UNIT V – PROTECTION METHODS - CORROSION

1 Metallic Coating, Plating, Anodising

2 Cathodic Protection, Inhibitors

3 PVD, CVD
 SURFACE COATING
The metal surface is covered with a coating to protect it from corrosion.

Metallic

Organic

Inorganic
 METALLIC COATING
1.Electroplating: Electroplating is a widely used method for applying a thin layer of metal,
such as nickel, chrome, or copper, onto the surface of a substrate. It involves immersing the
substrate and a metal anode in an electrolyte bath and applying an electric current.
Electroplating is often used to provide decorative finishes, improve corrosion resistance, and
increase wear resistance.
2.Galvanizing: Galvanizing is a process in which a layer of zinc is applied to the surface of steel
or iron to protect it from corrosion. It is commonly used for outdoor structures, such as
fences, bridges, and car bodies.
3.Hot-Dip Coating: Hot-dip coating is a process where a substrate is immersed in a bath of
molten metal, such as zinc, aluminum, or tin. The molten metal adheres to the substrate's
surface, providing a durable and corrosion-resistant coating. This method is often used for
structural steel components, pipes, and sheet metal.
4.Metal Spraying (Thermal Spray): Metal spraying involves melting or heating a metal
material and spraying it onto the substrate's surface. This method is used to provide wear
and corrosion resistance, as well as for restoring the dimensions of worn-out parts.
 METALLIC COATING
5.PVD (Physical Vapor Deposition) and CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition): PVD and CVD are
vacuum-based processes that deposit thin films of various metals and alloys onto substrates.
These methods are commonly used for applications like decorative coatings, wear-resistant
coatings, and electronics manufacturing.
6.Anodizing: Anodizing is an electrolytic process that creates an oxide layer on the surface of
metals, typically aluminum. This oxide layer enhances the material's corrosion resistance and
can also provide decorative options.
7.Electroless Plating: Electroless plating is a chemical deposition process that does not
require an external electric current. It is often used to coat non-conductive materials and
provides uniform, corrosion-resistant coatings.
 Methods of applications of metal coatings
➢ Hot dipping: This technique is most widely used to control corrosion. Hot dipping is used
for producing a coating for low melting metals such as Zn, Sn, pb ,Al.
➢ Iron, steel, copper which are having high melting point usually underwent into corrosion
due to their oxidizing property.
➢ The process in general consisting of immersed a metal in a bath of its molten coating&
covered by a molten layer.
➢ The flux cleans the base metal& prevent oxidation of metal coating with molten solution.
➢ Hot dipping is widely applied either by
➢ (1) GALVANIZING (2)TINNING
 Hot Dipping

It is used for producing a coating of low melting metal such as Zn, Sn, Al etc
on relatively higher melting metals such as iron, steel, copper etc. This is done by
immersing the base metal covered by a layer of molten flux. The flux is used to
keep the base metal surface clean and also to prevent oxidation of the molten
metal. Most widely used hot dipping methods are :

(i) Galvanization
(ii) Tinning
 Galvanizing
➢The sheet is subjected to annealing process at 650c and cooled slowly.

Uses of Galvanization: It is used to protect Iron used for roofing sheets, wires, pipes,
nails, bolts, screws, buckets, and tubes.
Defects :Galvanized utensils are not used for cooking because of solubility of Zn.
 Galvanizing

➢It is the process in which iron or steel is protected from corrosion by coating with a thin layer
of zinc.
➢ Iron or steel is first cleaned by pickling with dil. H2SO4 solution for 15-20 mts at 600-900c.
The steel is then washed well and dried .
➢ Then the metal sheet is dipped in bath of molten Zinc maintained at 4250-4300c.
The surface of bath is kept covered with a Zncl2 flux to prevent oxide formation.
➢ Then the metal sheet is passed through a pair of hot rollers which removes excess of Zinc
and maintain uniform thickness of Zinc on metal sheet.
Galvanizing

Hot Dip Galvanizing

 TINNING
➢Tinning is the process of coating of tin over the Iron sheet or steel articles
➢ A cleaned iron sheet is passed through a bath of molten flux, then passes through a tank of
molten tin and finally through a layer of palm oil which protect hot tin coated surface against
oxidation.
➢ Uses: (1)It is widely used for coating of steel, copper, brass & bronze etc . It is used to store
food stuff, ghee oils, kerosene& pickels and used for refrigerators equipment.
 Organic Coatings
Organic coatings protect the surface as they act as physical barriers between the metal to be
protected and the corroding environment and are decorative. Polymers and resins (natural or
synthetic) usually formulated to be applied as liquids that dry or harden as thin surface films on
substrate materials.
Organic coatings are composed of carbon-based compounds, often polymers or resins, that can
be either natural or synthetic. These coatings contain organic molecules, which typically
consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and occasionally other elements.
Advantages:
1. Wide variety of colors and textures available
2. Capacity to protect the substrate surface
3. Low cost
4. Ease with which they can be applied
Properties: Organic coatings are known for their flexibility, durability, and ability to provide
various aesthetic and protective properties. They can be tailored to meet specific requirements,
such as corrosion resistance, adhesion, chemical resistance, and appearance.
 Ingredients in Organic Coatings

1. Binders - give the coating its properties

2. Dyes or pigments - provide color to the coating
3. Solvents - dissolve the polymers and resins and add proper fluidity to the
liquid
4. Additives
 PAINTS

• Paints form a protective layer over the surface of the metal to prevent corrosion.
The main constituents of the paints are
❖ Pigment
❖ Vehicle
❖ Thinner
❖ Driers
❖ Fillers
❖ Plasticizers
❖ Anti skinning agents
 Pigment

➢It is a solid constituent that obscures the surface and provides a decorative color.
➢A liquid binds the pigment to the surface and protects it from decay.
➢It usually comprises of 60 to 80% of the weight of the paint film.
➢Increases the life of paint film since it prevents the entry of ultra violet rays.
➢ E.g.; lead oxide, red lead, lead chromate etc.,
 Vehicle

➢Film forming constituent of the paint.

➢They hold the pigment on the metal surface.
➢They give metal adhesion to the metal surface.
➢They impart durability and toughness to the film.

➢They isomerize , polymerize and condense to form characteristic tough, elastic ,coherent,
highly cross linked structured macromolecular film.

➢ E.g.: mustard and sunflower oil etc.,

 Thinners

❑Viscosity is reduced by the addition of thinners.

❑It is a volatile solvent helps to adjust the consistency of the paint.
❑Thinner being volatile evaporates.
❑They remain permanently in paints and varnishes.
❑They improve elasticity of the film.
❑They suspend the pigments in the paints.
E.g. Turpentine, mineral spirits, xylol, kerosene.
 Fillers

❑ They are inert materials.

❑ They are used to improve the properties of the paints.
❑ They reduce the cost of paints.
❑ They serve to fill the voids in the film.
❑ Increases the random arrangement of pigment particles.
❑ Improves the durability of the film.
❑ E.g.: talc, chalk, silica etc.,
 Driers

 Drying of the oil film is accelerated or catalyzed by driers.

 To reduce the drying time a drier is added.

 They are oxygen carrier catalyst.

 To improve the drying quality of oil film.

 This is done by condensation , oxidation and polymerization.

E.g. linoleates , borates, resinates etc.,
 Plasticizers & Anti skinning agents

 Plasticizer acts as an internal lubricant for increasing the

toughness and flexibility

 They remain permanently in paints and varnishes.

 They improve elasticity of the film.

 To prevent cracking of the film.

 Anti skinning agents prevent the gelling and skinning

of the paint film.

E.g.: Tricresyl phosphate, Tri phenyl phosphate

 Inorganic Coatings
Inorganic Coatings:
•Composition: Inorganic coatings consist of non-carbon-based compounds and materials.
These coatings are often based on elements and compounds such as metals, ceramics,
oxides, and minerals.
•Properties: Inorganic coatings are typically known for their hardness, resistance to high
temperatures, and excellent barrier properties. They are often used for applications where
durability and resistance to extreme conditions are essential.
•Applications: Inorganic coatings find use in a variety of applications, including:
• Metal coating: Commonly used to provide corrosion resistance and decorative finishes
to metals.
• Ceramic Coatings: Applied to various substrates for high-temperature resistance and
thermal insulation.
• Oxide Coatings: Used to provide protective layers on materials like glass (e.g., anti-
reflective coatings) and metals (e.g., anodizing on aluminum).
• High-Temperature Coatings: Used in aerospace, gas turbines, and other applications
that require materials to withstand extreme heat and environmental conditions.
 Inorganic Coatings
1.Metal Coatings:
1. Metallic Coatings (e.g., zinc, aluminum, tin, and chromium): Used for corrosion protection and decorative
purposes, as in galvanizing for steel, chrome plating for automotive parts, and anodizing for aluminum.
2.Ceramic Coatings:
1. Thermal Barrier Coatings (TBCs): Applied to gas turbine components to protect against high temperatures and
thermal stress.
2. Wear-Resistant Coatings: Used on cutting tools, bearings, and other components to enhance wear resistance.
3. Electroceramic Coatings (e.g., piezoelectric and ferroelectric coatings): Utilized in electronic and sensor
applications.
3.Oxide Coatings:
1. Antireflective Coatings: Applied to optical lenses and displays to minimize glare and reflections.
2. Passivation Coatings (e.g., aluminum oxide): Used to protect metal surfaces from corrosion.
3. Electrolytic Oxide Coatings (e.g., anodizing): Enhances the corrosion resistance and appearance of aluminum.
4.Nitride Coatings:
1. Hard Nitride Coatings (e.g., titanium nitride, boron nitride): Used on cutting tools, molds, and industrial
components to improve wear resistance and hardness.
2. Thermal Barrier Nitride Coatings: Applied to components in high-temperature environments for protection
against oxidation and wear.
5.Phosphate Coatings:
1. Phosphate Conversion Coatings: Used on metals to improve corrosion resistance, promote paint adhesion, and
reduce friction, often seen in the automotive industry.
 Inorganic Coatings

6.Glass Coatings:
1. Anti-scratch Coatings: Applied to eyeglasses and optical lenses for protection against
abrasion.
2. Low-E (Low Emissivity) Coatings: Used on windows and architectural glass to reduce heat
transfer and improve energy efficiency.
7.Sol-Gel Coatings:
1. Hybrid Organic-Inorganic Coatings: Combining organic and inorganic elements for
applications such as corrosion protection and UV resistance.
8.Carbon Coatings:
1. Diamond-Like Carbon (DLC) Coatings: Provide low friction, high hardness, and wear
resistance, used in automotive and industrial applications.
9.Phosphor Coatings:
1. Phosphorescent or Glow-in-the-Dark Coatings: Utilized for safety signs, watch dials, and
decorative items.
 ELECTROPLATING (Electrode Deposition)
➢Deposition of coating metal on the base metal by passing direct current through an
electrolytic solution which contain the soluble salts of the coating material.
➢Base metal is made as cathode and coating metal as anode.
➢Electrochemically coat metal is deposited on base metal.
➢This metal gives smooth, fine and uniform coating.
➢It depends on
(i) Temperature
(ii) Current density
(iii) Electrolyte Concentration
(iv) Nature of base metal
(v) Time
 Electroplating
• It is probably the most important and most frequently applied industrial method of producing
metallic coatings. Electroplating is carried out by a process called electrolysis. Thus in this process,
the coating metal is deposited on the base metal by passing direct current through an
electrolyte containing the soluble salt of the coating metal. The base metal to be electroplated is
made the cathode of the electrolytic cell whereas the anode is either made of the coating metal itself
or an inert material of good electrical conductivity like graphic.
• For electroplating of Ni, NiSO4 (Nickel sulfide) and NiCl2 are used as the electrolyte. For
electroplating of Cr, chromic acid is used as the electrolyte. For Au plating, AuCl3 solution is taken
as the electrolyte. For Cu plating CuSO4 solution is used as the electrolyte. In silver plating, AgNO3
(silver nitrate) solution is used as the electrolyte.
Applications:
➢It is most important & frequently used technique in industries to produce metallic coating
➢Both metals & non metals can be electroplated.
➢In metals the electroplating increases resistance to corrosion, chemical attack, hardness, wear
resistance and surface properties.
➢In non metals electroplating increases strength and decorates the surface of non metal like plastics,
wood, glass.
 Electroplating
Electroplating is a process used to deposit a layer of metal onto the surface of a substrate, typically another metal or a
conductive material. It is widely used for decorative, protective, and functional purposes. The process relies on the
principles of electrochemistry and involves the use of an electrolyte, an electrical power source, and two electrodes, one of
which is the substrate to be plated. Here is a simplified explanation of the working principle of electroplating:
1.Components of Electroplating:
1. Cathode: The substrate to be plated (often referred to as the cathode), which is typically made of the material to be
plated.
2. Anode: A piece of the plating metal (anode), which is made of the metal that will be deposited onto the cathode.
3. Electrolyte: A solution containing ions of the metal to be plated. The electrolyte must be conductive and contain
metal ions.
2.Electrolyte Preparation:
1. The electrolyte solution is prepared with the metal salt of the plating material dissolved in a suitable solvent. For
example, in gold plating, gold chloride or gold cyanide solutions are used.
3.Electroplating Process:
1. The cathode (substrate to be plated) and the anode (plating metal) are placed in the electrolyte solution but not in
direct contact with each other.
2. A power source, usually a direct current (DC) power supply, is connected to the cathode and anode. The cathode is
connected to the negative terminal (cathode) of the power supply, and the anode is connected to the positive
terminal (anode).
3. When the power supply is turned on, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through the external circuit.
This flow of electrons is responsible for the electroplating process.
 Electroplating
4.Metal Ion Reduction:
1. At the cathode (the substrate to be plated), electrons are supplied by the power source. The metal ions in
the electrolyte solution near the cathode gain these electrons and are reduced to form metal atoms.
5.Metal Deposition:
1. The metal atoms that are formed at the cathode surface then bond to the substrate, creating a metal
layer. This process continues until the desired thickness of the plated layer is achieved.
6.Oxidation at the Anode:
1. At the anode (the piece of plating metal), metal atoms are oxidized, releasing metal ions into the
electrolyte to replenish those consumed during the reduction at the cathode.
7.Final Product:
1. After the electroplating process is completed, the substrate is removed, cleaned, and may undergo
further finishing processes (such as polishing) to achieve the desired appearance and quality.

The quality and thickness of the plated layer depend on factors such as the current density, plating time,
temperature, and the composition of the electrolyte solution. Electroplating is used for a wide range of
applications, including creating decorative finishes on jewelry and hardware, providing corrosion resistance to
automotive components, and enhancing the electrical conductivity of electrical connectors, among many others.
 Electroless Ni plating
Electroless plating, also known as autocatalytic plating, is a process used to deposit a metal or metal alloy
coating onto a substrate without the need for an external electrical power source, as is the case with
traditional electroplating. Instead, electroless plating relies on chemical reactions to deposit the metal layer.
1.Substrate Preparation:
1. The substrate to be plated is thoroughly cleaned and prepared to remove any contaminants, oxides, or
foreign materials from its surface. This step is critical to ensure proper adhesion of the electroless
plating layer.
2.Activation of the Substrate:
1. To initiate the plating process, the substrate's surface is activated. This activation is typically achieved
through one of several methods, such as a sensitization step using a noble metal catalyst (e.g.,
palladium) or a direct chemical reduction process.
3.Immersion in Plating Solution:
1. The activated substrate is immersed in an electroless plating bath or solution. This solution contains
the metal ions (e.g., nickel or copper) that will be deposited onto the substrate. Importantly, the
solution also contains a reducing agent.
4.Chemical Reduction:
1. In the plating solution, the reducing agent (sodium sulfite, lithium, Al) reacts with the metal ions to
reduce them, forming metal atoms. This reduction process is catalyzed by the activated substrate's
surface.
 Electroless Ni plating
5.Metal Deposition:
1. As metal atoms are formed through the reduction process, they bond to the substrate surface,
creating a thin, even, and uniform metal layer. This layer continues to grow until the desired
thickness is achieved.
6.Controlled Reaction:
1. The chemical reaction is controlled by factors such as temperature, pH, and the concentration of
the metal ions and reducing agents in the plating solution. These parameters are carefully adjusted
to ensure the plating process is consistent and uniform.
7.Post-Plating Treatment:
1. After the desired plating thickness is achieved, the substrate is removed from the plating solution
and rinsed to remove any residual chemicals. Depending on the application, additional post-plating
steps, such as heating (baking) or surface treatments, may be required to enhance the properties of
the plated layer.

Electroless plating offers several advantages, such as the ability to coat complex and irregularly shaped
objects evenly and the elimination of the need for an external power source. It is commonly used in
applications where uniform, corrosion-resistant, and wear-resistant coatings are required. Industries that
employ electroless plating include electronics manufacturing, automotive, aerospace, and more.
Electroless Ni plating
 Electroless Ni plating

• Metallic plating process driven entirely by chemical reactions - no electric current is

supplied
• Deposition onto a part surface occurs in an aqueous solution containing ions of the desired
plating metal
• Work part surface acts as a catalyst for the reaction in the presence of reducing agent
• Metals that can be plated: nickel, copper, and gold
• Notable application: copper for plating through-holes of printed circuit boards

Pre treatment of surface (Electroless Ni Plating):

(1) CO, Ni, steel and Al can be directly plated.
(2)Pb(lead), Cd(Cadmium) and Sn are first electroplated with Ni prior to electroless plating.
(3)Non conductors are activated in Sncl2(Tin chloride) & HCl followed by dipping in
Pdcl2(palladium chloride), Hcl.on drying thin pd layer is formed.
Electro Plating vs Electroless plating
Electro Plating vs Electroless plating
 Anodising
Anodizing is the process of formation of thin and compact layer of metal oxide over base metal
through electrolysis. Anodizing usually carried out on non-ferrous metals like Al, Cr, Ni, etc or their
alloys by anodic oxidation process in which base metal is made as anode, in an electrolytic bath of
suitable composition and by passing direct current.
For example : Anodizing of aluminum: When an aluminum is undergoing chemical or electrochemical
reaction, alumina (Al2O3) is formed on the surface of aluminum by using oxidizing electrolyte like
H2SO4, Chromic acid, Oxalic acid etc., about 350C under moderate current density.

Electrolytic bath contains the following chemicals:

Over all reaction:
Anode reaction : 2Al+3H2O → Al2O3 +3H2
Cathode reaction : 6H+ + 6e- 3H2
 Anodising
Al2O3 formed will be porous in nature, the pores are sealed by dipping in hot water. During the sealing
processes Al2O3 absorbs moisture to form Al2O3 .H2O. These oxide films are protective, corrosion
resistant and electrically insulating in nature.

Advantages:
Anodized coatings are somewhat thicker than the natural oxide films, so they possess improved
resistance to corrosion as well as mechanical injury.
1. They are used for decorative purpose (as coloring agents)
2. It is also used in satellite applications for their protection in space environment.
 CATHODIC PROTECTION

➢Protection of a metal structure from corrosion under water by making it act as an electrical
cathode.

➢The method of protecting metals and alloys from corrosion making them completely
cathode.

➢Force the metal to be protected to behave like cathode.

➢Cathodic protection is of two types

i) Sacrificial anodic method

ii) Impressed current cathodic method

 CATHODIC PROTECTION
Cathodic protection is a corrosion control technique used to prevent or mitigate the corrosion
of metal structures, such as pipelines, storage tanks, and offshore platforms. It works by
making the metal structure the cathode of an electrochemical cell, which reduces the
corrosion rate and extends the structure's service life. There are two primary methods of
cathodic protection: galvanic (sacrificial anode) and impressed current systems.

1.Galvanic (Sacrificial Anode) Cathodic Protection:

1. In this method, a more active metal (usually zinc or aluminum) is attached to the
structure to be protected. The sacrificial anode corrodes preferentially in place of the
protected structure.
2. The galvanic anode and the structure are electrically connected, creating a galvanic cell.
The structure becomes the cathode, and the anode corrodes sacrificially.
3. This method is commonly used for smaller or less complex structures, such as
underground pipelines and boat hulls. It is relatively simple to install and requires
minimal maintenance, making it cost-effective.
 CATHODIC PROTECTION
(i) Sacrificial anodic protection:
➢ Metal to be protected from corrosion connected to more anodic metal
➢ Commonly used metals Mg, Zn, Al and their alloys

Eg. A ship-hull which is made up of steel is connected to sacrificial anode (Zn-blocks) which
undergoes corrosion leaving the base metal protected.

Eg. The underground water pipelines and water tanks are also protected by sacrificial anode
method. By referring to the electrochemical series, the metal with low reduction potential is
connected to the base metal which acts as anode.
1. Sacrificial anodic protection
 1. Sacrificial Anodic Protection
In this method, the metallic structure
which is to be protected from corrosion is
connected to a more anodic metal by a
wire so that the entire corrosion is
concentrated on this more active metal.
The more active metal loses and get
corroded and this metal is called
sacrificial anode. Metals commonly
employed as sacrificial anode are Mg, Zn,
Al and their alloys.
Application:
Important applications of sacrificial anodic
method include protection of buried pipe
lines, underground cables, marine
structures etc.
 CATHODIC PROTECTION
2. Impressed Current Cathodic Protection:
1. In impressed current cathodic protection, an external power source, typically a rectifier, is used
to force a controlled direct current (DC) into the structure to be protected.
2. In this system, inert or non-consumable anodes, such as graphite or platinum-coated titanium,
are installed in the surrounding soil, water, or electrolyte near the structure.
3. The DC current is controlled to polarize the structure's surface and make it the cathode, which
inhibits the corrosion process.
4. This method is suitable for large and complex structures, such as underground storage tanks,
bridges, and ship hulls. It provides better control and can be adjusted to meet specific corrosion
prevention requirements.

The principle behind cathodic protection is based on the electrochemical reaction that occurs at the
metal's surface:
•At the anode (the active metal or inert anode), corrosion occurs, releasing electrons.
•These electrons travel through an external circuit to the cathode (the structure to be protected).
•At the cathode, the electrons are consumed in a reaction that reduces the metal ions in the
surrounding environment, preventing further corrosion.
 2. Impressed current method
➢ Direct current is applied in opposite direction to nullify the corrosion current.

➢ Converts the corroding metal from anode to cathode.

 2. Impressed current cathodic protection

In this method, an impressed current is applied

in the opposite direction to nullify corrosion
current so as to convert the corroding metal
from anode to cathode. Impressed current can
be derived from a direct current source like
battery. An inert or insoluble electrode like
graphite or silica act as anode to complete the
circuit. The surroundings of anode should be
filled with salts and carbon to increased the
conductivity.
Application:
This type of cathodic protection has been
applied to water coolers, water tanks, buried oil
and water pipes, transmission towers etc.
Impressed current method
Inhibitors
• Inhibitors is a substance which effectively decreases the corrosion rate of a metal when
added in small amount to the corrosive environment.
• Chemicals which are added in small quantities to the corroding medium in order to reduce
the corrosion rate are called corrosion inhibitors. They reduce corrosion by forming a
protective film either at the cathode or anode.
• These substances control the anodic or cathodic reactions reducing the corrosion of metals.
1. Anodic Inhibitors
2. Cathodic Inhibitors
Inhibitors
Corrosion inhibitors are chemical compounds or substances that are used to reduce or prevent the
corrosion of metals and alloys. They work by interacting with the metal surface or the surrounding
environment to inhibit or slow down the electrochemical processes that lead to corrosion. Corrosion
inhibitors are widely employed in various industries, including manufacturing, oil and gas, marine,
automotive, and construction, to protect metal structures and equipment from deterioration. There
are different types of corrosion inhibitors, including:
1.Passive Inhibitors: These inhibitors form a protective layer on the metal surface, which acts as a
barrier between the metal and the corrosive environment. Common examples include:
1. Chromates: Used for protection against corrosion of aluminum and zinc.
2. Phosphates: Often used to inhibit corrosion in water systems and steam boilers.
2.Anodic Inhibitors: Anodic inhibitors work by reducing the rate of the anodic corrosion reaction.
Common examples include:
1. Molybdate: Used to inhibit corrosion in cooling water systems, particularly for carbon steel.
3.Cathodic Inhibitors: Cathodic inhibitors decrease the rate of the cathodic reaction, making it more
difficult for the metal to undergo corrosion. Examples include:
1. Zinc and Aluminum Particles: Used as sacrificial anodes to protect steel structures.
2. Amines and Amine Compounds: Commonly employed in the oil and gas industry to protect
pipelines.
 1. Anodic Inhibitors
• Anodic inhibitors when added to the electrolyte combine with the newly form metal ions at
the anode & form a precipitate.
• This precipitate deposit on the anode surface forming a protective layer which stops or reduce
the corrosion
• Thus the local anode areas get polarized i.e. increase In potential occurs at these areas.
• Anodic inhibitors work effectively when they are added in sufficient amount.
• Chromates (CrO42-), phosphate (PO43-) and Tungstate's (WO4 2-) of transition metals are
used as anodic inhibitors. They react with the newly produced metal ions at the anode
forming a protective film or barrier there by preventing further corrosion.
 2. Cathodic Inhibitors
• Cathodic inhibitors reduce the corrosion by stopping the cathodic reaction
• In such case, corrosion can be reduced by reducing the diffusion of hydrogen ion to the cathode or
by increasing the over potential of hydrogen.
• The diffusion of hydrogen ion is reduced by using certain organic compounds.
• The rates of the cathodic reactions can be reduced by the use of cathodic poisons. However,
cathodic poisons can also increase the susceptibility of a metal to hydrogen induced cracking since
hydrogen can also be absorbed by the metal during aqueous corrosion or cathodic charging.
• Cathodic poisons include substances like antimony, arsenic, sulfur, tellurium, selenium and cyanide
ions, which hinder the hydrogen atoms from forming hydrogen gas.
• Cathodic reaction takes place with either evolution of H2 or absorption of O2 depending on the
nature of the corroding medium.
 Inhibitors for acidic neutral and other media
1. Inhibitors for Acidic Media:
•Organic Acids: In mild acidic environments, organic acids like acetic acid (vinegar) can act as
corrosion inhibitors for metals like aluminum and copper.
•Chromates: Chromate compounds, such as sodium chromate and potassium chromate, are
often used as corrosion inhibitors in acidic environments, particularly for aluminum and some
steel alloys. However, chromates are less favored today due to environmental concerns.
•Molybdates: Sodium molybdate is commonly used to inhibit corrosion in acidic cooling water
systems and in some industrial processes.
2. Inhibitors for Neutral Media:
•Phosphates: Phosphate compounds, such as zinc phosphate and sodium phosphate, are
effective inhibitors in neutral environments. They are used in various applications, including
water treatment and cooling systems.
•Orthophosphates: Sodium and potassium orthophosphates are often used to inhibit
corrosion in boiler water and steam systems, where the pH is typically neutral.
•Amines: In the oil and gas industry, corrosion inhibitors based on amines are used to protect
pipelines and equipment from corrosion in systems with a neutral pH.
 Inhibitors for acidic neutral and other media

3. Inhibitors for Alkaline Media:

•Silicates: Sodium and potassium silicates are used as corrosion inhibitors in alkaline
environments, such as concrete protection in construction.
•Borate Compounds: Borate compounds like sodium borate and boric acid can be effective
inhibitors in alkaline media, particularly for aluminum and steel surfaces.

4. Inhibitors for Other Media:

•Volatile Corrosion Inhibitors (VCIs): VCIs release vapor-phase inhibitors that form a
protective layer on metal surfaces. They are often used to protect metal goods during
transportation or storage in various environments.
•Organic Corrosion Inhibitors: Organic inhibitors, such as fatty acids and organic azoles, can
be versatile and are used in a wide range of media. For example, they are employed in
industrial and automotive lubricants and in cooling water systems.
 Special Surfacing Processes

• CVD and PVD processes

• Sputter coating
• Laser and ion implantation
• Arc spray
• Plasma spray
• Flame spray
• HVOF
 CVD processes
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a chemical process used to produce high quality, high
performance, solid materials. The process is often used in the semiconductor industry to produce thin
films. In typical CVD, the wafer (substrate) is exposed to one or more volatile precursors, which react
and/or decompose on the substrate surface to produce the desired deposit. Frequently, volatile by-
products are also produced, which are removed by gas flow through the reaction chamber.
 CVD processes
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) is a materials processing technique used to produce thin films,
coatings, and other materials on substrates, such as semiconductor wafers, glass, and metal
components. It is a chemical process in which thin films or layers of a material are deposited onto a
substrate by introducing reactive gases into a high-temperature reaction chamber. Here's an
overview of the CVD process:
1. Preparation and Loading:
•The substrate to be coated is carefully prepared, cleaned, and loaded into a CVD reactor chamber. The
substrate material and its surface condition are critical factors that impact the success of the
deposition process.
2. Reactor Chamber:
•The substrate is placed inside a vacuum-sealed reactor chamber, which is typically made of quartz or
other high-temperature materials capable of withstanding the conditions required for CVD.
3. Precursor Gases:
•Reactive precursor gases, which contain the elements needed to form the desired material, are
introduced into the chamber. These gases are usually in the form of metalorganic compounds,
organometallics, or other chemical compounds. For example, if you want to deposit a silicon dioxide
film, you might use silane (SiH4) and oxygen (O2) as precursor gases.
 CVD processes
4. Activation:
•The precursor gases are heated to high temperatures (often in the range of 600 to 1200 degrees Celsius) to thermally
decompose and release the constituent atoms or molecules. This activation step creates highly reactive species that
can react with the substrate's surface to form the desired material.
5. Deposition:
•The reactive species generated in the activation step are carried by a carrier gas (e.g., hydrogen or nitrogen) and
deposited onto the substrate. These species react with the substrate's surface, where chemical reactions occur to
create a solid film.
6. Film Growth:
•The film thickness grows as the reaction continues. The growth rate depends on factors like gas flow rates,
temperature, and the chemistry of the precursor gases.
7. Cooling and Solidification:
•After the desired film thickness is achieved, the substrate and the deposited film are typically cooled down to room
temperature to solidify the film.
8. Unloading and Post-Processing:
•The coated substrate is removed from the reactor chamber. Depending on the specific application, additional post-
processing steps such as annealing, polishing, or patterning may be necessary to achieve the desired film properties.
CVD is widely used in semiconductor manufacturing for depositing materials like silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, and
polysilicon. It's also employed in the production of various thin films for optical coatings, protective layers, and
advanced materials used in the aerospace, electronics, and energy industries.
 CVD processes
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is the formation of a non-volatile solid film on a substrate due to the reaction of
vapor-phase chemical reactants. CVD is an atmosphere-controlled process conducted at elevated temperatures of
around 1925°F (1051°C) in a CVD reactor.

CVD is used to create coatings for a variety of applications such as wear resistance, corrosion resistance, high
temperature protection, erosion protection and combinations thereof.

A basic CVD process consists of the following steps:

1.A mixture of reactant gases and diluent inert gases are introduced into the reaction chamber.
2.The gas moves to the substrate.
3.The reactants are adsorbed on the surface of the substrate.
4.The reactants undergo chemical reactions with the substrate to form the film.
5.The gaseous by products of the reactions are desorbed and evacuated from the reaction chamber.

This process is a very versatile one that can be used on products that may be difficult to coat with other methods.
It is commonly used to protect electronic components, such as integrated circuits, against corrosion.
 Types of CVD processes
Another way of classifying CVD reactors is by basing it on the range of their operating pressure. Atmospheric
pressure CVD (APCVD) reactors operate at atmospheric pressure, and are therefore the simplest in design. Low-
pressure CVD (LPCVD) reactors operate at medium vacuum (30-250 Pa) and higher temperature than APCVD
reactors. Plasma Enhanced CVD (PECVD) reactors also operate under low pressure, but do not depend
completely on thermal energy to accelerate the reaction processes. They also transfer energy to the reactant
gases by using an RF-induced glow discharge.

Table 1. APCVD, LPCVD, and PECVD Comparisons

CVD Process Advantages Disadvantages Applications

Simple,
Poor Step Coverage,Low-temperature
APCVD Fast Deposition,
Contamination Oxides
Low Temperature

Excellent Purity,
Excellent Uniformity, High-temperature
Good Step High Temperature, Oxides, Silicon
LPCVD
Coverage, Slow Deposition Nitride, Poly-Si, W,
Large Wafer WSi2
Capacity
Low-temperature
Low Temperature, Chemical and
Insulators over
PECVD Good Step Particle
Metals, Nitride
Coverage Contamination
Passivation
 PVD processes

Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) is a

materials processing technique used to
deposit thin films and coatings on
substrates. It differs from Chemical Vapor
Deposition (CVD), as it involves the
physical transfer of material from a
source to the substrate, typically in a
vacuum environment. PVD is widely used
in industries like semiconductor
manufacturing, automotive, aerospace,
and optics to enhance the properties of
materials and products. Here's an
overview of the PVD process:
 PVD processes
PVD stands for Physical Vapor Deposition. PVD Coating refers to a variety of thin film
deposition techniques where a solid material is vaporized in a vacuum environment
and deposited on substrates as a pure material or alloy composition coating.

As the process transfers the coating material as a single atom or on the molecular level, it
can provide extremely pure and high performance coatings which for many applications can
be preferable to other methods used. At the heart of every microchip, and semiconductor
device, durable protective film, optical lens, solar panel and many medical devices, PVD
Coatings provide crucial performance attributes for the final product. Whether the coating
needs to be extremely thin, pure, durable or clean, PVD provides the solution.

It is used in a wide variety of industries like optical applications ranging from eye glasses to
self-cleaning tinted windows, photovoltaic applications for solar energy, device applications
like computer chips, displays and communications as well as functional or decorative
finishes, from durable hard protective films to brilliant gold, platinum or chrome plating.

The two most common Physical Vapor Deposition Coating processes are Sputtering and
Thermal Evaporation. Sputtering involves the bombardment of the coating material known
as the target with a high energy electrical charge causing it to “sputter” off atoms or
molecules that are deposited on a substrate like a silicon wafer or solar panel. Thermal
Evaporation involves elevating a coating material to the boiling point in a high vacuum
environment causing a vapor stream to rise in the vacuum chamber and then condense on
the substrate.
 PVD processes
1. Preparation and Loading:
•The substrate to be coated is carefully prepared, cleaned, and loaded into a vacuum chamber. The
substrate material and its surface condition are critical factors that impact the success of the deposition
process.
2. Vacuum Chamber:
•The substrate and the PVD source material are placed in a vacuum chamber. The chamber is evacuated
to create a low-pressure environment, which is essential for preventing unwanted reactions and ensuring
a clean deposition process.
3. Selection of Deposition Source:
•PVD processes employ various sources to generate the vaporized material that will be deposited onto the
substrate. Common sources include:
• Evaporation Sources: These sources use resistive heating, electron beam bombardment, or
sputtering to heat and evaporate the material.
• Sputter Targets: In magnetron sputtering, a target made of the desired coating material is
bombarded with ions to release material that deposits on the substrate.
4. Deposition Process:
•The PVD source material is vaporized and transported to the substrate within the vacuum chamber. The
vaporized atoms or molecules travel in a straight-line path, reducing the chances of collision with gas
molecules or contaminants.
 PVD processes
5. Film Formation:
•The vaporized material condenses on the substrate's surface, forming a thin film. The growth of the film
occurs atom by atom, creating a highly uniform and dense coating.
6. Film Properties:
•The characteristics of the film, including thickness, composition, and properties like hardness or
reflectivity, depend on factors such as the deposition rate, temperature, and source material. Precise
control of these parameters is crucial in PVD processes.
7. Post-Processing:
•After the desired film thickness is achieved, the coated substrate is typically cooled to room temperature
and may undergo post-processing steps, such as polishing, annealing, or additional treatments to enhance
the coating's performance.
PVD is used to deposit a wide range of materials, including metals, alloys, ceramics, and hard coatings.
Some common applications include wear-resistant coatings for cutting tools, decorative finishes on
consumer products, anti-reflective coatings on optical lenses, and corrosion protection for automotive
components.
PVD processes are favored for their ability to produce high-quality, adherent coatings with precise control
over film thickness and composition. The selection of a specific PVD process and parameters depends on
the desired application and the material being deposited.
PVD vs CVD
 Types of PVD processes
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) encompasses various techniques for depositing thin films and coatings using physical
processes. These techniques differ in the way they generate and transport vaporized source material to the substrate. Here
are some common types of PVD processes:
1.Sputter Deposition:
1. In sputter deposition, ions are used to bombard a target material, causing atoms or molecules to be ejected from
the target and deposited onto the substrate. This method is widely used for applications such as semiconductor
manufacturing, decorative coatings, and hard coatings for cutting tools.
2. Variations of sputter deposition include:
1. DC Sputtering: Direct current (DC) is used to create an electric field that ionizes argon gas, which in turn
sputters material from the target.
2. RF Sputtering: Radio-frequency (RF) power is used to generate a plasma and sputter material from the target.
3. Magnetron Sputtering: Magnetic fields enhance the sputtering process, leading to improved film quality and
higher deposition rates.
2.Evaporation Deposition:
1. In evaporation deposition, the source material is heated to a high temperature, causing it to evaporate and
condense on the substrate. This process is used for applications like optical coatings and metal deposition.
2. Variations include:
1. Thermal Evaporation: Resistance heating, electron beam, or other methods are used to evaporate the source
material.
2. Electron Beam Evaporation: Electron beams are directed at the source material, creating a high-energy vapor
that deposits on the substrate.
 Types of PVD processes
3.Arc Vapor Deposition:
1. In arc vapor deposition, an electric arc is struck between the source material (typically
a solid cathode) and the substrate. The heat generated by the arc vaporizes the source
material, which then condenses on the substrate. This method is employed for
applications requiring dense and adherent coatings.
4.Cathodic Arc Deposition:
1. Cathodic arc deposition is a variation of arc vapor deposition that uses a cathode with
a positive bias. It produces a high-energy plasma that can vaporize and ionize the
source material, leading to hard and adherent coatings used in wear-resistant
applications.
5.Ion Plating:
1. Ion plating combines evaporation or sputter deposition with ion bombardment. During
the deposition process, ions are accelerated and directed toward the substrate to
improve adhesion and enhance coating properties.
 Sputter coating

Sputter coating, also known as physical vapor deposition (PVD), is a process used in materials science
and manufacturing to deposit a thin film of material onto a substrate. This technique is widely
employed in various industries, including electronics, optics, aerospace, and more. Sputter coating is
based on the physical phenomenon of sputtering, which involves the removal of atoms or molecules
from a target material and their deposition onto a substrate.

1.Vacuum Chamber: The process takes place inside a vacuum chamber to minimize the presence of
gas molecules that can interfere with the deposition process.
2.Target Material: A solid material, often referred to as the "target" or "cathode," is placed inside the
vacuum chamber. This target material is the source of the coating material.
3.Substrate: The material to be coated, known as the substrate, is also placed inside the chamber. This
substrate can be made of various materials, such as glass, metal, or semiconductor materials.
4.Gas (usually Argon): A low-pressure, inert gas, typically argon, is introduced into the vacuum
chamber. This gas is used as a medium to facilitate the sputtering process.
 Sputter coating

5.Gas (usually Argon): A low-pressure, inert gas, typically argon, is introduced into the vacuum
chamber. This gas is used as a medium to facilitate the sputtering process.
6.Sputtering: High-energy electrons or ions are introduced into the chamber, which collide with the
target material. This collision causes atoms or molecules from the target material to be ejected or
sputtered off the target's surface.
7.Deposition: The sputtered material atoms or molecules are then directed toward the substrate,
where they condense and form a thin film on its surface. The substrate is typically positioned so that it
is in the path of the sputtered particles.
8.Film Thickness Control: The thickness of the deposited film can be controlled by adjusting process
parameters, such as the sputtering time, gas pressure, and power applied to the target.

Sputter coating has several advantages, including precise control of film thickness, excellent adhesion,
and the ability to deposit a wide range of materials, including metals, semiconductors, and dielectrics.
It is commonly used to apply protective coatings, create reflective surfaces, and manufacture thin-film
electronic devices, among other applications.
Sputter coating
 Sputter coating
Sputtering is the thin film deposition manufacturing process at the core of today’s semiconductors, disk
drives, CDs, and optical devices industries. On an atomic level, sputtering is the process whereby atoms
are ejected from a target or source material that is to be deposited on a substrate - such as a silicon
wafer, solar panel or optical device - as a result of the bombardment of the target by high energy
particles. The sputtering process begins when a substrate to be coated is placed in a vacuum chamber
containing an inert gas - usually Argon - and a negative charge is applied to a target source material that will
be deposited onto the substrate causing the plasma to glow.

Free electrons flow from the negatively charged target source material in the plasma environment, colliding
with the outer electronic shell of the Argon gas atoms driving these electrons off due to their like charge. The
inert gas atoms become positively charged ions attracted to the negatively charged target material at a very
high velocity that “Sputters off” atomic size particles from the target source material due to the momentum of
the collisions. These particles cross the vacuum deposition chamber of the sputter coater and are deposited
as a thin film of material on the surface of the substrate to be coated.

Sputtering only takes place when the kinetic energy of the bombarding particles is extremely high, much
higher than normal thermal energies in the “Fourth state of nature” plasma environment. This can allow a
much more pure and precise thin film deposition on the atomic level than can be achieved by melting a
source material with conventional thermal energies.
 Types of Sputtering process
1.DC Sputtering: In DC (Direct Current) sputtering, a direct current is applied between the
target material and the substrate. This results in the removal of atoms from the target and
their deposition onto the substrate. DC sputtering is relatively simple and is often used for
depositing metals and conductive materials.
2.RF Sputtering: In RF (Radio Frequency) sputtering, a high-frequency alternating current is
applied to the target material. This type of sputtering is more suitable for insulating or non-
conductive materials. RF sputtering is known for its ability to deposit dielectric materials with
good uniformity.
3.Magnetron Sputtering: Magnetron sputtering is a variation of DC or RF sputtering that uses
magnetic fields to confine and increase the density of the plasma near the target surface. This
leads to higher sputtering rates and more efficient coating processes. Magnetron sputtering is
commonly used for thin-film deposition in various applications, including semiconductors and
optics.
4.Hollow Cathode Sputtering: In this process, a hollow cathode is used to generate a plasma
that sputters the target material. This technique is known for its efficiency and can be used for
depositing metals and dielectric materials.
 Types of Sputtering process
5.Reactive Sputtering: Reactive sputtering involves introducing a reactive gas,
such as nitrogen or oxygen, into the vacuum chamber along with the inert gas
(usually argon). The reactive gas combines with the sputtered metal atoms to
create compound films or oxides. This is often used for depositing materials like
oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
6.Ion Beam Sputtering (IBS): Ion beam sputtering uses an accelerated ion beam
to sputter the target material. It offers precise control over the sputtering
process and is commonly used for creating high-quality optical coatings and
multilayer structures.
7.Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD): While not strictly a sputtering process, PLD is
another technique used for thin-film deposition. In PLD, a high-energy laser
ablates the target material, creating a plasma plume that deposits material on
the substrate. It is often used for complex materials, including superconductors
and ferroelectrics.
Sputtering process parameters
 HPCVD processes
A type of vacuum deposition process where a material is vaporized in a vacuum chamber, transported atom by
atom across the chamber to the substrate, and condensed into a film at the substrate's surface. Hybrid physical-
chemical vapor deposition (HPCVD) is a thin-film deposition technique, that combines physical vapor deposition
(PVD) with chemical vapor deposition (CVD). For the instance of magnesium diboride (MgB2) thin film growth,
HPCVD process uses diborane (B2H6) as the boron precursor gas, but unlike conventional CVD, which only uses
gaseous sources, heated bulk magnesium pellets (99.95% pure) are used as the Mg source in the deposition
process. Since the process involves chemical decomposition of precursor gas and physical evaporation of metal
bulk, it is named as hybrid physical-chemical vapor deposition.
 Laser and Ion implantation
Ion implantation is a materials engineering process by which ions (Nitrogen or carbon) of a material are
accelerated in an electrical field and impacted into a solid. This process is used to change the physical,
chemical, or electrical properties of the solid. Ion implantation is used in semiconductor device fabrication and in
metal finishing, as well as various applications in materials science research.
 Laser and Ion implantation
The ions alter the elemental composition of the target (if the ions differ in composition from the target), stopping
in the target and staying there. They also cause many chemical and physical changes in the target by transferring
their energy and momentum to the electrons and atomic nuclei of the target material. This causes a structural
change, in that the crystal structure of the target can be damaged or even destroyed by the energetic collision
cascades. Because the ions have masses comparable to those of the target atoms, they knock the target atoms out
of place more than electron beams do. If the ion energy is sufficiently high (usually tens of MeV) to overcome the
coulomb barrier, there can even be a small amount of nuclear transmutation.
 Laser and Ion implantation
Laser implantation and ion implantation are two distinct techniques used in materials science and
semiconductor manufacturing to introduce specific ions into a target material. Both methods are
crucial for modifying the properties of materials, including altering their electrical, optical, and
mechanical characteristics. Below, I'll explain each technique in more detail:
1.Ion Implantation:
1. Process: Ion implantation is a well-established technique in semiconductor manufacturing and
materials science. It involves the acceleration of ions (usually from an ion source) to high
energies and then directing these ions onto the surface of a target material. These ions
penetrate the material and become embedded in its lattice structure.
2. Applications:
1.Semiconductor Manufacturing: Ion implantation is widely used in the semiconductor
industry to modify the electrical properties of silicon wafers. By introducing specific dopant
ions, it's possible to create P-N junctions, alter conductivity, and customize electronic
properties.
2.Materials Modification: Ion implantation can also be used to tailor the properties of
materials for various applications, such as improving wear resistance, corrosion resistance,
and creating superconducting materials.
 Laser and Ion implantation
2.Laser Implantation:
1. Process: Laser implantation, also known as laser-assisted ion implantation or laser-induced ionization, combines laser
ablation with ion implantation. In this process, a high-intensity laser is used to ablate the surface of the target
material. The resulting plume of ablated material contains ions and neutral atoms. These ions and atoms are
accelerated and implanted into the material.
2. Applications:
1. Semiconductor Processing: Laser implantation can be used for doping semiconductors and creating
microstructures for electronic devices. It is sometimes preferred over traditional ion implantation for certain
applications due to its localized and selective nature.
2. Surface Modification: Laser implantation can also be applied to modify the surface properties of materials, such
as improving hardness, reducing friction, or enhancing the biocompatibility of medical implants.
Key differences between the two methods include:
•Doping Depth: Ion implantation allows for precise control over ion energy, which determines the depth of ion penetration.
Laser implantation typically results in shallower doping because the ions are generated near the surface during laser
ablation.
•Selectivity: Laser implantation can be more selective, as the laser can be precisely focused on specific areas. In contrast, ion
implantation typically affects a broader area.
•Complexity: Ion implantation is a more established and widespread technique in semiconductor manufacturing. Laser
implantation is considered a more specialized and complex process.
Both techniques have their advantages and limitations, and the choice between them depends on the specific requirements
of a given application.
 Laser and Ion implantation

Ion implantation equipment typically consists of an ion source, where ions of the desired element are produced, an
accelerator, where the ions are electrostatically accelerated to a high energy, and a target chamber, where the ions
impinge on a target, which is the material to be implanted. Thus ion implantation is a special case of particle
radiation. Each ion is typically a single atom or molecule, and thus the actual amount of material implanted in the
target is the integral over time of the ion current. This amount is called the dose. The currents supplied by
implanters are typically small (microamperes), and thus the dose which can be implanted in a reasonable amount
of time is small. Therefore, ion implantation finds application in cases where the amount of chemical change
required is small.
 Laser and Ion implantation

Typical ion energies are in the range of 10 to 500 keV (1,600 to 80,000 aJ). Energies in the range 1 to 10 keV (160
to 1,600 aJ) can be used, but result in a penetration of only a few nanometers or less. Energies lower than this
result in very little damage to the target, and fall under the designation ion beam deposition. Higher energies can
also be used: accelerators capable of 5MeV (800,000 aJ) are common. However, there is often great structural
damage to the target, and because the depth distribution is broad (Bragg peak), the net composition change at any
point in the target will be small.

The energy of the ions, as well as the ion species and the composition of the target determine the depth of
penetration of the ions in the solid: A monoenergetic ion beam will generally have a broad depth distribution. The
average penetration depth is called the range of the ions. Under typical circumstances ion ranges will be between
10 nanometers and 1 micrometer. Thus, ion implantation is especially useful in cases where the chemical or
structural change is desired to be near the surface of the target. Ions gradually lose their energy as they travel
through the solid, both from occasional collisions with target atoms (which cause abrupt energy transfers) and
from a mild drag from overlap of electron orbitals, which is a continuous process. The loss of ion energy in the
target is called stopping and can be simulated with the binary collision approximation method.
 Thermal spray
Thermal spraying techniques are coating processes in which melted (or heated) materials are sprayed onto a
surface. The "feedstock" (coating precursor) is heated by electrical (plasma or arc) or chemical means
(combustion flame). Thermal spraying can provide thick coatings (approx. thickness range is 20 micrometers to
several mm, depending on the process and feedstock), over a large area at high deposition rate as compared to
other coating processes such as electroplating, physical and chemical vapor deposition.
They are fed in powder or wire form, heated to a molten or semi molten state and accelerated towards substrates
in the form of micrometer-size particles. Combustion or electrical arc discharge is usually used as the source of
energy for thermal spraying. Resulting coatings are made by the accumulation of numerous sprayed particles.
Several variations of thermal spraying are distinguished:
• Plasma spraying
• Arc spraying
• Flame spraying
• High velocity oxy-fuel coating spraying (HVOF)
 Thermal spray
1.Wire Arc Spray: In wire arc spray, an electric arc is generated between two continuously fed
wires (one being the feedstock material) to melt the wire tips. The molten material is then
atomized and propelled onto the substrate using compressed air. This process is often used for
applications like corrosion protection and the application of wear-resistant coatings.
2.Flame Spray: Flame spraying involves using a fuel gas and oxygen to create a high-temperature
flame, which melts the feedstock material (usually in the form of a powder). The molten material
is then sprayed onto the substrate. Flame spray is used for various coatings, such as metallic,
ceramic, and polymer coatings.
3.Plasma Spray: Plasma spraying utilizes a high-temperature plasma jet, often created using a gas
such as argon or hydrogen, to heat and accelerate the feedstock material. The molten or semi-
molten material is then sprayed onto the substrate, where it solidifies. Plasma spraying is widely
used for applications in aerospace, automotive, and thermal barrier coatings.
4.High-Velocity Oxy-Fuel (HVOF) Spray: HVOF spraying involves mixing fuel gas and oxygen in a
combustion chamber and then spraying the resulting high-velocity flame onto the feedstock
material (typically in the form of a powder). This process results in very high particle velocities
and dense coatings, making it suitable for applications requiring high wear resistance and
corrosion protection.
 Flame spray
Flame spraying is a thermal spray coating process that produces high quality surface coatings using
heat, from the combustion of a fuel gas with oxygen, to melt a spray coating material which is
propelled onto a substrate.
Flame spraying offers a cost effective alternative for applying metallic and ceramic coatings in a less
demanding environment. The utilization of the flame spraying surface treatment allows the spraying
of a wide variety of metallic or ceramic coatings on to a large range of component materials where
good wear resistance and excellent impact resistance are required.
 Flame spray
Benefits
There are particular reasons why flame spraying may be used:
•Component geometry or the working environment requires manual thermal spraying, offering the easiest
working conditions;
•Large & complex areas (structures);
•The required thermal spray coating performance is achieved with flame spraying; and
•Cost effective
Application & materials
Flame spraying is widely used where a cost effective thermal spray coating is desired and a lower quality can be
tolerated. The majority of components are sprayed manually.
•Corrosion protection; structures and components
•Reclamation worn shafts, particularly of bearing areas with materials such as stainless steel or bronze alloys
•The surface coatings produced are porous and lubricants can be absorbed into the coating, enhancing
performance of the bearing. Aluminium, zinc, stainless steel, bronze, low carbon steel, nickel-based materials,
molybdenum.
Process details
Flame spraying uses the heat from the combustion of a fuel gas, usually acetylene or propane with oxygen, to
melt the spray coating material. In this process a consumable, usually a powder or wire, is heated and propelled
onto a substrate to form a surface coating.
 Plasma spray
In classical (developed between 1910 and 1920) but still widely used processes such as flame spraying and wire
arc spraying, the particle velocities are generally low (< 150 m/s), and raw materials must be molten to be
deposited. Plasma spraying, developed in the 1970s, uses a high temperature plasma jet generated by arc
discharge with typical temperatures >15000 K, which makes it possible to spray refractory materials such as
oxides, molybdenum, etc.
 Plasma spray
Plasma spray
• Plasma spray is a thermal spray coating process used to produce a high quality coating by a
combination of high temperature, high energy heat source, a relatively inert spraying medium,
usually argon, and high particle velocities.
• Plasma is the term used to describe gas which has been raised to such a high temperature that it
ionizes and becomes electrically conductive.
• The utilization of plasma spray coating technology allows the spraying of almost any metallic or
ceramic on to a large range of materials with exceptional bond strength, while minimizing distortion
of the substrate.
Benefits
The great advantage of the plasma spray coating technique is its ability to spray a wide range of
materials, from metals to refractory ceramics, on both small and large components offering:
•Corrosion protection
•Wear resistance
•Clearance control – abrasives and abradable
•Heat and oxidation resistance
•Temperature management
•Electrical resistivity and conductivity
 Plasma spray
Application & materials
Due to its versatility and excellent characteristics the plasma spray coating process is selected by many
technologists as a process which offers the widest choice of coating materials.
•Fretting wear, spraying of tungsten carbide/cobalt seal ring grooves – gas turbines;
•High temperature protection, thermal barrier coatings - Gas turbine combustion hardware;
•Wear resistance, spraying of chrome oxide ceramic onto printing rolls for laser engraving;
•Anti-galling, spraying of molybdenum alloys onto industrial diesel engine piston rings; and
•Erosion/abrasion resistance, corrosion protection – down hole tool – oil and gas product.
Carbides, metallics, ceramics.
Process details
A plasma spray coating offers solutions to many different applications in low and high temperature
environments.
 Arc spray
Arc spray uses metal wires as the coating material. An electric arc provides the heat source, one
positive and one negative wire. The opposite charged wires short circuit, forming a plasma temperature
of 4,000°C. The wire melts, and once molten, compressed air to atomize and accelerate the feed
metal towards the substrate.

Arc spray can also spray two different wires simultaneously, often a bronze and a steel wire are used
for coating cylinder heads and engine block. Cored wires containing tungsten carbides and special
alloys can be sprayed as well. Arc spray systems for aluminium and zinc have extremely high spray
rates, and can coat large areas quickly.
 Arc spray
Arc Spray is the most productive and economical of all thermal spray coating systems. Arc Spray uses
DC power to energize two conductive wires: one positive and the other negative. These
energized wires are then fed through a feeder into a gun head.
It is at the gun head that the wires meet and arc against each other, thus creating molten material.
We then introduce ordinary dry compressed air to the arc zone, atomizing the molten material into tiny
droplets while also propelling then toward the prepared part. As the droplets hit the work piece or part,
they flatten out and make splats. The splats interlock one on top another to create an extremely strong
mechanical bond.
Typical Arc Spray coatings
•Stainless steel especially AISI 420 type
•Nickel alloys
•Copper alloys
•Aluminium, Zinc for TSA and TSZ
•Babbitt
Main applications
•Wear resistance
•Corrosion protection
•Build up Coatings
 HVOF (High velocity oxygen Fuel)
High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel (HVOF) coating is a thermal spray coating process
used to improve or restore a component’s surface properties or dimensions,
thus extending equipment life by significantly increasing erosion and wear
resistance, and corrosion protection.

Molten or semi-molten materials are sprayed onto the surface by means of the
high temperature, high-velocity gas stream, producing a dense spray coating
which can be ground to a very high surface finish.

The utilization of the HVOF coating technique allows the application of coating
materials such as metals, alloys, and ceramics to produce a coating of
exceptional hardness, outstanding adhesion to the substrate material and
providing substantial wear resistance and corrosion protection.

As the technology specialists in HVOF coating, Bodycote provides an array of

spray coating materials to suit your specific needs. Backed by a customer-driven
service, our facilities process a wide variety of component sizes to exacting
standards with reliable, repeatable results.
 HVOF (High velocity oxygen Fuel)
Benefits
•Reduced costs;
•Improved performance;
•Improved electrical properties;
•Enabling components to operate in higher/lower temperatures;
•Enabling components to operate within harsh chemical environments;
•Improved efficiency; and
•Improved life of mating components
Application & materials
Thermal spray coating is an attractive technique as it offers a wide choice of materials and processes that have a
reduced impact on the environment when compared to conventional plating processes. HVOF coating materials
available for thermal spray coating include metals, alloys, ceramics, plastics, and composites.
Process details
As with all thermal spray coating processes, HVOF coating material is heated and accelerated by a gas stream to
a component’s surface, to attain better properties. With the HVOF coating process, the gas stream is produced
by mixing and igniting oxygen and fuel (gas or liquid) in a combustion chamber and allowing the high-pressure
gas to accelerate through a nozzle. A powder is introduced into this stream where it is heated and accelerated
towards a component’s surface. The resulting thermal spray coating consists of thin overlapping platelets.