
2. Movement
3. Responsiveness
4. Digestion
5. Metabolism 5 SURVIVAL NEEDS
6. Excretion 1. Nutrients
7. Reproduction 2. Oxygen
8. Growth 3. Water
4. Normal Body Temperature
5. Atmospheric Pressure
 NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS (Characteristics of Life)

MAINTAINING BOUNDARIES
Every living organism must be able to maintain its boundaries so that its “inside”
remains distinct from its “outside”. Every cell of the human body is surrounded by an
external membrane that separates its contents from the outside interstitial fluid and
allows entry of needed substances while generally preventing entry of potentially
damaging or unnecessary substances. Ex. Integumentary system

METABOLISM
Metabolism is a broad term that includes all the chemical reactions that occur in the
body and all of its cells. One phase of metabolism is catabolism in which complex
substances are broken down into simpler building blocks (digestion) and energy is
released making larger structures from smaller ones, and using nutrients and oxygen to
produce molecules of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Metabolism is regulated chiefly by
hormones secreted by the glands of the Endocrine system
RESPONSIVENESS
Responsiveness or irritability is concerned with detecting changes (stimuli) in the
internal or external environments and reacting to that change. It is the act of sensing a
stimulus and responding to it. It is the ability of an organism to sense changes in the
environment and make the adjustments that help maintain its life. The nervous system
bears the major responsibility for responsiveness. Ex. Hot pot pull your hand away
instinctively

MOVEMENT
Includes all the activities promoted by the muscular system, such as propelling ourselves
from one place to another and manipulating the external environment with our fingers.
Ex. Skeletal system , blood, food stuffs, urine are propelled
REPRODUCTION
For most people, reproduction refers to the formation of a new person, the birth of a
baby. In this way, life is transmitted from one generation to the next through
reproduction of the organism. In a broader sense, reproduction also refers to the
formation of new cells for the replacement and repair of old cells as well as for growth.
This is cellular reproduction. Both are essential to the survival of the human race.

GROWTH
Growth can be an increase in cell size or an increase in body size that is usually
accomplished by an increase in the number of cells. For growth to occur, cell-
constructing activities must occur at a faster rate than cell-destroying ones. Hormones
released by the endocrine system play a major role in directing growth. Example bones
DEVELOPMENT
Development or differentiation is a developmental process by which unspecialized cells
change into specialized cells with distinctive structural and functional characteristics.
Through differentiation, cells develop into tissues and organs.

RESPIRATION
Respiration refers to all the processes involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the cells and the external environment. It includes ventilation, the
diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and the transport of the gases in the blood.
Cellular respiration deals with the cell’s utilization of oxygen and release of carbon
dioxide in its metabolism.
DIGESTION
Digestion is the process of breaking down complex ingested foods into simple molecules
that can be absorbed into the blood and utilized by the body. The nutrient-rich blood is
often distributed to all body cells by the cardiovascular system, where the body cells use
these simple molecules for energy and raw materials.

EXCRETION
Excretion is the process of removing excreta or the waste products of digestion and
metabolism from the body. It gets rid of by-products that the body is unable to use,
many of which are toxic and incompatible with life. Several organ systems participate in
excretion. Ex. Undigested food residues in feces – digestive system
Urine
Sweat
 SURVIVAL NEEDS

The goal is to maintain life. Survival needs include:

NUTRIENTS – which the body takes in through food contain the chemicals used for
energy and cell building

OXYGEN – all nutrients in the world are useless unless oxygen is also available because
the chemical reactions that release energy from foods require oxygen, human cells
can survive for only a few minutes without it.

WATER – accounts for 60 to 80% of body weight . It is the single most abundant
chemical substance in the body and provides the fluid base for body secretions and
excretions. We obtain from ingested food or liquids and lose it by evaporation from
the lungs and skin and in body excretion
 SURVIVAL NEEDS

NORMAL BODY TEMPERATURE – if chemical reactions are to continue at life sustaining

levels, normal body temperature must be maintained. If it drops below 37C, metabolic
processes become slower and slower and finally stop. If it is too high, chemical
reactions proceed too rapidly and body proteins begin to break down. At either
extreme, death occurs.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE – is the force exerted on the surface of the body by the
weight of air. Breathing and the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs
depend on appropriate atmospheric pressures. At high altitudes, where the air is thin
and atmospheric pressure is lower, gas exchange may be too slow to support cellular
metabolism.
 HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis is the condition in which a system such as the human body is

maintained in a more-or-less steady state. It is the job of cells, tissues,
organs, and organ systems throughout the body to maintain many
different variables within narrow ranges that are compatible with life.
Keeping a stable internal environment requires continuous monitoring of
the internal environment and constantly making adjustments to keep
things in balance.
 HOMEOSTASIS

The body is constantly striving to maintain a dynamic, steady state of internal balance
called homeostasis. Every cell in the body is involved in maintaining homeostasis, both
on the cellular level and as part of an organism. Homeostasis is the process by which a
nearly stable internal environment is maintained in the body so that cellular
metabolic functions can go on at maximum efficiency. This is maintained by muscles
or glands (effectors) which are regulated by sensory information from the internal
environment.

Any change or damage at the cellular level can affect the entire body. When an
external stressor (injury, lack of nutrients, invasion by parasites or organisms) disrupts
homeostasis , illness may occur. Throughout the course of a person’s life, many
external stressors affect the body’s internal equilibrium.
Three structures in the brain are responsible for maintaining homeostasis.
The medulla oblongata is the part of the brainstem that is associated
with vital life functions like respiration and circulation. The pituitary gland
regulates the function of other glands and thereby a person’s growth,
maturation, and reproduction. And lastly, the reticular formation, a group
of nerve cells or nuclei that form a large network of connected tissues,
controls vital reflexes like cardiovascular function and respiration.
The medulla oblongata is the
connection between the
brainstem and the spinal cord,
carrying multiple important
functional centers. It is
comprised of the
cardiovascular-respiratory
regulation system, descending
motor tracts, ascending
sensory tracts, and origin of
cranial nerves IX, X, XI, and XII.
Homeostasis typically involves negative feedback loops that counteract
changes of various properties from their target values, known as set
points. In contrast to negative feedback loops, positive feedback loops
amplify their initiating stimuli, in other words, they move the system away
from its starting state.

Positive feedback loops enhance or amplify changes; this tends to move a

system away from its equilibrium state and make it more unstable.
Negative feedbacks tend to dampen or buffer changes; this tends to hold
a system to some equilibrium state making it more stable.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
In a negative feedback loop, feedback serves to reduce an excessive response
and keep a variable within the normal range. Most system of the body are
regulated by negative feedback mechanism. Examples of processes controlled
by negative feedback include body temperature regulation and control of
blood glucose.

Body Temperature
Body temperature regulation involves negative feedback whether it lowers the
temperature or raises it.

Blood Glucose
In the control of the blood glucose level, certain endocrine cells in the pancreas
called alpha and beta cells, detect the level of glucose in the blood. Then they
respond appropriately to keep the level of blood glucose within the normal range.
Heating Up
When the brain’s temperature regulatory center receives data that body temperature
is lower than the setpoint, it sets into motion the following responses:

Blood vessels in the skin contract (vasoconstriction) to prevent blood from flowing
close to the surface of the body. This reduces heat loss from the surface.
As the temperature falls lower, random signals to skeletal muscles are triggered,
causing them to contract. This causes shivering, which generates a small amount of
heat.
The thyroid gland may be stimulated by the brain (via the pituitary gland) to secrete
more thyroid hormones. This hormone increases metabolic activity and heat
production in cells throughout the body.
The adrenal glands may also be stimulated to secrete the hormone adrenaline. This
hormone causes the breakdown of glycogen (the carbohydrate used for energy
storage in animals) to glucose, which can be used as an energy source. This catabolic
chemical process is exothermic, or heat producing.
BLOOD GLUCOSE

An example of a negative feedback mechanism is the homeostasis for

blood glucose. If the blood glucose level is increased , the brain
stimulates the pancreas to secrete insulin so that more cells will use the
excess glucose in the blood. This, in turn, lowers the level of blood
glucose to its normal level. Once the blood glucose level reaches its
normal level, the brain again instructs the pancreas to stop secreting
insulin.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
In a positive feedback loop, feedback serves to intensify a response until an
endpoint is reached. A positive feedback mechanism occurs when hormone
secretion triggers additional hormone secretion which indicates a trend away
from homeostasis. The positive feedback mechanism is far from positive. It
takes the original response and exaggerates it. It is said to be positive
because the change that occurs proceeds in the same direction as the initial
disturbance, causing a further deviation from homeostasis. It occurs when
the initial stimulus further stimulates the response. In other words, positive
means that the deviation from the set point becomes even greater.

Examples of processes controlled by positive feedback in the human body

include blood clotting and childbirth.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK

Blood Clotting
When a wound causes bleeding, the body responds with a positive feedback loop
to clot the blood and stop blood loss. Substances released by the injured blood
vessel wall begin the process of blood clotting. Platelets in the blood start to cling
to the injured site and release chemicals that attract additional platelets. As the
platelets continue to amass, more of the chemicals are released and more platelets
are attracted to the site of the clot. The positive feedback accelerates the process
of clotting until the clot is large enough to stop the bleeding.
Childbirth
shows the positive feedback loop that controls childbirth.
The process normally begins when the head of the infant
pushes against the cervix. This stimulates nerve impulses,
which travel from the cervix to the hypothalamus in the
brain. In response, the hypothalamus sends the hormone
oxytocin to the pituitary gland, which secretes it into the
bloodstream so it can be carried to the uterus. Oxytocin
stimulates uterine contractions, which push the baby
harder against the cervix. In response, the cervix starts to
dilate in preparation for the passage of the baby. This cycle
of positive feedback continues, with increasing levels of
oxytocin, stronger uterine contractions, and wider dilation Normal childbirth is driven by a positive
of the cervix until the baby is pushed through the birth feedback loop. Positive feedback causes an
increasing deviation from the normal state
canal and out of the body. At that point, the cervix is no to a fixed endpoint rather than a return to a
longer stimulated to send nerve impulses to the brain, and normal set point as in homeostasis
the entire process stops.
HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISM
❑ RECEPTOR : is a type of sensor that monitors and responds to changes in the environment. It responds to
such changes called STIMULI, by sending information to the second component
❑ CONTROL CENTER: determine the level at which a variable is to be maintained, analyzes the information it
receives and then determines the appropriate response or course of action
❑ EFFECTOR: provides the means for the control center’s response (output) to the stimulus. Information flows
from the control center to the effector along the efferent pathway.
❑The result of the response then feedback to influence the stimulus either POSITIVE FEEDBACK or
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK.
o NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM
• The net effect of the response to the stimulus is to shut off the original stimulus or
reduce its intensity
o POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM
• It tend t increase the original disturbance and to push the variable farther from its
original value
 ANATOMICAL POSITION

Standing attention, body

erect, feet are parallel and flat
on the floor, eyes are looking
in front and the arms are at
sides of his body with palms
of his hands turned forward
and the fingers pointing
downward. It provides a
standard reference
framework for the body.
 SUPINE POSITION WHEN LYING FACE UPWARD

PRONE POSITION WHEN LYING FACE DOWNWARD

Anatomical Position
In order to learn the different anatomical directional terms, we need to have a
standard body position we can use as a reference.
This standard body position is called the standard anatomical position.

The correct anatomical position is the following:

1.Standing upright
2.Head and eyes directed straight ahead
3.Upper limbs hanging down at the sides
4.Upper limbs slightly away from the trunk so the hands are not touching the sides
5.Palms facing forward
6.Thumbs pointing away from the body
7.Lower limbs parallel
8.Feet flat on the ground facing forward
 DIRECTIONAL TERMS OF THE BODY
Here are the most common directional terms used. The anatomical directions below are
under separate headings to show how they relate to each other.
For example, anterior and posterior are grouped together because the coronal anatomical
planes divide the body into anterior and posterior parts. See the pics below for a better
understanding of these terms.

ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR

Anterior: Front, Towards the front. The other term is Ventral. The breast is on the anterior
side of the body.
Posterior: Back, Behind, Towards the rear or back. The other term is Dorsal. The kidneys are
posterior to the intestines.

PROXIMAL AND DISTAL

Distal: Away from the main mass of the body, farther from the trunk or the point or
attachment. Ex: The foot is distal to the knee.
Proximal: Near, Closer to the point of attachment, Toward the trunk. Towards the main
mass of the body. Ex: The hip is proximal to the foot.
SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR
Superior: Above, Towards the head, towards the top (eyes is superior to the mouth)
Inferior: Below, Under, Towards the feet, away from the head . Also called caudal (feet are
inferior to the thighs)

MEDIAL AND LATERAL

Lateral: Toward the side, Away from the mid-line. The ears are lateral to the head.
Medial: Toward the mid-line, Middle. Ex: The heart is medial to the lungs.

DORSAL AND VENTRAL

Dorsal: Near the upper surface, Opposite the ventral surface, Toward the back.
Ventral: Toward the bottom and front, Opposite the dorsal surface, toward the belly.

ROSTRAL AND CAUDAL

Rostral: Toward the front of the head, Latin meaning is toward the beak/nose.
Caudal: Toward the back, Inferior to another structure, Latin meaning is toward the tail.
SUPERFICIAL AND DEEP
SUPERFICIAL: closer to the surface of the body structure or organ.
DEEP: further from the surface of the body structure or organ; toward the interior of the
body

INTERNAL or deep means away from the surface of the body. The lungs are internal to the
thoracic cage.

EXTERNAL or superficial, means toward the surface of the body

VISCERAL refers to the internal organs . Ex. The heart is covered by a thin membrane called
the visceral pericardium.

PARIETAL relates to the body walls. Ex. The parietal peritoneum is the inside lining of the
abdominal cavity.
DIRECTIONAL
TERMS

Superior vs. Inferior

Anterior vs Posterior
Proximal vs.
Distal
 Anterior
Anatomical
Landmarks
Body Parts and Regions
Health professionals use a number of terms when referring to different regions
or parts of the body. The central region of the body consists of the head,
neck, and trunk. The trunk can be divided into
the thorax (chest), abdomen (region between the thorax and pelvis),
and pelvis (the inferior end of the trunk associated with the hips). The upper
limb is divided into the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand. The arm extends from
the shoulder to the elbow, and the forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist.
The lower limb is divided into the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot. The thigh extends
from the hip to the knee, and the leg extends from the knee to the ankle. Note
that, contrary to popular usage, the terms arm and leg refer to only a part of the
respective limb.
ANTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS
➢ Abdominal. Anterior body trunk inferior to the ribs
➢ Acromial. Point of the shoulder
➢ Antebrachial. Forearm
➢ Antecubital. Anterior surface of the elbow
➢ Axillary. Armpit
➢ Brachial. Arm
➢ Buccal. Cheek area
➢ Carpal. Wrist
➢ Cervical. Neck region
➢ Coxal. Hip
➢ Crural. Leg
➢ Deltoid. Curved of shoulder formed by large deltoid muscle
➢ Digital. Fingers, toes
➢ Femoral. Thigh
➢ Fibular. Lateral part of the leg
➢ Frontal. Forehead.
➢ Inguinal. Area when the thighs meets body trunk. Groin
➢ Nasal. Nose area
➢ Oral. Mouth
➢ Orbital. Eye area
➢ Patellar. Anterior knee
➢ Pelvic. Area overlying the pelvis
➢ Pubic. Genital region
➢ Sternal. Breastbone area
➢ Tarsal. Ankle region
➢ Thoracic. Chest
➢ Umbilical. navel
 Posterior
Anatomical
Landmarks
POSTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS

❑ Calcaneal. Heal of the foot

❑ Cephalic. Head
❑ Femoral. Thigh
❑ Gluteal. Buttock
❑ Lumbar. Area of back between hips and
ribs
❑ Occipital. Posterior surface of the head
❑ Olecranal. Posterior surface of elbow
❑ Popliteal. Posterior knee area
❑ Sacral. Area between hips
❑ Scapular. Shoulder blade region
❑ Sural. Posterior leg surface of lower. Calf
❑ Vertebral. Area of spine
PLANES

At times, it is conceptually useful to discuss the body in reference to a series of

planes (imaginary flat surfaces) passing through it (figure 1.11). Sectioning the
body is a way to “look inside” and observe the body’s structures. A sagittal
(saj′i-tăl) plane runs vertically through the body and separates it into right and
left parts. The word sagittal literally means the flight of an arrow and refers to
the way the body would be split by an arrow passing anteriorly to posteriorly.
A median plane is a sagittal plane that passes through the midline of the body,
dividing it into equal right and left halves. A transverse (trans-vers′) plane, or
horizontal plane, runs parallel to the surface of the ground, dividing the body
into superior and inferior parts. A frontal plane, or coronal (kōr′ŏ-năl, kō-
rō′nal; crown) plane, runs vertically from right to left and divides the body into
anterior and posterior parts.
BODY PLANES AND SECTIONS

The planes of reference are used to locate and describe structures within the
human body. A set of 3 planes (imaginary flat and dividing surfaces) passing
through the body is frequently used to depict structural arrangement. The three
planes are called the midsagittal, coronal and transverse planes.

• The midsagittal plane is the plane symmetry of the body, dividing into right and
left halves
• Sagittal (parasagittal) planes run parallel to the midsagittal plane and they
divide the body into unequal right and left portions
• Coronal ( frontal) planes divide the body into front and back portions. The
coronal plane is also called horizontal or cross-sectional plane
• Transverse plane divide the body into superior(upper) and inferior (lower)
portions.
BODY PLANES
AND SECTIONS
Four Types of Body Planes
There are four major types of
body planes, and an easy way
to remember them is to
remember the acronym
“SOFT,” which stands for

Sagittal
Oblique
Frontal
Transverse
 Sagittal (Median)

Left portion

Right portion
Sagittal Planes (Midsagittal and
Parasagittal)
A sagittal plane runs vertically from top
to bottom (and front to back), and it
divides the body into a left and right
portion. This is easy to remember
because on your skull you have what’s
called a sagittal suture, which divides it
into left and right sides. And that’s
exactly what this plane does: it divides
the body into right and left sides when
viewed from the anatomical position.
You can take sagittal planes a step
further and add a prefix to help you
identify the type of sagittal plane.
 Frontal Plane (Coronal)

Posterior portion

Anterior portion
Frontal (Coronal) Planes
The frontal plane (also called coronal
plane) is a plane that runs vertically from
top to bottom (and left to right), and it
divides the body into a front (anterior)
portion and a back (posterior) portion.
Again, let the name help you. The frontal
plane will literally leave you with a front
and back section!
Axial (Transverse or Horizontal)

Superior portion
(Cranial)

Inferior portion
(Caudal)
Transverse Planes (Horizontal or Axial
Planes)
A transverse plane (also called a horizontal
plane) is easy to remember because it is
the only plane that runs horizontally,
dividing the body or structure into a top
(superior) and bottom (inferior) half. To
remember it, let the name help you out:
the prefix trans means “across.” Think of
Transatlantic airlines flying you across the
Atlantic Ocean. Alternatively, think of the
horizon, which is the horizontal boundary
between the earth and the sky, and you’ll
remember the direction of the horizontal
(transverse) plane.
Oblique Planes
An oblique plane is a plane
that can literally be any type of
angle other than a horizontal
or vertical angle. In fact, the
word “oblique” means that
something is not parallel or a
right angle. An easy way to
remember this is to remember
“obliques are odd angles.” You
can also think about your
oblique muscles. These
muscles come down at an
angle and are located laterally
to your abdominal muscles.
The body contains many cavities. Some of these cavities, such as the
nasal cavity, open to the outside of the body, and some do not. The
trunk contains three large cavities that do not open to the outside of
the body: the thoracic cavity, the abdominal cavity, and the pelvic
cavity (figure 1.13). The thoracic cavity is surrounded by the rib cage
and is separated from the abdominal cavity by the muscular
diaphragm. It is divided into right and left parts by a median structure
called the mediastinum (me′dē -as-t ′n̆u m; wall). The mediastinum is
a partition containing the heart, the thymus, the trachea, the
esophagus, and other structures. The two lungs are located on each
side of the mediastinum.
The abdominal cavity is bounded primarily by the abdominal
muscles and contains the stomach, the intestines, the liver, the
spleen, the pancreas, and the kidneys. The pelvic (pel′vik) cavity is a
small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis and contains the
urinary bladder, part of the large intestine, and the internal
reproductive organs. The abdominal and pelvic cavities are not
physically separated and sometimes are called the abdominopelvic
(ab-dom′i-nō -pel′vik) cavity.
 BODY CAVITIES

The different vital internal organs of the body are protected inside the body
by a unique cavity called BODY CAVITIES. Body cavities are enclosed spaces in
which the organs are protected, separated, and supported by associated
membranes. There are 2 major body cavities:

➢ The posterior (dorsal)cavity includes the cranial and vertebral cavities

which encloses the brain and spinal cord

➢ The anterior (ventral) cavity is made up of thoracic, abdominal and pelvic

cavities and encloses body organs like the heart, lungs, stomach, intestines,
bladder, and kidneys
Body cavities function to separate organs and systems by function. Visceral organs,
or viscera, are those that are located within the anterior body cavity.

Thoracic Cavity – contains the heart and the lungs

Pericardial cavity – contains the heart
Pleural cavity – houses the lungs
- especially designed as two separate compartments in order to
minimize trauma and the risk of disease or infection spreading from one organ to
another. Should a lung collapse because of trauma, the other will still be
functioning because of this anatomical division.

Abdominal Cavity – contains the stomach, small and large intestines, spleen, liver
and gallbladder

Pelvic Cavity – houses the bladder and organs of the reproductive system
Cranial Cavity – also known as the cranium, houses the brain

Spinal Cavity – contains the spinal cord

Mediastinum – the area between the two lungs

 BODY
CAVITIES BODY CAVITIES
(closed) (closed)

DORSAL
DORSAL and
VENTRAL
 BODY
CAVITIES
(closed)

DORSAL
 BODY
CAVITIES
(closed)

VENTRAL
DORSAL BODY CAVITY VENTRAL BODY CAVITY

• The cranial cavity is the space • The thoracic cavity is separated from
inside the bony skull the rest of ventral cavity by a domed-shape
• The spinal cavity extends from muscle, the DIAPHRAGM. A central region
cranial cavity nearly to the end of called MEDIASTINUM separates the lungs
vertebral column into right and left cavities.
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
OPEN BODY CAVITIES
❑ Abdominal cavity containing the
stomach, liver, intestines and other ❑ Oral and Digestive Cavities.
organs Commonly called the mouth,
❑ Pelvic cavity containing the contains teeth and tongue
reproductive organs, bladder and
rectum
 NASAL CAVITY ORBITAL CAVITIES

Located within and posterior to the The orbital cavities (orbits) in the
nose, the nasal cavity is part of the skull house the eyes and present
respiratory system them in an anterior position.
 MIDDLE EAR CAVITIES

The middle ear cavities carved

into the skull lie just medial to
the eardrums. These cavities
contain bone that transmit
sound vibrations to the hearing
receptors in the inner ears
 The abdomen is often subdivided superficially into four sections, or quadrants,
by two imaginary lines—one horizontal and one vertical—that intersect at the
navel (figure 1.10a). The quadrants formed are the right-upper, left-upper,
right-lower, and left-lower quadrants. In addition to these quadrants, the
abdomen is sometimes subdivided into regions by four imaginary lines—two
horizontal and two vertical. These four lines create an imaginary tic-tac-toe
figure on the abdomen, resulting in nine regions: epigastric (ep-i-gas′trik), right
and left hypochondriac(hı̄-pō-kon′drē-ak), umbilical (ŭm-bil′i-kăl), right and left
lumbar (lŭm′bar), hypogastric (hı̄-pō-gas′trik), and right and left iliac (il′ē-ak)
Clinicians use the quadrants or regions as reference points for locating the
underlying organs. For example, the appendix is in the right-lower quadrant,
and the pain of an acute appendicitis is usually felt there.
Regions and Quadrant : ABDOMINOPELVIC
The four resulting quadrants are named according to their positions from the subject’s point of
view: the right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ),
and left lower quadrant (LLQ).
1. The umbilical region is the centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus (navel).
2. The epigastric region is located superior to the umbilical region (epi upon, above; gastri
belly).
3. The hypogastric (pubic) region is located inferior to the umbilical region (hypo below).
4. The right and left iliac, or inguinal, regions are located lateral to the hypogastric region (iliac
superior part of the hip bone).
5. The right and left lumbar regions lie lateral to the umbilical region (lumbus loin).
6. The right and left hypochondriac regions lie lateral to the epigastric region and deep to the
ribs (chondro cartilage).
Covering the vital organs inside the body are thin sheets of tissue
called body membranes. Body membranes are composed of thin
layers of connective and epithelial tissue that serve to protect,
cover, lubricate, separate, and/or support visceral organs or to line
the different body cavities. There are two major types of body
membranes :
❑ Serous
❑ Mucous
 MUCOUS MEMBRANES
(MUCOSA)

Secretes a thick and viscous fluid

known as “mucus” to lubricate
and protect the body organs
where it secreted. The inside wall
of the organs are lined with
mucous membranes. Lines all
body cavities that are open to
exterior. The function is
considered the first line of
defense in areas such as the nasal,
oral and uterine cavities.
Examples:

➢Lining of the nasal cavity and the trachea – traps airborne

particles
➢Mucous membranes of the oral cavity – prevents drying
➢Lining of the stomach – protects against digestive enzymes and
hydrochloric acid
➢Mucous membrane in the uterus – protects it from the entry of
infectious pathogens
SEROUS MEMBRANES

Serous (s̄er′̆us) membranes line the trunk cavities and cover the organs of
these cavities. To understand the relationship between serous membranes
and an organ, imagine pushing your fist into an inflated balloon. The inner
balloon wall in contact with your fist (organ) represents the visceral (vis′er-̆a l;
organ) serous membrane, and the outer part of the balloon wall represents
the parietal (p̆a -r ′ĕ - tă l; wall)serous membrane. The cavity, or space,
between the visceral and parietal serous membranes is normally filled with a
thin, lubricating film of serous fluid produced by the mem-branes. As an
organ rubs against another organ or against the body wall, the serous fluid
and smooth serous membranes reduce friction.
SEROUS MEMBRANES

Line the thoracic and abdominopelvic

cavities and function as a cover for
visceral organs. These membranes
are made up of thin sheets of
epithelial tissue which lubricates,
supports, and compartmentalizes
visceral organs. These membranes
secrete what is termed as serous
fluid.
Serous membranes have
two sides:

• Visceral serous
membrane – touching or
facing the visceral organ
• Parietal serous
membrane – touches or is
facing the body cavity
The thoracic cavity contains three
serous membrane-lined cavities: a
pericardial cavity and two pleural
cavities. The peri-cardial (per-i-kar′dē-ăl;
around the heart) cavity surrounds
theheart (figure 1.15a). The visceral
pericardium covers the heart, which is
contained within a connective tissue sac
lined with the parietal pericardium. The
pericardial cavity, which contains peri-
cardial fluid, is located between the
visceral pericardium and the parietal
pericardium.
A pleural (ploor′̆a l; associated with the ribs) cavity surrounds each lung, which is covered by
visceral pleura (figure 1.15b). Parietal pleura lines the inner surface of the thoracic wall, the
lateral surfaces of the mediastinum, and the superior surface of the diaphragm. The pleural
cavity is located between the visceral pleura and the parietal pleura and contains pleural
fluid.

The abdominopelvic cavity contains a serous membrane-lined cavity called the

peritoneal (per′i-t̄o -n̄e ′̆a l; to stretch over) cavity (figure 1.15c). Visceral peritoneum covers
many of the organs of the abdominopelvic cavity. Parietal peritoneum lines the wall of the
abdominopelvic cavity and the inferior surface of the diaphragm. The peritoneal cavity is
located between the visceral peritoneum and the parietal peritoneum and contains
peritoneal fluid.

The serous membranes can become inflamed—usually as a result of an infection.

Pericarditis (per′i-kar-d̄ı ′tis) is inflammation of the pericardium, pleurisy (ploor′i-s̄e ) is
inflammation of the pleu-ra, and peritonitis (per′i-t̄o -n̄ı ′tis) is inflammation of the
peritoneum.
Mesenteries (mes′en-ter-ēz), which consist of two layers of peritoneum fused
together , connect the visceral peritoneum of some abdominopelvic organs to
the parietal peri-toneum on the body wall or to the visceral peritoneum of other
abdominopelvic organs. The mesenteries anchor the organs to the body wall
and provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the organs.
Otherabdominopelvic organs are more closely attached to the body wall and do
not have mesenteries. Parietal peritoneum covers these other organs, which are
said to be retroperitoneal (re′trō-per′i-tō-nē′ăl;retro,behind). The retroperi-
toneal organs include the kidneys, the adrenal glands, the pancreas, parts of the
intestines, and the urinary bladder .
In the thoracic cavity , there are 2 important
vital organs : the heart and the lungs. The lungs
are covered by the pleural serous membrane
while the heart is covered with the pericardial
serous membrane.

Visceral pleura – adheres to the outer surface of

the lungs
Parietal pleura – lines the thoracic walls and the
surface of the diaphragm
Visceral pericardium – covers the outer surface
of the human heart
Parietal pericardium – functions as a strong
covering surrounding the whole heart
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VH_Yx37Rq5Q

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dva-f_btvlk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0EjklfLrEW8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pQUMJ6Gh9Bw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZRFykdf4kDc
END OF MODULE 1