TOPIC 1

Basic Concepts of Communication Skills

Defining the Term Communication
Since communication happens around us all the time, the process is often taken for granted. A
large amount of time is spent communicating hence there is need to make sure that ideas and
information are put in a way that everyone involved can understand. Thinking about what to say,
working out the best way of saying it, finding the right words, making sure the other person
understands and understanding anything he\she says in reply are all vital stages in
communication.
Communication comes from the Latin communis, meaning common. When we communicate, we
are trying to establish commonness with someone. That is, we are trying to share information, an
idea or an attitude (Schramm, 1993). Looking further, you can find this type of definition:
Communications is the mechanism through which human relations exist and develop.

Some of the basic human communication skills:-

a) Listening skills
b) Speaking skills
c) Presentation skills
d) Reading skills
e) Writing skills
f) Study skills
g) Examination skills
h) Library skills
i) Non verbal skills

Stages in the communication process

Communication Process can be defined as a procedure that is used to impart a message or
information from a sender to a receiver by using a medium of communication.
The message goes through five stages when it is sent by the sender to the receiver. These stages
are as follows:-
Sender -the sender is the entity that conveys or sends the message. At this stage, an idea, thought
or feeling is formulated in the mind of the sender as a result of an external of internal stimulus or
motivation.
Message - is what is being transmitted from sender to receiver.
Encoding - encoding is a process through which the message is symbolized. It involves giving
the message a communication form.
Channel - channel is the medium through which message is being sent. The sender selects the
most appropriate and effective vehicle that will deliver the message to the receiver.
Communication channels may include websites, letters, email, phone conversations,
videoconferences and face-to-face meetings.

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Effective communication relies on selecting an appropriate communication channel for your
message. Selecting the wrong communication channel can cause communication obstacles
including information overload and inadequate feedback. The effectiveness of communication
channels can be evaluated based on richness and opportunity for feedback. Richness refers to the
depth of your message. For instance, the Encyclopedia of Business names face-to-face
communication as the richest communication medium. Face-to-face encounters allow the listener
to hear your message, as well as sense your tone of voice and watch your facial expressions to
determine the meaning of your message. Face-to-face communication also allows for instant
feedback, unlike communication mediums like letters and emails.
Receiver - is the entity that receives the message.
Decoding - decoding is the process in which the message is translated and meaning is generated
out of it.
Feedback - is the process through which receiver sends his response.

The communication process is explained diagrammatically as follows:

Communication cycle
Communication cycle is a process on how a message flows from one person to another. Barnlund
(2008) proposed a transactional model of communication indicating that individuals are all
together engaged in the sending and receiving of messages. At the same time, Social scientists
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (1949) structured model based on the following elements:
i. An information source, which produces a message.
ii. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
iii. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
iv. A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
v. A destination, where the message arrives.

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Types of Communication

As aforementioned, communication is a process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts,

feelings and emotions through speech, signals, writing, or behavior. In communication process, a
sender (encoder) encodes a message and then using a medium/channel sends it to the receiver
(decoder) who decodes the message and after processing information, sends back appropriate
feedback/reply using a medium/channel. People communicate with each other in a number of
ways that depend upon the message and its context in which it is being sent. Choice of
communication channel and your style of communicating also affect communication.
1.2.1 Types of communication based on the communication channels used are:

There are two types of communication based on channel; verbal communication and nonverbal
communication.
1.2.1.1 Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which message is transmitted
verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and writing. Objective of every
communication is to have people understand what we are trying to convey. In verbal
communication always remember the acronym KISS - keep it short and simple. When we talk to
others, we assume that others understand what we are saying because we know what we are
saying. But this is not the case. Usually people bring their own attitude, perception, emotions and
thoughts about the topic and hence creates barrier in delivering the right meaning.
Verbal Communication is further divided into, two oral /spoken and written communication.
a. Oral/Spoken Communication
In oral communication, Spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face conversations, speech,
telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over internet. Examples of spoken
communication that is used in the workplace include conversations, interviews,
counseling/helping colleagues, meetings, conferences and so on (Wenbin Nah, 2008). In oral
communication, communication is influenced by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking.
The following are the advantages of communication:-
Advantages of Oral/spoken communication
i. Oral communication allows for immediate feedback such as the opportunity to ask questions
when the meaning is not entirely clear.
ii. The sender is able to check and see whether if the instruction is clear or has created confusion.
iii. There is high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication as it is
interpersonal.
iv. There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for allowing
changes in the decisions previously taken.
v. Spoken instructions are flexible and easily adaptable to many diverse situations.
vi. The feedback is spontaneous in oral communication. Thus, decisions can be made quickly
without any delay.
vii. Oral communication is not only time saving, but it also saves upon money and efforts.
viii. Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution. The conflicts, disputes and many
issues/differences can be put to an end by talking them over.
ix. Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group energy.

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x. Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging morale among organizational
employees.
xi. Oral communication can be best used to transfer private and confidential information/matter.

Disadvantages of Oral/spoken communication

i. Poor presentation of the message or the instruction can result in misunderstanding and wrong
responses.
ii. Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as business communication is
formal and very organized.
iii. Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as they are informal and
not as organized as written communication.
iv. Oral communication is time-saving as far as daily interactions are concerned, but in case of
meetings, long speeches consume lot of time and are unproductive at times.
v. Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they are unsteady.
vi. There may be misunderstandings as the information is not complete and may lack essentials.
vii. It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience.
viii. Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used as legal records except in
investigation work.
ix. Spoken communication is influenced by both verbal and non-verbal communication such as
tone or body language which may twist the meaning of your message in the mind of the receiver.
b. Written Communication

In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written message
may be printed or hand written. In written communication message can be transmitted via, letter,
report, memo, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic mail are the
types of written communication used for internal communication. For communicating with
external environment in writing, electronic mail, Internet Web sites, letters, proposals, telegrams,
faxes, postcards, contracts, advertisements, brochures, and news releases are used (Wenbin Nah,
2008). Message, in written communication, is influenced by the vocabulary and grammar used,
writing style, precision and clarity of the language used. Written Communication is most
common form of communication being used in business. Written communication has various
advantages and disadvantages as explained here under:-
Advantages of written communication
i. Written communication is good for complicated and vital instructions, which can be given in a
precise and uniform manner.
ii. Written communication helps in laying down apparent principles, policies and rules for
running of an organization.
iii. It is a permanent means of communication: written instructions can be used for future
references. Therefore important where record maintenance is required
iv. It assists in proper delegation of responsibilities.
v. Written communication is more precise and explicit
vi. It provides ready records and references.
vii. Legal defenses depend upon written communication as it provides valid records
viii. There is a lesser chance for the message to be misunderstood.
ix. Authority is transmitted more effectively with a written order than with an oral one

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x. Messages can be edited and revised many time before it is actually sent.
xi.Written communication provides record for every message sent and can be saved for later
study.
xii. Reader can read the information at a pace that suits them.
xiii. A written message enables receiver to fully understand it and send appropriate feedback.

Disadvantages of written communication

i. People may not always read them.
ii. Written communication takes time.
iii. It is impersonal or unfriendly.
iv. Written communication is expensive. It costs huge in terms of stationery and the manpower
employed in writing/typing and delivering letters.
v. Written communication is time-consuming as the feedback is not immediate. The encoding
and sending of message takes time
vi. Too much paper work
vii. It does not answer questions and there is no immediate feedback

TOPIC 2

Non-verbal Communication

Introduction
According to McConnell, (2003), nonverbal communication is a behavior, other than a spoken or
written communication, that creates or represents meaning. In other words, it includes facial
expressions, body movements, and gestures. Nonverbal communication is talking without
speaking a word. It is very effective, maybe even more so than speech.

Speech contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, rate, pitch,
volume, and speaking style, as well prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation, and stress. On
the other hand, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial
arrangement of words, or the physical layout of a page.

However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face

interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas:

a) Environmental conditions where communication takes place

b) Physical characteristics of the communicators
c) Behaviors of communicators during interaction.

Nonverbal communication is all about the body language of speaker. Nonverbal communication
helps receiver in interpreting the message received. Often, nonverbal signals reflect the situation
more accurately than verbal messages. Sometimes nonverbal response contradicts verbal
communication and hence affects the effectiveness of message. Nonverbal communication, for
our purpose, has the following three elements:-

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1.4.2 Classification of Non-verbal Communication
Exchange of messages without words, which take place between two parties, fall within the
category of non-verbal communication. It includes all wordless signs, symbols, gestures, facial
expressions, colours, setting of the surroundings, time, and so on. The non-verbal
communication can be classified into the following categories:
a) Kinesics
‘Kinesics’ literally means ‘body movements’. Bodily movements, gestures and body language is
an important factor, especially in face to face communication, as here the message is
communicated by a number of factors like facial expressions, eye movements, gestures. Body
language is the reflection of thought, feelings and position.
All bodily movements, postures, gestures etc., are guided by our thought processes, emotions etc.
By nodding our head, blinking our eyes, waving our hands, shrugging our shoulders and various
other ways we send out signals and messages that often speak louder than words. That is why
this area of enquiry has been called ‘body language’. Just as language uses sets of symbols to
convey meaning, our body, consciously as well as unconsciously or instinctively, carries
messages, attitudes, status relationships, moods, warmth/indifference, positive/negative feelings
and so on. We have, however, to infer these meanings from body symbols. We look for these
symbols in the face and eyes, gestures, posture, and physical appearance each of which has its
own functions.
Importance of Body Language
Regarding the importance of body language, management consultant Nancy Austin says. “When
people don’t know whether to believe that they are hearing or what they are seeing, they go with
the body language- it tells the truth. You can play fast and loose with words, but it’s much more
difficult to do that with gestures.” Psychologist Paul Ekman says, “We talk with our vocal cords,
but we communicate with our facial expressions, our tone of voice, our whole body”.
Kinesics:
1. Facial Expressions
2. Eye Contact
3. Gestures
4. Body Shape and Posture
5. Appearance
Facial Expressions: A popular saying goes like this “The face is the index of the heart”.
Whatever we feel deep within ourselves is at once reflected in the face. It is very important in
any face-to-face communication event. We convey so much without speaking a word.
Example: Let us consider the facial expressions generally associated with happiness, surprise,
fear, anger, sadness, bewilderment, astonishment and contentment. Let us also consider a smile,
different kinds of smile, a frown, corners of lips the position of the eye brows, the cheeks-
whether drawn up or back or dropping, the jaw, nose/nostrils and the chin.

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We can easily mark all the signals sent through these parts of the face by others and observe our
own expressions by looking at ourselves in a mirror. Every facial muscle is an instrument of
communication.
The face and eyes are the most expressive means of body communication. Dale Leather has
found that 10 basic classes of meaning can be communicated by facial expression.
They are:
Happiness
Surprise
Fear
Anger
Sadness
Disgust
Contempt
Interest
Bewilderment
Determination
Eye Contact: The eyes play an important role in face-to-face communication. Eye contact is one
of the most powerful forms of non-verbal communication. When we look at somebody’s face we
focus primarily on his eyes and try to understand what he means. The eyes, along with the
eyebrows, eyelids and the size of pupils convey our innermost feelings. Authority relationships
as well as intimate relationships are frequently initiated and maintained with eye contact. Eye
contact builds emotional relationship between the listeners and speaker.
Eyebrows and eyelids raised and combined with dilated pupils tell us that the person is excited,
surprised or frightened.
Eyebrows with upper and lower eyelids closed and combined with constricted pupils tell us that
the person is angry or in pain.
Looking at somebody for a long time shows the intensity of our interest in him. If the eye contact
is brief, or we take our eyes off the person very soon, it indicates nervousness of
embarrassment on our part. Prolonged eye contact can signal admiration.
Direct eye contact of more than 10 seconds can create discomfort and anxiety.
Generally people’s eyes approach what they like and avoid what they do not like. Eye contact
between a speaker and audience increases the audience’s assessment of the speaker as a
credible source.
People generally maintain more eye gaze and mutual eye gaze with those whose approval they
want, those to whom they bring good news, and those to whom they like. They also do so
with people towards whom they feel positive and whom they know and trust.

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Averted eyes show anger, hurt feelings, and a hesitancy to reveal the inner self. They also reveal
negativism and the need to increase psychological distance as in an elevator, waiting room,
or other small space.
Eye behavior communicates in many ways. It shows emotions. It establishes conversational
regulators. It also monitors feedback. It serves as a reminder. The eyes not only supply
information, they receive it as well. Major aspects of communication are covered through eyes.
Of course, eye contact and eye movements convey-their meaning in combination with other
facial expressions.
Gestures: In addition to facial expressions and eye contact, another import element of kinesics is
the use of gestures. Gestures are the physical movements of arms, legs, hands, torso and head,
made to express or help to express thought or to emphasize speech. They play a very important
role in conveying meaning without using words.
Head:
In any face to face communication or meeting or interview the way we hold our head is very
important. Everybody is aware of the age-old saying. “Hold your head high”. It is a sign of honor
and self-respect, confidence, integrity and interest in the person/persons before us. A head bent
low, depending upon the situation, would show modesty, politeness or quietness. On the other
extreme a head drawn too far backwards or stiffly held straight up indicates pride or haughtiness.
Head jerks indicate insolence, rejection or agreement, depending upon the context and
personality of the person concerned. Nodding the head side way or back and forth conveys the
intended meaning more eloquently than words.

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Body Shape: We cannot do much about the shape of our body, but we can no doubt put it to
effective use. Both our body shape and posture affect what we think about ourselves, how we
relate to others and how others relate to us or respond to our moves.
Mostly we act spontaneously, whether we meet a friend or participate in a meeting. But we do
become self-conscious while appearing for an interview or making a presentation. On such an
occasion we try to make the best possible impression.
Posture: A person’s general posture, even without specific gestures, communicates meaning.
The body position of an individual conveys variety of messages. It is the position of the body or
of body parts. For example, superiors usually take a more relaxed posture than their
subordinates. Posture is also a way to demonstrate interest in another person.
Several writers have concluded what when you lean forward to the persons to whom one is
speaking with, you demonstrate interest in that person. Sitting back, on the other hand may
communicate lack of interest. It is difficult to assess exactly the meaning of postures. Warren
Lamb says that a person’s posture and gesture can tell much about how effectively the person
will perform in an organization.

b) Appearance
Speaker: clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics
Surrounding: room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings
Appearance: Appearance, for our purpose, includes clothing, hair, jewellery, cosmetics etc. All
these may seem unrelated to body language, but on having a closer look we find that they are
very meaningfully related to our face, eyes, gesture etc.
Did you know? A famous writer has said that a man is recognized by his “dress and
address”; “Dress” does not need any explanation. By address he means the way a person
speaks to other. Every occasion has its own particular type of dress.
It may be formal or informal. It is normally a part of an organization’s work rules to have a
formal suit for the working hours. Certain organizations have a uniform for all levels of workers.
If one changes from the formal dress to informal or casual he is easily noticed, and his dress
speaks volumes about his attitude to life, to work, to his colleagues and his own feelings. It is not
just the dress or clothes that are important for any occasion but also shoes, hair style, perfume
etc., that convey ‘meaning’ in nonverbal form.
c) Para Language: ‘Para’ means ‘like’. Hence, ‘paralanguage ’literally means‘ like language’
and ‘paralinguistic’ is the systematic study of how a speaker verbalizes his words/speech. It is
defined as “a type of non-verbal communication that includes articulation, pronunciation, rate,
pitch, volume, pauses and other vocal qualities.

1.4.1 Characteristics of Non-verbal Communication

The following are the key characteristics of non-verbal communication:
1. It is instinctive in nature: Non-verbal communication is quite instinctive in nature, that is, it
indicates the attitude, instincts and feelings of the speaker.

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2. It is less conscious: Words are spoken after due thinking and with conscious effort.
Depending on the situation we have to make a more or less conscious effort in these/choice
of words. The non-verbal part of communication, on the other hand, is less deliberate and
conscious as most of the expressions, gestures, etc included in non-verbal communication
are mostly unconsciously expressed, as the speaker may not even be aware of these signs.
3. It is subtle in nature: Spoken and written words are quite obvious and easy to see, listen and
understand, whereas, non-verbal communication is very subtle, and needs skill to be
understood and expressed.
4. It is complimentary to verbal communication: Non-verbal communication does not stand
alone on its own and neither does it completely substitute Communication with words; it
complements Verbal Communication and makes it more effective. As an example, when we
watch a movie, the dialogues are made more impressive by the way they are delivered, with
the modulations in the voice, other gestures and signals.
5. It forms the larger part of the overall communication activity: On scientific analysis it has
been found that the different aspects of communication account for percentages stated
below:
 55 percent Facial expression, body position, gestures 7 percent Words 38 percent Tone of
voice and inflection.
 Non-verbal Communication speaks much louder than words.
“A cry of agony is powerful than a tale of woe”.

Functions of nonverbal communication

According to Argyle et al (1970) spoken language is normally used for communicating
information about events external to the speakers, non-verbal codes are used to establish and
maintain interpersonal relationships. It is considered more polite or nicer to communicate
attitudes towards others non-verbally rather than verbally in order to avoid embarrassing
situations (Rosenthal, Robert and Bella (1979). Argyle (1988) concluded that there are five
primary functions of nonverbal bodily behavior in human communication namely:-
i. Express emotions
ii. Express interpersonal attitudes
iii. To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and listeners
iv. Rituals (greetings)
In regards to expressing interpersonal attitudes, humans communicate interpersonal closeness
through a series of nonverbal actions known as immediacy behaviors. Examples of immediacy
behaviors are smiling, touching, open body positions, and eye contact. Cultures that display these
immediacy behaviors are considered high-contact cultures.
Advantages of non-verbal communication
i. You can communicate with someone who cannot hear.
ii. You can communicate in places where you have to avoid talking audibly.
iii. You can communicate without others around you hearing what is being communicated.
iv. You can communicate when a person is too far away from you to hear you (for example, by
gesturing)
v. Non-verbal communication makes conversation short and brief.

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vi. Non-verbal communication saves on time and can be used as a tool to communicate with
people who don't understand your language.
Disadvantages of non-verbal communication
i. Long conversations using non-verbal communication are usually not possible.
ii. Non-verbal communication varies from culture to culture.
iii. Particulars of messages using non-verbal communication cannot be discussed in detail.
iv. It is not useful as a public tool for communication
v. It cannot be used everywhere and is less influential than verbal communication.

1.9 Importance of communication

Communication plays a powerful role in the nation building and development and contributes
significantly to bringing about social changes. Communication has led to development in a
community. Below are other major reasons as to why we communicate:-
i. We communicate in order to educate and give instruction to the people we are communicating
with
ii. To provide knowledge for instance in school, church, political rallies etc
iii. To give expertise and skills for smooth functioning by people in society
iv. To create awareness and give opportunity to people to actively participate in public life.
v. We communicate for Information � in case you want to know something you have to ask and
be told
vi. We listen for entertainment
vii. We listen for discussion and to persuasion
viii. We listen for understanding and insight - we depend on communication for self-awareness.
Communication helps us to understand ourselves and others
ix. To develop meaningful relationships - it is through communication contacts that human
beings basic and social needs are met. Psychology has it that people need each other
x. Influence and persuasion - human beings spend most of their time trying to influence each
other to think as they do, act as they do and like what they like.

Barriers to communication
Communication is the answer to the success of any organization and if there are barriers to its
effectiveness, there will be frustration to the concerned parties. Communication barriers can arise
at every stage of the communication process that is from the sender, the message, the channel,
the receiver, the feedback and the context.

Barriers to successful communication include message overload, when a person receives too
many messages at the same time, and message complexity (Patrick J. and Charon, B. H, 2008).
Some barriers to communication are discussed here under:-
Physical barriers - Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the environment. Example
poor or outdated equipment, distractions, noise, poor lighting etc.
Semantic barriers - semantic refers to meaning of language used. Often the same word is
interpreted by different people in different ways according to their mental attitude and
understanding. Poorly explained or misunderstood messages can result in confusion (J. Scott
Armstrong, 1980).

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Physiological barriers - poor eye sight, hearing difficulties etc.
Socio-psychological barrier Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult. For
instance, great anger or sadness may cause someone to lose focus on the present moment.
Disorders such as Autism may also severely hamper effective communication (Berko, M.R,
2010).
Cultural barrier: Stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings, such as
unintentionally offending a Kikuyu person by calling him a thief.

Ways to improve communication

Proper communication is a tool that can provide innumerable benefits within the workplace, at
school and among interpersonal relationships. Despite the strongest communication skills,
certain barriers such as defensiveness, underlying negativity or cultural roadblocks may limit the
effectiveness of the message. Here are some possible remedies to some barriers of
communication:-
i. Malhotra, J. (2009) said that communication face barriers due to delay, distortion and dilution.
When the information gets distorted due to the faulty system, jealousy, faulty listening,
inadequate vocabulary, baldly chosen words, the information loses its meaning.
ii. The psychological barriers caused by prejudice, preconceived notion, distrust of the
communicator, misinterpretation of his intention etc can be solved by counteracting those
prejudice.
iii. As the source of the message, you need to be clear about why you're communicating, and
what you want to communicate. You also need to be confident that the information you're
communicating is useful and accurate.
iv. This is the process of transferring the information you want to communicate into a form that
can be sent and correctly decoded at the other end. Your success in encoding depends partly on
your ability to convey information clearly and simply, but also on your ability to anticipate and
eliminate sources of confusion (for example, cultural issues, mistaken assumptions, and missing
information.) A key part of this, know your audience:
Failure to understand who you are communicating with will result in delivering messages that
are misunderstood.
vi. Avoid cultural confusion - Be clear with the message and avoid using slang or unnecessary
metaphors that may challenge or confuse a recipient from a different culture. Create a culture of
communication that uses simple language where people of all backgrounds can participate.
Celebrate the diversity of a global society by researching how the source culture best receives
communication.
vii. Difficult people can disrupt the line of communication in many ways. Unreasonable
receivers have unrealistic expectations, extremely disagreeable recipients can have a negative
effect and back-stabbers can attack the message while appearing to be supportive in person.
Identify the type of difficult receiver and do not ignore their tactics. Create a plan to take control
of their behavior with the underlying goal of always keeping ownership of the message. For
example, corner negativity by restating a difficult person's opposition while inviting all receivers
to offer feedback on a proposal. Unrealistic negativity will be brought down naturally as a group
supports moving toward a goal.
viii. The policy of the organization must be clear and explicit. It should be designed in such a
way that it encourages communication flow. It should be easily understandable by all the levels.

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The policies for communication should be clear and should favor the promotion of
communication in the organization. The policy should be able to specify the subject to be
communicated to others. It means that the subject matter should be expressive enough to
determine the needs of the organization rather than creating any confusion.
ix. Communication through proper channel works out effectively. But the flow of
communication in the orderly form should not be insisted upon every time. At times it can be
ignored and not strictly followed in order to keep the functioning of the organization smooth and
effective.
x. There should be an adequate facility of promoting communication in an organization. Proper
attention should be given for the effective use of words and language. Superiors should take care
of using supportive attitude methods and proper behavioral needs to overcome any embarrassing
situation.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. i. With clear illustrations, give the definition of communication
ii. Explain five purposes of communication
iii. Using a diagram ,explain the communication process
2. Explain five factors to consider when choosing a communication media
3. However careful one is when communicating, barriers will sometimes occur. Explain the
barriers to effective communication.
4. Communication is a dynamic process of action and interaction towards a desired goal. Explain
any four elements of communication process.

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 TOPIC 3

Speaking Skills

Introduction
Speaking is something that we all do most often. In all spheres of life, a good speaker is always
distinguished from ordinary speakers. To become a good speaker, you must know and practice
the guidelines of effective oral communication.

Oral communication means spoken communication or communication through speech. A person

learns to speak much before writing. It is difficult to decide which one is a more important form
of communication: written or oral. But it is perfectly safe to assume that oral communication is
the most popular. While everyone speaks before learning to write, it is perfectly possible to think
of someone who can use language to speak but not to write.
In fact, oral communication is not only the most popular but also the most powerful and effective
form of communication that occurs between human beings. Compared to it, the volume of
written communication is small and confined to formal and official contexts. In offices and
business organizations too, people speak much before and much more when compared to,
writing. Oral communication takes place through face-to-face talks (both formal and informal),
telephone, loudspeaker, etc.
In this unit, you will learn the principles of oral communication, the role of non-verbal
communication in speaking and the tips of improving public speaking skills.

1.1 Principles of Effective Speaking

The following steps should be taken to make oral communication effective:
1. Clarity: The speaker should pronounce his words clearly and correctly. He must talk distinctly
and slowly. When a person speaks fast or munches words the oral message is likely to be
misunderstood. The way a person speaks his dialogue exercises much influence on the
audience. Clarity of expression just is the aim at all times.
2. Brevity: Oral communications often suffer from too much of talking. When a speaker keeps
on talking for long, his message is lost in a sea of words and his listeners tend to become
inattentive. Therefore, the message must be kept as short as possible. However, the speaker
should not appear unclear, abrupt or discourteous.
3. Precision: An oral message becomes more effective when it is precise and concise.
Example: It is better to say ‘cut down costs by ` 100 instead of saying ‘reduce costs’. The
message should not be vague or incomplete.
Words ought to mean clearly what they are intended to say.
4. Right words: The first caution is to ensure that you know the meaning of the words that you
use. Some words have more than one meaning while some others carry different meanings
for different persons. Be sure about what your words will convey to a trained reader.
Example: City, town and metropolis are three different words and care should be exercised
before using them.

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Therefore, words should be chosen carefully and their meaning clarified in the context of usage.
The speaker should not presume that the listener would mean the same thing from a word,
which s/he means.
Task You will find that the word ‘metro’ has at least three different meanings in day-to-day
usage. Find out them for yourself. Also find more such words that have multiple meanings.
5. Avoid Hackneyed Phrases and Clichés: Speakers often use hackneyed phrases and clichés
like ‘you know’, ‘I see’, ‘you see’, ‘what I mean’, ‘isn’t,’ etc. Such phrases interrupt the
flow of speech and obstruct the quick grasp of meaning besides causing boredom. Speakers
should ensure that they do not use these phrases unconsciously or consciously and a good
way of overcoming these phrases is to be conscious about not using them when speaking.
Most of us use them as connectives, filling up a gap when we do not have the correct
word/phrase. Keeping them consciously out of your usage would mean that you will have to
remain silent for those gaps. But don’t worry. Once you stop using fillers like those,
appropriate words will come to you with a little effort at articulation.
6. Understand the Listener: A good speaker must understand the listener before talking. People
vary in terms of their education, culture, intelligence level, maturity, etc. The speaker
should put himself in place of the listener and adjust his speech according to the needs and
abilities of the listener.
7. Natural Voice: The speaker should use his natural way of speaking. In order to look
sophisticated some speakers use a foreign accent. This reduces the effectiveness of
communication. Remember the most efficient speakers across the world are those that speak
with a neutral accent. So, a speaker should cultivate a pleasing voice and natural style.
8. Logical Sequence: Before speaking, different ideas to be conveyed should be arranged in a
logical order. It helps to make the speech forceful.
9. Conviction: A speaker must have conviction in what he says. Careful understanding, sincerity
of speech, and intelligent planning are required to develop conviction in speech.

Public Speaking Skills

Public speaking is a talk given to a large gathering whose content is light. It is given on
occasions like an anniversary or an inauguration.
 Its purpose is usually to encourage, appreciate, congratulate or entertain; it is followed by
applause from the audience.
 Persons in responsible positions must be good speakers as there are many occasions when
they are required to address an audience. Being able to speak well is an asset in any
profession. Speaking skill can be cultivated and developed with some knowledge of the
formal aspects of public speaking, and with practice.
 The most important requirement for public speaking is its preparation. Even persons who
have natural skill in speaking need preparation to deliver a good speech.

Tips for Good Public Speaking

Speeches are difficult for most of us. The techniques can be adopted to improve the public
speaking.

15
 a) Selection of the topic for speech: Your first step in formal speech making is to determine
the topic of your presentation. In some cases, you will be assigned a topic, usually one
within your area of specialization. In fact, when you are asked to make a speech on a
specified topic, it is likely to be because of your knowledge of the topic. In some cases,
your choice of topic will be determined by the purpose of your assignment, as when you
are asked to welcome a group or introduce a speaker. In your search for a suitable topic,
you should be guided by three basic factors. The first is your background and knowledge.
The second basic factor is the interests of your audience. The third basic factor is the
occasion of the speech. Your selection should be justified by all three factors.
Preparation of the speech: After you have decided what to talk about, you gather the
information you need for your speech. This step may involve searching through your mind
for experiences or ideas, concluding research in a library or in company files, gathering
information online, or consulting people in your own company or other companies. In short,
you do whatever is necessary to get the information you need. When you have that
information, you are ready to begin organizing your speech. Although variations are
sometimes appropriate, you should usually follow the time-honored order of a speech:
introduction, body and conclusion.

16
Guidelines for the introduction of the speech: The introduction of a speech has much the same
goal as the introduction of a written report: to prepare the listeners (or readers) to receive
the message. But it usually has the additional goal of arousing interest. Unless you can
arouse interest at the beginning, your presentation is likely to fail. The techniques of
arousing interest are limited only by the imagination. One possibility is a human-interest
story, for storytelling has strong appeal. Humour, another possibility, is probably the most
widely used technique. Other effective ways for gaining attention at the opening are by
using quotations and questions. In addition to arousing interest, your opening should lead
into the theme of your speech. Guidelines for organizing the body of the speech:
Organizing the body of your speech is much like organizing the body of a report. You take
the whole and divide it into comparable parts. Then you take those parts and divide them.
You continue to divide as far as it is practical to do so. In speeches, however, you are more
likely to use factors rather than time, place, or quantity as the basis of division because in
most speeches, your presentation is likely to built around issues and questions that are
subtopics of the subject. Even so, time, place, and quantity subdivisions are possibilities.
You need to emphasize the transitions between the divisions because, unlike the reader who
can see them, the listeners may miss them if they are not stressed adequately. Without clear
transitions, you may be talking about one point and your listener may be relating those ideas
to your previous point.
Conclusion remarks of the speech: Like most reports, the speech usually ends by drawing a
conclusion. Here you bring all that you have presented to a head and achieve whatever goal the
speech has. You should consider including these three elements in your close: (1) a restatement
of the subject, (2) a summary of the key points developed in the presentation, and (3) a statement
of the conclusion. Bringing the speech to a climatic close—that is, making the conclusion the
high point of the speech—is usually effective. Present the concluding message in strong
language—in words that gain attention and will be remembered. In addition to concluding with a
summary, you can give an appropriate quote, use humour, and call for action.
Task Listen to various chat shows and speeches given by CEOs and spokespersons to enhance
your listening as well as public speaking skills.

1.5.2 Importance of Public Speaking

In an organization, there is always a paucity of effective speakers who can positively speak about
business. Lack of this ability makes public to see business in a negative light. Poor presentation
of business managers to the outsiders can be a cause of business failure. Hence, it is through
external communications that business presents its message to the public. There is a need in
business for persons that can effectively present organizational viewpoint to the outsiders.
Public speaking is important in many different ways, because it encompasses so many aspects of
our lives, we will consider public speaking from the standpoint of the individual, the
organization, and society in which, we live.

The Individual
When you apply for a job, the employment interviewer evaluates you on the basis of certain
characteristics. Your ability to communicate is one such characteristic, and it comes across
clearly in an interview. Your ability to communicate not only influences whether you are hired

17
but it determines your progress on the job. Employers realize that it is the ability to communicate
that often separates an exceptional employee from the average ones. Being able to organize your
thoughts and give a public speech is another significant determinant of your personal and
professional success. When you speak and others listen and respond to your comments, it affects
the way you see yourself and how others see you. Being able to give an effective public speech
enhances your self-esteem; you feel good about yourself.

The Organization
It has been said that an organization is only as good as the individuals who comprise it. It could
also be said that an organization communicates only as effectively as do its individual members.
Business has been blamed for many of the problems facing society. Such issues as the effects of
automation upon employment and discrimination in hiring must be addressed by people speaking
for business organizations. The energy crisis, product liability, and the use of nuclear energy
represent other important problem areas. Much anti-business sentiment is due to public
unawareness of the business position on such matters. There is a need in business for people who
can effectively present the organizational viewpoint to the public. The average business
organization does a poor job of acquainting the public with its contributions to society.
From a communication standpoint, it does not matter how pure the motives of the organization
are. What the matter is, what the public knows about such things and how the public responds to
this knowledge of a company’s activities. Unless the public is made aware of what business is
doing and why, the best of intentions on the part of business will be of no avail. Only through
effective external communications can business present the information that is most likely to
result in a desirable image. One of the most important and effective formats in which to present
that information is the public speech.

The Society
We live in a society in which the free expression of ideas is not merely tolerated, but encouraged.
Issues are analyzed and point-of-views are presented in many different formats. Newspaper
editorials, town hall meetings, and discussions (or arguments) are a few settings in which
opinions are aired on those subjects about which the participants feel strongly. Our society
thrives on this free expression of ideas, for it is through such interchange that a balanced
perspective is maintained. When a certain point of view ceases to be expressed, however,
perhaps for the lack of someone willing and able to speak out, that viewpoint no longer
influences society. It is often through public speaking that ideas are presented for public
evaluation. This was as true in the preliminaries to the Declaration of Independence as it is today
in election campaigns at all levels. It is as evident at an annual meeting of stockholders’ as at a
monthly union local meeting. For lack of an effective speaker, a good idea may fail to get
consideration. A lack of articulate opponents may result in the passage of legislation of little
merit. Continuation of our free society requires willing and articulate people of every view.

1.8 Review Questions

1. Discuss principles of successful oral communication.
2. Write a note on effective listening and how it can add value to your speaking skills.

18
3. Describe the relevance of correct pronunciation and word stress in oral communication.
4. Explain the importance of proper usage of space in oral communication.

19
5. Explain the barriers to communication. Also discuss the measures to overcome those barriers.
6. Explain the two sides of effective communication.
7. Discuss the different types of non-verbal communication.
8. Why is listening, the most crucial out of all the communication skills?
9. “Non-verbal communication, when used along with verbal communication completes the
communication.” Discuss.
10. Discuss the tips for good public speaking and importance of public speaking.

Further Readings
Lesikar, Flatley, Basic Business Communication, 10th Edition, Tata Mcgraw Hill, p.433.
M.J. Mathew, Business Communication, 2008, RBSA Publishers, Jaipur, India.
Meenakshi Raman, Prakash Singh, Business Communication, Oxford University Press, 7th
Impression 2008.
PD Chaturvedi, Mukesh Chaturvedi, Business Communication—Concepts, Cases and
Applications, 2007, Pearson Education.

TOPIC 4

Listening Skills

Introduction
God gave us one mouth to do two jobs: eat and speak, but He gave us two ears to do just one
job: to listen.
In true listening, we reach behind the words; see through them, to find the person who is being
revealed. Listening is a search to find the treasure of the true person as revealed verbally and
nonverbally. There is the semantic problem, of course. The words bear a different connotation
for you than they do for me. Consequently, I can never tell you what you said, but only what I
heard. I will have to rephrase what you have said, and check it out with you to make sure that
what left your mind and heart arrived in my mind- John Powell, theologian.
Out of the four Communication Skills: Reading, Writing, Speaking and Listening, the most
crucial is listening. Drivers fail to listen carefully to directions given by the traffic policeman and
roadside people and lose their way. Workers fail to perform their duties effectively as they have
not listened to their supervisors. Students are denied credit for assignments, if they have not
completed the task as instructed. Sometimes, the consequences of bad listening are insignificant,
other times they are not. In most of the cases, bad listening creates more problems. The
importance of effective listening cannot be overstated because it is crucial to the success of
organizations and individuals alike.
A study of communication preferences by first line managers and supervisors has found that
listening is perceived as the most important communication skill. Listening cannot be ignored in

20
performing jobs effectively. Based on a survey covering a million workers, it appears that
companies which encourage upward communication and listen to their employees perform better
than other companies. Research findings also testify to the relationship between listening and
organizational effectiveness. The more the listening, the more will be the effectiveness of
organizations.

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Besides beings critical to organizational effectiveness, listening is also a determinant of
individual efficiency and effectiveness. When evaluating an individual’s competence as a
communicator, the listening ability of that person is a major consideration. Without a
demonstrated ability to listen well, a person cannot be considered as an excellent communicator.
Did YOU know? While investigating the link between communication and health:-
 Researchers in the US had observed that a dog’s blood pressure rises when the dog
barks, and drops when the dog is quite.
 They later on found that the same holds true for humans. Our blood pressure also
rises when we talk and rapidly drops when we listen.
 Hence, from the point of view of maintaining good health, listening is better than
speaking.
 Employers are becoming increasingly aware that listening relates to almost all forms of
business communication.
 It is an essential skill in gathering information for running every activity of a business.
 It is also important in working in a small group, in interviewing as a management tool
or to get a job, and in communicating effectively across cultures.
 Executives have to understand the importance of listening with respect to development
of writing skills, reading skills and speaking skills.
Notes: A research study conducted long back found that organizational message with a
comprehension rating of 100% at the board level gets reduced to 20% by the time it trickles
down to the worker: Board 100% Vice President 63% General Supervisor 56% Plant Manager
40% General Foreman 30% Worker 20%A similar distortion takes place in upward
communication by the time the message reaches the top managers from the workers. If a worker
wants to communicate any message upwards, the top management consisting of the board may
get only 20%.
 No oral communication can be effective without proper listening on the part of the
receiver of the message. A tactful manager can positively handle the grapevine or
informal channel of communication by ‘empathic’ listening.
 Poor listening may defeat the very purpose of oral communication. It has been found by
authorities on the subject that generally people retain only about one fourth of what they
hear after two days. In this way listening becomes the weakest link in oral
communication.
A few basic observations about listening will clarify the concept of listening:
 Listening is the accurate perception of what is being communicated. It is the art of
separating fact from statement, and accusation.
Listening involves the following four major operations. They are as follows:
a) Hearing
b) Understanding
b) Retaining
c) Recalling.

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  Listening is not the simple ability to decode information. It is a two-way exchange in
which both parties involved must always be receptive to the thoughts, ideas, and
emotions of the other.
 Listening is a mental activity and hearing is a physical activity. Listening includes
hearing. In hearing, we get sounds but we do not use mind. In listening, we have to
understand, retain and recall also. Listening is a natural process.
 God has given us two ears and one tongue. It indicates that listening is more important
than speaking.
 The average listener who hears a 10-minute presentation will hear, understand, and retain
only half of what was said. Forty-eight hours later that portion drops another 25 percent.
Part of the reason for poor listening ability is the educational system which emphasizes
the speaker at the expense of the listener. The system focuses major attention on reading,
writing, and speaking skills – not on listening skills.
Yet another study show that 45 percent of the total working hours are spent on listening, 30
percent on speaking, 16 percent on reading, and 9 percent on writing.
Writing and speaking skills improve with practice. It is not in the case of listening skills. It will
improve only by consciousness and concentration.
Listening is a process in perpetual motion. It begins when one hears or observes what is being
said, continues as one stores and correlates the information, than begin again with one’s
reaction.
Listening is possible through observations. Hence, eyes help to get non-verbal communication of
the speaker.
For developing listening skills, little effort is being made by educators and trainers. In order to
improve reading, writing and speaking, instructors continuously guide and help others.
Rarely do we find such effort for listening.
Recognition is being given to best speakers. Rarely, we find a situation when best listeners are
appreciated.

Presenting Skills

Introduction
In addition to the informal face-to-face communication that goes on many of us, under different
circumstances, have to make formal presentations. From time to time we participate and speak in
committee meetings, conferences, seminars, classrooms, group discussions, etc. In fact public
speaking and oral reporting is an essential part of a student’s, teacher’s as well as a manager’s
job.
Presentation means presenting something before people on some formal occasion. It is also
known as ‘public speaking’. The term ‘presentation’ is preferred perhaps because the purpose of
a presentation is defined more precisely than that of a public speech. Moreover, presentation is
done before a select audience whereas in a public speech the audience is not selected.
Presentation can be defined as a formal event characterized by teamwork and use of audio-visual
aids. The main purpose of presentation is to give information, to persuade the audience to act and

23
to create goodwill. A good presentation should have a good subject matter, should match with
the objective, should best fit the audience, and should be well organized.
Developing presentation skills is an art where most of the training and learning require greater
focus and attention. Executives, non executives, instructors, trainers and administrators need to
strengthen their skills with respect to their presentations before varied target groups.

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Need for Oral Presentation
Oral presentations play a vital role in many situations today. Successful oral presentations can
boost the career of an employee while failure to present well can block career progress. Need for
oral presentation may arise on several occasions, some of which are given below:
1. Presenting one’s understanding of a concept/topic to others in a class.
2. Presenting a new business plan.
3. Launching a new product/service.
4. Making a sales proposal.
5. Starting a training course/session.
6. Participating in a conference /seminar.
7. Explaining a plan or strategy to a group.
Across most of these situations an oral presentation can be straightforward but it can also be
complex involving an elaborate complex that includes various media, reports, and several
speakers. Most of the presentations you must have seen so far try:
1. To present the findings of research to a group of experts in fairly academic style;
2. To speak to the public about corporate issues and hazards; and
3. To sell products or services to clients.
They rarely address complex group presentations or presentations to a class or a small group.
While it is important to learn speaking skills from those presentations, talks given to small
groups are probably more important to your working and learning career. Thus, this section
focuses on informal and in-house presentations. An informal talk is related to complex and
highly formal speaking, with a persuasive core that expands and contracts according to the scope
of the task.

Listening is Not the Same as Hearing

Hearing refers to the sounds that you hear, whereas listening requires more than that: it requires
focus. Listening means paying attention not only to the story, but how it is told, the use of
language and voice, and how the other person uses his or her body. In other words, it means
being aware of both verbal and non-verbal messages. Your ability to listen effectively depends
on the degree to which you perceive and understand these messages.

Types of Listening
Active Listening
Active listening is a skill that can be acquired and developed with practice. However, active
listening can be difficult to master and will, therefore, take time and patience.
'Active listening 'means, as its name suggests, actively listening. That is fully concentrating on
what is being said rather than just passively ‘hearing’ the message of the speaker. Active
listening involves listening with all senses. As well as giving full attention to the speaker, it is

25
important that the ‘active listener’ is also ‘seen’ to be listening - otherwise the speaker may
conclude that what they are talking about is uninteresting to the listener.

Interest can be conveyed to the speaker by using both verbal and non-verbal messages such as
maintaining eye contact, nodding your head and smiling, agreeing by saying ‘Yes’ or simply
‘Mmm hmm’ to encourage them to continue. By providing this 'feedback' the person speaking
will usually feel more at ease and therefore communicate more easily, openly and honestly.
Listening is the most fundamental component of interpersonal communication skills.
Listening is not something that just happens (that is hearing), listening is an active process in
which a conscious decision is made to listen to and understand the messages of the speaker.
Listeners should remain neutral and non-judgmental, this means trying not to take sides or form
opinions, especially early in the conversation.
Active listening is also about patience - pauses and short periods of silence should be accepted.
Listeners should not be tempted to jump in with questions or comments every time there are a
few seconds of silence. Active listening involves giving the other person time to explore their
thoughts and feelings, they should, therefore, be given adequate time for that.

Active listening not only means focusing fully on the speaker but also actively showing verbal
and non-verbal signs of listening. Generally speakers want listeners to demonstrate ‘active
listening’ by responding appropriately to what they are saying. Appropriate responses to
listening can be both verbal and non-verbal:

Passive Listening

Passive Listening occurs when a listener does not verbally respond to the speaker. The listener
may deliberately or unintentionally send non-verbal messages through eye contact, smiles,
yawns or nods. Sometimes passive listening is appropriate. If the speaker wants to vent
frustration or express an opinion he may listen passively. Passive listening is mechanical and
effortless. It does not require any special effort. You hear what your teacher says and you might
be able to tell the difference between major and minor points of the lecture, but that is about it.
Lack of enthusiasm and a "careless" attitude during class characterize a student who is a passive
listener. Active listeners on the other hand really concentrate on the content of the lecture and not
on the lecturer or any random distractions in the room or their mind. They do more than focus on
facts, figures, and ideas and actively associate the material presented with their own experiences.
The content heard at every lecture is converted to something useful and meaningful for the
student. You must pay special attention in class because, unlike when reading a textbook, you
only get one chance to hear and understand the information presented to you.

Things that we listen to actively

i. Music
ii. Lecturer
iii. News
iv. Sermons

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v. Discussions
vi. Advices
vii. Gossips

Why You Need Good Listening Skills

Good listening skills increase productivity amongst workers. The ability to listen carefully will
allow you to:
i. Understand better the assignments and what is expected of you by you teachers and lecturers.
ii. It builds rapport among colleagues, your bosses, and the customers
iii. It boast team-work.
iv. Many problems, between workers and bosses are resolved through listening.
v. Through listening you can be able to answer many questions and correctly
Reason why we listen
Good communication skills require a high level of self-awareness. By understanding your
personal style of communicating, you will go a long way towards creating good and lasting
impressions with others. The way to become a better listener is to practice active listening. This
is where you make a conscious effort to hear not only the words that another person is saying
but, more importantly, try to understand the complete message being sent. According to a
research done by Kathleen Galvin (1995), we listen so as:-
i. To be able to engage to social rituals (socialize)
ii. To exert control - to take a step after advice
iii. To share feelings
iv. We listen to obtain information/exchange information and learn more.
v. We listen to understand.
vi. We listen for enjoyment/to entertain ourselves.
vii. We listen to learn
According to Salemi (1997) we usually listen to:-
i. Obtain information
ii. To solve problems
iii. To share experiences
iv. To persuade
Saleemi (1997) said that if people are bad listeners:-
i. Only inaccurate and incomplete information would be exchanged
ii. Problems would not be clearly understood and would remain unsolved.
In addition, to the following advantages of listening the following can easily be listed:-
i. Listening helps to know what the organization i.e. grapevine will help you know what the
members think of the company policies and activities.
ii. Listening helps to make better policies i.e. if you listen to your subordinates carefully you will
know which policies are suitable for your organization.
iii. Listening mollifies complaining employees � if you as a manager listen to them patiently and
sympathetically, their anger will subside.

27
iv. Listening is important for the success of the open door policy many managers are bad
listeners.
v. Listening helps to spot sensitive areas before they become explosive.

Tips to Effective and Active Listening Skills

According to Cortright (2011) Listening makes our loved ones feel worthy, appreciated,
interesting and respected. Ordinary conversations emerge on a deeper level, as do our
relationships. When we listen, we foster the skill in others by acting as a model for positive and
effective communication. In our love relationships, greater communication brings greater
intimacy. Parents listening to their kids help build their self-esteem. In the business world,
listening saves time and money by preventing misunderstandings. And we always learn more
when we listen than when we talk. Listening skills fuel our social, emotional and professional
success, and studies prove that listening is a skill we can learn (Cortright, 2011). Active listening
is really an extension of the Golden Rule. To know how to listen to someone else, think about
how you would want to be listened to. While the ideas are largely intuitive, it might take some
practice to develop (or re-develop) the skills.
Here are the tips to effective listening according to (Cortright, 2011):-
i. Face the speaker - Sit up straight or lean forward slightly to show your attentiveness through
body language. Maintain eye contact, to the degree that you all remain comfortable.
ii. Minimize external distractions - Turn off the TV. Put down your book or magazine, and ask
the speaker and other listeners to do the same.
iii. Respond appropriately to show that you understand -
iv. Focus solely on what the speaker is saying. Try not to think about what you are going to say
next. The conversation will follow a logical flow after the speaker makes her point.
v. Minimize internal distractions- If your own thoughts keep horning in, simply let them go and
continuously re-focus your attention on the speaker, much as you would during meditation.
vi. Keep an open mind -Wait until the speaker is through before deciding that you disagree. Try
not to make assumptions about what the speaker is thinking. Avoid letting the speaker know how
you handled a similar situation. Unless they specifically ask for advice, assume they just need to
talk it out.
vii. Even if the speaker is launching a complaint against you, wait until they finish defending
yourself. The speaker will feel as though their point had been made. Research shows that, on
average, we can hear four times faster than we can talk, so we have the ability to sort ideas as
they come in and be ready for more.
viii. Repeat the key ideas to yourself. Particularly, while listening to a long lecture see if you can
repeat to yourself all the important ideas the speaker has put before you. This will also help you
to understand the lecture better Cortright (2011) said that as you work on developing your
listening skills, you may feel a bit panicky when there is a natural pause in the conversation.
What should you say next? Learn to settle into the silence and use it to better understand all
points of view. Ironically, as your listening skills improve, so will your aptitude for conversation.
How to become a good listener

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For you to be a good listener, firstly you must prepare for listening:
How to prepare
i. Focus your attention on the subject that is being discussed. Review mentally what you already
know about the subject, Organize in advance relevant material in order to develop it further.
ii. Avoid distractions by sitting in-front, sit still, near the speaker. Also avoid sitting next to a
window, a talkative neighbor or noise.
iii. Suspend emotions until later. Keep your eyes fixed on the speaker and listen with your ears
but also with your eyes and other senses.
iv. Concentrate on what a person is saying rather than how he looks and mannerism. Nod your
head to show you understand.
v. Repeat the key ideas to yourself. It will help you understand better
vi. Try to relate the speakers remarks to your personal background and experiences
vii. Maintain eye contact.
viii. Repeat instructions and ask appropriate questions when the speaker has finished. Let the
speaker finish before you begin to talk. Speakers appreciate having the chance to say everything
they would like to say without being interrupted. When you interrupt, it looks like you aren't
listening, even if you are.
ix. Give the speaker your full attention. Avoid looking out of the window or at what else is going
on in the room.
x. Listen with an open-mind.
xi. Ask questions. If you are not sure you understand what the speaker has said, just ask.

Difficulties encountered while listening

Listening is affected by various factors such as:-
i. Audibility - if the speaker is not louder enough then listening becomes an issue
ii. Accent- this can happen when the speaker is influenced by mother tongue. It affects
pronunciation.
iii. Speed of delivery - if the speaker is too fast and the listener is writing and interpreting at the
same time, listening becomes a problem.
iv. Boring speaker - when the speaker is boring, your mind is tempted to wander elsewhere.
v. Language barrier - the language the speaker is using determines if you will listen and
understand or not
vi. Noise from the environment destructs the listeners from listening.
vii. Semantic destruction - semantic refers to meaning of language used. The language used by
the speaker can be hard to the listener.
viii. Physical disabilities - a listener can have problem in listening if your ears have problems or
if the speaker is a stammerer.
ix. Code-switching - switching from one language to another or use terms which are not
commonly used affects listening.
Barriers to effective listening
i. Physiological Barriers
a. Hearing Problems- hearing deficiencies which can be temporary or permanent but in the
process can affect your hearing capabilities
b. Drifting away or tuning out - the brain is able to process at500 words/minute, but people speak
at 125 words/minutes, leaving a lot of free time to drift.
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c. Becoming emotional and judging- strong feelings and emotions affect our listening, reasoning
and judgment.
ii. Environmental Barriers
a. Physical distractions inside and outside the room deter listening
b. Communication Channel � incase the communication channel is faulty, communication will
be affected.
iii. Attitudinal Barriers
a. Engaging in selective listening - It occurs when we listen only to what we want to hear.
b. We do not pay enough attention to non-verbal communication, such as intonation, rate of
speech, emphasis, or tone. We can focus not only on what is being said, but also on what is not
being said.
iv. Faulty Assumptions
a. Assumption that listening is passive can affect listening. Listening is hard work that is, you
may need to ask questions or paraphrase the statements to ensure your understanding
b. Assumption that talking has more advantages than listening.
v. Cultural Differences based on the background, culture affect speaking and listening.
a. Accents - the assumption that anyone with an accent is less intelligent.
vi. Gender Differences
a. Women listen for relational subtext, men for content
b. Women interpret listening noises to signify they are listening, men use them to signify
agreement

Possible remedies
Effective listening is every bit as important as effective speaking, and generally much more
difficult. The most direct way to improve communication is by learning to listen more effectively
(Webb, 2006). Although numerous barriers to effective listening can make the practice difficult,
there are several habits one can adopt that will lead to a higher level of listening proficiency.
This are:-
i. To overcome the habit of selective listening, paraphrase or mirror back what you hear to ensure
you understand other points of view.
ii. If the parties feel overwhelmed or tired which affects listening, a better strategy is to take a
break from the conversation.
iii. Be an active listener. To be an active listener, you have to be a good observer too.
iv. Provide clues that you are actively involved through asking questions, nodding etc
v. Refrain from formulating an immediate response
vi. Prepare beforehand
vii. Ensure the environment is conducive for listening.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Explain the features of quality listening
2. Differentiate between listening and hearing
3. Outline four qualities of a good listener
4. What are the ways for improving listening?

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5.2 Types and methods of reading
There are many types and methods of reading below are some:
i. Scanning - this is looking or running your eyes over a text quickly to get a specific piece of
information.(Fedeles, 2012) Move your eye quickly over the page to find particular words, name
or phrases that are relevant to the task you are doing(MacLeod, 2012).
ii. Skimming - Looking over the text quickly to get a general idea of the content/ the gist of
something (MacLeod, 2012). You read quickly to get the main points, and skip over the detail.
Use skimming when you're trying to decide if a book in the library or bookshop is right for you.

iii. Sub-vocalization - This is reading very slowly and methodically, either saying the words out
loud (Fedeles, 2012).
Advocates of speed reading claim it can be a bad habit that slows reading and comprehension,
but other studies indicate the reverse, particularly with difficult texts (Rayner, 1995).
iv. Extensive reading/Light Reading - This is reading fairly quickly without concentrating too
hard or worrying about every single word. It is often used when reading an enjoyable novel.
Brown (1989) explains that extensive reading is carried out to achieve a general understanding of
a text. Long and Richards (1971 in MacLeod, 2012) identifies extensive reading as occurring
when students read large amounts of high interest material. The aims of extensive reading are to
build reader confidence and enjoyment. Extensive reading is always done for the comprehension
of main ideas, not for specific details.
v. Intensive reading/Study Reading (Fedeles, 2012) - it involves thinking about what is being
read so that it is understood and can be recalled. It needs to be worked at, with time for
reflection, thought, analysis, criticism, comparison, notesmade, points highlighted and
emphasized, arguments followed and evaluated, thewhole summarized. Brown (1989) explains
that intensive reading calls attention to grammatical forms, discourse markers, and other surface
structure details for the purpose of understanding literal meaning, implications, rhetorical
relationships, and so on. Long and Richards (1987) say it is a detailed in-class analysis.
vi. Speed reading -is a collection of methods for increasing reading speed without an
unacceptable reduction in comprehension or retention.
vii. Proof-reading -is a kind of reading for the purpose of detecting typographical errors.
viii. Independent Reading - students read silently by themselves and at their own pace (Taylor,
1993). The selections must be at students' reading level in order for them to comprehend what
they are reading.
ix. Guided Reading- guided reading is conducted with small groups of students who read at the
same level.
x. Shared Reading -students follow along as the teacher reads a selection aloud (Fisher &
Medvic, 2000).
5.3 Strategies for Reading Comprehension
i. Creating Mental Images (Visualizing) - This strategy involves the ability of readers to make
mental images of a text as a way to understand processes or events they encounter during
reading. This ability can be an indication that a reader understands the text.
ii. Questioning - This strategy involves readers asking themselves questions throughout the
reading of text. The ability of readers to ask themselves relevant questions as they read is
especially valuable in helping them to integrate information, identify main ideas, and summarize
information. Asking the right questions allows good readers to focus on the most important
information in a text.

32
iii. Inferring - Authors do not always provide complete descriptions of, or explicit information
about a topic, setting, character, or event.
iv. Predicting- using knowledge of the subject matter to make predictions about content and
vocabulary and check comprehension; using knowledge of the text type and purpose to make
predictions about discourse structure; using knowledge about the author to make predictions
about writing style, vocabulary, and content.
v. Guessing from context- using prior knowledge of the subject and the ideas in the text as clues
to the meanings of unknown words, instead of stopping to look them up.
vi. Evaluating (Determining Importance) - Determining importance has to do with knowing why
you are reading and then making decisions about what information or ideas are most critical to
understanding the overall meaning of the piece.
vii. Synthesizing - synthesizing is closely linked to evaluating. Basically, as we identify what is
important, we interweave our thoughts to form a comprehensive perspective to make the whole
greater than just the sum of the parts.
viii. Previewing- reviewing titles, section headings, and photo captions to get a sense of the
structure and content of a reading selection
ix. Skimming and scanning- using a quick survey of the text to get the main idea, identify text
structure, confirm or question predictions
x. Paraphrasing- stopping at the end of a section to check comprehension by restating the
information and ideas in the text.
xi. Read Actively - When you are reading a document or book in detail, it helps if you practice
"active reading" by highlighting and underlining key information, and taking notes as you
progress. Mind Maps are great for this. This emphasizes information in your mind, and helps you
to review important points later. Doing this also helps you keep your mind focused on the
material, and stops you thinking about other things
(Causeytutors.com, 2010).
xii. Use Glossaries with Technical Documents- If you're reading large amounts of difficult
technical material, it may be useful to use or compile a glossary (Causeytutors.com, 2010). Keep
this beside you as you read. It is also useful to note down the key concepts in your own words,
and refer to these when necessary.
xiii. You should reduce frequency of moving your eyes backwards to cover the previous block.
5.4 Why study Reading Skills?
Reading skills enable readers to turn writing into meaning and achieve the goals of
independence, comprehension, and fluency (SIL International, 1999).
Reading skills are specific abilities which enable a reader to:-

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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Describe two strategies you can use to improve each of the following:
a. Comprehension
b. Retention
2. Explain any three poor reading habits and provide a psychomotor reading strategy for each.
3. Mention any three discourse markers used in reading comprehensions and explain their
functions
4. Name any four types of paragraphs and give an example for each
5. Discuss how you would use the SQ3R reading formula to extract information from a book
6. Explain the following types of reading skills
a) Scanning
b) Skimming
c) Critical reading

REFERENCES

Baluska, F., Marcuso, S. Volkmann, D. (2006). Communication in plants: neuronal aspects of

plant life. Taylor & Francis US
Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A TransactionalModel of Communication. In. C. D. Mortensen (Eds.),
Communication theory (2nd Ed). New Brunswick, New Jersey
Berko, R. M. et al (2010). Communicating (11th Ed). Boston; Pearson Education, Inc
Chan, L. M. (1994). Cataloging and Classification: An Introduction, (2nd Ed). New York,
McGraw-Hill
Cottrell, S. (2008). The Study Skills Handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan
Cottrell, S. (2011). Critical Thinking Skills. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan
Daily Almanac (2012). Listening Skills. Pearson Education
http://www.d.umn.edu/kmc/student/loon/acad/strat/ss
Dutta, P. K. (2009). Examination Preparation-Examination tips; Kalyan City Life, Gaurav
Akrani
Fisher, A. (2011). Critical Thinking; Open University, Skills for OU Study.
Gupta, J. (2012). Types of Libraries. Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra University.
Gyanguru (2009). Five Tips to Study Effectively; www.gyanguru.org/5-tips-to-studyeffectively/
What makes exam questions difficult? Edinburgh, UK: Scottish Academic Press.
Saleemi, N.A. (1997) Business Communication and report writing simplified. Nairobi.

35
 TOPIC 6
STUDY SKILLS
Introduction
Study skills or the study strategies are approaches applied to learning. They are generally critical
to success in school and are considered essentially for acquiring good grades. Some study skills
include mnemonics which is the retention of lists of information, effective reading and
concentration techniques as well as efficient note taking.
Study Skills are discrete techniques that can be learned, usually in a short time, and applied to all
or most fields of study. They must therefore be distinguished from strategies that are specific to a
particular field of study e.g. music or technology, and from abilities inherent in the student, such
as aspects of intelligence or learning style.

2.1 Tips to effective study

Good study habits include many different skills such as time management, self-discipline,
concentration, memorization, organization, and effort. That desire to succeed is important, too.
For you to be able to study effectively and be successful in your studies consider following the
following tips to effective studying:-
i. Attend class - this is the simplest way to learn how to study effectively. If you do not go to
class, you will not know which items are absolutely crucial to study (Gerhard, 2011). In addition,
you will not be able to listen to the lectures or obtain handouts (Gerhard, 2011).
ii. Sit in the front of the class to avoid distractions � if talkative students in the back of the class
disturb you, try to sit where you won't notice them (Blogger, 2012).
iii. State your intention on why you are studying and what do you intend to gain from it? Ask
yourself this question every time you sit down to study. Half-hearted or distracted studying is a
waste of time. Relate studying to your life goals. If your life and future depended on how well or
how much you studied, would it make sense to do it well? If you cannot see the point in
studying, it will only make it boring and tedious.
iv. Prioritize your time and put off other activities to allow for adequate study time. You may
find it necessary to postpone or eliminate certain activities in order to fulfill your goals as a
student. Take responsibility for yourself and recognize that in order to succeed you need to make
decisions about your priorities, your time, and your resources (Cottrell, 2011).
v. Be an active reader - be a text detective: ask your text good questions and it will yield good
answers.
vi. Ask questions - It is important to make sure that you get the answers to your questions right
away. Do not wait until you have studied the material several times and you still do not
understand it. Get help right away (Gerhard, 2011).
vii. Make friends - having a friend in your class can be an invaluable resource. You could help
each other learn how to study effectively together by quizzing each other on the material. At the
same time, participate in study groups - share the load of reading and studying with other
students - you will learn better by teaching them. It helps to combine the efforts of different
minds, increase your storehouse of information, learn new study techniques, and allows you to
share notes and information. It reinforces learning through discussion, questioning, repetition,
and reinforcement. The group should set rules, limit the size of the group, and make it an
effective study session, not a social gathering. Study groups require the same organization and
time management as private study sessions. While joining any group, remember to choose study
group which is serious about the study and life.

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x. Take notes - Condense and synthesize reading, lectures and discussions. Write down
everything you think is important. If you hear an unfamiliar term, write it down so that you can
look up the definition later (Gerhard, 2011). Try to make them attractive by adding flow charts,
diagrams and sketches which will help you revise quickly (Gyanguru, 2009).
xi. Organize your study materials - if you organize your materials as you proceed through a
course, you will retrieve information with greater ease later.
xii. Read ahead - although this can seem hard to do when you are already so busy, try to read the
material before you attend the class (Gerhard, 2011). If you accomplish this, then you will be
exposed to the material a second time. It could begin to cement new concepts and terms. In
addition, you can ask for clarification of anything you did not
understand during your readings (Gerhard, 2011).
xiii. Take breaks every hour - It is important to take a break before you feel tired and lose your
concentration completely. Regular breaks at least once an hour helps to sustain your
concentration. If the work is not going too well and you have difficulties in concentrating, you
may need a long break and go back to it later (StudentHacks.org, 2007). Stretch during your
breaks. Know and respect your concentration span which will vary from hour to hour and from
day to day. When you sit for long periods, gravity draws the blood to the lower part of your body
(StudentHacks.org, 2007). When you take a break, take a few deep breaths and get more oxygen
to your brain: try walking around and doing some light stretching for a few minutes. It will help
to release tension in your body, and help your circulation.
xiv. Use the Available Resources - if the lecturer has included additional reading for you to look
into, it is important to take advantage of the resources that you have available.
xv. Seek out old exams - you can use old exams and study guides as the basis for learning how to
study effectively in university. Even if the answers are not available, you will still learn on how
exams are set.
xvi. Do not wait until the last minute - Do not try to do all your studying the night before the test
(TestTakingTips.com, 2003). Instead space out your studying, review class materials at least
several times a week, focusing on one topic at a time. This will help you to avoid cramming all
of your studying into one or two days (Gerhard, 2011). You will learn more by studying a little
every day instead of waiting to cram at the last minute (TestTakingTips.com, 2003). By studying
every day, the material will stay in your long-term memory but if you try to study at the last
moment, the material will only reside in your short-term memory that you'll easily forget. Study
for a few hours each day of the week before the exam (Gerhard, 2011). Study daily and never
ever skip days and do whatever you feel like in the entire day but never lose the habit of studying
daily (Gyanguru, 2009).
a. Study begins on the first day of class. Successful students read and review notes before each
class to recall information from the previous class and to warm up for learning. Review your
notes immediately after each class to reinforce learning or within a 24-hour period for best recall.
Repeated exposure to the material will store it in your long-term memory (Mayland Community
College, 2002).
b. Studying one hour immediately after a class will do more good in developing an
understanding of the material as several hours a few days later. Studies show that as much as 80
% of material learned in class is forgotten within 24 hours if there is no review (Mayland
Community College, 2002).
c. At the ends of the week go over your notes for the week. This refreshes your memory and
promotes better recall of the material. Repetition is the key to remembering. The more times you

37
look at the material, the stronger you make the neural (brain) pathways that lead to the material.
This makes recall much easier.
d. Study when you are at your peak, when you are more awake and alert and able to absorb new
information. If you are a morning person, your best study time is in the morning. If you are an
evening person, study at night. If you cannot find time to study at your peak time, try to study
when you are feeling relatively awake and alert (Mayland Community College, 2002).
xvii. Study in a calm and peaceful environment. Always study in a place which is isolated from
any sort of internal or external noise. Find a comfortable and quiet place to study with good
lighting and little distractions: avoid your own bed since it is very tempting to just lie down and
take a nap (TestTakingTips.com, 2003).
xviii. Study ahead of the lecturer. Start out by studying the most important information. Learn
the general concepts first, don't worry about learning the details until you have learned the main
ideas.

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xxvi. Consider yourself in a win-win situation - when you contribute your best to a class, you,
your fellow students, and even your teacher will benefit. Your grade can then be one additional
check on your performance.

Presentation of Academic Work

A student in college or university is required to do a lot of assignments, CATs, term-papers and
so on. The work to be presented to the lecturer should be presentable with legible hand writing.
Typed work always look presentable but since a student cannot come with a computer or a laptop
and a printer while doing a CAT, so the best thing to put in mind is, let your work be presentable.
Your University, school/faculty, department, names (surname first), adm/reg number, course
title, course code, name of the lecturer, the date and signature should be carefully scribed on the
cover page. A student should have a cover page for every work/assignment they tackled in
campus.

How it should be written

INSTITUTE OF ACCOUNTANCY ARUSHA
GENERAL STUDIES DEPARTMENT
NAME: LENGAI, OLE SABAYA
ADM. NO: BEF/0328/2019
MODULE TITLE: BASIC COMMUNICATION SKILLS
COURSE CODE: GST 04105
TYPE OF ASSIGNMENT: INDIVIDUAL
PRESENTED TO: Dr. JONATHAN SHISHIWA
SUBMISSION DATE: 17th MARCH, 2019
SIGNATURE:
By so doing, you are assured that your work is safe, it will be handed to the required person if
they were lost and found etc.

2.3 Planning Your Academic Work

For everything you have desired to achieve or have in life, you have to wake up and go get it.

There is nothing that come easy, hard work and determination make things happen. A good
student should priorities his/her study and work smartly. Dr. Bob Kizlik has said in his article on
effective study skills that study skills must be practiced in order for you to improve (Kizlik,
2012). He added and said, practice doesn't make perfect; perfect practice makes perfect. To
ensure you become successful person in life through education, here are some guide that you can
try to perfect you work.
i. Make a Plan - A good student should have a plan which is supposed to be followed strictly
without fail. A busy person does not postpone, does not waste time and plans his time well.
ii. Timetable - The time table should have all the subjects studied in school without allocation
more time to your favorite subjects and denying time to your weak subjects. Follow your time
table strictly.

40
iii. When to study - according to Kizlik, 2012, the problem of when to study is critical. A good
rule of thumb is that studying should be carried out only when you are rested, alert, and have
planned for it. Last minute studying just before a class is usually a waste of time (Kizlik, 2012).
iv. Make a Deadline - procrastination is a thief of time, my standard English teacher always
said. Now that am grown, I know for sure procrastination is a thief of time. Time wait for no
man, so in case you have things, assignments you have to handle, do them today not tomorrow.
v. Note-taking - take note from lecture note to sermon by a pastor, seminar conferences etc. this
notes will be so useful to you today and in the future. covering everything from listening well
and following directions, to managing, presenting, and organizing information, to practical note
taking.
vi. Reading and studying - be a reader. Read through all kind of materials such as newspapers,
textbooks, reading strategies across school subjects, researching and writing reports, and subject-
specific study techniques.
vii. Discussion groups - it is always good to work in groups, many hands make work light. Look
for colleagues whose priority is study and work with them.
vii. The environment/location for study- You can study anywhere, only that some places are
better than others. Make sure the place you study is noise free. Libraries, study lounges or private
rooms are the best. Above all, the place you choose to study should not be distracting.
Distractions can build up, and the first thing you know, you're out of time and out of luck. Make
choosing a good physical environment a part of your study habits.
Note-taking during lecture
Note taking is the practice of recording information captured from a transient source, such as an
oral discussion at a meeting, or a lecture. Notes of a meeting are usually called minutes.

How to go about note taking

i. Arrive to your lecture room on or in time, this enables one to settle before the lecturer.
ii. Arrive when organized with all the requirements/materials eg pen, ruler, pencils, note book etc
that is avoid borrowing.
iii. Make sure you sit in a position where you can see the lecturer and the board properly.
v. Take notes using short forms if possible
vi. Never remain a passive listener if you fail to grasp an explanation ask the teacher to go over it
again.
vii. Take note of important questions during an oral presentation -questions may be asked but no
answers given.
viii. Take note of the contributions from the other students during the discussion group meetings.

2.4.1 Challenges of note taking

While taking notes you are required to listen and at the same time write. In the process one
undergoes a lot of challenges. Here are some of the challenges the note taker go through
i. Misspelling the words
ii. Not hearing properly maybe because of noise or physical maladies
iii. Poor pronunciation from the teacher
iv. Speed of the lecturer at which he is lecturing
v. Dozing in class
vi. Misinterpretation of points
vii. Attitude towards the lecturer/subject/lecture hall
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2.5 Formation of discussion groups
A student in the university cannot work alone; he need help from others reason for discussion
groups. The students also encourage each other to read and study. Know the members you wish
to avoid or include, try to listen to others and correct them. Do not shout at each other, this may
lead to depression and feeling inferior. Meet when convenient to all members and avoid
destructive members. Leave out5 leisure during discussion time.
Characteristics of a discussion group
While choosing the members of your discussion group consider:-
i. The characteristics you will like the group to have
ii. Group dynamics
iii. They should have common interests
iv. Committed to the group
v. Manageable group, about 4-8people � should have a chairperson
vi. Respecting one another
vii. Oriented to the same goal/interest
viii. Time conscious
ix. Allow each other a chance to discuss (active participation
2.6 Critical Thinking
As a student you may feel that, having only done a few hours of reading on a topic, you can't
argue against an author who has spent many years writing a book (Fisher, A., 2011). Yet one of
the main purposes of a degree is to enable you to evaluate critically what you read. Critical
thinking is disciplined thinking with accorded or accepted given principles. It focuses on
designing new strategies on what to do. It is attitude of mind and it brings to focus problems and
their solutions and help one to learn to make one more stimulating. Problem solving is referred to
as critical thinking because at the end one has to solve his problems.
Characteristics of Critical Thinkers
i. A person who is conscious with his work and want to be well informed
ii. He is enthusiastic - always wanting to gain and he understanding.
iii. Reasonable and fair minded in judgment
iv. Critical thinker is efficient in problem solving.
v. He is clear in communicating ideas and feelings
vi. He ask creative questions
vii. He is sensitive to the feeling, level of knowledge and degree of
sophistication of the others
viii. He is an effective team member
ix. They base judgments on evidence - he takes position and changes position depending on the
evidence; when evidence is sufficient to do so.
x. He looks for alternatives
xii. This people use credible sources and mention or refer to them.
xiii. They are honest with themselves
xiv. They resist manipulation
xv. They overcome confusion
xvi. They look for connections between subjects
xvii. They are intellectually independent

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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. List five challenges that the note-taker go through while taking notes.
2. List three characteristics of a critical thinker
3. Give reasons as to why we study ‘study skills’ in the university
4. Explain any five characteristics of a good discussion group

TOPIC 7
LIBRARY SKILLS
What is a library?
According to Casson, L. (2002) a library is an organized collection of books, other printed
materials, and in some cases special materials such as manuscripts, films and other sources of
information. Its collections can be of print, audio, or visual materials, including maps, prints,
documents, microform (e.g.microfilm/microfiche), CDs, cassettes, videot apes, DVDs, video-
games, e-books, audio-books and many other types of electronic resource.
The places where this material is stored include public libraries, subscription libraries, private
libraries, and academic libraries (Casson, L. 2002).
A library is a collection of information, sources, resources, and services: it is organized for use
and maintained by a public body, an institution, or a private individual. In the more traditional
sense, a library is a collection of books (http://wiki.answers.com/).
In short we can then conclude and say that, a library is a place in which literary and artistic
materials, such as books, periodicals newspapers, pamphlets, prints, records and tapes are kept
for reading, reference or lending. Library is also defined as collection of literary documents or
records kept for reference or borrowing.
Types of library
We have various types of libraries where people can go and read, research, reference; borrow etc
books, manuals, newspapers, magazines and so on.
National or state library
A national library keeps all documents of and about a nation under some legal provision and thus
represents publications of and about the whole nation (Dr. Gupta, J. (April 28, 2012). According
to Line, Maurice B. and Line, J. (1979), a national or state library serves as a national repository
of information, and has the right of legal deposit, which is a legal requirement that publishers in
the country need to deposit a copy of each publication with the library. Unlike a public library,
they rarely allow citizens to borrow books. Often, they include numerous rare, valuable, or
significant works. Examples of national library in the world are:-
i. National Library of India-Kolkata
ii. British Library-London
iii. Library of Congress- Washington

43
iv. The Russian State Library-Moscow
v. The Bibliotheque Nationale-Paris
Academic library
An academic library is a library found in school, colleges and university. A library associated or
connected with a school and used by the students, teachers and staff of that school is called a
School Library (Dr. Gupta, J. (April 28, 2012). Some academic libraries, especially those at
public institutions, are accessible to members of the general public in whole or in part.
Nonacademic materials are not found in an academic library.
The main functions of an academic library are to provide resources and research support for
students and faculty of the educational institution. Specific course-related resources are usually
provided by the library, such as copies of textbooks and article readings held on 'reserve'
(meaning that they are loaned out only on a short-term basis, usually a matter of hours).
Academic libraries also offer workshops and courses outside of formal, graded coursework,
which are meant to provide students with the tools necessary to succeed in their programs
http://main.library.utoronto.ca/workshops/. These workshops may include help with citations,
effective search techniques, journal databases, and electronic citation software. These workshops
provide students with skills that can help them achieve success in their academic careers (and
often, in their future occupations), which they may not learn inside the classroom. The academic
library provides a quiet study space for students in campus and college; it may also provide
group study space, such as meeting rooms.

The library provides a "gateway" for students and researchers to access various resources, both
print/physical and digital. Dowler, L. (1997) said that academic institutions are subscribing to
electronic journals databases, providing research and scholarly writing software, and usually
provide computer workstations or computer labs for students to access journals, library search
databases and portals, institutional electronic resources, internet access, and course- or task-
related software (i.e. word processing and spreadsheet software). They are increasingly acting as
an electronic repository for institutional scholarly research and academic knowledge, such as the
collection of digital copies of students' theses and dissertations
http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/anunobi-okoye.htm. Larger academic institutions may have subject-
specific libraries, like a science library, a law library, and a medical library.

The functions of an academic library in a school, college and university

i. To provide facilities for all teaching, learning, educational and research programmes of the
school, college and university
ii. To cater for the information needs of teachers, students, researchers associated with the
institution
iii. It provides facilities to its users for intellectual development which is a power of acquiring
ideas through individual efforts
iv. It conserves knowledge
v. By putting knowledge to use for research purpose it makes extension of knowledge.
vi. By providing latest knowledge to teachers in their field for effective teaching it makes
transmission of knowledge possible.
vii. By procuring comprehensive range of documents including books, manuscripts, journals,
magazines, newspapers etc. on varied subjects, it conserves knowledge and ideas.

44
viii. By processing the procured documents with the help of classification, cataloguing, proper
shelf arrangements it gives easy and open access to knowledge to its users.
ix. In order to organize huge collection of documents it keeps them in different sections on the
basis of their categorization like text book section, reference section, journal section, thesis
section etc.
x. It provides facility of inter-library loan to its users if document desired by user is not available
in the library
xi. A modern library interacts with different information networks to give easy access to
esources/ data to more users so that they could access the desired information even from their
workplace.
xii. It also provides entertainment and healthy leisure to users by providing different newspapers,
magazines, short story books, fiction, internet facility etc.
xiii. It gives the user orientation training to new enrolled users to make them feel at home and to
acquaint them with the library system so that they could make maximum use of library services
xiv. With the help of display of new arrivals, old book exhibitions, information bulletins about
new library services etc. it keeps the users updated with the library activities
xv. It provides reference service through reference section to establish a contact between the
right reader and the right document in a personal way to attract more users.
3.2.3 Children libraries
Children's libraries are special collections of books intended for juvenile readers and usually kept
in separate rooms of general public libraries. They are an educational agency seeking to acquaint
the young with the world's literature and to cultivate a love for reading. Their work supplements
that of the public schools (Modell, 1920).
Special libraries
Many private businesses and public organizations, including hospitals, museums, research
laboratories, law firms, and many government departments and agencies, maintain their own
libraries for the use of their employees in doing specialized research related to their work.
Special libraries may or may not be accessible to some identified part of the general public.
Branches of a large academic or research libraries dealing with particular subjects are also
usually called special libraries. They are generally associated with one or more academic
departments. Special libraries are distinguished from special collections, which are branches or
parts of a library intended for rare books, manuscripts, and other special materials.

Research libraries
A research library contains an in-depth collection of material on one or more subjects, (Young,
H., 1983). A research library supports scholarly research and will generally include primary as
well as secondary sources; it will maintain permanent collections and attempt to provide access
to all necessary material. A research library is most often an academic or national library, but a
large special library may have a research library within its special field and a very few of the
largest public libraries also serve as research libraries. A large university library may be
considered a research library (Young, 1983). A research library can be either a reference library,
which does not lend its holdings, or a lending library, which does lend all or some of its
holdings. Some extremely large or traditional research libraries are entirely reference in this
sense, lending none of their material.

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Reference libraries
A reference library does not lend books and other items; instead, they must be read at the library
itself. Typically such libraries are used for research purposes in the university. Some items at
reference libraries may be historical and even unique (Ehrenhaft, 2004).
Public libraries
According to Dr.S.R.Ranganathan Public Library is a public institution or establishment charged
with the care of collection of books and the duty of making them accessible to those who require
the use of them. According to Dr. Gupta, J., 2012) a social institution established by law,
financed by public fund, open for all without any discrimination, for general and free diffusion of
knowledge and information in the community. It is also seen as the obligation of the government
to establish a public library system throughout the country at national, state and local levels.
Besides this, the rural and suburban areas should also be covered by branch and mobile libraries.

Types of Library Classification

There are many standard systems of library classification in use, and many more have been
proposed over the years the (Wikimedia Foundation, Inc, 2011). In general, Classification
systems can be divided into three types depending on how they are used.
The most common classification systems are:-
a) Library of Congress Classification (LCC)
b) Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) which are essentially enumerative, though with some
hierarchical and faceted elements (more so for DDC). In a nutshell, let us discuss DDC
classification.
The Dewey decimal classification (DDC)
Dewey Decimal System of classification is a proprietary system of library classification
developed by Melvil Dewey in 1876 (Lynch, S. N., and Eugene M., (2007). It has been greatly
modified and expanded through 23 major revisions, the most recent in 2011. This system
organizes books on library shelves in a specific and repeatable order that makes it easy to find
any book and return it to its proper place. The system is used in 200,000 libraries in at least 135
countries (http://www.oclc.org/dewey/default.htm). The DDC attempts to organize all
knowledge into ten main classes. The ten main classes are each further subdivided into ten
divisions, and each division into ten sections, giving ten main classes, 100 divisions and 1000
sections. DDC's advantage in using decimals for its categories allows it to be purely numerical;
while the drawback is that the codes are much longer and more difficult to remember as
compared to an alphanumeric system. Just as an alphanumeric system, it is infinitely
hierarchical. It also uses some aspects of a faceted classification scheme, combining elements
from different parts of the structure to construct a number representing the subject content (often
combining two subject elements with linking numbers and geographical and temporal elements)
and form of an item rather than drawing upon a list containing each class and its meaning.
The Dewey decimal classification of books in the library is as follows:-
i. 000 -099 Computer science, information and general works
ii. 100 -199 Philosophy and psychology
iii. 200 - 299 Religion
iv. 300 - 399 Social sciences
v. 400 -499 Language

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vi. 500 - 599 Science (including mathematics)
vii. 600 - 699 Technology and applied Science
viii. 700 -799 Arts and recreation
ix. 800 -899 Literature
x. 900 -999 History, geography, and biography
Advantages of Dewey decimal classification
i. The Dewey decimal classification system is universal because of its numerical notation.
A system based on Arabic numerals is used throughout the world.
ii. Documents are classified by subject. Those interested or specialized in a particular topic can
find all the documents they need under the same classification.
iii. The Dewey system indicates at the outset whether the document in question is general in
nature or highly specific, simply from the length of the number on the label; the longer the string
of numbers, the more detailed the contents. All Dewey numbers must contain a minimum of
three digits, but if the third digit is a zero, then it belongs to one of the first hundred divisions,
and is therefore general in scope.
iv. Simplicity because of its notational, a mnemonics system and a hierarchical decimal place
system, it is generally easier to use
v. Dewey decimal classification is more flexible than Library of Congress Classification because
of greater use of facets (via auxiliary tables).

Disadvantages of Dewey decimal classification

i. DDC was developed in the 19th century essentially by one man and was built on a topdown
approach to classify all human knowledge, which makes it difficult to adapt to changing fields of
knowledge.
ii. It is less hospitable to the addition of new subjects. DDC notations can be much longer
compared to other classification systems.
iii. Dewey system has highly artificial nature of the original division, and the assumption that
knowledge can be conveniently sliced into divisions of ten, no more and no less.
3.6 Library catalogue
Cataloging is how a library maintains its list of materials. A cataloging system allows searching
and helps manage circulation. A bibliographic record is prepared by the cataloger on each
bibliographic record on the material; the record can be just basic data, i.e. author, title, date,
subject. These records can be kept in a traditional card catalog or store using Online Public
Assess Catalog (OPAC). Library catalogue is a register of all bibliographic items found in a
library this include books, maps, newspapers, magazines, computer files, graphics, etc that is
considered library. Libraries use classification systems to organize the books on the shelves. A
classification system uses letters and/or numbers (call numbers) to arrange the books so that
books on the same topic are together.

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What is citation?
Ethics, copyright laws, and courtesy to readers require authors to identify the sources of direct
quotations and of any facts or opinions not generally known or easily checked
(http://students.berkeley.edu/uga/conduct.pdf).
Plagiarism means using another's work without acknowledging the sources. Plagiarism is a form
of academic dishonesty (http://students.berkeley.edu/uga/conduct.pdf). Whenever you quote or
base your ideas on another person's work, you must document the source you used.
Citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source. More precisely, a citation is an
abbreviated alphanumeric expression. To cite works of others, APA style is used where the
author and date are cited. Citations inserted in the text are acknowledged with (Author, Date) or
Author (Date), (e.g. (Wambui, 2011) in the body of an intellectual work that denotes an entry in
the bibliographic references section of the work for the purpose of acknowledging the relevance
of the works of others to the topic of discussion at the spot where the citation appears.
The combination of both the in-body citation and the bibliographic entry constitutes what is
commonly thought of as a citation, whereas bibliographic entries by themselves are not. Citation
styles differ mostly in the location, order, and syntax of information about references.
The number and diversity of citation styles reflect different priorities with respect to concision,
readability, dates, authors, publications, and style (plagiarism.org, 2012). Citations allow readers
to locate and further explore the sources you consulted, it also show the depth and scope of your
research and give credit to authors for their ideas.
Citations provide evidence for your arguments and add credibility to your work by
demonstrating that you have sought out and considered a variety of resources. In written
academic work, citing sources is standard practice and shows that you are responding to this
person, agreeing with that person, and adding something of your own.
Think of documenting your sources as providing a trail for your reader to follow to see the
research you performed and discover what led you to your original contribution.

Citation has the following purpose:-

i. It allow the reader to identify and relocate the document
ii. To (http://web.mit.edu/academicintegrity/citing/whatandwhy.html) citation upholds
intellectual honesty. To attribute prior or original work and ideas to the correct sources, to allow
the reader to determine independently whether the referenced material supports the author's
argument in the claimed way, and to help the reader gauge the strength and validity of the
material the author has used.
iii. Establishes permanent citations in a medium where documents are continually changing and
moving.
iv. Referring readers to specific point in an on-line source or a book
v. To show anyone who reads your work that you understand the topic and can demonstrate your
own thoughts on this.
vi. To demonstrate that you have read widely and deeply.
vii. To enable the reader to locate where you obtained each quote or idea.

48
viii. By providing the original source you are acknowledging that you have read the work and
recognize the original author(s) ideas.
A citation is required when:-
i. Quoting another person word for word (direct quotation). It doesn't matter whether it is a
phrase, sentence or paragraph, you will need to provide a reference to the source.
ii. Paraphrasing or summarizing ideas or data obtained from another source; a secondary source.
iii. Using statistics in your work obtained from another source e.g. population, results of surveys.
iv. Using tables, figures, diagrams or images created by someone else.
v. Using controversial facts, opinions, or dates from another source.
There is no universally agreed upon method for citing Internet sources, but recommended
guidelines for Internet citing is as follows:-

Referencing/Bibliography process

Bibliography
Bibliography includes all sources of information consulted while doing your research. It is a
standardized method of formatting the information sources you have used in your assignments or
written work. Any given referencing style serves two purposes:
i. It acknowledges the source
ii. It allows the reader to trace the source.
Referencing styles
A referencing style of writing is a specific format for presenting references (footnotes or
endnotes), and bibliography. Referencing styles are well established systems of referencing with
References should be listed in alphabetical order.
Referencing is part of the code of conduct for scholars and academicians. It is a standard
required of scholarly communication. It is also a standard for written communication expected
by professionals.

Referencing your work is important because:-

i. It shows adherence to academic writing standards
ii. Shows respect for and acknowledges the work of other scholars therefore avoiding plagiarism
iii. Provides evidence that you have read and considered the relevant literature
iv. It allows validation and confirmation of sources used in your work
v. Gives your work credibility.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Give five benefits of library facility to a student
2. Use illustrations to show three types of catalogues
3. Describe the various collections you find in a library
4. Identify four types of libraries and give an example of each
5. Discuss briefly the difference between Dewey decimal classification and the library of
congress classification of books in a library
6. What is citation? Differentiate between referencing and bibliography.

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 TOPIC 8
EXAMINATION SKILLS
What is an examination skill?

An examination is a formal test of your knowledge or skill in a given area (Your Dictionary,
2012). An example of an examination is when you take a science test to see how well you
understand science. It is written exercises, oral questions, or practical tasks, set to test a
candidate's knowledge and skill.
Success and failure are two aspects of life. Why do some people get success and why some
people fail, the reason for this is the manner in which examinations strategies are planned (Dutta,
2009). According to Dutta (2009) there are three vital strategies to being successful in
examination and in life:-
i. Planning: The first and the most important thing that is required for success is planning.
Planning is the determination of ends and formulation of means. Under this step we decide the
goal and the manner in which it can be achieved. Your planning should be flexible so that it can
be changed in undesirable circumstances or whenever required.
ii. Implementation: Planning is just the predetermination of the manner in which the work is
going to be performed. Thus, the next step after the formulation of the plan is its implementation.
Your goal will be achieved only when the plan is properly implemented.
iii. Control: Under this step we should compare the existing situation and desired situation and if
we find any deviation then we must improve upon it as soon as possible.
The above mentioned are the steps that contribute greatly for preparing the strategy for
examination. Being sincere is not enough, it is also important to do smart hard work as well
(Dutta, 2009).
7.2 Preparation Strategies to Tackle Examination
Dutta, (2009) indicated that an effective approach to examination technique enables students to
enter the examination room with a clear idea of the skills they wish to demonstrate, with a
realistic expectation of what the questions will be like, and with the intention of using the
questions to demonstrate as much knowledge as possible. This active approach to examination
technique enables students to be in control of the situation (Dutta, 2009). She indicated that,
some students approach examinations with a fatalistic attitude, rather like helpless victims facing
torment. They respond passively to the questions and then hope for the best (Dutta, 2009).
It is important to realize that answering an examination question correctly requires mastery of
your material (lsc.sas.cornell.edu/Sidebars/Study Skills Resources/exam.pdf). That means
attending all lectures, reading all assignments, taking thoughtful notes and reviewing and
reciting. Below are the tips on how to prepare for your examination according to
(lsc.sas.cornell.edu/Sidebars/Study Skills Resources/exam.pdf; Dutta, 2009; Herophilus (2012) :-

50
i. Manage your time -figure out roughly how much time you can spend on each question to
complete the exam. Always start with the easiest questions (lsc.sas.cornell.edu/Sidebars/Study
Skills Resources/exam.pdf).
ii. Read directions and questions carefully - exam directions often contain specific instructions
for answering the questions. As you read the questions, write down words or phrases that come
to mind in the margin. These may help you organize your answer.
iii. Make a mental plan, use mnemonics and spider diagrams - jot down some of your
mnemonics or spider diagrams before you start answering any question (Dutta, 2009). In that
way, you can refer back to your plan when writing your answer, without fear of forgetting what
you were going to write next.
iv. Consider how to organize your essay - carefully organize your essay, using a recognizable
pattern. The decreasing � importance pattern starts off with the broadest and most important
information and then gradually narrows in scope.

v. Write an outline - once you understand the question, write an outline for your answer. This
will help you make sure your essay addresses each part of the question and has a clear structure.
This will also help your professor see what you were thinking.
vi. Get to the point right away - time plays a key role in essay questions. Be sure to get right to
the point, even if it means skipping the introduction. It is best to put your answer in the
beginning, followed by supporting evidence or illustrations.
vii. Support your opinions with solid evidence - the well-written essay usually contains the
answer in the first/topic sentence. The bulk of your essay should be devoted to the evidence that
supports your answer. Support all general opinions with logical or factual evidence, and avoid
including personal opinions unless asked to do so.
viii. End with a summary - summarize your essay in a final sentence or two. This will tie your
points together.
ix. Express your knowledge and learn to link concepts - it can be quite frustrating to do a lot
of revision and then find that you are not asked questions that reflect what you have learned.
However it sometimes happens that examination questions give you the opportunity to express
your knowledge.
7.3 Examination Rubrics
Students fail in the examination due to many reasons. For instance student’s mental approach
towards study, how much a student is particular about his study, attendance in lectures, method
of preparing for exam, exam taking tactics and strategies, etc (Pollitt, et al, 1985). Sometimes a
student studies a lot but he gets less mark in exam because he may not be aware of test taking
strategies which tells him how to express his learning in best way in exam or reproduce his
learning in a good way in exam to convince the examiner to give him more marks. Exam taking
tactics and strategies plays a vital role. Failure, just like abandoning one’s studies, is never due to
a single cause but to an accumulation of reasons (Pollitt, et al, 1985). It may be due to:-
i. Internal factors
a. educational project not properly thought out, hesitation between several study choices
b. lack of commitment and motivation, lack of maturity, low inclination for effort, lack of self-
confidence, fear of exams
c. problems in learning how to be a student

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d. insufficient intellectual skills - school baggage, prerequisites, working methods (taking notes,
listening, memorizing, exam preparation)
e. inadequate personal skills - time management, concentration, emotional control
f. Inadequate preparation
g. Inappropriate Study Habits
h. Subject - concept difficulties- if the subject is overly hard the student may fail to grasp
henceforth failing.
i. Process difficulties where a particular operation or sequence of operations demands
manipulation of data at a level beyond the recall of specific learned items.
j. Question or stimulus difficulties where the guidance given to candidates in directing their
attention to a particular response or the support given in terms of additional information or data
is either minimal or non-specific.
ii. External factors
a. studying conditions, supervision by the professors or lecturers
b. relevance of study plans, overloaded study programmes, ambiguous
requirements by the professors
c. exam selectiveness
d. cultural or geographical gap
e. personal or financial problems
The question or stimulus difficulty arises from the candidate’s failure to interpret what
DIRECTIONAL WORDS � guide words/examination rubrics are testing (Pollitt, et al, 1985).

Some of the commonly used examination rubrics are discussed here under:-
i. Briefly outline
a. Briefly means shortly/in a few sentences (http://tls.vu.edu.au/sls/ca).
b. Outline means - a description of the main features without going into details.
ii. Compare - means identify the similarities and differences and comment on them.
iii. Contrast - compare certain things by discussion of their main differences.
iv. Critically examine - critically means to weigh up/ look for faults.
v. Examine means - to consider carefully/to investigate.
vi. Define - state accurately the main characteristics of.
vii. Describe - give a step-by-step account.
viii. Discuss - identify both sides of a debate and support your point of view with reasons.
ix. Distinguish - to make a distinction by separating.
x. Explain- to make plain or understandable how something works.
xi. Features - a distinct part of something.
xii. Form- to place in order/ to arrange.
xiii. Functions - the approved duties of a person or organization
xiv. Relationship- the particular way in which one thing is thought of as being connected or
linked with another.
xv. Relative - the extent or degree
xvi. Role - the job or function a person or organization carries out.

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7.4 How to pass examinations
Making good and helpful notes, having a direction of study, method of learning, memorizing,
concentration, confidence and study related extra-curricular activities are the factors which make
student pass in exam. Examination tests one’s ability and if one fails, he is judged weak and
unsuccessful. There are a number of factors that a student can implement so as to pass the
examination. According to (www.studyandexam.com, 2010), for you to pass your examination
you should do the following:-
i. Have effective and directed study - study is not just reading, it is reading for learning. A
student should know how to study effectively, how to study more in little time. Study should be
directed. Directed study means that you study according to the nature of exam and according to
the way it should be learnt. This can be done by:-
a. Building up a set of clear condensed revision notes, right from the start.
b. Practice expressing psychological ideas.
c. Use memory aids.
d. Self-test regularly.
e. Plan your revision ahead.
f. Know what to expect on exam day.
ii. Take study breaks often, and get plenty of sleep – it’s very easy to get super stressed out
about studying, especially when you are studying for hours on end. But remember that you are
not cramming for this exam (Herophilus, 2012). Give your brain a break! Get out and watch a
movie, catch up on TV shows in between study sessions, go get some food with friends, etc. You
will often come back to studying feeling re-motivated.
Seriously, aim to take a small break every 3-4 hours, even if it is just to take a walk somewhere
(Herophilus, 2012). Sleep is also your friend. Do not miss out on a good night's sleep, every
night. Plenty of students stay up until 3 or 4am studying, and then wake up at 8am to try and
keep studying (Herophilus, 2012). This is also dumb. Sleep is also incredibly important for
memory consolidation (as you probably know), and you will need this to slowly assimilate all the
knowledge your soaking up every day.
iii. Preparation for exam - student should know how to make preparation for exam. Preparation
for exam is not a task of day or two, it needs daily study.

 Spend the days leading up to the exam wisely. I would highly recommend
starting to wake up at the same time you will wake up on exam day in the 2 weeks
leading up to the exam. In the last week, you shouldn’t be learning new material,
only reviewing things you have forgotten or fine-tuning what you already know
(Herophilus, 2012).
iv. Making good notes - making useful notes plays a vital role for success in exam. It helps one
to learn easily and with perfection. Notes are used for revision in futures for exam.
v. Test taking strategies - test taking strategies show you how to present your answer on answer
sheet in befitting way so that the checker give you more marks for your answers. Test taking
strategies tells you all the tactics for exam like time management for each question and how to
tackle different question.

53
vi. Learn to cope with exam stress - in examinations, people tend to be fairly highly aroused,
and this often has positive effects. They think more clearly and quickly, and write more fluently.
If you feel a little anxious before an examination, do not worry about it. Remember, it may
improve your performance (Dutta, 2009). However, a few people
become so anxious about examinations that their high arousal level leads to a worsening of
performance.
vii. Revise your notes - students must read thoroughly their study notes several times to possess
an adequate grasp on theories, principles and applications of a subject. Practice in writing essays
is essential, especially for students who have not written essays for a considerable time.
Examiners recognize that essays written under hurried circumstances and stress need not be
grammatically perfect, but they do demand certain minimum standards and will penalize students
whose written presentation is not up to a scratch. Accordingly, the students should avoid using
vague, meaningless statements, should try to spell correctly, and seek to cultivate a direct and
forthright style using short clear sentences.
viii. Revise/Analyze past exams question papers - analysis of past examination papers
provides a valuable insight into how the examiners feel about the subject. Often, the same
questions reappear year after year, albeit written slightly differently. While it is obviously useful
to predict questions, students should always remember that no question could ever be guaranteed
to come up. Also, syllabuses and examiners change, each examiner haspersonal preferences
regarding the content and style of questions that need to be asked.
ix. Read the questions carefully and ensure you fully understand what each question is asking. It
is good idea to underline keywords and to break the question down into separate component
parts.
x. Time management is crucial while writing exam - the first few minutes of the time
allocated to each answer should be used for jotting down the main points of the answer in an
essay plan. Thereafter the following rules should be observed:
a. The time allowed for each answer (a three-hour paper demanding five answers permits 36
minutes per question) must be adhered to. As soon as period is up the student should move on to
the next question.
b. Students should leave a space at the end of the question in order to be able to come back to the
question if they have any spare time at the end of the examination.
c. Easy questions should be answered first. This increases the student's confidence, assists
concentration and establishes rhythm for tackling the rest of the paper.
However, students should not spend too much time on easy questions and objective type
questions. Time is crucial and answers should be accurate to avoid negative marking. Each
answer needs to be of approximately equal length.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Based on the research done by Pollitt et al (1985), explain the three examination difficulties
that students experience.
2. Jane is a first year student in one of the public universities in Tanzania. She is asked to answer
the following question in one of her major subjects. Comment on the constitutional review
process in Tanzania and assess the role of ordinary Tanzanians in review.

54
a. Into how many parts is the question divided?
b. Explain what Jane is supposed to do in an attempt to answer the question.
3. On receiving the question paper in an examination Otieno failed to observe certain procedures.
As a result, he performed poorly. List three procedures that Otieno may have failed to observe.
4. Briefly explain what one should do when she/he is short of time to write a whole essay in
examination.
5. The last 10 minutes in an examination are important towards good performance. Explain two
steps you would undertake to enable you to perform well in an examination paper.

55