DAY - 14

“Dont Stop Until You Are Proud“

tan2 30°+sin2 90°+cot2 60°+sin2 30°+cos2 45°

15. The value of is :
TRIGONOMETRY – II 37 47 29
sin 60° cos 30°−cos 60° sin 30°
29
(a) 12
(b) 6 (c) 6 (d) 12

1. Find the value of cot 25° cot 35° cot 45° cot 55° cot 65° 2A+B 2A−B √3 2A+B
16. If sin ( ) = cos ( ) = , 0° < < 90° and 0° <
3 1 2 2 2 2
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 3 2A−B
2
< 90° then find the value of sin[3(A − B)].
cosec θ cosec θ 1 √3 1
2. cosec θ−1 + cosec θ+1 is equal to. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) (d)
2 √2
(a) 2 + 2 tan2 θ (b) 2 + 2 sec 2 θ
17. The value of 4(sin4 30° + cos 4 30°) − 3(sin2 45° − 2 cos 2 45°)
(c) tan2 θ (d) sec 2 θ
is:
8 sin 30° sin2 60°−4 sin 90°−sec2 45° (a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 1
3. Find the value of tan2 45°−cot2 30°
3 5 1 3 cot θ
(a) (b) (c) − (d) 18. (1−sin θ)(sec θ+tan θ) is equal to:
2 2 2 4

2 sin2 30° tan 60°−3 cos2 60° sec2 30° (a) cosec θ (b) sin θ (c) sec θ (d) 1
4. The value of 4 cot2 45°−sec2 60°+sin2 90°
is :
1 2(√3−2) 19. If 2 cos2 θ − 5 cos θ + 2 = 0,0° < θ < 90°, then the value
(a) 3 (√3 + 2) (b) 3 of (cosec θ + cot θ) is ∶
2(√3+2) 1 1 1
(c) 3 (d) 2 (√3 − 2) (a) (b) √3 (c) (d) 2√3
√3 3

5. If 2 cos 2 θ = 3 sin θ, 0° < θ < 90°, then the value of (sec 2 θ − 20. The value of
tan 13°tan37°tan53° tan45°tan77°
is:
2cosec2 60°(cos2 60°−3cos 60°+2)
tan2 θ + cos2 θ) is : 3 1
9 5 7 3 (a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 2
(a) 4 (b) 4 (c) 4 (d) 4
21.If cos2 θ − sin2 θ − 3 cos θ + 2 = 0, 0° < θ < 90°,
6. If 3 tan θ = 2√3 sin θ , 0° < θ < 90°, then find the value of
then what is the value of 4 cosec θ + cot θ ?
2 sin2 2θ − 3 cos2 3θ.
3 3 1 (a) 3√3 (b) 4 (c) 4√3 (d) 3
(a) 2 (b) − 2 (c) 2 (d) 1
1 2−sin2 θ
tan(45°−α) (cos19°+sin71°)(sec19°+cosec71°) 22. If cot θ = , then the value of 1−cos2 θ + (cosec 2 θ + sec θ)is ∶
√3
7. The value of cot(45°+α) − tan 12° tan 24° tan 66° tan 78°
(a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 7 (d) 5
(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) -2 (d) -3
23. If 𝑡𝑎𝑛 Ө = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 Ө × 𝐾, 0°< Ө< 90°
8. If 3 sec θ + 4 cos θ − 4√3 = 0 where θ is an acute angle then the (a) cot Ө (b) tan Ө (c) cosec Ө (d) sin Ө
value of θ is :
(a) 20° (b) 45° (c) 60° (d) 30° 24. If cosec 31° = x, then sec 59° cosec 31° − (sec 2 Ө − tan2 Ө) is
equal to:
cosec θ+cot θ 4 sin2 θ−1
9. If = 7, then the value of is : (a) x + 1 (b) x2 + 1 (c) x2 - 1 (d) x -1
cosec θ−cot θ 4 sin2 θ+5
1 1 1 1
(a) −3 (b) − 9 (c) 3 (d) 9 25. The simplifed value of sin25° cos 65° + cos25° sin 65° +
sin 71° cos19 ° + cos71°sin19°
10. If 3 cos2 θ − 4 sin θ + 1 = 0, 0° < θ < 90° , then tan θ + (a) 0 (b) 3 (c) 1 (d) 2
sec θ =?
sin2 25°+sin2 65°
(a) 2√3 (b) 2√5 (c) √5 (d) 3√3 26. The simplified value of cos2 24°+cos2 66° + sin2 71° +

11. 1 + 2 tan2 θ + 2 sin θ sec 2 θ , 0° < θ < 90°, is equal to: cos 71° sin19° is:
1+sin θ 1−cos θ 1−sin θ 1+cos θ (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
(a) 1−sin θ (b) 1+cos θ (c) 1+sin θ (d) 1−cos θ
27. If 3 sin θ = 2 cos 2 θ , 0° < θ < 90°, then the value of (tanӨ +
12. In ∆ ABC, AB=20 cm, BC=21 cm and AC=29 cm. What is the value cosӨ + sinӨ) is:
of cot C + cosec C − 2 tan A? 3+5√3 5√3 3+5√3 5+√3
9 2 3 7 (a) 6
(b) 6
(c) 3
(d) 2√3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
20 5 5 20
28. 3cos2 A + 6sin2 A = 3; 0° ≤ A ≤ 90°, then the value of A is:
13. If 2 sin(3x − 15) ° = 1, 0° < (3x − 15) < 90° , then find the
(a) 30o (b) 00 (c) 900 (d) 450
value of cos 2 (2x + 15)° + cot 2(x + 15)°.
7 5 7 (cos 9°+sin 81°)(sec 9°+cosec 81°)
(a) 2 (b) 2 (c) − 2 (d) 1 29. Find the value of (sin 56° sec 34°)+(cos 25°cosec 65°)
=?

cot3 θ tan3 θ
(a) ½ (b) 4 (c) 2 (d) 1
14. 2 + 2 + 2 sin θ cos θ = ?
cosec θ sec θ sinx 1+cosx 1
2
(a) cosec θ sec θ 2
(b) sinθcosθ 30. Find the value of (1+cosx + sinx
) (tanx+cotx) is.
(c) cosecθsecθ (d) sin2 θ cos θ a) cosx (b) 2sinx (c) sinx (d) 2cosx
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31. 3 − 2 sin2 x − 3cos x = 0; 0 < x < 90° then find the value of 46.
√Cosecx − 1
is equal to :
√Cosecx + 1
2cosecx + tanx?
5√3 7√3
(a) tanx – secx (b) secx. tanx
(a) 7√3 (b) 5√3 (c) (d) (c) tanx + secx (d) secx – tanx
3 3

(sin θ −cosec θ) (cos θ − sec θ) 41

32. If tan2 θ − sin2 θ
= r 3 , then r = ? 47. If cosecθ = and θ is an acute angle, then the value of 5 tanθ will
9
(a) cosec θ sec θ (b) cot θ be:
(c) tan θ (d) sin θ cos θ 11 9 7 13
(a) 8
(b) 8 (c) 8 (d) 4
cosec2 θ + sec2 θ
33. If cot θ = √6 , then the value of cosec2 θ − sec2 θ
48. Solve the following equation and find the value of θ.
48 7 43 49 3 cotθ + tanθ – 2√3 = 0, 0 < θ < 90˚
(a) 35
(b) 5
(c) 36 (d) 36
(a) 30˚ (b) 60˚ (c) 45˚ (d) 15˚
2 2
34. If sin θ . sec θ = , 0˚ ∠θ ∠90˚, then the value of (tan2 θ +
3 49. If 2 cos2 θ = 3 (1 − sinθ), 0˚ < θ < 90˚, then what is the value of
2
cos θ) is ∶ (tan2θ + cosec3θ – sec2θ)?
11 7 13 5
(a) 12 (b) 6 (c) 12 (d) 4 1 + √3 1 − √3
(a) (b) √3 + 1 (c) (d) √3 − 1
√3 √3
1 1
4 tan2 30°+ sin2 90°+ cot2 60°+sin2 30° cos2 45°
4 8
35. The value of sin 60° cos 30°−cos 60° sin 30°
is ∶ 50. In ∆ABC, ∠A = 90˚, AB = 60 cm and BC = 87 cm. What is the value
(a) 1
3
(b) 4 (c) 2
1
(d) 3
1 of (sin B – cot C)?
4 2 2 189 9 189 9
(a) 580 (b) − 29 (c) − 580 (d) 29
36. In ∆ ABC right angled at B, AB = 16 cm, BC = 63 cm . What is
7
the value of
cot C+sec A
− √3? 51. If cosθ = 3 and θ is an acute angle, then the value of 27 sin2 θ −
4 √6
3
(a) 0.268 (b) 0.368 (c) 0.468 (d) 0.568 is:
2
1 1 (a) 15 (b) 9 (c) 12 (d) 1
37. If (1+cosecθ − 1−cosecθ) cos θ = 2, 0° < θ <
3A
90°, then the value of sin2 θ + cot 2 θ + sec 2 θ is: −3 sin2 2A + 2 sec2 A − tan
2
52. For A = 30˚, find the value of: 1
1 1 sin 3A
(a) 1 (b) 2 2 (c) 3 2 (d) 2 3
7 7 11 57
(a) − 4 (b) − 36 (c) 4
(d) 4
38. If tan 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (60° + 6𝑥), then what is the value of x?
(a) 10° (b)
30°
(c)
15°
(d) 12° 53. Find the value of θ, if sec 2 θ + (1 − √3) tan θ − (1 + √3) = 0,
7 7
where θ is an acute angle.
39. For θ being an acute angle, if cosec θ = 1.25, then the value of (a) 30˚ (b) 15˚ (c) 45˚ (d) 60˚
4 tan θ − 5 cos θ
is equal to: tan50˚ + sec50˚
sec θ + 4 cot θ
3 4 1 1
54. The value of cot40˚ + cosec40˚
+ cos2 65˚ + sin65˚cos25˚ +
(a) 7 (b) 7 (c) 4 (d) 2
tan30˚ is:
sec θ (1 −sin θ) (sec θ + tanθ) 1+k √3 (√3 + 1) 6 + √3
40. For 0˚ < θ < 90˚, if = , then (a)2 + √3 (b) (c) 1 + √3 (d)
(sec θ − tan θ)2 1−k 3 3
′k′ is equal to: √3 2 − sin2 θ
(a) cosec θ (b) cos θ (c) sec θ (d) sin θ 55. If cosθ = , then the value of + (sec 2 θ + cosec θ) is:
2 1 − cot2 θ
59 59 25 25
4x (a) 24 (b) − 24 (c) − 12 (d) 12
41. If cos θ = 1 + 4x2
, then what is the value of sin θ?
1 − 4x2 1 − 4x2 1 + 4x2 1 + 4x2 3 tan2 60°+sec2 30°−sin2 45°
(a) (b) 1 + 4x2 (c) 1 − 4x2 (d) 56. The value of (cos15°+sin75°)(sec15°+cosec75°) is
4x 4x1
65 5 13 59
42. If 2 sin2θ + 5 cosθ – 4 = 0, 0˚ < θ < 90˚, then the value of tanθ + (a) 24 (b) 12 (c) 12 (d) 24
sinθ is:
57. If (1 + cot 2 θ) + (1 + (cot 2 θ)−1 ) is equal to k, then √k = ?
√3 √3 2 3√3
(a) (b) (c) (d) (a) sinθ secθ (b) cosecθ cosθ
3 2 √3 2
(c) cosecθ secθ (d) sinθ cosθ
tan60°−tan15°
43. Find the value of 1+tan60°tan15°
1 1 58.The value of cot 2 46° − sec 2 44° + (sin2 1° + sin2 3° + sin2 5° … +
(a) 1 (b) 3 (c) (d) √3
√3 + sin2 89°) is:
cos2 30˚ − sin2 30˚ (a) 20.5 (b) 23.5 (c) 21.5 (d) 22.5
44. Find the value of sin2 15˚ + cos2 15˚
1 59. Evaluate the following expression.
(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 1 − √3 (d)
2 tan2 60° + cosec 30° sin 90 ° + 3 sec 2 30 °
45. If secθ – tanθ = 3, then cosθ is equal to: 4 sin2 45° + sec 2 60° − cot 2 30° − 5 cos 2 90°
19 7
(a) 9
4
(b) 5
2
(c) 5
3
(d) 7
3 (a) 17 (b) −12 (c) 3 (d) 3

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60. If cosec 2 θ (cosθ − 1)(1 + cosθ) = k, then what is the value of (a) XXI (b) XX (c) XXII (d) XIX
k?
1 12. Which case stated that the Parliament does not have power to
(a) -1 (b) 2 (c) 0 (d) 1 amend the basic structure of the constitution?
(a) Kesavananda Bharati case (b) Berubari Union Case
(c) Minerva Mills case (d) Vishaka Case
IMPORTANT AMENDA MENTS &
13. Part-III of the constitution can be amended using the ______.
A RTICLES, EXECUTIVES
(a) simple majority (b) special majority
(c) simple majority with the ratification of 50% states
1. Which of the following statement is not true about India's Supreme (d) special majority with the ratification of 50% states
Court?
14. When a Constitutional Amendment Bill is passed in both the
(a) Articles 124 to 147 and Part V of the Indian Constitution informs
Houses of the Parliament then the President can ______.
about the composition and powers of the Supreme Court
(a) give assent to the bills (b) reject the bill
(b) The Supreme Court was inaugurated on January 28, 1950
(c) return the bill (d) not take any action
(c) At present, there are 35 judges in the Supreme Court
(d) Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President of 15. The salaries of the President and Vice President can be amended
India by ______.
(a) simple majority (b) special majority
2. Which qualification is wrong for being a judge in the Supreme
(c) simple majority with the ratification of 50% states
Court?
(d) special majority with the ratification of 50% states
(a) It is compulsory to be a citizen of India.
(b) He should be a respected jurist in the eyes of the Parliament 16. ___________ part of the constitution deals with the Official
(c) Must be a judge in the High Court for at least 5 years Language.
(d) He should be a lawyer in the High Court for at least 10 years (a) XX (b) XXI (c) XVI (d) XVII
3. Who can remove the Judge of the Supreme Court? 17. How many languages were present in the constitution on 26
(a) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court January 1950?
(b) Only President (a) 22 (b) 18 (c) 14 (d) 20
(c) Only Parliament
18. Which language was added using the 92nd Amendment Act of
(d) Both Parliament and President
2003?
4. The President can appoint acting chief justice of the Supreme Court (a) Konkani (b) Manipuri (c) Nepali (d) Bodo
of India when ________.
(a) The post of Chief Justice is vacant 19. Which was the first language to get Classical language status?
(a) Malayalam (b) Tamil (c) Kannada (d) Sanskrit
(b) Chief Justice is temporarily absent
(c) Chief Justice is unable to discharge his obligations 20. Which schedule talks about the Official languages?
(d) All of the above (a) XIIth (b) VIIth (c) VIIIth (d) Vth
5. The Supreme Court of Calcutta was established in the year 21. National Flag was adopted in the constituent assembly on
________. ________.
(a) 1773 (b) 1774 (c) 1775 (d) 1776 (a) 22 January 1947 (b) 22 July 1947
6. Who decides the number of judges in the High Court? (c) 24 July 1947 (d) 24 January 1947
(a) Governor (b) President (c) Parliament (d) State Legislature 22. The National reptile of India is ________.
(a) Lizard (b) Crocodile (c) King Cobra (d) Snake
7. Which amendment act provided for the same high court for more
than one state? 23. The National heritage animal of India is _________.
(a) 8th Amendment Act (b) 9th Amendment Act (a) Tiger (b) Elephant (c) Lion (d) Leopard
(c) 7th Amendment Act (d) 10th Amendment Act
24. The National Pledge was first read out in _____.
8. Which high court is the oldest high court in India? (a) 1960 (b) 1961 (c) 1962 (d) 1963
(a) Madras (b) Bombay (c) Calcutta (d) Delhi
25. The National microorganism was adopted in the year ________.
9. Who removes the judges of the High Court? (a) 2012 (b) 2014 (c) 2016 (d) 2018
(a) Governor (b) President (c) Parliament (d) State Legislature
26. What is the period within which a proclamation of national
10. What is the maximum age for the High Court judge? emergency, made by the President is to be placed before each house
(a) 65 (b) 64 (c) 63 (d) 62 of the Parliament for approval?
11. The procedure of the amendment is given under which part of (a) within one month (b) within two months
the constitution? (c) within four months (d) within six months
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27. The Indian Parliament is competent to enact law on a State (a) Article 343 (b) Article 355
subject, if ________. (c) Article 338 (d) Article 333
(a) emergency under Article 352 is in operation
38. Which of the following articles of the Indian constitution
(b) all the state Assemblies of the country make such a request
empowers the High court to issue writs?
(c) the President sends such a message to Parliament
(a) Article 32 (b) Article 229
(d) None of these
(c) Article 129 (d) Article 226
28. The President of India enjoys emergency powers of ________.
39. In which of the following article of the Indian constitution, the
(a) four types (b) two types
provision for Election Commission is mentioned?
(c) five types (d) three types
(a) Article 315 (b) Article 324
29. The declaration of Constitutional Emergency, in an Indian State (c) Article 330 (d) Article 336
has to be approved by the Parliament within a period of ________.
40. ‘Untouchability is abolished’ is mentioned in which of the
(a) 2 months (b) 4 months (c) 6 months (d) 12 months
following Articles of the Indian Constitution?
30. Which type of emergency has not been declared so far in India? (a) Article 14 (b) Article 15
(a) Internal emergency caused due to internal disturbances (c) Article 16 (d) Article 17
(b) External emergency caused due to external threat
41. Which article of the Indian Constitution deals with the
(c) State emergency, caused due to failure of constitutional
constitutional amendments?
machinery in the states
(a) Article 332 (b) Article 386
(d) Financial emergency
(c) Article 368 (d) None of the above
31. During the financial emergency all money bills, passed by the
42. Which part of the Indian Constitution deals with the
state legislature are to be reserved for the consideration of the
constitutional amendments?
________.
(a) XVII (b) XVI (c) X (d) XX
(a) Governor (b) Prime Minister
(c) Parliament (d) President 43. Under which constitutional amendment bill, the four languages:
Bodo, Dogri, Maithali and Santhali were added in the 8th schedule of
32. The President of India can issue a proclamation, of the national
the Indian Constitution.
emergency only on the written recommendation of ________.
(a) 89th (b) 92nd (c) 90th (d) 95th
(a) The Prime Minister
(b) The Cabinet consisting of only Cabinet Ministers of the Union 44. In which of the following amendment, the term of the Lok Sabha
(c) The Council of Ministers of the Union increased from 5 to 6 years?
(d) Parliament (a) 40th (b) 42nd (c) 44th (d) 46th

33. Which type of emergency has been imposed only one time in 45. Which of the following Amendment Act, makes the right to
India so far? education as the fundamental right to all the children under the age
(a) Internal Emergency (b) State Emergency of 6-14 years by inserting the Article 21A to the constitution?
(c) External Emergency (d) Financial Emergency (a) 87th amendment (b) 86th amendment
(c) 88th Amendment (d) 89th Amendment
34. A law can be enacted or executive order can be issued, even
contrary to Article 19 during the proclamation of emergency 46. Which of the following amendment was passed during the
________. emergency?
(a) caused by war or external aggression (a) 45th (b) 50th (c) 47th (d) 42nd
(b) caused by internal armed rebellion
47. 10th schedule of the constitution was added by which amendment
(c) caused by the constitutional breakdown
of the constitution?
(d) caused by a financial crisis
(a) 45th (b) 50th (c) 52nd (d) 42nd
35. Under which Article of the Constitution can an Emergency be
48. Via which of the following amendments, the term ‘Socialist’ was
declared in India, on account of war or external aggression?
inserted in the Preamble of the Indian Constitution?
(a) Article 356 (b) Article 352
(a) 42nd (b) 44th (c) 52nd (d) 61st
(c) Article 353 (d) Article 354
49. The 73rd Amendment of the Constitution of India, is related to
36. Which of the following article of the Indian Constitution mentions
which among the following?
the provision of Council of Minister for aid and advice of the
(a) Anti-defection law (b) Co-operative society
President of India?
(c) Municipality (d) Panchayati Raj
(a) Article 76 (b) Article 74
(c) Article 77 (d) Article 52 50. Which Amendment provided for an authoritative version of the
Constitution in Hindi?
37. Which of the following article of the Indian Constitution deals
(a) 56th (b) 58th (c) 60th (d) 61st
with the National Commission for Scheduled Castes?
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(i) u cos𝜃 (horizontal direction)

MOTION (ii) u sin𝜃 (vertical direction)
For the projectile motion
Scalar quantities: Maximum height
• Physical quantities which have magnitude only and • It is the maximum vertical distance travelled by a
no direction are called scalar quantities. body.
• Example: mass, speed, volume, work, time, power, 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
• It is given by (H) =
energy etc. 2𝑔
• Electric current though has a direction, is a scalar Horizontal range
quantity because it does not obey triangle law.
• The distance between projecting and landing point
Vector quantities: 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
• It is given by (R) =
𝑔
• Physical quantities which have magnitude and
direction both and which obey triangle law are called vector Time of flight
quantities.
• Time taken in reaching the landing point from
• Example: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force,
projecting point. It is given by
momentum, torque etc. 2𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
• Moment of inertia, pressure, refractive index, and • (T) =
𝑔
stress are tensor quantities. • For maximum range = 450 .therefore a long jumper
• Distance: takes jump at an angle of 450 .
• Distance is the length of actual path covered by a
Equations of Motion
moving object in a given time interval.
1) v = u + at
Displacement: 1
2) 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
• Shortest distance covered by a body in a definite 3) v2 = u2+ 2 as
direction is called displacement. i.e) displacement s, time t, initial velocity u, final velocity v and
• Distance is a scalar quantity whereas displacement is acceleration a are obtained.
a vector quantity both having the same unit (metre) .
• Displacement may be positive, negative or zero Acceleration:
whereas distance is always positive. • Acceleration of an object is defined as the rate of
• In general, magnitude of displacement ≤ distance change of velocity of the object.
(𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)
Speed: • Acceleration =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
• Distance travelled by the moving object in unit time • It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is
interval is called speed. meter/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑2
• Speed = distance/ time • If velocity decreases with time then acceleration is
• It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is meter/second negative and is called retardation.
(m/s) . Types of motion
Velocity: A body is said to be in motion, if it changes its position with respect
to its surroundings.
• Velocity of moving object is defined as the
There are three types of motion:
displacement of the object in unit time interval.
• Translatory motion
• Velocity = displacement/ time
• Rotatory motion
• It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is meter/second.
• Vibratory motion
Uniform velocity
Newton’s first law of motion:
• An object is said to be moving with uniform velocity
• Everybody maintains its initial state of rest or motion
if it undergoes equal displacements in equal intervals of time.
with uniform speed on a straight line unless an external force
Non- uniform velocity acts on it.
• First law is also called law of Galileo or law of inertia.
• An object is said to be moving with non-uniform or
Inertia:
variable velocity if it undergoes unequal displacements in
equal intervals of time. • Inertia is the property of a body by virtue of which
the body opposes change in its initial state of rest or motion
Projectile motion
with uniform speed on a straight line.
• When a particle is so projected that it makes certain • Inertia is of three types (1) inertia of rest (2) inertia
angle with horizontal then the motion of the particle is said of motion (3) inertia of direction
to be projectile.
Some examples of inertia:
Path of projectile is a parabola.
• The initial velocity u of the projectile can be resolved (1) When a car or train starts suddenly, the passenger bends
into two components backward.
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(2) When a running horse stops suddenly, the rider bends forward. • When a body travels along a circular path, its velocity
(3) When a coat/blanket is beaten by a stick, the dust particles are changes continuously.
removed. • Naturally an external force always acts on the body
First law gives the definition of force towards the centre of the path.The external force required
Force: to maintain the circular motion of the body is called
• Force is that external cause which when acts on a centripetal force.
body changes or tries to change the initial state of the body. • If a body of mass ‘m’ is moving on a circular path of
radius’R’ with uniform speed v, then the required centripetal
MOMENTUM 𝑚𝑣 2
force =
• Momentum is the property of a moving body and is 𝑟

defined as the product of mass and velocity of the body. Centrifugal force:
• Momentum= mass × velocity.
• In applying the Newton’s laws of motion, we have to
• It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is kgm/s.
consider some forces which cannot be assigned to any object
Newton’s second law of motion: in the surrounding. These forces are called pseudo force or
inertial force.
• The force applied on a body is equal to the product • Centrifugal force is such a pseudo force. It is equal
of mass of the body and the acceleration produced in it. and opposite to centripetal force.
• If F = force applied, a=acceleration produced and m= • Cream separator, centrifugal drier work on the
mass of the body the 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 principle of centrifugal force. Centrifugal force should not be
• Newton’s second law gives the magnitude of force. confused as the reaction to
• Newton’s first law is contained in the second law. • centripetal force because forces of action and
Newton’s third law of motion: reaction act on different bodies.

• To every action, there is an equal and opposite Moment of force:

reaction. • The rotational effect of a force on a body about an
• Examples (1) recoil of a gun (2) motion of rocket (3) axis of rotation is described in terms of moment of force.
swimming (4) while drawing water from the well, if the string • Moment of force about an axis of rotation is
breaks up the man drawing water falls back. measured as the product of magnitude of force and the
Principle of conservation of linear momentum: perpendicular distance of direction of force from the axis of
rotation.
• If no external force acts on a system of bodies, the • I.e. moment of force = force × moment arm
total linear momentum of system of bodies remains • It is a vector quantity.
constant. • Its SI unit is Newton meter (Nm)
• As a consequence, the total momentum of bodies
before and after collision remains the same. Centre of gravity:

Impulse: • The centre of gravity of a body is that point through

which the entire weight of body acts.
• When a large force acts on a body for very small • The centre of gravity of a body does not change with
time, then force is called impulsive force. Impulse is defined the change in orientation of body in space.
as the product of force and time. • The weight of body acts through centre of gravity in
• Impulse = force × time = change in momentum. the downward direction.
• It is a vector quantity and its direction is the direction • Hence a body can be brought to equilibrium by
of force. Its SI unit is Newton second (Ns). applying a force equal to its weight in the vertically upward
Couple : direction through centre of gravity.

Two equal and opposite forces whose lines of action do not Equilibrium:
coincide are said to constitute a couple • If the resultant of all the forces acting on a body is
Examples of couple are zero then the body is said to be in equilibrium.
1. Forces applied to the handle of a screw press,
• If a body is in equilibrium, it will be either at rest or
2. Opening or closing a water tap.
in uniform motion. If it is at rest, the equilibrium is called
3. Turning the cap of a pen.
static, otherwise dynamic.
4. Steering a car
• Static equilibrium is of the following three types:
Torque: (1) Stable equilibrium:
• If on slight displacement from equilibrium position, a
• The turning effect of a force on a body is known as
body has tendency to regain its original position, it is said to
the moment of the force or torque. It is a vector quantity. Its
be in stable equilibrium.
SI unit newton- metre
• Torque is the application of force where there is (2) Unstable equilibrium:
rotational motion. The most obvious example of torque in
• If on slight displacement from equilibrium position, a
action is the operation of a playground seesaw. Torque is
body moves in the direction of displacement and does not
also crucial to the operation of gyroscopes for navigation.
regain its original position, the equilibrium is said to unstable
Centripetal force: equilibrium.
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• In this equilibrium, the centre of gravity of the body 9 Electric motor Electrical energy into Mechanical energy
is at the highest position. 10 Sitar Mechanical energy into Sound energy
(3) Neutral equilibrium:
Relation between Momentum and Kinetic Energy
• If on slight displacement from equilibrium position a 𝑝2
• Kinetic Energy =2𝑚 where p= momentum = 𝑚𝑣
body has no tendency to come back to its original position or
to move in the direction of displacement, it is said to be in • Clearly when momentum is doubled, kinetic energy
neutral equilibrium. becomes four times.
• In neutral equilibrium, the centre of gravity always Power:
remains at the same height.
• Rate of doing work is called power.
Work, Energy and Power • It an agent does W work in time t, then power of
𝑊
Work: agent= 𝑡
If a body gets displaced when a force acts on it, work is said to be • SI unit of power is watt named as a respect to the
down. Work is measured by the product of force and displacement scientist James Watt.
of the body along the direction of force. • Watt =𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐.
• If a body gets displaced by S when a force F acts on • 1 kW = 103 watt
it, • 1 MW= 106 watt
• Then the work W=F S cos𝜃 • Horse power is a practical unit of power. 1 H.P. =746
• Where 𝜃 = angle between force and displacement watt
• If both force and displacement are in the same • 1 watt second = 1 watt × 1 second = 1 joule
direction, then W=FS • 1 watt hour (Wh) = 3600 joule
• Work is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule. • 1 kilowatt hour (kWh) = 3.6 × 106 joule
• W, kW, MW & H.P. are units of power.
Energy:
• Ws, Wh, kWh are units of work and energy.
• Capacity of doing work by a body is called its energy.
SOUND
• Energy is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule.
• Energy developed in a body due to work done on it • Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves.
is called mechanical energy.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves:
Potential Energy:
• When a sound wave passes through air, the particles
• The capacity of doing work developed in a body due of air vibrate back and forth parallel to the direction of sound
to its position or configuration is called its potential energy. wave.
Example:
Speed of sound in different mediums
(1) Energy of stretched or compressed spring
(2) Energy of water collected at a height Medium Speed of sound (in m/s)
(3) Energy of spring in a watch. Carbon dioxide 260
• Potential energy of a body in the gravitational field Air (0°c) 332
of earth is mgh. Air (20°c) 343
• Where, m=mass Steam (at 100°c) 405
• g= acceleration due to gravity Helium 965
• h= height of the body from surface of the earth. Alcohol 1213
Kinetic Energy: Hydrogen 1269
Mercury 1450
Energy possess by a body due to its motion is called Kinetic Energy Water (20°c) 1482
of the body. Sea water 1533
• If a body of mass m is moving with speed v, then Copper 3560
1
kinetic energy of the body is 2 𝑚𝑣 2 Iron 5130
Glass 5640
Some Equipments used to Transform Energy
Granite 6000
Sl. Equipment Energy Transformed Aluminium 6420
No.
Types of sounds
1 Dynamo Mechanical energy into Electrical energy
2 Candle Chemical energy into Light and Heat • According to their frequency range, longitudinal
energy mechanical waves are divided into the following categories
3 Microphone Sound energy into Electrical energy
(i) Audible or sound waves:
4 Loud Speaker Electrical energy into Sound energy
5 Solar Cell Solar energy into Electrical energy • The longitudinal mechanical waves which lie in the
6 Tube Light Electrical energy into Light energy frequency range 20 Hz to 20000 Hz are called audible or
7 Electrical Bulb Electrical energy into light and heat sound waves.
energy • These waves are sensitive to human ear.
8 Battery Chemical energy into Electrical energy
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• These are generated by the vibrating bodies such as Absolute refractive index of some material media
tuning fork, vocal cords etc.
Material medium Refractive index
(ii) Infrasonic waves: Air 1.0003
Water 1.33
• The longitudinal mechanical waves having
Ice 1.31
frequencies less than 20Hz are called infrasonic.
Alcohol 1.36
• These waves are produced by sources of bigger size
Turpentine oil 1.47
such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and ocean waves
and by elephant and whales. Benzene 1.50
Crown glass 1.52
(iii) Ultrasonic waves: Canada Balsam 1.53
Rock salt 1.54
• The longitudinal mechanical waves having
frequencies greater than 20000 Hz are called ultra-sonic Carbon disulphide 1.63
waves. Ruby 1.71
• Human ear cannot detect these waves. Sapphire 1.77
• But certain creatures like dog, cat, bat, and Diamond 2.42
mosquito can detect these waves. Light
• Bat not only detects but also produces ultra-sonic.
• Ultrasonic waves can be produced by Galton’s • Light is a form of energy -which enables human
whistle or Hartman’s generator or by the high frequency beings and creatures to 'see' things. When light emitted from
vibrations of a quartz crystal under an alternating electric an object or reflected from the object enters our eyes we are
field (piezo-electric effect) or by vibrations of a able to see the object. We can't see an object in dark even if
ferromagnetic rod under an alternating magnetic field we are in light because there is no light coming from the
(magnetostriction) object to our eyes. Light is an electromagnetic radiation
which exhibits properties like a wave as well as a particle. It
Applications of ultrasonic waves always propagates in a straight line. Light travels with a
speed nearly equal to3×108m/s.
• For sending signals. • According to current theories, no material particle
• For measuring the depth of sea. can travel at a speed greater than the speed of light.
• For cleaning clothes, aero planes and machinery parts of
clocks. Luminous and Non-luminous Objects
• For removing lamp-shoot from the chimney of factories. • Luminous objects are those which emit its own light
• In sterilizing of a liquid. e.g., sun, glowworm, burning candle, electric lights. Non-
• In Ultrasonography. luminous objects do not give out its own light but are visible
Speed of sound only when light from a luminous object falls on it. e.g., moon,
earth, table, paper, etc.
• The speed of sound is defined as the distance which a point on
a wave, such as a compression or a rarefaction, travels per unit time. Transparent Translucent and Opaque materials
We know, • Transparent materials are those which allow most of
Speed, 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒⁄𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 light to pass through them. Example: Glass, water, air.
𝑑
𝑇 Translucent materials allow only a part of light to pass
Here is the wavelength of the sound wave. It is the distance through it. We cannot see distinctly through them. Example:
travelled by the sound wave in one time period (T) of the wave. Thus, greased paper, Paraffin wax, etc.
𝑣 =v Opaque materials: do not allow any light to pass through it. They
That is, speed = wavelength × frequency reflect or absorb all the light that falls on them. Example: Books, desk,
stone, rubber, trees, etc.
LIGHT
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Speed of light in different mediums
• A highly polished surface, such as a mirror, reflects
Medium Speed of light (m/s) most of the light falling on it. The phenomenon of bouncing
Vacuum 3 × 108 back of light from a surface is known as the reflection of light.
Water 2.25 × 108 An object reflects light that falls on it. This reflected light,
Glass 2 × 108 when received by our eyes, enables us to see things. We are
Terpentine oil 2.04 × 108 able to see through a transparent medium as light is
Rock salt 1.96 × 108 transmitted through it.
Nylon 1.96 × 108
The laws of reflection of light-
REFRACTIVE INDEX
• (i)The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
It is defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the reflection,
speed of light in the medium. • (ii)The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the
𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
µ = 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 point of incidence and the reflected ray, all lie in the same
The absolute refractive index medium is simply called its refractive plane. These laws of reflection are applicable to all types of
index. reflecting surfaces including spherical surfaces.
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SPHERICAL MIRRORS • Pole: The centre of the reflecting surface of a

spherical mirror is a point called the pole. It lies on the
The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror may be curved inwards or
surface of the mirror.
outwards.
• Centre of curvature: The reflecting surface of a spherical
• For spherical mirrors of small apertures, the radius
mirror forms a part of a sphere. This sphere has a centre. This point
of curvature is found to be equal to twice the focal length i.e.
is called the centre of curvature of the spherical mirror.
R = 2f. This implies that the principal focus of a spherical
• Radius of curvature: The radius of the sphere of which the
mirror lies midway between the pole and centre of
reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a part, is called the
curvature.
radius of curvature of the mirror.
1.Concave mirror • Principal axis: A straight line passes through the pole and the
centre of curvature of a spherical mirror. This line is called the
• A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved
principal axis.
inwards, that is, faces towards the centre of the sphere, is
• Principal Focus: When rays from infinity come in parallel to
called a concave mirror.
the optical axis of a spherical mirror, they are bent so that they either
Image formation by a concave mirror converge and intersect in at a point, or they seem to diverge from a
point. The point of convergence or divergence is called the focus. It
is denoted by letter F.
• Focal length: The distance between the pole and the
principal focus of a spherical mirror is called the focal length. It is
represented by the letter f.
• Aperture: The diameter of the reflecting surface of spherical
mirror is called its aperture.
• Magnification: Magnification produced by a spherical mirror
gives the relative extent to which the image of an object is magnified
with respect to the object size.
Uses of concave mirrors
• Used in torches, search-lights and vehicles If h is the height of the object and h′ is the height of the image, then
headlights to get powerful parallel beams of light. the magnification m produced by a spherical mirror is given by:
• As shaving mirrors to see a larger image of the face.
• The dentists use concave mirrors to see large images
of the teeth of patients.
• Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate
sunlight to produce heat in solar furnaces.
2.Convex mirror
A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards, is
called a convex mirror. MIRROR FORMULA
Image formation by a convex mirror
• In a spherical mirror, the distance of the object from
its pole is called the object distance (u). The distance of the
image from the pole of the mirror is called the image distance
(v). The distance of the principal focus from the pole is called
the focal length (f). There is a relationship between these
three quantities given by the mirror formula which is
expressed as-
Uses of a convex mirror
Commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles. These
mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicle, enabling the driver to
see traffic behind him/her to facilitate safe driving. It enables the Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirrors
driver to view much larger area than would be possible with a plane • While dealing with the reflection of light by spherical
mirror. mirrors, we shall follow a set of sign conventions called the
In big showrooms and departmental stores, convex mirrors are New Cartesian Sign Convention. In this convention, the pole
used to have a view on the customers entering in as well as going out. (P) of the mirror is taken as the origin. The principal axis of
the mirror is taken as the x-axis (X’X) of the coordinate
• Ray of Light : A line drawn in the direction of propagation of system. The conventions are as follows –
light is called a ray of light.
• Beam of Light : A group of rays of light emitted by a source
of light is called a beam of light. A light beam is of three types.
• Real Image : It is a kind of image which is formed by actual
intersection of light rays after reflection.
• Virtual Image : It is a kind of image which is formed by
producing the reflected rays backward after reflection.

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3. When a ray of light passes from denser to rarer medium, it bends

away from the normal and ∠r>∠i.
∴ Angle of deviation d = r – i
4. A ray of light travelling along the normal passes undeflected.

i)The object is always placed to the left of the mirror. This implies that
the light from the object falls on the mirror from the left-hand side. i)Transparent surface
(ii) All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the
pole of the mirror. • The plane surface which refracts light is called
(iii)All the distances measured to the right of the origin (along + x- transparent surface. In diagram XY is the section of a plane
axis) are taken as positive while those measured to the left of the transparent surface.
origin (along – x-axis) are taken as negative. ii) Point of incidence
(iv)Distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis
(along + y-axis) are taken as positive. • The point on transparent surface, where the ray of
(v)Distances measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis light meets it, is called point of incidence. In diagram Q is the
(along –y-axis) are taken as negative. point of incidence.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT iii) Normal

• When the light rays are made to go from one • Perpendicular drawn on the transparent surface at
transparent medium, to another transparent medium, they the point of incidence is called normal. In diagram, N1 QN2
change their direction (or bend) at the boundary separating is the normal on surface XY.
two media. For example, when light rays travelling in air go iv) Incident ray
into another medium say glass, they change their direction
(or bend) on entering the glass medium. • The ray of light which strikes the transparent surface
• The bending of the ray of light when it travels from at the point of incidence is called incident ray. In diagram, PQ
one medium to another is called refraction of light. is the incident ray.
v) Refracted ray
Cause For Refraction Of Light • The ray of light which travels from the point of
• When a ray of light changes its medium, the basic incidence into the other medium is called refracted ray. In
change that occurs is the change in its wavelength. This diagram, QR is the refracted ray.
change in the wavelength leads to the change in its velocity vi) Angle of incidence
and the change velocity is responsible for its deviation; and
hence, refraction takes place. • The angle between the incident ray and the normal
on the transparent surface at the point of incidence is called
the angle of incidence. It is represented by the symbol i. In
diagram, angle PQN1 is the angle of incidence.
vii) Angle of refraction:
• The angle between the refracted ray and the normal
on the transparent surface at the point of incidence is called
angle of refraction. It is represented by the symbol r. In
diagram angle RQN2 is the angle of refraction.
Laws of Refraction
Note:
1. When light travels from one medium to another, the frequency of (i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface
light does not change. However, the velocity and the wavelength of of two transparent media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same
light change. plane.
2. When a ray of light passes from rarer to denser medium it bends (ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of
towards the normal and ∠r<∠i . refraction is a constant, for the light of a given colour and for the
∴ Angle of deviation, d = i – r given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.
If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, then,
sin 𝑖
sin 𝑟
= constant = µ or n
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IMAGES FORMED BY A CONVEX LENS FOR VARIOUS POSITIONS OF At focus F1 At infinity Infinitely Real and
THE OBJECT large or inverted
highly
Position of the Position of Relative size of Nature of the enlarged
object the image the image image Between focus On the same Enlarged Virtual and
Highly F1 and optical side of the erect
Real and
At infinity At focus F diminished, centre O lens as the
inverted
point-sized object
Between F and Real and CONCAVE LENS
Beyond 2F Diminished
2F inverted
Nature, Position and Relative Size of the Image Formed by a
Real and
At 2F At 2F Same size Concave Lens for Various Positions of the Object
inverted
Between F and Real and Position of Position of the Relative size Nature of the
Beyond 2F Enlarged the object image of the image image
2F inverted
At infinity At focus F1 Highly Virtual and erect
Infinitely large
Real and diminished
At focus F At infinity of highly
inverted At finite Between focus Diminished Virtual and erect
enlarged
distance F1 and optical
Between focus On the same centre O
Virtual and
F and optical side of the lens Enlarged
erect Applications of Concave Lenses
centre O as the object

Lenses 1. Concave lenses are used as eye lens of ‘Galilean Telescope’

2. They are used in wide angle spy hole in doors.
• A lens is an optically transparent medium bounded 3. They are used to correct the defect of vision called ‘myopia’.
by two spherical refracting surfaces or one plane and one
Lens Formula
spherical surface.
• Lens is basically classified into two types. They are, • The lens formula gives the relationship among
• Convex Lens 2) Concave Lens distance of the object (u), distance of the image (v) and the
focal length (f) of the lens.
1) Convex or Bi-convex Lens 1 1 1
• It is expressed as 𝑓 = 𝑣 − 𝑢
• It is a lens bounded by two spherical surfaces such
• It is applicable to both convex and concave lenses.
that it is thicker at the centre than at the edges. A beam of
light passing through it is converged to a point. So, a convex Magnification of a Lens
lens is also called converging lens. When a lens is thicker in
• Spherical lenses produce magnification and it is
the middle than at the edges, it is called a convex lens or a
converging lens. defined as the ratio of the height of the image to the height
of an object. Magnification is denoted by the letter ‘m’. If
2) Concave or Bi-concave Lens height of the object is ‘h’ and height of the image is ‘h1’, the
magnification produced by lens is,
• It is a lens bounded by two spherical surfaces such ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ1
that it is thinner at the centre than at the edges. A parallel 𝑚= =
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ
beam of light passing through it is diverged or spread out. So,
• If the magnification is greater than 1, then we get an
a concave lens is also called diverging lens.
enlarged image. On the other hand, if the magnification is
Other Types of Lenses less than 1, then we get a diminished image.
Plano-convex lens: If one of the faces of a bi-convex lens is plane, it Power of a Lens
is known as a plano-convex lens
Plano-concave lens: If one of the faces of a bi-concave lens is plane, • Power of a lens is numerically defined as the
it is known as a plano-concave lens reciprocal of its focal length.
1
𝑃 = 𝑓
CONVEX LENS
• The SI unit of power of a lens is dioptre.
Position of Image, Relative Size and Nature of image in a Convex Lens
• 1D is the power of a lens, whose focal length is 1
Position of the Position of Relative size Nature of the
metre.
object the image of the image image
1𝐷 = 1𝑚−1
At infinity At focus F2 Highly Real and
Differences between a Convex Lens and a Concave Lens
diminished, Inverted
point sized S.No Convex Lens Concave Lens
Beyond 2F1(at Between F2 Diminished Real and 1 A convex lens is thicker in A concave lens is thinner in
finite distance) and 2F2 inverted the middle than at edges. the middle than at edges.
At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and 2 It is a converging lens. It is a diverging lens.
inverted 3 It produces mostly real It produces virtual images
Between F1 and Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and images.
2F1 inverted

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4 It is used to treat It is used to treat myopia.

hypermetropia
Wavelength, Frequency and Photon Energy of VIBGYOR Colour
Colour Wavelength Frequency Photon energy
Violet 380–450 nm 668–789 THz 2.75–3.26 eV
Blue 450–495 nm 606–668 THz 2.50–2.75 eV
Green 495–570 nm 526–606 THz 2.17–2.50 eV
Yellow 570–590 nm 508–526 THz 2.10–2.17 eV
Orange 590–620 nm 484–508 THz 2.00–2.10 eV
Red 620–750 nm 400–484 THz 1.65–2.00 eV

Defects of Vision and Their Correction

Hypermetropic Eye and Its Correction
There are mainly four common refractive defects of vision. These are,
1. Myopia or near-sightedness, Causes
2. Hypermetropia or far-sightedness • This is because the light rays from a close by object
3. Presbyopia are focussed at a point behind the retina.
4. Astigmatism
• This defect arises either because (i) the focal length
1. Myopia of the eye lens is too long, or (ii) the eyeball has become too
small.
• Myopia is also known as near-sightedness. A person
with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see Remedy
distant objects distinctly. A person with this defect has the This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens of appropriate
far point nearer than infinity. Such a person may see clearly power.
upto a distance of few metres,
3. Presbyopia
Causes
• The power of accommodation of the eye usually
In a myopic eye, the image of a distant object is formed in front of
decreases with ageing. For most people, the near point
the retina and not at the retina itself.
gradually recedes away. They find it difficult to see nearby
This defect may arise due to,
objects comfortably and distinctly without corrective
a) Excessive curvature of the eye lens.
eyeglasses. This defect is called Presbyopia.
b) Elongation of the eyeball.
Causes
Remedy
It arises due to the gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and
This defect can be corrected by using a concave lens of suitable
diminishing flexibility of the eye lens.
power.
Remedy
• Sometimes, a person may suffer from both myopia
and hypermetropia. Such people often require bi-focal
lenses.
• A common type of bi-focal lenses consists of both
concave and convex lenses. The upper portion consists of a
concave lens. It facilitates distant vision. The lower part is a
convex lens. It facilitates near vision.
• These days, it is possible to correct the refractive
defects with contact lenses or through surgical interventions.
4. Astigmatism
Myopic Eye and Its Correction
• In this defect, eye cannot see parallel and horizontal
2. Hypermetropia
lines clearly. It may be inherited or acquired. It is due to the
• Hypermetropia, also known as long sightedness, imperfect structure of eye lens because of the development
occurs due to the shortening of eyeball. With this defect, of cataract on the lens, ulceration of cornea, injury to the
distant objects can be seen clearly but nearby objects cannot refracting surfaces, etc
be seen clearly. The focal length of eye lens is increased or Causes
the distance between eye lens and retina decreases. Hence, Astigmatism can be corrected by using cylindrical lenses.
the near point will not be at 25 cm for such eyes and the near Remedy
point has moved farther. Due to this, the image of nearby For its remedy cylindrical lens is used.
objects is formed behind the retina Cataract
In this defect, an opaque, white membrane is developed on cornea
due to which a person loses power of vision partially or completely.

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This defect can be removed by removing the membrane through

surgery.
Prefixes used in metric system
Prefix Symbol Multiplier
Deci D 10−1
centi C 10−2
milli M 10−3
Micro µ 10−6
Nano N 10−9
Pico P 10−12
Femto F 10−15
Atto A 10−18
Zepto Z 10−21
Yocto Y 10−24
deca Da 101
Hector N 102
kilo K 103
mega M 106
giga G 109
Tera T 1012
Peta P 1015
Exa E 1018
Zetta Z 1021
Yotta Y 1024

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

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