Food and Nutrition

DR. SHALINI SEN

(Ph.D., NET, SLET)
Unit I – FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SERVICE MANAGEMENT

TOPIC 1- Food science and nutrition

Food science: It can be defined as the application of the basic sciences and
engineering to study the fundamental physical, chemical and biochemical nature of
foods and the principles of food processing.

Food science covers all aspects of food material production, handling, processing,
distribution, marketing and final consumption.

Food technology: The use of the information generated by food science in the
selection, preservation, processing, packaging and distribution, as it affects the
consumption of safe, nutritious and wholesome food.

Food engineer’s deal with the conversion of raw agricultural products such as
wheat into more finished food products such as flour or baked goods.

The Education Committee of the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) adopted a

undergraduate curriculum in food science.

Courses in Food Science:

 Food chemistry
 Food analysis
 Food microbiology
  Food processing
 Food engineering

Nutrition: is the science that deals with digestion, absorption and metabolism of
food.

Nutrition is the science that interprets the relationship of food to the functioning of
living organism.

Father of Nutrition: “Antoine Lavoisier” …… In 1770 he developed the concept

of metabolism. He also Father of Chemistry.

In 1926, nutrition mad individual subject. That time “Marry Swartz Rose” was
professors in nutrition at Columbia University.

Nutrition

Optimum Nutrition/ Good Nutrition/ Adequate Nutrition Malnutrition

All the nutrients in balanced both quantity and quality Under Nutrition Over Nutrition

Less than nutrients requirement More than

Health: According to WHO (1948) is a state of complete physical, mental,

spiritual and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
 TOPIC 2: Properties of food

Properties

Physical Chemical

 Color Reactivity
 Texture Toxicity
 Shape PH
 Weight Conductivity
 Surface area Tarnishing
 Density Fermenting
 Appearance Oxidation
 Volume
 Porosity
 Drag coefficient
 Center of gravity

Difference in Physical and chemical properties

Physical Chemical
It can be only observed. Identification of Change food identity
foods not change
All changes in state( freeze, melt, Develop new product. Changes
condense, evaporate and sublimate) observed in color, odor, heat etc.
Ex: Boil, dissolve, break, spilt, grind, Ex: Decompose, ferment, oxidized etc.
cut, crush etc.
 Topic 3. Quality evaluation of foods

Food Quality: is the ultimate criterion of the desirability of any food product.

Evaluation of Food Quality

Sensory/ Subjective/Organoleptic method Objective method

1) Sensory Method: assessed by human sensory organs.

Sensory characteristics of food

i) Appearance: Include foods size, shape, color, structure, transparency or

turbidity, dullness or gloss, brightness, completeness of cooking and
degree of wholeness or damage.

Example:

 Color of a fruit indicates how ripe it is, and color also is an indication of
strength (as in tea or coffee), degree of cooking, freshness, or spoilage.
Consumers expect foods to be of a certain color, and if they are not, it is
judged to be a quality defect.
 The same is true for size, and one may choose large eggs over small ones or
large peaches over small ones.
 Structure is important in baked goods. For example, bread should have
many small holes uniformly spread throughout and not one large hole close
to the top.
  Turbidity is important in beverages; for example, orange juice is supposed
to be cloudy because it contains pulp, but white grape juice should be clear
and without any sediment, which would indicate a quality defect.
ii) Texture: refers to those qualities of a food that can be felt with the
fingers, tongue, palate, or teeth.

Example:

 Crisp crackers or potato chips

 crunchy celery
 hard candy
 tender steaks
 chewy chocolate chip cookies
 Creamy ice cream.

The texture of a food can change as it is stored, for various reasons:

 If fruits or vegetables lose water during storage, they wilt or lose their
turgor pressure, and a crisp apple becomes unacceptable and leathery on
the outside.
 Bread can become hard and stale on storage.
 Products like ice cream can become gritty due to precipitation of lactose
and growth of ice crystals if the freezer temperature is allowed to fluctuate,
allowing thawing and refreezing.

iii) Flavor: It include odor (aroma), taste, mouth feel.

Taste buds near the tip of tongue: Sweet, Salt

On the side: Sour

Back side: Bitter

iv) Astringency: It is dry pucker sensation due to precipitation of the

proteins in saliva. Ex: unripe fruits.
 v) Consistency: Hard, soft, thick, thin….. Temperature may affect the
consistency like ghee, butter, cheese, ice cream etc.
vi) Psychological factors

Conducting sensory tests:

 Panel members:

i) Trained panel: Fully trained and experience person. Judge to difference in

specific characteristics between stimuli and direction or intensity. Small panel- 5
to 10

ii) Discriminative, communicative or semi- trained panel: Technical people

and their families, familiar with the qualities of different types of food. Panel
member- 25 to 30

iii) Consumer panel: Untrained, chosen randomly. Large panel-not less than 100.

 Testing laboratory:
i) Reception room
ii) Sample preparation room
iii) Test booths

 Preparation of samples:
i) Homogenous lot
ii) Same temp.
iii) Optimum level
iv) Kept constant
v) Give sample code
  Testing time:
i) Between 10 to 12 in the morning
ii) Too many samples should not be given (not more than 4 to 5 sample at a
time)
 Evaluation card:
i) Typed or printed
ii) Simple
iii) Give direction
iv) According to experiment
v) Date and name of judge and food products

Types of tests

Difference tests Rating tests Sensitivity tests Descriptive tests

A. Difference tests:

 Paired Comparison test: samples are given in pairs. Both samples may be
same or difference. Differences are present in one characteristic like
sweetness, bitterness.
 Duo-Trio Test: Three samples, two identical and one different. Firstly an
identical sample which is also known as reference sample R given to the
panel. Asked to match one of these with the first. Possible the chance of
guess. The chance of probability is one –half.
 Triangle test: Three samples, two identical and one different. The judge is
asked to determine which of the three the odd sample is. All three samples
are unknown; the chance of probability is one-third.
B. Rating test:

This test gives more quantitative data than difference tests and can be used for
the analysis of more than two samples at the same time.

 Ranking Tests: This test is used to determine how several samples differ on
the basis of a single characteristic. A control need not be identified. Panelists
are presented all samples simultaneously (including a standard or control if
used) with code numbers and are asked to rank all samples according to the
intensity of the specified characteristics.
 Single Sample (Monadic) Test: This test is useful for testing foods that
have an after taste or flavor carry over which precludes testing a second
sample at the same session. The panelist is asked to indicate the presence or
absence and/or intensity of a particular quality characteristic. With trained
panelists, the completed analysis of two or more samples evaluated at
different times can be compared. Also, in market and consumer analysis, the
results of different samples evaluated at different times by a different set of
untrained panelists can be compared.
 Two Samples Difference Test: This test is a variation of the paired
comparison test and measures the amount of difference. Each taster is served
four pairs of samples. Each pair consists of an identified reference and coded
test sample. In two pairs, the test sample is a duplicate of the reference
sample. In the other two pairs, the test sample is the test variable. The
panelist is asked to judge each pair independently as to the degree of
difference to „3‟ representing extreme difference. Additional questions on
direction of difference can also be asked.
 Multiple Sample Difference Test: In this test, more than one test variable
can be evaluated per session but with reduced reliability. Each panelist is
 served 3-6 samples depending upon the number of test variable. One sample
is a known standard. The panelist compares each coded sample with the
known standard. One coded sample is a duplicate of the standard. Direction
and degree of difference is also to be judge.
 Hedonic Rating Test: The hedonic rating test is used to measure the
consumer acceptability of food products. From one to four samples are
served to the panelist at one session. He is asked to rate the acceptability of
the product on a scale, usually of 9 points, ranging from „like extremely‟ to
dislike extremely‟. The results are analyzed for preference with data from
large untrained panels.
9 – Like extremely
8 – Like very much
7 – Like moderately
6 – like slightly
5 – Neither like nor dislike
4 – Dislike slightly
3 – Dislike moderately
2 – Dislike very much
1 – Dislike extremely

 Numerical Scoring Test: One or more samples are presented to each

panelist in random order or according to a statistical design. The panelist
evaluates each sample on a specific scale for a particular characteristic
indicating the rating of the samples. The panelist is trained to follow the
sensory characteristics corresponding to the agreed quality descriptions and
scores.
  Composite Scoring Test: The rating scale is defined so that specific
characteristic of a product are rated separately. This method is helpful in
grading products and comparison of quality attributes by indicating which
characteristic is at fault in a poor product.

C. Sensitivity Tests

Sensitivity tests are done to assess the ability of individual to detect different
tastes, odors and feel the presence of specific factors like astringency or hotness
(pepper).

 Sensitivity-Threshold Test: Sensitivity tests to measure the ability of an

individual to smell, taste or feel specific characteristics in food.
There are mainly three types of threshold as described below
a. Stimulus detection
b. Recognition identification
c. Terminal saturation
 Dilution Test: Establish the smallest amount of an unknown material,
developed as a substitute for a standard product that can be detected when it
is mixed with the standard product, e.g., margarine in butter, dried whole
milk in fresh milk, synthetic orange flavor ingredients with natural flavor
and so on.

D. Descriptive Flavor Profile Method

This is both qualitative and quantitative description method for flavor analysis
in product containing different tastes and odor e.g. tomato ketchup.

Limitations of sensory evaluation

1 Highly variable
 2 People with colds or other health problems
3 Emotional burdens

2. OBJECTIVE EVALUATION METHOD

Methods of evaluating food quality that depend on some measure other than the
human senses.

Advantages:

 Confidence
 Accurate
 Less subjected to errors
 Permanent record
 Emotional burdens and individual ability can be overcome.

Disadvantage:

 Time consuming
 Expensive
 Technical knowledge is required
 Instruments may not be available sometimes
 Some aspects of food cannot be evaluated by objective methods e.g., flavor.

Tests Used for Objective Evaluation:

Chemical methods: Chemicals are estimated in food spoilage like peroxides in

fats. Adulterants in food e.g., presence of starch in milk, metanil yellow in turmeric
powder and loss of nutrients during cooking can be estimated.
 Physico-chemical methods:

a. Measurement of hydrogen ion concentration can be found by the use of PH

meter.
b. Digital salt meter: It indicates salinity percentage.
c. Sugar concentration can be found by Refractometer. Light is refracted as it
passes through sugar solution, with the specific values being calibrated in
degrees, Brix, an indication of the percent of sucrose in the solution.
Brix or Balling hydrometer gives directly the percentage of sugar by
weight in the syrup. Brix is defined as percent sucrose measured by a Brix
hydrometer.
d. Polaris cope is used for quantitative analysis of sugar.
e. Butyrometer: Measuring the butter content of milk. Milk is mixed with
certain volume of ether which dissolves the butter. Then an equal volume of
alcohol is added. The butter floats on the surface.

Microscopic examination method: use microscope and used in

1. Idli batter
2. Examination of starch
3. Spoilage of the food
4. Size of crystals in sugar is related to smoothness of the product.
5. Number and size of the air cells in batters and foams.

Physical methods:

a. Weight: Weight of food indicates the quality like in case of apple or egg.
b. Volume: Measured by using measuring cups (liquid). Solid food volume can
be found by displacement method. In this method the volume can be
calculated by subtracting the volume of seeds held by a container with a
 baked product from that of volume of seeds without the baked product.
Usually mustard seeds are used.
c. Specific volume: Measurement of bulk volume in a porous and spongy
product like idli is difficult. The volume may be measured by displacement
with solvents like kerosene. The idli is given a momentary dip in molten
wax to seal off the pores. Increase in volume is taken as the measure of its
bulk volume.

Specific volume = Bulk volume/Wt. of the substance

d. Index to volume: Measuring the area of a slice of food with a planimeter.

First tracing detailed outline of a cross section of the food. Can be done with
a sharply pointed pencil or a pen or by making a clear ink blot of the cross
section.
e. Specific gravity: It is measure of the relative density of a substance in
relation to that of water. The measurement is obtained by weighing a given
volume of the sample and then dividing that weight by the same volume of
water. Used for comparing the lightness of products e.g., egg white foams.
f. Moisture:
 Press fluids: Initial weight of the sample is noted. After the appropriate
pressure has been applied for a controlled length of time, the sample is again
weighed e.g., juiciness of meats, poultry and fish.
 Drying: The weight of the original sample is determined and then the food
is dried until the weight remains constant.
Moisture content = initial – dried weight / initial weight × 100 = %
 Karl Fischer Titration: In 1990 Karl Fischer showed that food to be
analyzed by this method is homogenized in a high-speed blender at speeds
 up to 7,500 rpm to release the water and the water is titrated with Karl
Fischer reagent until all the water has reacted with the reagent.
g. Wettability: Baked products can be tested for moisture level by conducting
a test for wettability. The sample is weighed before being placed for 5
seconds in a dish of water. Immediately at the end of the lapsed time, the
sample is removed from the water and weighed again to determine the
weight gain.
h. Cell structure: Cell structure of baked products is an important
characteristic to measure the uniformity, size and thickness of cell walls.
 Photocopies of cross-section slices
 Size of the grain: This can be found by using photography or ink prints with
stamp pad or sand retention e.g. idli.
 Photography: This may be color or black and white. They may not represent
the sample size.

i. Measurement of color: Color is the first quality attribute a consumer

perceives in food. Change of color is generally accompanied by flavor
changes.
 Color Dictionaries: The dictionary of Maerz and Paul is most commonly
used. The dictionary consists of 56 charts. Seven main groups of hues are
presented in order of their spectra. For each group there are 8 plates.
 Disc colorimeter: The disc has radial slits so that a number of them may
be slipped together with varying portions of each showing. The discs are
spun on a spindle at about 2700 rpm so that the colors merge into a single
hue without flickering.
  Colored chips: A sample method is to match the color of the food with
the color chips or color glass, chart or color tiles.
 Spectrophotometer: Tube with the liquid is placed in a slot and light of
selected wavelength is passes through the tube. This light will be
differentially absorbed depending upon the color of the liquid and the
intensity of the color.

INSTRUMENTS USED FOR TEXTURE EVALUATION

Rheology is defined as the science of deformation and flow of matter. It has

three aspects – elasticity, viscous flow and plastic flow.

Rheological properties of foods –

 To determine the flow properties of liquid food stuffs.

 To ascertain the mechanical behavior of solids foods when consumed and
during processing.

Instruments used for Liquids and Semisolids:

The resistance or internal friction to the flow of liquids is normally known as

viscosity. Viscosity or consistency is an important Factor in influencing the
quality bb of a large number of food products. Creams style corn, salad creams,
tomato products, jellies, jams, mayonnaise, syrups, and fruit pulps.

Percent Sag: The depth of a sample such as jelly is measured in its container
by using a probe. The product then is unmolded onto a flat plate. The greater
the percent sag, the tenderer is the gel.

Percent Sag = depth in container – depth in plate /depth in container × 100

Stormer viscometer: It is used measure the viscosity or consistency of certain
food products and to give an index of the resistance of the sample to flow. The
number of seconds required for the rotor to make 100 revolutions has been used
to measure the consistency of some food samples.

Brookfield Synchrolectric Viscometer: This is based on measurement of

resistance to rotation of a spindle immersed in the test material. Measuring the
consistency of custards, pie fillings, tomato products, cream style corn,
mayonnaise, salad dressings and dairy products.

Bostwick Consistometer: It useful for measuring the consistency of tomato

ketchup and sauce. It consist a channel (2×12”) with sides which are 2” high.
This instrument is based on the theory that the length of flow is proportioned to
consistency.

Efflux- Tube Viscometer: It measures the time necessary for a quantity of

fluid to pass through an orifice or capillary under standard pressure e.g., tomato
puree.

Adams Consist meter: It measures the unrestrained flow in all directions by

means of concentric circles. A simple version of this principle is used in Line
spread test.

Penetrometer: It measure tenderness of some foods. This device consists of a

plunger equipped with a needle or cone that is allowed to penetrate the sample
by gravitational force for a selected period of time. The larger the reading the
longer the distance the more tender is the product, e.g., Gels, baked products.
The bloom gelometer is a special type of penetrometer.
Brabender farinograph: It measures the plasticity of wheat dough for
preparing bread products. Study the physical properties of the dough by
recording the force required to turn the mixer plates through the dough. The
force required increases as the solution develops during mixing and later
decreases as solution is slowly broken down by over mixing.

Instruments used for solids: Food texture can be reduced to measurements of

resistance to force.

 If we squeeze food that it remains as one piece this is called

compression. e.g. bread.
 If we apply a force so that one part of the food slides past another it is
shearing. E.g. chewing gum.
 If the force goes through the food so as to divide it as we call it cutting.
e.g. cutting an apple.
 If the force is applied away from the material, the food pulls apart by
which we measure tensile strength. e.g. chapati

Magness- Taylor pressure tester (compression): It consists of a plunger of

variable diameter which is pressed into the fruit to a given depth. The sprint
attached to the plunger contracts and measures the compression force, e.g. peas
(suitability of peas for the harvest or to find out the correct stage of ripening of
a food).

Succulometer (compression): This instrument is used to measure the maturity

of corn and storage quality of apples as determined by the volume of juice
extracted under controlled conditions of pressure and time.
Tenderometer (compression and shearing): This is an example of an instruments based on
shearing force in which compression is preceded by shearing action, e.g. suitability of peas
for preservation.

Fibrometer: This is based on the cutting principle and used to differentiate mature stocks
from the tender stocks, e.g. green beans.

Shortometer: This device consists of a platform containing two parallel, dull blades on
which the sample rests. A third blade is actuated by a motor to press down on the sample
until the sample snaps. The force required to break the sample is the measure of the
tenderness of the product. Find out the breaking strength of idli, pastries and cookies.

Cristal texturometer (cutting): This is designed with series of rods which are pushed into
the meat sample. The harder the meat more force is required to penetrate.

Voldokevich bite tenderometer (cutting and shearing): Imitate the action of teeth on food.
It records the force of biting on a piece of food which results in deformation and this
determines the total energy utilized for this deformation, e.g. meat and meat products.

Grinding and extensibility: The power used by a household food grinder is measured.
Increased toughness would increase the current consumption of the grinder. Extensibility has
proved to be inversely related to tenderness.

Kramer shear press: This is a multipurpose instrument with same power unit and with
different fest cell assemblies. This instrument is widely used.

Tensile strength: An instrument used to find out the tensile strength of chapathi.

Compressimeter: Related to the shear press.

Warmer – Bratzier Shear: Measure tenderness of meat

Shear press

Universal Testing machine: It measure cohesiveness, adhesiveness, hardness, springiness,

gumminess, chewiness and fructurability.
 Topic 4: Effects of cooking and processing
Preliminary preparation of foods:

 Peeling and Stringing: Peeling and stringing are the method, which refers
toward the removal of non-edible portions of fruits and vegetables.
 Cutting and grating:
 Cut: To shape with knife or dived into pieces
 Mince: Refer to the very chop
 Chop: Refer to the cut into no specific shape
 Slice: Refer to the cut into uniform slice/pieces
 Dice: Refer to the cut into small uniform cubes
 Grate: Refer to the cut finely with a grater
 Sieving: Sieving refers to the removal of coarse fibers and insects. It is also
done in preparing cakes for blending of flour with baking powder.
 Soaking: Soaking is done sometimes with plain water or sometimes with
salted water.
 Coating: Coating refers to the covering a food layer with the help of bread
crumbs, flour before cooking it to make crispy.

Different methods of coating involves-

 Dredging: Substance used in coating such as flour. Powdered-bread crumbs

etc. It is a method in, which, food is, coated with a fine dry powder
Substance before cooking or frying the food.
 Breeding: 3 steps

I) Food product dredged with flour

II) Dipped the food product in liquid

III) Coat with the crumbs

 Battering: Batter is semiliquid in texture generally it consists of egg liquid

mixture thickened with flour rice, creamed to make smooth consistency.
Food product into the batter.
 Blanching: It involve 2 steps
i) Water plunging food into boiling liquid
ii) Immersing in cold water

Advantages of blanching:

 Easy to peel
 Caning and freezing is preliminary method.
 Help in removal of micro organism
 Improve the color
 Destroy enzymes present in food.
 Marinating: Soaking of food in marinade mixture before cooking to add
flavor in it food can be marinating according to taste and requirement of the
cooking recipe.
 Sprouting and Germination
 Fermentation
 Roasting
 Drying
 Filtering
Cooking Methods:

I) Moist heat method:

i) Boiling: Refers to any liquid, which is bubbling and break
down rapidly food that are cooked. Excess amount of
water is use to do boiling at 100˚C.

Advantages: Simple method, uniform cooking, special skill not

required, help in removal of soluble starch.

Disadvantages: Time consuming method, loss of flavor and

texture of food, loose water soluble nutrients.

ii) Simmering: It refers to the food cooking in a pan with

well-fitting lid at temp. 82 to 99˚ C below the boiling
point.

Advantages: Prevention of scorching and burning, minimum

losses due to leaching.

Disadvantage: More fuel requires, long period of cooking there

is loss of sensitive nutrients.

iii) Poaching: In this method 80- 85˚C temperature below the

boiling point along with minimum amount of liquid is
required for cooking. Ex: egg, fish, fruits etc.

Advantages: Quick method, no fat used, easily digestible.

Disadvantages: Water soluble nutrients may be leached in water,

bland in taste
 iv) Stewing: Cooking using small quantities of water in a pan
with tight lid. Ex: meat, vegetables, legumes, stock.

Advantages: Flavor are retained, loss of nutrients does not take

place.

Disadvantages: Time consuming method

v) Steaming: Steamer is used and water should be boiled at

100˚C before food is placed in the steamer. They have 3
types:
a) Wet steaming: Steam is in direct contact with food, e.g., idli
b) Dry steaming: Double boiler techniques are used for
cooking, e.g., melting a chocolate.
c) Water less cooking: Steam is originated from the food it-
self. Aluminum foil is used to wrap the food & food is cooked
by its own steam.
vi) Pressure cooking: Reduce cooking time steam is trapped
& kept under pressure, so that steam can be raised 100˚c.

Dry heat method (Air as medium of cooking)

 Grilling: Red hot surface or heated by radiation are the method by which
food is cooked.
Food in placed between, below & above the red hot surface or sometimes
under the heater until browning takes place. Ex: - Barbecues, papad, brinjal,
sweet potato, phulkas etc.
 Pan broiling or Roasting: Refers to uncover cooking using a heated metal
or a frying pan, e.g., Roasting rava, groundnut etc.

Grilling and broiling refers to a similar cooking process with only one major
difference. When grilling, the heat source is below (like with a barbecue grill),
but in oven broiling the heating source is above.

 Baking: Hot air is req. for baking. When hot air is combined with steam it
help the food to bake &it looks brown, crisp, and soft in texture.
 Tandoor: Chicken, mutton, tandoori nan
 Oven: Electric oven and gas oven

Dry heat method (Fat as medium):

 Sautéing: Once the pan is greased, foods are occasionally tossed, so that
all pieces come in contact. Ex: - veg.
 Shallow fat frying: Ex: - Parantha, cutlets, tikkas food become crispy
brown outside, soft & tender inside.
 Deep fat frying: Uniform cooking ex: - Pakoda, mathri, kachori etc. When
repeatedly oil is used, large amount of oil or fats is absorbed.

Combination of cooking method:

 Braising: Refers to the combination of method such – roasting + stewing

Effect of cooking on nutritive value:

i) Cereals
 Dextrinisation: It refers to non-enzymatic browning. Ex: - Parantha,
mathri, kachori, samosa etc.
 Starch Dry heat  Dextrin (brown color)

Dextrin reduces the thickening power of starches.

 Gelatinization: Starch  moist heat  gel like structure. Ex: - kheer,
khichdi etc.
 Retro gradation: Means starch paste become less soluble after cooling.
 Syneresis: Water is being pushed out of the gel, due to tightly packed
amylose molecules.
 Sequences- water absorption, change in viscosity, retro gradation,
recrystallization, synersis
ii) Pulses
 The digestibility & availability of amino acids is enhanced / increased on
cooking as anti-nutritional factors like trypsin inhibitors etc. are destroyed.
 Quality of protein is reduced on excessive heating.
 Methionine amino acid is lost on heating.
 Moist heat improves the protein quality of pulses.
 Dry heat method as available lysine is decreased in roasted pulses in
comparison to boiled & pressure cooked pulses.
iii) Milk
 Coagulation of milk protein, casein does not take place on heating.
 Flocculants precipitates that settles on the sides of the containers, is formed
by the action of heat on albumin present in milk.
 Losses iodine contents on heating.
iv) Eggs
 Denaturing of Avidin takes place on heating, thus improving the availability
of biotin in egg white.
  Some loss of thiamin & riboflavin.
 Role of egg in food preparation- stabilization of emulsion, as leavening
agent, as thickening agent, formation of foam
 Lecithin in egg prevents the separation of fat and aqueous layer in
mayonnaise.
 In the preparation of paneer from milk, the pH is- 4.6


Food Processing

i) Rice
 Milling: Cleaning of the paddy is done to remove the impurities. It is done
by two methods – Home pounding & mechanized rice mills
Rancidity develops more quickly in home pounding
Three forms of rice is available after processing –
 Smaller size – brewers rice
 Medium size – screening
 Larger size – second heads

 Parboiling: It involves steeping the paddy in cold water for a few days
boiling it till the grain is soft. Husk is more easily detached. Nutritive value
is increased by the improved protein efficiency ratio, digestibility also
increased. Excellent source of B- complex vitamins.

ii) Pulse
 Soaking
 Decortication: The ingestible part which is the form of fibrous seed coat is
removed.
 Fermentation
 Germination

iii) Milk
 Clarification: Remove out the dirt, filth & bacteria from the milk. The
pasteurization is the next step after clarification.
 Pasteurization:
 High temp. Short time method (HTST): 71.7˚ for 15 second.
 Low temp. Long time (LTH) or holding method: 62.8˚c for 30 min.
 Ultra pasteurized method (UHT) or Ultra high temp: 137.8˚c for 2 second.
 Homogenization: Stable emulsion of milk fat & milk serum is made by
mechanical treatment & the process is termed as homogenization.
 SNF of standard milk- 8.5%

iv) Fruit
 Canning: Sorting & grading of fruits  washing of fruits peeling &
coring of fruit can filling of fruit syruping of fruit with hot sugar
lidding of cans sealing of cans
 Drying
 Freezing

Tests for measuring pectin concentration- boiling point, sheet test

v) Vegetables
  Canning
 Freezing
 Drying
 Pickling: This type of processing preserves veg. in vinegar or a salt solution
(brine) or a combination of the two.
 Pureeing
 Sulfuring

Important:

 Fermentation (enhanced vit B12)- bhatura, jalebi

 Emulsification- Mayonnaise (lecithin), french dressing
 Germination (enhanced vit B and C)- sprouts salad
 Dextinization- chappati, toasted bread
 Shortening- Apple pie, mathari
 Gelatinization- custard, phirni, white sauce
 Coagulation- boiled egg, paneer

Lemon soufflé:

1. Separate the yolk of egg white and cream to the cooled egg mixture.
2. Add sugar and lemon extract to egg yolk.
3. Whisk the egg yolk mixture in a double boiler till creamy.
4. Remove from double boiler and cool.
5. Add dissolved gelatin gradually to the egg yolk mixture and cool. Fold in the
whipped egg white and cream to the cooled egg mixture.
6. Set the mixture in a soufflé disk in the refrigerator.
Guava jelly:

1. Cut guavas in slices.

2. Cook guava slices for 40-45 min.
3. Filter the contents through muslin cloth without pressing.
4. Perform alcohol test to find out pectin content.
5. Add sugar and acid to extract and cook.
6. Perform sheet test for readiness.
7. Fill the contents in sterilized bottle.

Peanut butter:

1. Roast the peanut and remove the skin.

2. Grind the peanut to a fine powder.
3. Add small amount of melted ghee and pinch of sugar and salt.
4. Beat mixture till creamy in texture.
5. Transfer the contents to a sterilized jar.

Jelly:

1. Wash and slice the fruit.

2. Boil the fruit with citric acid and water until tender.
3. Strain the contents through muslin cloth to get clear extract.
4. Test the extract for pectin content.
5. Add sugar to extract and boil vigorously without stirring.
6. Perform sheet test for readiness.
7. Pour hot into sterilized jar.

Standardizing a recipe:

1. Analyze proportion of ingredients.

 2. Test the recipe
3. Evaluate yield, number and size of portions.
4. Determine problems with preparation.
5. Evaluate for acceptability.

Cheese:

1. Pasteurization of milk
2. Acidification of milk
3. Addition of enzyme
4. Curd cutting and cooking
5. Curd draining and cheddaring
6. Salting and pressing
7. Ripening

Stages of sugar cookery in making brittle:

1. Two thread
2. Soft ball
3. Firm ball
4. Soft crack
5. Hard crack

Milk powder:

1. Clarification
2. Fat separation
3. Pasteurization
4. Evaporation
5. Roller drying
 6. Milling
7. Packing

Chocolate:

1. Roasting
2. Milling
3. Addition of other ingredients
4. Mixing
5. Conching
6. Tempering
7. Molding

Cheese: (other steps)

1. Addition of lactic acid starter to pasteurized milk and keep for 30 min.
2. Add renin solution for curd formation
3. Drain the whey from curd
4. Cutting and pilling of soft cheese
5. Addition of salt to cheese
6. Addition of bacteria or mould for ripening process.

Black tea:

1. Withering
2. Rolling
3. Fermentation
4. Drying
5. Grading
 6. Blending

Bread making:

1. Sieve refined flour and salt

2. Add yeast and sugar to luke warm water
3. Keep dough for proofing
4. Knock back dough
5. Bake at 450˚F in bread mould.

Food Preservation

Principles of food preservation

1. Preservation by microbial decomposition:-

 By keeping out micro-organisms (Asepsis)
 By removal of micro-organisms (Filtration)
 By hindering the growth & activity of micro-organisms, e.g., low temp.,
drying, anaerobic condition.
 By killing the micro-organisms

2. Prevention of self-decomposition of food:-

 By destruction or inactivation of food enzymes
 By delay of chemical reaction
 3. Prevention of damage caused by insects, animals & mechanical causes

Methods of Food Preservation

1. By low temperature:-
i) Freezing
 Slow-freezing process: At -4˚C to -29˚C temperature food are placed in
refrigerated. It also called sharp freezing. Home freezing is done by Sharp
method, which require freezing from 3 to 72 hrs. -15 to -21˚C temperature
for fruits &vegetables.
 Quick-freezing process: Large quantity of food can be frozen in short
duration.
 Dehydro freezing: Fruits & vegetables are dried about 50% of its original
wt. & volume. Then freezing the food to preserve it.

2. By High Temperature:-
 Pasteurization
 Heating up to 100˚C
 Heating above 100˚C

3. Preservation by Osmotic pressure:-

 High osmotic pressure inhibits microbial growth
 By high concentration of sugar
 By high concentration of salt
4. By drying procedure:-
 Freezing Drying: Refers to the removal of water from a product while, it is
frozen by sublimation. Food is placed in a vacuum chamber & a small
amount of heat is applied reducing the moisture.
 Sun drying
 Drying by Osmotic
 Spray drying: In spray dries milk & eggs are dried to a powder, in which
the liquid is atomized & sprayed into a hot air steam for air instant drying.

5. Food preservation:-
 Sorbic acid: Inhibits the growth of yeasts & molds, e.g., yoghurt sweets,
soft drinks, frozen pizzas, desserts, and fillings.
 Benzoic acid: Antibacterial & antifungal, e.g. - jam, jellies, desserts, juice,
marmalades, fruit yoghurt, soft drinks.
 Propyl 4-hydroy benzoate: Antimicrobial, e.g. dessert, sauces, fruit pulp,
purees, prickles.
 Sulphur-dioxide- Inhibits growth of fungal & non-enzymatic browning. Ex.
- fruits & vegetables products, soft drinks, beers, and sausages dehydrated
vegetables.
Related preservatives- Sodium sulphite, sodium metabisulphite, potassium
meta-bisulphite (KMS).

 Nisin: Antibacterial ex.- cheese

 Sodium nitrite: inhibits growth of clostridium botulin, ex:- processed meat.
  Sodium nitrate: Curing salt, color retention, ex.- processed meat
 Acetic acid: Antibacterial, ex. - pickles, chutney, cheese, sauces.
 Propionic acid: Anti-fungal. Ex. - baking, dairy products, pizzas, processed
cheese.

Topic 5- FOOD ADDITIVIES

Defined as a substance or mixture of substances, other than a base foodstuff, which

is present in a food as a result of any aspect of production, processing, storage or
packing.

This definition includes both intentional & unintentional additives

1. Anti-caking agents: - Prevent lumping & caking by absorbing moisture.

Ex- Table salt, instant mix.

2. Antimicrobial agents: - Prevent the growth of bacteria, molds, fungi & yeast.

Benzoic acid- Ex- Squashes crushes

3. Antioxidants: - Prevent flavor & color changes & retard rancidity &
deterioration from exposure to oxygen.

- Lecithin, vitamin C & tocophenols, BHA (Butylated Hydroxy Anisole)

Ex- Dry mix, ghee, butter, edible oil, fats.

4. Colors: - Annatto, carotene, cochineal, chlorophyll, nitrates,

Ex- Ice-cream, biscuits, cakes, sweets etc.

5. Curing & pickling agents: - Impart unique flavor or color to a food, increase
shelf-life and stability.

- Sodium nitrite,

Ex - Meat

6. Emulsifiers: - Prevent the separation of oil & water. Provide surface wetting,
lubrication & viscosity change.

- Use as- Ammonium phosphatides, lecithin, sorbitous

Ex- chocolate making, cheese making.

6. Firming agents: - To retain texture of canned fruit & veg.

– CaCo3, sodium aluminum sulphate, calcium citrate,

Ex- canned tomatoes

8. Flavor enhances: - MSG (Monosodium glutamate up to 1%) and yeast,

Ex- masala/spices used in noodles/Chinese cookery.

9. Enzymes: - Pepsin, rennet (renin), papain, amylose, pectinase,

Ex - cheese, tenderizing meat, beverage clarifying.

10. Neutralizing: - To remove excess acidity, ex - wine, ice- cream.

11. Stabilizing agents: -Caragean gums, gum arabi

Ex - chocolate, ice-cream, foam stabilizer in beer

12. Humectant: - Prevent undesirable drying of foods & to maintain the moisture
level. Glycerin, sorbitol, mannitol, dextrose.
Ex - shredded coconut

13. Sequestrant (chelating agents):- Prevent the deterioration of food due to free
metallic ion.

- EDTA, KH2Po4, tartaric acid,

Ex - Soft drinks industries, malted beverages

14. Flour improvers: - For bleaching purpose & dough toughening

- Benzoyl peroxide, Chlorine dioxide, Nitrogen dioxide, Dinitrogen tetraoxide,

Potassium bromate etc.

Ex - Flour

15. Leavening agents: - To increase in volume of dough or batter resulting in light

fluffy, spongy.

Baking powder, sodium bicarbonate with another acid component like tartaric acid
or calcium hydrogen phosphate.

Ex - Bread, cakes, khaman etc.

16. Sweeteners: - Non-nutritive & Nutritive

17. Clouding agents: - To produce haze in liquid foods.

18. Clarifying agents: - To remove cloudiness – Bentonite, tannic acid, gelatin

Ex- Fruits juices, beer, wines.

 FOOD PIGMENT

Six types or classes of food pigments:-

1. Heme pigment: Myoglobin – present in muscles

Hemoglobin – present in blood

Meat Cut  Purplish  O2  Red cooks  Brown

When cook the meat, protein is denatured & heme convent to nicotinamide hemi
chrome & they give brown color.

2. Chlorophylls: Present in green leafy vegetables, green veg., and unripe fruit.
Not stable pigment

Chlorophylls  Acid processing  Bright green  Dull olive brown pheophytins

Freezing storage – Retain color

3. Carotenoids: Orange, yellow, green colors provide.

Types:-

 Carotene - Carrot, egg yolk, orange

 Xanthophyll – Veg., egg, chicken fat
 Zeaxanthin – Yellow corn, egg, liver
 Cryptoxanthin – Egg, yellow corn, orange
 Physalien – Asparagus, berries
 Bixin – Annatto seeds
 Lycopene – tomato, pink grapefruit, palm oil
 Capsanthin – Paprika
 Astaxanthin – Lobster, shrimp, salmon
 Torularhodin – Rhodotorula yeast
 Canthaxanthin – Mushrooms
 F-Apo-8‟- caratenal – Spinach, orange
 Carotenoids elestroy in storage – 20 to30%

4. Flavonoids-
 Anthocyanins – Kyanos – blue
Anthos – pigments of flowers
-Anthocyanin‟s – Apple, black berry, black currant, blue berry
 Flavones
 Flavanones – citrus fruit
 Flavonals – Ouescentin (Apples, grapes)
 Isoflavones – soybean

5. Betalains – Water soluble

Ex- Red – violet – Beta cyanins,
Yellow – Betaxanthins
(present in red beet/beet root)
6. Others – Quinone – walnuts

Xan-thones (mangiferin) – Mango

Tannins – tea, coffee

Water soluble pigment:-

 Flavanoids
 Anthocyanin – Red to purple ( brinjal, pomegranates, blue berries,
cherries),
 Anthoxanthins – (colorless to pale yellow, green colors)
Ex- Onions, cauliflowers, GLVs
 Betalins – beet root

Water insoluble pigments:-

 Chlorophyll
 Carotenoids

Natural colors:-

 Anthocyanin – Blue to radish

 Annatto – i) Bixin – Orange – Ex- butter, cake, popcorn oil,

ii) Norbixin – Ex- cheese (cheddar) flavonoid milk & drinks, bakery
&confectionary.

 Cochineal extract – insect – magenta – red

Ex- Cakes, alcoholic drinks, beverages, ice-cream, candy, sweets.
 Luetin (Antioxidant) – Marigold flower. Give light yellow to intensely
yellow color
Yellow color
 Paprika – red pepper ( Give bright orange to red – orange )

Important:

 Lycopene – Tomatoes
 Flavonoids- Garlic
 Selenium- Sea foods
 Vitamin E- Wheat germ
 Coumarin- Turmeric
 Carotenoid- Carrot
 Alkaloid- Caffeine
 Myoglobin- Meat
 Anthoxanthin- turnip, cauliflower, onion
 Anthocynanin- brinjal, cherries, plums
 Xanthophyll- corn
 Cryptoxanthin- yellow corn
 Lutein- green capsicum
 Betalains- beet root
 Chlorophylls- green color fruits and vegetables
 Flavones- onion
 Glutathione- asparagus
 Alpha lipoic acid- spinach
 Topic 6 -FOOD STANDARD

Food standard agency - National office  Scotland (April, 2015)

Formed – 1 April 2000
Head quarter – France, London
International food standard set by FAO and WHO

Food Standard in India – 1. Compulsory

2. Voluntary
1. Compulsory:
 PFA (Prevention of food Adulteration Act, 1955), Food Adulteration act,
1954.
 Essential Commodities Act, 1954
 FPO (Fruit product order, 1955)
 MPO (Meat product order, 1973)
 Milk &Milk products order include in FSSAI, 1992
 Solvent extracted oils, Flour control order, Vegetable products order, 1967
 Standards on weights & measures, 1971
 Vegetable oil products order, 1947
 Edible oils packaging order- 1988

2. Voluntary:
 AGMARK (Agriculture produce grading & marketing Act,1973)
Total 222 commodities ex- Cereals, its products, pulses, spices etc.
4 types of grading – 1. Special
2. Good
3. Fair
 4. Ordinary
Head office – Faridabad (Haryana)
Central Agmark lab: - Nagpur
 BIS (Bureau of Indian standard):- ISI (1947) is now called BIS (1986).
 FSSAI – Food Safety and standard Authority of India
Food safety and standard Act, 2006

It standard of food articles & regulate to their manufacture, storage,

distribution, sale, import.

Head office – Delhi

HACCP (Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Point)

It established for food safety HACCP system – used all stages – from food
production, preparation, processing, packaging, distribution etc.
Run by – FDA (food & Drug administration)
USDA (United States Dep. Of Agriculture)

Principles:- 7
1. Conduct a hazard analysis: Determine food safety hazard & identify the
preventive measures.

2. Identify critical control points (CCP): It is a point, step or procedure in a

food manufacturing process at which control can be applied & food safety
hazard can be prevented, eliminated or reduced.
 3. Establish critical limits for each critical control point.

4. Establish critical control point monitoring req.

5. Establish corrective actions

6. Establish procedures for ensuring the HACCP system is working as

intended validation ensure that the plants do what they were designed to do,
that is; they are successful in ensuring the production of a safe product.

7. Establish record keeping procedures.

HACCP principles included in ISO 22000 (2011).
 Application of HACCP – Fish & fishery products
- Fresh cut procedure
- Juice & nectar products
- Food Outlets
- Meat & poultry products
- School food & service

MICROBIOLOGY

HISTORY:-

 1810 – Introduced canning for preservation of food by “Nicolas Appert”

  1813 – “Camble & Donkin” introduce the practice of food processing & use
of Sulphur dioxide as meat preservative.
 1825 – E Dagett was granted for preserving food in tin canes
 1840 – Fish & fruits were first canned
 1841 – Freezing of food by “H Benjadelmin”
 1855 – Grimwade first produce powder milk.
 1857 – Milk was designated as the transmitter of typhoid by W Taylor.

Food Born disease caused by Pathogenic Organisms:-

 Bacteria:

a) Basillus cerus Cereal product  nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain

b) Clostridium botulinum toxins  Defectively processed meat & fish 

paralysis, death due to respiratory failure

c) Streptococcus pyogenes  foods kept exposed or stale in unhygienic

surroundings which lead to scarlet fever, septic sore throat (milk and its
products).

d) Staphylococcus aureus  foods kept exposed which leads to salivation,

vomiting, abdominal pain & diarrhea. (cream filled foods)

e) Shigalla sonnei  Foods kept exposed which leads to bacterial dysentery.

f) Clostridium perfringens salmonella Defectively processed & precooked

food & raw vegetables grown on sewage which leads to nausea, diarrhea &
abdominal pain

g) Salmonella  Enteric fever (eggs and meat products)

h) Protozoa Amoebic dysentery

 Fungal:

a) Aspergillus flavus  Corn & groundnut which causes liver damage & cancer

b) Claviceps purpurea  Rye & pearl millet which leads to ergotism

c) Penicillium islandicum  Rice which leads to liver damage.

 Parasitic:

a) Trichinella spiralis  pork & its products  nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,

muscular pain

b) Entamoeba histolytica & Ancylostoma duodenale  Raw veg. grown on

sewage which leads to epigastric pain, loss of flood & anemia.

Food born disease bacterial

Intoxications Infections

 Staphylococcal intoxication - Salmonellosis

(An enterotoxin produced by - Clostridium
Staphylococcus aureus) - Bacillus cerus
 Botulism: A neurotoxin gastroenteritis
produced by clostridium botulinum - Enteropathogenic
Escherivhia of E. coli
- Yensiniosis shigollsi
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
 Mycotoxin (fungal) (Moulds)

 Aflatoxins  Barley, corn, cottonseed, millet, oats, peanut, rice, soya bean
 Patulin  Apple sap, apple juice, apple cider
 Ochratoxin A  Corn, wheat, barley, white bean, peanuts, egg
 Luteoskyrin  Mold, rice flour
 Sterigmatocystin  Wheat, oats
 Penicillic acid  Dried beans, tobacco
 Alimentary toxic Aleukia (ATA)  Grain
 Roquefortin  Blue cheese, stilton cheese

 Taenia solium- Infested pork ( cyst in the brain)

 Ascaris lumbricoides- people, food and water
 Thread worm- food infected with human faeces
 Clostridium botulinum- canned food

FOOD PACKAGING

“A packaging provides protection, tampering, resistance and special

physical, chemical or biological needs.

Types of packaging:-
 Glass:
Testing of glass containers:
 Visual defects
 Critical defects: Cracked or broken glass, choked bore, internal fins, over
press etc.
 Major defects: Oil marks, blisters, crizzle, deformation etc.
 Hydrostatic pressure test: Bottles are filled with water & pressure is applied
by pump.
 Chemical durability test of glasses

Making of glass bottles

 Hot end process: Calcium oxide, lime, silica, soda – lime glass & small
amt. of aluminum oxide, ferric oxide, barium oxide, sulphur trioxide &
magnesia for about 5 percent of soda – lime glass.
 Before melting, cullet (recycled glass) is added to the stock.
 After stock has been fed into furnace temp. is increased to 1675˚F
 One of two method forming methods is applied press and blow or blow and
blow.
 Annealing: Formation is complete; some bottles may suffer from stress as a
result of unequal cooling rates. An annealing oven can be used to reheat &
cool glass containers.
 Cold end process
 Closures: - It is a devices & techniques used to close or seal a bottle, jug,
jar, tube etc. It can be a cap, cover, lid, plug etc.

Types of closures:-

 Metal closures – they have EOE (easy opening ends)

 Crown caps – Used in beverage bottles
 Lug caps – They seal the vacuum inside the headspace of the glass bottle,
they req. puncturing to open it. It also known as twist – on twist – off caps.
Used in jam bottles etc.
 Plastic closures
 Corkers – Use to close wine bottles
 Plastic hinge – open – snap – shut closures: used for liquid products,
cooking oils, sauces, fruit toppings.
 Cans
Types:-
 Full top cans – packing the acidic foods
 Slip over lid – Airtight & temper to sealing
 Coffee cans – Plastic lid convenient to open
 Colapse cans – Bulkiness & transportation can be achieved at low cost by
delivering fatten can bodies. Reformed & prior to filling.
 Aerosol cans – Pressurized cans i) Foam
ii) Wax spray
 Foil laminated fiber cans – Ex – fruit juice, juice concentrates.

 Plastics:
 Polythene – Boil in the bag product
 Polyamide (nylon) – Especially for food containing fat
 Type 1 – PET ( water container)
APET (Fizzy drinks)
CPET (oven ready – meal trays)
 Type 2 – HDPE (milk & detergent bottles)
 Type 3 – PVC banned in some countries (water shampoo, Squash etc.)
 Type 4 – LDPE ( Plastic bags & bin lines)
 Type 5 – PP ( Margarine tubes & microwaveable meal trays)
 Type 6 – PS (Yoghurt pots, plastic cutlery, egg cartons).
 Type 7 – Melamine & non-breakable plates & cup
 Making of plastic bottles :
 Injection moulding
 Injection blow moulding
 Extrusion blow moulding
 Stretch blow moulding
 Blow moulding
 Paper:
 Grease proof paper
 Kraft paper
 Pouch paper
 Cardboard

Making of paper:

 Pulping method –
i) Raw material preparation
ii) Pulping
iii) Bleaching
iv) Stock preparation sheet formation
v) Consolidation
vi) Drying
vii) Finishing
 Pulping types

Chemical semi-chemical mechanical

 Bleaching of paper: Chlorine & hypochlorite

Topic 7- Menu
Types of menus:-

1) Table d’ hote menu: Means table of the host. This menu is therefore a set
menu, in which a no. of dishes are planned by the host & food served & offered at
a set price. Selling policy- take it-nor leave it one. Ex- Railways, airlines etc.

In India in the form of thali meals.

2) A la carte menu: Basically a choice menu and generally offers choice of dishes
or items to customers under ten food categories – starters, soups, main dishes, side
dishes, cereal preparation, salads, desserts, sandwiches, snacks, beverages.

3) Combination menu: Some establishments it is common to have a la carte menu

with a special for the day attachments to it. This special may be a set of dishes, or a
plated meal offered in a table a hote form at a set price.
4) Cyclic menu: Hotels, hospitals, homes & other institutions, menus are planned
in advance for periods of time varying from five days to one month. These are then
cycled or repeated.

Types of menu

Table d’hote A la carte Other types

- Banquet - Breakfast menu - Static menu

- Buffet - Lunch menu - Du Jour menu

- Coffee house - Dinner menu - Wine menu

- Cyclical menu - California menu - Dessert menu

- Ethnic menu

- Specialty menu

- Room service or lounge menu

1) A la Carte:-

 California menu: - Where food items are available regardless of the time of
the day whether it is breakfast or lunch or dinner can be offered as separate
menu.
  Ethnic menu:- It can be semi a la carte or A‟la carte. Offers food items that
are representative of the particular cuisine from a particular region or
country.
 Lounge menu:- It offered either in a‟la carte or semi a‟la carte style. This
menus are generally served in hotels, spas. Where customers can order
selective item that require easy preparation & less c0stly.

2) Other types:-
 Static menu:- Widely used menus offered by those restaurants those offer
same dishes all year long. Ex- fast-food restaurants
 Du-Jour menu:- Other names are „a plate du jour „or‟ specialty of the
house‟ section. This menu usually offers one dish for the particular day
which is prepared & changed daily. It also known as “ Chalkboard menus”

FOOD SERVICE

Style of service:-

1) Waiter service

Banquet service Restaurant service Room

- Formal parties - Coffee shop - Hospital

- Dhabha - Airline

- Cafeteria - Railway

- Restaurant
2) Self service

Buffet Cafeteria

- Full - Trayed

- Finger - Plated

- Fork

3) Vending:- Seller or vendor bringing food home, or supplying it at bus stations,

railway platform, on roadside etc. mobile catering

- Other type of classification of service:-

1) Portable service:- The person has to prepared the food items in her premises &
delivered them at the office premises.

2) Self-service:- 4 types

i) Counter

ii) Free flow system:- The counters serve specific items. The customer than goes
to the counter from where he selects the items of his choice. Ex- fast food unit
pizza, ice-cream, dosa

iii) Buffet:-

iv) Drive-in: The customer is able to pick up the food items from the
counter/snacks bar from his vehicle on cash payment. Such a service is seen in
drive-in restaurants.

3) Tray service:-
i) Centralized:- Ex- When the food of each patient is place in a tray in the
kitchen & delivered to the patient in bed by the use of trolley.

ii) Decentralized:- Ex- private wards. The food from the main kitchen is brought,
reheated & assembled in trays & then delivered.

4) Table service:-

i) American style or English style: Customer is greeted by a hostess & the menu
card is presented. Waiter takes the orders, places the necessary crockery & cutlery
on the table, brings the food from the kitchen, serves the guest & also removed the
soiled dishes.

ii) French style: very elaborate, where some preparation or final finishes to the
dishes are given on a portable table by the chief waiter & is served assistant waiter.
Expensive style

iii) Russian service: Food is completely prepared & portioned in the kitchen.

iv) Banquet service: Any of the style of service i.e. American or Russian is
adopted by a large no. of people served together. Ex- conferences & meetings.

v) Gueridon service: “trolley” similar to French style

vi) Filipino service: It is a table service without a waiter/waitress. All courses are
served on the table with serving spoon for each course.

viii) Blue plate service: When the group is small, the table is small and the
area for dining is small.

Important points:

Banquet: sophisticated and formal style

Buffet: conference

Cafeteria: Scramble

Hospital: Centralized and decentralized

Railway: Plated service

Restaurant: table service

Types of Food Service System:-

1) Conventional: Menu item are prepared in a kitchen on place where meals are
served & are held a short time, either hot or cold, until they are served. Used by
small food service operators.

2) Commissary (Central production kitchen):-

- Is characterized by a large, central production kitchen separate from service units.

- Is employ by airlines, chain restaurants, large school districts.

3) Ready prepared:- Foods are prepared in premises after which they are chilled
or frozen & stored for used at some later time. Ex- Hospital & restaurants chains,
schools & colleges.

Two ways – i) cook/ chilled method ii) cook/ freezer method

4) Assembly/serve:- Food production is not done on the premises.

- Fully prepared foods are purchased, stored, assembled, heated & served.
- Used in hospitals & health care institutions.

FOOD COST ANALYSIS

1) Calculation & cost statements:

Percentage Index = Total no. of item A sold / total of all items sold × 100

As = Percentage index of A × Forecast of total customers / 100

Cost involved in catering are-

i) Food cost

ii) Labor cost

iii) Overhead cost

2) Gross profit Ratio:

Gross profit = Total sales – food cost

3) Break even & contribution:- Establishments whose sales figures just cover
their variable & fixed costs are said to break-even. When the net profit or loss is
zero, the contribution made by the organization just covers the fixed costs.

Quantity:-

Breakeven point = Fixed cost / Average spending power (ASP) – Variable cost
per cover

BEP = Fixed cost/ Contribution per cover

Volume of sales:-
BEP = Fixed cost × Selling price/ Selling price × Variable cost per unit

BEP= Fixed cost × Selling price / Contribution per unit

Topic 8- New product Development

New food product: -- It can be defined as the development & introduction of a

product not previously manufactured by a company into the market place or the
presentation of an old product into a new market not previously explored by the
company.

Food product development:-

William J. Stanton:- “Product development encompasses the technical activities of

product research, engineering & design”.

Need for product development:-

1. Product Decision

2. Size and design of product

3. Name of product

4. Price of product

5. Brand packing & label of product

6. New uses of product

7. Guarantee & after-sale service

Classification & characterization of new food products:-

1. Line Extension: Occur when a company introduces additional items in the same
product. Change in flavor, color etc.

Ex- chips – Onion flavor

Tomato flavor

Cream flavor

2. Innovative product: Develop a new innovative product. It helps to company

growth, reduce the market risk etc.

3. Creative product

4. New packaging of existing product

5. Reformulation of existing product. Ex- better color, flavor

6. New form of existing product. Ex- solid, powder, concentrated, modified

version etc.

7. Repositioned existing product

Product life cycle:-

1. Introduction stage: New product launched in market. It is a stage of slow

growth for it. Profits are negative or low because of low sales & high marketing. It
may be high chance of success or failure at this stage.

They include 4 strategies

a) Rapid spamming strategy: This strategy involves introducing the new product
with a high promotion & high price in the market.
b) Slow penetration strategy: Low price & low level promotion.

c) Slow spamming strategy: High price & low level promotion. The high price
makes much profit at the launching stage of the new product. When market is
relatively small in size & customers are well aware of the new product.

d) Rapid penetration strategy: Low price & high level promotion.

2. Growth stage:- New product sales rise at an increasing rate so also there are
profitable returns.

3. Maturity stage:- This stage, the sales continue to rise but at a decreasing rate.
Need to advertising, sales promotion, encourage consumers to rebuy the product.

4. Saturation stage: - Sales are stable, profits fall drastically & competition is very
severe in the market.

5. Decline stage:- Profit is at zero level

Process of development:-

1. Idea generation (of new product): Customers, channel members, employers,

competitor‟s product, research scientists.

2. Screening of new ideas: Pros & cons

3. Concept development & testing

4. Business analysis

5. Market testing

6. Commercialization
 NANO TECHNOLOGY
Involves the characterization, fabrication and/or manipulation of structures,
devices or materials that have at least dimension approximately 1-100nm in size
(Dunean, 2011)

Father of nanotechnology:-

“Richard Feynman” (29 Dec, 1959), Noble prize in physics; 1965

“There‟s plenty room at the bottom”

1974 – Nario Taniguchi uses the term “Nano technology”

1986 – K. Eric Drexler developed & popularized the concept of Nano technology
& founded the field molecular Nano technology.

Approaches of Nano technology:-

1. Top- Down Approach– Involves process such as cutting, carving.

2. Bottom- up Approach – It starts with constituents often gases or liquid & uses
chemical, electrical or physical forces to build a nanomaterial atom by atom or
molecule by molecule.

Nano Foods

The term Nano food describes food which has been cultivated produced, processed
or packaged using nanotechnology techniques or tools or to which manufactured
Nano materials have been added.
Ex: Nano-ingredients and manufactured nanomaterial additives include
nanoparticles of iron or zinc and Nano capsules containing ingredients like co-
enzyme Q 10 or omega 3.

Importance:

 New tastes, flavor and textures of food.

 Less amounts of fat, salt, sugar and preservatives.
 Enhanced uptake and bioavailability of nutrients and supplements.
 Increased nutritional value.
 Maintenance of food quality and freshness.
 Improved „Active‟, „Intelligent‟ and „Smart packaging‟.
 Better traceability and safety of food.

Food/ beverage Ingredients

Technologies

Nano Food Shelf life

Packaging Processing

 Nano Emulsion: Particles for better availability and dispersion of nutrients.

It consist of fine oil-in-water dispersions, having droplets covering the size
range of 100-600nm.
  Nano Encapsulation: Nano encapsulation in the form of anomicelles,
liposomes or protein-based carrier systems has been used to develop
delivery systems for additives and supplements in food and beverages
products.
 Nutraceuticals: They not only supplement the diet but should also aid in the
prevention and treatment of disease and disorder.
 Edible nano coating: Used on meats, cheese, fruits, vegetables,
confectionary, bakery goods and fast food. Provides a barrier to moisture
and gas exchange act as a vehicle to deliver colors, flavors, antioxidants,
enzymes and anti-browning agents.
 Nano composites: This technology was developed to improve barrier
performance pertaining to gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. Also
enhances the barrier performances to UV- rays, adding strength, stiffness,
dimensional stability and heat resistance.

Anti- microbial agents for use in films:

 Organic acids- Salt, acid, anhydride

 Natural derivatives- Spice extracts
 Enzymes- Lysozymes, glucose oxidase
 Chelators- EDTA, citric acid
 Gases- Ozone, carbon dioxide, chlorine dioxide
 Silver- Ions, salts

 Nano – nonstick coatings: Make it easier to get the last drops of ketchup
out of the bottle.
  Nano- filters: It screens so small they can filter out microorganisms and
even viruses are used in the brewing and dairy industry. Lactose can now be
filtered from milk and replaced with another.
 Food storage bins: with silver nanoparticles embedded in the plastic. The
silver nanoparticles kill bacteria from any food previously stored in the bins,
minimizing harmful bacteria.

Topic 9- Food service management

Functions of management:

1) Planning: kitchen, equipment, policy (profit, purchasing, safety etc.)

2) Organizing: spaces, work, staff, facilities, service, safety

3) Directing: staff, work, customer

4) Controlling: performance, standards, materials, methods, costs, external forces

5) Evaluating: products, people, resource use, procedures, customer tastes,

environment force

Tools of management:

1) Tangible tools: can be seen, handled and used for solving problems of
management or for planning and organizing the operations of an establishment.

a) Organization chart: It is the outcome of putting people and jobs together and
therefore represents, the entire team involved in the running of the establishment at
both operational and management levels.
Peter Drucker, using three types of analysis:

 Activity analysis
 Decision analysis
 Relations

Organization chart tell us about the subordinate-superior relationship and the lines
of decision making authority. Its structure can be vertically or horizontally. It also
indicates whether authority is centralized or decentralized.

b) Job description: refers to the definition of a job in a precise manner indicating

exactly what is to be done by people who are occupying in an establishment.

c) Job specification: is a statement indicating standards to be achieved for a

particular job. It also covers duties expected to be performed, working conditions
in which the job would be carried out and the qualification required.

A job specification is generally used as a tool for selection of the right employee
for a particular job.

d) Work /time schedule: This represents an outline of the work to be done by an

employee. When this is to be completed within a time schedule as well, then it is
referred to as a time and activity plan.

e) Job analysis: means analysis jobs to know precisely what activities and inputs
they require. Job analysis is also sometimes referred to as task analysis.

Job analysis is a very good tool for increasing efficiency both in terms of speed as
well as resource utilization and can be used at all levels of activity, more so at the
operational level.

f)Staff appraisal
g) Inventory records

2) Intangible tools: Those tools which are abstract in nature and reflected as
unseen qualities are referred to as intangible tools.

a) Personality

b) Leadership quality

c) Training and experience

d) Decision making

e) Communication

f) Organizing ability

Purchasing activity:

Demand from kitchen Prepare specification for supplier Prepare order

Expedite order Receive food and delivery note Inspect foods Check
order receipts and invoices Send requirement on requisition to user
department

Steps involved in bulk purchasing of food in the correct sequence:

1) Identify needs

2) Determine standards

3) Estimate quantities
4) Identify amounts to be purchased

5) Develop purchase order

6) Market research for vendors

7) Select and negotiate with vendor

Step of flow of food for a conventional food service system in the correct
sequence:

1) Receiving

2) Storage

3) Production

4) Holding

5) Service

Correct sequence of a purchasing procedure used in a food service unit:

1) Recognition of needs

2) Writing specification

3) Selection of source

4) Require the market price

5) Placing order

6) Checking invoice
7) Maintaining record

Sequence in which a purchase officer places a purchase order:

1) Identifies need

2) Writes specification

3) Develops order form

4) Selects method of purchase

5) Identifies the vendor

Procedure for hiring an employee in the right sequence:

1) Advertisement

2) Screening of applications

3) Testing skills

4) Interview

5) Verification of reference

6) Medical examination

Right sequence the procedure used in selecting a food service employee:

1) Determining need

2) Internal source

3) Advertisement

4) Interview
5) Establishment of wage

6) Appointment letter

7) Orientation

Steps required in executing a process chart technique for task analysis:

1) Select the task

2) Break the operation of the task into sub operations

3) Prepare the sheet for process analysis

4) Observe the task in execution

5) Analyze the observations made

6) Discuss the suggestions with the worker for repeated tasks.

7) Give suggestions for improvement

Teaching steps for “On the job training” of employees in the correct
sequence:

1) Breakdown the job-list principal steps

2) Have the right equipment, material ready and workplace arranged.

3) Present the operation

4) Try out the workers performance

5) Follow up the workers performance

Steps in formal bid buying in food service institutions:

1) Identify needs

2) Write specification

3) Develop purchase order

4) Issue bid requests and evaluated bids

5) Award contract

Correct sequence for marketing strategy:

1) Analyzing

2) Developing

3) Packing

4) Pricing

5) Distribution

6) Promotion

Steps in buying non-perishable foods for food service institutions:

1) Write specifications

2) Develop purchase order

3) Issue bid request

4) Award contract
Steps to be taken while purchasing equipment for food service establishments
in the correct sequence:

1) Assess the need

2) Decide on the list of equipment‟s to be purchased.

3) Estimate the expenditure by obtaining prices of these items from different

sources.

4) Set guidelines/specifications for purchasing of these items

5) Select after careful consideration ensuring that the equipment satisfy the
required specification.

Buying methods:

1) Open market buying: Most food service establishments use this method for
buying food items. The buyer invites quotations from suppliers for items according
to required specifications. The supplier is then selected on the basis of his samples,
prices, delivery schedule and other services offered.

It is an informal method and can easily be adapted to individual establishments. It

is generally used for purchasing of perishable foods.

2) Formal buying: In this method formal quotations are invited from sellers
against written specifications for each category of foods.

The quotations received remain sealed till the date

of opening. They are then opened by the purchasing manager in the presence of the
bidders and representatives from the user department, accounts and administrative
staff, who witness the quotation accepted.

Formal methods of buying are generally adopted by govt. establishment for

which central purchasing is done, such as for hospitals or homes for the
handicapped or govt. schools. They may also be used for large catering
establishments.

Formal methods involve a great deal of competitive bidding and therefore are
sometimes referred to as competitive bid buying.

3) Negotiated buying: This involves negotiations between buyer or seller

regarding prices and quantities. This method is generally used for seasonal
items which are time bound and limited in supply, where both buyer and
seller are keen that the product is lifted quickly.

Two types of contracts:

a) Firm at opening price (FAOP): In this contract the buyer agrees to take the
supplies at a price established in the future when yield is known, rather than at
pre-season prices when the contract is made. Such an agreement is therefore
firm but not signed till the seasonal yield and price is known.

b) Subject to approval of price ( SAP): In this case the buyer has the option of
rejecting the order if the price fixed in the future is not acceptable to him.

4) Wholesale buying: In this method a contract is signed with a wholesaler for

purchased of goods at a specific price for a future period. The agreement
specifies the intervals between deliveries for the contract period, along with the
quantities required and when. This method is also suitable for larger
organizations or central purchase department.
Some important terms related to food service management:

 Satelliting: Selling and delivering food to other facilities

 Benchmarking: Tool that provides an opportunity for a company to set
attainable goals based on what others are achieving.
 Prospectus: Written description that gives a clear picture of all aspects
of a proposed activity.
 Perpetual inventory: Running record of balance on hand for each item
of goods in a store room.
 Stock book- store
 KOT- Dining room
 Payroll record- Personnel
 Specifications- Purchase
 Purchase book- For recording all goods purchase on credit
 Cash book- For recording cash receipts and payments
 Sales book- For recording all sales returned by the customers
 Journal- For recording transactions for which no specific book is
maintained
 Invoice- This is the bill which follows a delivery, to be paid for by the
buyer. In food service establishment the invoice is usually sent after
 Bundle pricing – Set of products and services are clubbed together and
charged at lower than the sum of individual elements in the mix.
 Parity pricing- Prices fixed for similar products and services are the same
as competitor‟s prices.
 Penetration pricing- Price for any product is deliberately fixed lower than
the prices of competitors
 Premium pricing- Price fixation is allowed at levels higher than
competitors
 Records have to be maintained for calculating food cost: Cash receipt,
invoice of perishables, standardized recipes, store room issues
 Tools of management used at the top management level are- Plans for
sales, expansion, leadership
 Method is used for recipe adjustment- Percentage

Performance Appraisal

Methods:

a) Traditional methods:

1) Essay appraisal method (free form method)

2) Straight ranking method (comparative evaluation)

3) Paired comparison

4) Checklist method

5) Critical incidents method

6) Field review

7) Graphic rating scale

8) Forced distribution

b) Modern methods:

1) Assessment centers
 2) Behaviorally anchored rating scales (graphic rating scale + critical
incidents method) (comparing behavior with BARS)

3) Human resource accounting method

4) 360- Degree –performance appraisal method (Multi – rater feedback)

5) MBO (Management by objectives)

Unit II: Nutrition and Dietetics

Food Groups

Food groups – According to the nutritive value, foods can be classified into
different groups.

Basic five- food groups

1. Cereals, millets & its products:

Nutrients – Energy, protein, thiamine, niacin, fibre etc.

Mainly – Carbohydrates rich, bajra, rice flakes – iron rich, ragi – calcium/also
known as milk of poor person.

2. Pulses, legumes:

Nutrient- Protein rich- soybean – 43.2% protein present. Also known as meat of
poor person.

3. Milk, its product & meat products:

Nutrients – all nutrients are present except iron & vit.C (very less amount)

4. Fruit & vegetables:

Nutrients- Vitamins & minerals

Veg. – Green leafy veg, roots & tuber and other vegetables.

Fruits – Berries, citrus fruit, melons, tropical fruits, sub-tropical fruits

5. Fats, sugars and oils:

Nutrients- Energy & fat rich

Balance Diet: - “A diet which contains different types of food possesses the
nutrients- CHO, protein, fat, vitamins, minerals & water – in a proportion to meet
the requirement of the body.”

According to NIN (national institute of Nutrition):- A balanced diet is one

which provides all the nutrients in required amount & proper proportions. It can
easily be achieved through a blend of the four basic food groups.

 50 to 60% total calories from CHO

 20 to 30%. Both visible & invisible fat.
 10 to 15% protein.

Foods groups: - According to NIN

 Cereals, millets & pulses

 Veg. & fruits
 Milk, its products, beg, meat, fish
 Oils, fat, nuts & oilseeds
Classification of foods based on function:-

1. Energy rich foods- Major nutrients (CHO & fats)

a) Whole grain cereals, millets (protein, fibre, minerals, calcium, iron& B-complex
vitamins)

b) Vegetable oil, ghee, butter (fat soluble vitamins, essential fatty acids)

c) Nuts & oilseeds (protein, vitamins, minerals)

d) Sugar (energy)

2. Body building foods – Major nutrients (protein)

a) Pulses, nut & oilseeds (B-complex vitamins, invisible fat, fibre)

b) Milk & its products (calcium, vit.A, riboflavin, vit.B12)

c) Meat, fish, poultry (B-complex vitamins, iron, iodine, fat)

3. Protective foods - Major nutrients (vitamins & minerals)

a) Green leafy veg‟s. (Antioxidants, fibre & other carotenoids)

b) Other veg. & fruits (fibre, sugar & antioxidants)

c) Egg, flesh foods, milk & its product (protein & fat)

Balance diet for adult man (sedentary):

 Fats/oils - *5g × 5** = 25g

 Sugars - *5g × 5** = 25g
 Milk & its product - *100g ×3** = 300ml or g
 Pulses - *30g × 2** = 60g (vegetarian)

*30g × 1** = 30g (non-vegetarian)

 Vegetables - *100g × 3** = 300g (100g GLVs, 100g roots and tubers and
100 g other vegetables)
 Fruits - *100g × 1** = 100g
 Cereals × millets - *30g × 12** = 360g

* - portion size ** - No. of portions

Elderly man – Reduce 3 portions of cereals & millets & add an extra serving of
fruit.

Balance diet for adult women (sedentary)

 Fats/oils – 5g × 4 = 20g
 Sugars – 5g × 4 = 20g
 Milk & its products- 100g ×3 = 300g
  Pulses – 30g × 2 = 60g (veg.)

30g × 1 = 30g (non. Veg.)

 Veg. – 100g × 3 = 300g

 Fruits – 100g × 1 = 100g
 Cereals & millets – 30g × 9 = 270g

Extra portion:

 Pregnant women: Fat/oil – 2, milk – 2, fruit – 1, GLVs – ½

 Lactating women (0-6 months): Cereals – 1, pulses – 2, fats/oils -2, milk – 2,
fruit – 1, GLVs -1/2
 Lactating (6-12 months): Diet intake should be gradually brought back to
normal.
 Elderly women: Fruit – 1, reduce cereals &millets - 2

Food Pyramid

The Food Pyramid is designed to make healthy eating easier. Healthy eating is
about getting the correct amount of nutrients – protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins
and minerals need to maintain good health.

Foods that contain the same type of nutrients are grouped together on each of the
shelves of the Food Pyramid. They give a choice of different foods from which to
choose a healthy diet.

The pyramid is divided into four levels of foods according to recommended

consumption (NIN):

 Cereals and legumes/beans at the base should be eaten in sufficient quantity

  Vegetables and fruits on the second level should be eaten liberally
 Animal source foods and oils on the third level are to be eaten moderately
 At the apex, highly processed foods high in sugar and fat to be eaten
sparingly.

Accompanying the pyramid there is a recommendation to do regular physical

activity and warnings against smoking and drinking alcohol.

Topic 2
Nutrients

Macro nutrient Micro nutrients

CHO Vitamin

Protein energy giving Minerals

Fat

Water
Energy: The energy content of food materials is measured in calories. The unit of
heat measurement is the calorie.

“One calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of
water by 1˚C (i.e., from 15˚C to 16˚C).

International organizations like FAO, WHO use the unit of Joule.

“The unit (J) is the energy spent when 1kg is moved by 1meter (M) by a force of 1
newton.

1kcal – 4.19kJ

1kcal = 4.184kJ or 4184 Joules

1000kcal – 4.184 MJ

Bomb calorimeter: Is the device to measure the heat of combustion. „Berthelot’

made this apparatus which modified by „Atwater’.

Substance oxidized Heat generated

In bomb calorimeter in the body

CHO 4.2 kcal 4.0 kcal

Fats 9.4 kcal 9.0 kcal

Protein 5.6 kcal 4.0 kcal

Exchange of energy measurement of the body:

- Direct calorimetry: In this method, calculate R.Q (Respiratory Quotient)

R.Q = Carbon dioxide/Oxygen

- Indirect calorimetry: When calorie requirement of a person at work is to be

known, indirect calorimetry. A machine developed by “Miller & Franz”

Total energy requirement:-

 Basal metabolic rate (BMR) + Physical activity + Regulatory thermogenesis

= Energy requirement

1. BMR = A normal adult req. 1 calorie of energy per kg of body wt. – each hour
to carry on with the basic involuntary function.

Factor affecting BMR:-

 Sleep- BMR less during sleep

 Age – During growth stage, BMR is high, BMR reaches max. by 5 yrs. of
age & got lowered in old age.
 Sex – Male BMR is higher than female
 Environmental temp. – BMR increase in cold climate.
 Exercise – Increased BMR
 Starvation – lower BMR
 Fever – 7% increase in BMR with every 1˚F increase the body temp. or 13˚F
increase with every 1˚C rise in body temp.
  Pregnancy – 1st trimester- increase BMR 5% level
Later stages – 12% increase
 BMR is raised in hyperthyroidism & lowered in hypothyroidism.

2. Physical activity:- Activity can be classification –

 Heavy workers:
- Male: Stonecutter, blacksmith, mineworker, woodcutter, gangman etc.

- Female: Stonecutter

 Moderate workers:
- Male: Fisherman, Basket maker, potter, goldsmith, agricultural laborer,
carpenter, mason, rickshaw puller, electrician, fitter, turner, welder, industrial
worker, cooli, weaver, driver etc.

- Female: Maid servant, basket maker, weaver, agriculture labourer,

beedimaker etc.

 Sedentary workers:
- Male: Teacher, tailor, barber, executive, shoemaker, priest, retires personal,
landlord, peon, postman etc.

- Female: Teacher, tailor, executive, housewife, nurse etc.

3. Regulatory Thermogenesis: - Includes the metabolic response to food ingested

(i.e., the use of energy in digestion, absorption & metabolism of the ingested
nutrients) as well as the body‟s response to stimuli such as cold, stimulants &
drugs.

Consumption unit (CU):- This scale is use for practical nut nutrition work in
India.
- Adult male (sed. Worker) – 1.0

- Adult male (moderate worker) – 1.2

- Adult male (heavy worker) – 1.6

- Adult female (sed. Worker) – 0.8

- Adult female (moderate worker) – 0.9

- Adult female (heavy worker) – 1.2

- Adolescents - 12 to 21 years – 1.0

- Children – 9 to 12 years – 0.8

- Children – 7 to 9 years – 0.7

\ - Children – 5 to 7 years – 0.6

- Children – 3 to 5 years – 0.5

- Children – 1 to 3 years – 0.4

 CARBOHYDRATE (CHO)

CHO supply about 50-80% of the total calories in human diets. General formula
(CH2O) n.

“CHO may be defined as polyhydroxy alcohols with aldehydes or ketones & their
derivatives”.

Classification of CHO

Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides

(1 unit of sugar) (2-10 units of sugar) (Many more)

Monosaccharides:- They includes a series of aldehydes (aldose) & ketones

(ketoses) grouped according to the no. of carbon atoms in the chain.

Ex.- Trioses (3 carbon atom),

Tetrose (4 carbon atom),

Pentoses (5 carbon atom),

Hexoses (6 carbon atom) only hexose have dietary significance.

Heptose (7 carbon atom)

 Monosaccharides Aldose Ketoses

Trisoses Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxy acetone

Pentoses Ribose -

Hexoses Glucose galactose Fructose

Mannose

 Glyceraldehyde is the building block of all cell carbohydrates.

 Pentose sugars are synthesized in the cell.
 Ribose in the most importance of the pentose‟s & can be converted to
deoxyribose. Both ribose & deoxyribose are constituents of a nucleic acid
RNA & DNA.

Hexoses are glucose, galactose, fructose & mannose. Glucose, galactose &
mannose are aldohexoses. Fructose is keto hexoses.
Glucose – Simple CHO
Fructose – fruit sugar
2. Disaccharides:- Containing 2 monosaccharide units joined together through the
hydroxyl groups of each sugar with the loss of one molecule of water.

i) Sucrose – Common sugar of kitchen. It is the chief constituent of sugarcane,

beetroot & is also present in pineapple & carrot. Nectar of flower is rich in sucrose.
It is the raw material for honey.

It is a white crystalline solid, soluble in water & with a melting point 180˚c. When
heated above its melting point, it forms brown substances called caramel. It is
sweetest of than lactose & maltose. Non - reducing sugar. Digested by sucrase
enzyme. .

Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose

ii) Lactose – Animal origin. Found in milk. “Milk sugar”.

Human milk – 7.5%, Cow‟s milk – 4.5%

Galactose + Glucose = Lactose

iii) Maltose – “Malt sugar” present in malted products. Digested by maltase

enzyme. Reducing disaccharide.

Glucose + Glucose= Maltose

3. Polysaccharides: - (Complex CHO)

Polysaccharides

Homopolysaccharides Heteropolysaccharides

They are complex polymers Several different

Containing one types of monosaccharides monosaccharides or

their deriatives

i) Homopolysaccharides:-

 Cellulose: Straight chain polymer of glucose. It is a constituent of the cell

walls of plants & gives rigidity to the plant structure like the skeleton
 supports the animal body. It is not attacked by digestive enzyme. It provides
bulk.
 Starch: Two types amylose & amylopectin.
a) Amylose – Is a long unbranched helical chain of glucose molecules. Dissolve
in water.

- It gives a blue color of iodine.

- One molecule of amylose may contain 500 to 5000 glucose molecule.

b) Amylopectin – Is a branched chain of glucose.

- Insoluble in water.

- Gives a purple color with iodine.

- One molecules = 50000 to 500000 glucose molecules.

Starch digestion occurs in mouth by ptyalin enzyme & amylase in intestine.

 Glycogen: Multi - branched polysaccharides of glucose that serves as a

form of energy storage in animals & fungi. In human, glycogen is made &
stored primarily in the cells of the liver & the muscle & functions as the
secondary long term energy storage.
 Dextrin: Produced by the partial hydrolysis of starch by amylases or by
acid. Non – reducing sugar & have fair sweet taste.

Starch  Amylo dextrin + maltose  Erythro dextrin + maltose

Achrodextrin maltose  Maltose
 Pectin: In the presence of sucrose & citric acid, pectin forms a gel. It is
used in food industry as an ingredient of jams & jellies. It is also used in
medicines for treating diarrhea.
 Hemicellulose
 Lignin

ii) Heteropolysaccharides:-

 Hyaluronic acid
 Chondroitin sulfate
 Dermatan sulfate
 Keratan sulfate
 Heparin – Present in anticoagulant in the blood.

Properties/Reactions in CHO

 Dextrinization:- Starch  dry heat  Dextrin (brown color)

 Gelanization:- Starch moist heat Gel
 Retogradation:- Is a reaction that takes place, when the amylose &
amylopectin chains in cooked, gelatinized starch realign themselves as the
cooked a starch cools.
 Synersis:- Retrogradation can be expel water from the polymer network.
This is a process known as synersis.
 Maillard reaction:- First discovered by “Louis Camille Maillard”(1912). It
is a browning reaction between reducing sugars & amino groups. Browning
& aroma formation during cooking, frying, baking or roasting are caused by
this reaction.
  Lysine is the most reactive amino acid.
- Factor affecting Maillard browning

 Temp. – High temp.

 CHO structure – Pentose > Hexoses > Disaccharides > Oligosaccharides >
Sucrose

 Caramalization – It is a type of non – enzymatic browning reaction. As

the process occurs, volatile chemicals are released producing the
characteristics caramel flavor.

Fructose - 110˚C, 230˚F

Galactose - 160˚C, 320˚F
Glucose - 160˚C, 320˚F
Lactose - 203˚C, 397˚F
Sucrose - 160˚C, 320˚F
Sugar  Dry heat  Caramel (brown color)

Analysis of CHO

1. Molish test:-

 Positive – Carbohydrate
 Negative – Non-carbohydrate
2. Iodine test:-

 Negative result – Monsaccharides or disaccharides

 Positive – Polysaccharides
- Blue color (starch)
 - Purple color (dextrin)
- Red color (glycogen)
3. Half saturation test:-

 Negative – Glycogen dextrin

 Positive – Starch
4. Benedict’s test:-

 Negative test – Non-reducing sugars

 Positive test – Reducing sugar (Mono or dissacharides)
5. Seliwanoff ’e test:-

 Positive –sucrose

6. Barfoed’s test:-

 Negative test – Reducing disaccharides (Lactose, maltose)

 Positive – Monosaccharides

7. Seliwanoff’s test:-

 Negative – Glucose, galactose

 Positive – Fructose
8. Osazone test:-
 Needle shaped crystals - Glucose
 Crystals of irregular shapes – Galactose
9. Osazone test:-
 Sunflower shaped crystals – Maltose
 Puff shaped crystals – Lactose
 PROTEIN
The name protein was first suggested in 1838 by “Mulder”. Protein (Carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulphur)

The word protein is derived from the Greek word „Protein‟ which means principal
or prime.

Classification of protein

Simple or Holo proteins Conjugated or Derived protein

Complex protein
1. Simple or Holo proteins: - This group includes proteins containing only amino
acids as structural components.

a) Protamines (elupeine) & Histones (globin of hemoglobin)

b) Albumins: Coagulated by heat

Ex- Leucosine in cereals

Legumeline - legumes

Ovalbumin – White egg

Myosin - muscles

Lactalbumin – Milk whey

c) Globulins: - psendoglobulins (globulins of milk whey)

- Englobulins

Ex- Glycinine - soyabean

 Pomeline – Orange

d) Glutelines:

Ex- Glutenins - wheat

Glutelin - corn

Oxyzenin – Rice

e) Prolamines :

Ex- Gliadin – wheat

Zein – corn

f) Scleroproteins or Albuminoids:

EX- Collagen – bones

Elastin – ligaments

Keratin – hair & horny tissues

Fibroin – silk

2) Conjugated or complex protein:- These are the proteins linked with a

separable non – protein portion called prosthetic group.

a) Metallo proteins – Ex- Siderophilin or transferrin (Fe bound to proteins). It

facilitates iron transport.

Ceruloplasmin  Cu + protein

b) Chromoprotein – Protein coupled with a colored pigments. Ex- myoglobin,

hemoglobin, cytochromes.
c) Glycoproteins & Mucoproteins: Ex- Glycoproteins  Egg albumin & elastase –
serum

Mucoproteins – Ovomucoid – egg white

Mucin – saliva

Osseomucoid – bones

d) Phosphoprotein: Ex- Casein from milk

Ovovitellin – Egg yolk

e) Lipoprotein (blood): Ex- Lipovitellin – egg yolk, lipovitellimin – egg yolk

3) Derived proteins:-

Ex- Proteoses, peptones, polypeptides.

AMINO ACID

Smaller units of protein, building blocks of protein, there are over 200 different
amino acids found in nature, only about one tenth (20) of these occur in proteins.

R - CH - COOH

NH2

Amino acid structure

Classification:-

1. Simple a.a. / Aliphatic a.a.: No function group into the side chain. Ex- glycine,
alamine, valine, leucine & isoleucine.
2. Hydroxy amino acids:- Contain a hydroxyl group in their side chain. Ex-
serine & threonine

3. Sulphur containing amino acids: Sulphur atom in the side chain. Ex- cysteine
and methionine.

4. Acidic amino acid: These have a carboxyl group in the side chain Ex- aspartic
acid & glutamic acid.

5. Amino acid amides: These are derivatives of acidic amino acids in which one
of the carboxyl group has been transformed into an amide group. Ex- aspargine &
glutamine.

6. Basic amino acid: These possess an amino group in the side chain. Ex- Lysine
& arginine

7. Heterocyclic amino acids: These amino acids have in their side chain a ring,
which possesses at least one atom other than the carbon. Ex- Tryptophan, histidine
& proline

8. Aromatic amino acids: These have a benzene ring in the side chain. Ex-
phenylalaine & tryosine.
Other classification:-

1. Essential amino acid- These are amino acids for which bodily synthesis is
inadequate to meet metabolic needs & that must be supplied in the diet.

Ex –

 Arginine
 Valine
 Histidine
 Isoleucine
 Leucine Mnemonics- AV hill, MP TT
 Lysine
 Methionine
 Phenylalanine
 Threonine
 Tryptophan

(semi - essential Amino acids – Arginine, Histidine. Adult can synthesize but not
by growing children)

2. Non – essential amino acid- Synthesis in the body.

Ex – Alanine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine,

glycine, proline, serine, tyrosine

New discovered amino acid – selenocysteine and taurine (non- essential)

Classification according to function:-

1. Anabolic / catabolic responses & tissue PH regulation-

a) Glutamic acid
b) Glutamine

2. Urea cycle & nitrogen management-

a) Arginine

b) Citrulline

c) Ornithine

d) Aspartic acid

e) Asparagine

3. Sulfur containing -

a) Methionine

b) Cystine

c) Homocysteine

d) Cystathionine

e) Taurine

4. Neurotransmitters & precursors

a) Phenylalanine

b) Tyrosine

c) Tryptophan

d) Alpha – amino – N – butyric acid

e) Gamma – amino butyric acid

5. Precursors to heme, nucleotides & cell membranes

a) Glycine

b) Serine

c) Sarcosine

d) Alanine

e) Ethanolamine

f) Phospethanolamine

g) Phosphoserine

6. Bone collagen

a) Proline

b) Hydroxy proline

c) Hydroxylysine

Properties of proteins:-

1. Denaturation - The phenomenon of disorganization of native protein

structure. Loss of secondary, tertiary & quaternary structure of protein.

Agents of denaturation-

 Physical agents – Heat, UV radiation, X-rays, violent shaking (centrifuge)

 Chemical agents – Acid, alkalies, organic solvents (ether, alcohol), salts of
heavy metals.
 It is more easily digestible and irreversible. But careful denaturation
(renaturation) is reversible. Ex- Hemoglobin is renatured on removal of
salicylates.

2. Coagulation – Irreversible denaturation of protein to semi – solid viscous

precipitate. Albumins & Globulins – coagulation proteins. Ex: omelet, chilla
etc

3. Flocculation – Protein precipitation at isoelectric PH.

Casein – Milk protein, prepared by adjusting isoelectric PH by dilute acetic
acid. It‟s reversible, but on heating it turns to be irreversible.

Protein identification test:-

1. Biuret, Sakaguchi & Ninghydrin –

 Negative – Non – protein

 Positive – Protein
2. Precipitation at PH 4.7 –

 Negative – Albumin, gelatin or peptone

 Positive – Casein
3. Neumann‟s test -

 Positive – Casein
4. Heat coagulation test –
  Negative – Gelatin or pepton
 Positive – Albumin
5. Ammonium sulfate half saturation -

 Negative – Albumin
 Positive – Globulin
6. Nitroprusside – Cysteine

7. Hopkins cole – Tryptophan

8. Million – Tyrosine

9. Xanthoproteic – Tyrosine, tryptophan, phenylalanmine

10. Sakaganchi – Arginine

11. Pauly – Histidine

Evaluation of protein quality

1. Biological value (BV): It is a measure of the relationship of protein retention to

protein absorption on the assumption that more will be retained when the essential
amino acid are present in sufficient quantity to meet the need for growth.

BV = Dietary N – (Urinary N-Uo) (Fecal N – Fo)

×100
Dietary N – (Fecal N – Fo)

N = Nitrogen

Uo = Urinary excretion of protein – free diet

Fo – Fecal excretion of protein – free diet

2. Net protein utilization (NPU): Express in a single measurement both the
digestibility of the protein & the biological value of the amino acid mixture
absorbed from the intestine.

NPU = N retained / N intake = BV × digestibility

3. Protein efficiency ratio (PER) : It merely requires calculating the weight gain
of a growing animal in relation to its protein intake when calories are ample & the
protein source is fed at an adequate level (9% protein) for a sufficiently long period
of time (four weeks)

PER = Growth (g) / Protein intake (g)

4. Chemical score or amino acid score –

mg of amino acid in 1g test protein

×100
mg of amino acid in reference protein

Reference protein – Egg

Egg – 64(BV), 94(NPU), 3.92(PER) and 100 (chemical score)

Deficiency:-

(I) Kwashiorkor: The most important cause of this disease is protein deficiency.
This condition occurs primarily among children between the ages of 2 to 5 years,
when they are weaned from mother‟s milk to a diet of starchy cereal pastes
particularly devoid of protein.
Firstly discovered by Cicely Willium 1935. The word comes from African means
“the disease which the child gets when the next baby is born”. “Sickness of the
developed child.

This term, applied by the Ga tribe in Ghana to a sickness of a weanling child,

means literally “first – second.

Also called “Sugar babies” because child like healthy because of oedema.

Symptoms:-

 Growth retardation
 Oedema
 Wasting of muscles
 Mental changes
 Anemia
 Deposition of fat in liver
 Dry skin, pigmentation on skin, abnormal color especially brown color
occurs on skin.
 Dryness in hair, brown color or white color hair.
 Loss of appetite & diarrhea
 Moon face
 Effect on mucous membranes
 Effect on nervous system
 Deficiency of vitamins

(II) Marasmus: The term applied to the condition resulting from a caloric deficit
that is usually accompanied by protein deficiency. The term protein caloric
malnutrition & protein energy malnutrition are now being replaced by energy
protein malnutrition (EPM) & energy protein deficits (EPD).

This condition occurs primarily among 6 months to 18 months infant. Marasmus

word comes from Greek word means “to waste”.

Symptoms:-

 No edema
 Loss of weight
 Growth retardation especially height
 No deposition of fat in liver
 Dehydration
 Child looks like elder.
 Skin – dry, rough, rashes, loose
 Wasting of muscles

(III) Marasmic kwashiorkor – Both disease & their symptoms occurs in children.

Classification of protein according on qualities –

1. Complete protein – High biological value, all essential amino acids are present
adequately and balanced proportion.

Ex- Milk – lactalbumin

Egg white – Ovalbumin, ovalbilatin

Meat – Leucin, tryptophan

- Animal sources are complete protein.

- Plant sources – Nuts – Excelsin

Soyabean – Glycinine

2. Medium or partial complete protein – One or two amino acids are absent.

Ex- Plant sources like pulses, cereals

Lysin absent in cereals

Methionine absent in pulses

Soyabean – Legumelin

3. Incomplete protein – Essential amino acid are totally absent or only one or two
amino acid are present,

Ex- Vegetable, fruits

Fruits – Gelatin

Maize, corn – Zein

The conversion factor for estimating crude protein content of food from its
nitrogen content is- 6.25

Method of estimation for protein- kjeldahl method

LIPIDS
 Used by the German biochemist “Bloor” in 1943.
 Insoluble in water
  Soluble in non-polar organic solvents such as chloroform, carbon disulphide,
benzene & ether.

Classification of lipids

Simple lipid Compound lipid Derived lipid

Fats & oil Wax (These are esters of fatty acids Ex- Cholesterol
with alcohol & possess Steroids
additional group)
Ex- Lipoprotein, phospholipid

FATS

Fatty acids Glycerol – 1 molecule

(1-3 molecules present)

1 molecule – monoglyceride

2 molecules – Diglyceride

3 molecules – Triglyceride (TG) (common)

 Fatty acid

Saturated fatty acid Unsaturated fatty acid

- Solid form in room temp. – Liquid foam in room temp.

- Single bond found in carbon, - Double bond found in

hydrogen chain. hydrogen, carbon chain.

Ex- Ghee, butter Ex- Oils

Monounsaturated fatty (MUFA) Polyunsaturated (PUFA)

- One double bond found - more than one double bond

Saturated fatty acids

Name Sources

- Acetic - Product of fermentation vinegar

- Butyric - Butter fat

- Caproic - Butter fat

- Caprylic - Coconut oil

- Capric - Coconut oil

- Lauric - Coconut oil / palm kernel oil

- Myristic - Butter fat, coconut oil

- Palmitic - Palm oil, animal fat

- Stearic - Cocoa butter, animal fat

- Arachidic - Peanut oil

- Behemic - Peanut oil

Unsaturated fatty acids

Monounsaturated Sources

- Caproleic - Butter fat

- Lauroleic - Butter fat

- Myristoleic - Butter fat

- Palmitoteic - Fish oils, beef fat

- Oleic - Olive oil, canola oil

- Elaidic - Butter fat

- Vacceric - Butter fat

Poly unsaturatedfatty acids

- Linoleic - Most veg oils especially safflower,

(2 double bond) Corn, soyabean, cotton seed
 - Linolenic (3 double bond) - soyabean oil, canola oil, walnuts, wheat
germ oil, flaxseed oil

- Arachidonic (4 double bond) - Lard meat

Classification of fatty acids:

1) According to carbon atom number

a) Long chain fatty acids (12to 26 carbon atoms) are found in meat and fish.
Ex; Palmitic, stearic, myristic
b) Medium chain fatty acids (6 to 10 carbon atoms) are found in coconut oil.
Ex; Lauric
c) Short chain fatty acids (fewer than 6 carbon atoms) occur in dairy products.
Ex; Butyric, acetic acid
2) Essential and non- essential fatty acids
a) Essential fatty acids: The body can synthesize most of the fats it needs
from the diet. However, two essential fatty acids, linolenic and linoleic acid
cannot be synthesized in the body. Like omega 3 and omega 6.

Omega 3: Omega 3fatty acids are a type of polyunsaturated fat. Ex: fish, nuts,
plant based oils such as canola oil and sunflower oil.

Types of omega 3 fatty acids

 ALA (Alpha linolenic acid) is an 18 carbon chain and three cis- double
bonds. The first double bond is located in the n-3 position.
  EPA (Eicosapentaenoic acid) contains 20 carbon chain and five cis
double bond; the first double bond is located at the third carbon from the
omega end.
 DHA (Docosahaexaenoic acid) is a 22 carbon chain with six cis double
bond. The first double bond is located at the third carbon from the omega
end.

Sources:

ALA: Canola, soyabean, walnuts and flaxseed

EPA: Oily fishes such as Cod liver, herring, salmon, sardines etc.

DHA: Oily fishes, algal fermentation

Omega 6 fatty acid: it is also a PUFA, essential for human health.

Types:

 LA (Linoleic acid) – 18 carbon chain. The first double bond is located at

the sixth carbon from omega end of the fatty acid.
 AA (Arachidonic acid) is a 20 carbon chain

Sources:

LA: soyabean oil, corn oil, safflower oil, sunflower oil, peanut oil, cottonseed
oil, rice bran oil

AA: Peanut oil, meat, eggs and dairy products

 b) Non- essential fatty acid: a family of unsaturated fats. This
monounsaturated fat is described as omega 9 because the double bond is in
the ninth position from the omega end. Also known as oleic acid

Sources: Olive oil, canola, sunflower oil, almond oil etc.

Properties of Fats

 Hydrolysis: By the enzymes lipases to yield fatty acids &glycerol. The

lipase catalyze this reaction at a slightly alkaline pH (7.5-8.5)
 Saponification: The hydrolysis of fats by alkali is called saponification.
This reaction results in the formation of glycerol & salts of fatty acids called
soap.
Saponification value number represents the no. of milligrams of potassium
hydroxide (KOH) required to saponify 1g of fat under the conditions
specified.

 Rancidity: It is the complete or incomplete oxidation or hydrolysis of fats &

oils when exposed to air, light, moisture or bacterial growth resulting in
unpleasant taste & odor. It is the hydrolysis or autoxidation of fats into
short-chain aldehydes & Ketones.

Types:

a) Hydrolytic: Refers to the odor that develops when TG are hydrolyzed & free
fatty acids are released. This reaction of lipid with water may req. a catalyst.
b) Oxidation: Associated with the degradation by oxygen in the air. The double
bonds of an unsaturated fatty acid can be cleaved by free-radical reactions
involving molecular oxygen.

c) Microbial: Refers to a water development process in which micro-organisms

use their enzyme such as lipase to break down fat.

Preventions for rancidity 

 Antioxidants: Natural – Vit C , E

- Synthetic – BHA, BHT, TBHQ

 Store in cool, dark place

 Oxygen scavenging technology
 Pasteurization

 Hydrogenation: It is a process that reduces unsaturated fatty acid content

of triglycerides by attaching hydrogen atoms at the point of unsaturation
in the presence of catalyst, usually Nickel.

They accomplishes 2 things

1. Increases the melting point of the oil or fat.

2. Resistance to oxidation & flavor deterioration. It depends on several parameters

like pressure, temp, type of catalyst, speed of agitation etc.

Hydrogenated fat is a substitute to butter fat & ghee like vanaspati ghee (Dalda)
  Iodine value: Iodine numbers are often used to determine the amount of
unsaturation in fatty acids. This unsaturation is in the form of double bonds,
which react with iodine compounds. The higher the iodine no. the more c=c
bonds are present in the fat.
The iodine value is the mass of iodine I grams that is consumed by 100g of a
chemical substance.
Oil Iodine value

` - Coconut oil 7.5-10.5

- Olive oil 79-90

- Palm oil 4-22

- Sunflower oil 125-140

- Ghee 26-38

- Groundnut oil 84-100

- Mustard oil 98-110

- Seasame oil 103-116

 Winterization: is a type of fractionation, the general process of separating

the triglycerides found in fats and oils, using the difference in their melting
points, solubility and volatility. It is an oil refinement technique.
 Emulsification: It is a process by which a lipid mass is converted into a
number of small lipid droplets. Emulsifying by shaking either with water or
with emulsifying agents likes soaps, gums, protein etc.
Functionality of fats in food products:

 Aeration: Products such as cakes or mousses need air incorporated into the
mixture in order to give a well- risen texture. Achieved by trapping bubbles
of air in a fat –sugar mixture to form stable foam.
 Coating (for crumbly texture): Achieved by fat (shortening) coating the
flour particles to prevent them from absorbing water.
 Flakiness: Fats help to separate formed in the dough when making flaky or
puff pastry or biscuits. The fat melts during cooking, leaving little air pocket,
while the liquid produced steam that evaporates and causes the layers to rise.
 Moisture retention: so increase the shelf-life of food products.
 Glazing: It gives a glossy appearance to the food.

 Method of estimation – Soxhlet method

MICRO-NUTRIENTS (Vitamins)

The term vitamin was coined by “Casimir Funk “in 1912.

Classification of vitamins

Fat-soluble Water-soluble

Vitamin A Vitamin B complex

Vitamin D Vitamin C

Vitamin E

Vitamin K
 Difference

Fat-soluble Water-soluble

Intake in excess of daily need Minimal storage of dietary excesses.

stored in the body.

Small amt. excreted in bile. Excreted in urine.

Deficiency symptoms slow to Deficiency symptoms often develop

develop. rapidly.

Have precursors or Don‟t have precursors.

provitamins.

Fat soluble vitamins & their other names:-

 Vitamin A – Axerophthol, retinoic acid, retinal, retinol, Dehydroretinol.

 Vitamin D – Antirachitic factor, cholecalciferol, ergocalciferol, calcitriol,
calcidiol.
 Vitamin E – Tocopherol, Anti sterility factor.
 Vitamin K – Phytylquinone, multi prenyle menquinone, farnoquinone,
Anti- hemorrhagic factors, Menadione, synkayvite, hykinone.

Water-soluble:-
 Thaimin (B1) – Aneurine, Antineuritic factors, Anti beri beri factors
 Inositol – Muscle sugar
 Ascorbic acid (vit.C) - Antiscorbutic factors cevitamic acid
 Riboflavin (B2) - yellow enzyme, vit G, lactoflavin, hepatoflavin ,
ovaflavin.
 Pantothenic acid – Panthotheine, pantothenol, antichromomotridia factor
 Biotin – Anti-egg white injury factor, bios II, vitamin H
 Pyridoxine (B6) - Pyridoxic acid, pyridoxal, pyridoxol, pyridoxamine
 Niacin (B3) - Nicotinic acid, nicotinamide, niacinamide, pellagra-preventive
factor
 Folacin - Adermin, folic acid, citrovorum factor, pteroylglutamic acid,
lactobacillus casei factor, vitamin H, vitamin Bc, factor U
 Cobalamin (B12) – Anti permicious anemia factor, cynocobalamin,
hydroxyl cobalamin, erythrocyte maturation factor, animal protein factor
(APF).

VITAMIN A

Vitamin A is a very pale yellow substance, soluble in fat or fat solvents. Occurs
in food & functions in the body in several chemical forms – retinol (the
alcohol), retinal (the aldehyde), retinoic acid (the acid).

 Carotene: - Precursor of vitamin A. Carotenoids, which are chemically

related to vita. A. They are known as precursors or provitamins. Ten of these
carotenoids have been identified in foods of these; alpha, beta and gamma-
carotene and cryptoxanthin are the most important in humans.

Functions:-
 Vision – Maintenance of visual purple for vision in dim light.
 Retinol (vitamin A alcohol)
(from blood) Opsin (a protein)

Retinol Retinaldehyde Rhodopsin (visual purple in rods of retina)

 Growth –
1) The development & maintenance of epithelial tissue

2) The development of bone

 Reproduction
 Protein synthesis

 Other functions:-

 Essential for the normal function of four of the five senses: vision, smell,
hearing & taste.
 Redirecting cell differentiation through its influence on RNA and DNA

Deficiency:-
 Night blindness – Lack of vitamin A first cause night blindness. It is the
inability to see in dim light. It occurs due to see impairment in dark
adaptation.
 Conjunctival xerosis – The conjunctiva becomes dry and non-wettable. It
appears muddy & wrinkled (instead of smooth &” shiny)
  Bitot’s spots – They are triangular, pearly white or yellowish, foamy spots
on the BULBAR conjunctiva on either side of the cornea. Usually bilateral.
 Corneal xerosis – The cornea appears dull, dry & non-wettable &
eventually opaque. In more severe deficiency, there may be corneal
ulceration. The ulcer may heal leaving a corneal scar which may affect
vision.
 Kerato malacia – It is the liquefaction of the cornea. The cornea (a part or
the whole) may become soft & may burst open.
 Xeropthalmia (dry eye) – It refers to all the ocular manifestation of vit A
deficiency.
1IU of vit A = 0.3 mcg of retinol (or 0.55 mcg of retinol palimitate)
1 mcg of retinol = 1RE
1 mcg of B-carotene = 0.167 mcg of RE
1mcg of other carotenoids = 0.084 mcg of RE
1RE = 3.333 IU of vit A
Respiratory infections:-

 Folliculosis – Dry, rough, skin, especially in the area of the shoulders, may
be an early sign of a vitamin A deficiency.
Sources:-

 Retinol – Present in animals source like milk & its product, non-veg, egg
yolk, liver.
 Beta-carotene – Yellow, orange & green colors fruits & veg. like papaya,
mango, carrot, orange, green leafy veg.
 VITAMIN D

Forms:-

 Vitamin D3 – Cholecalciferol – comes from animal sources

 Vitamin D2 – Ergosterol – comes from veg. sources
Also known as Sun-Shine vitamin. It is a steroid that can be produced in the
body, it is considered by some to be technically a hormone.
Functions:-

 Increase calcium absorption

 Phosphorus metabolism
 Influences the rate of resorption of amino acids in the kidney tubules.

Deficiency:-

 Rickets – Occurs in children & temperate zone for centuries. It was so

common in England that some writers referred to it as the “English disease”.
Causes - People who live in the crowded, smoky, industrial areas. Dark-skinned
persons moving from the tropics to the temperate zone.

Symptoms:-

 Poor calcification in bone.

 Bowing of legs.
 Knock-knees – Ends of the long bones become enlarged.
 Concave breast (pigeon breast) – Deformities of the ribs
 Rachitic rosary – Ribs develop irregularly spaced areas of swelling that take
on the appearance of beading.
  Rapid enlargement of the head.
 Adult rickes – Osteomalacia, which reflects a defects in bone formation but
not necessarily a vit D deficiency.
Sources:-

 Irradiation of precursor in skin

 Dietary intake – Animal origin such as eggs, milk, butter, fish-liver oils.

VITAMIN E (Tocopherol)
*discover by “Evans and Bishop”

Chemical form:- Vitamin E is applied to a group of at least eight chemical

compounds related to d- alpha – tocopherol – the most active form of vitamin E in
food.

It comes from Greek word

Tocos- off spring

Pherol- to bear

Ol- An alcohol

Functions:-

 Act as an antioxidants
 Cellular respiration
 Synthesis of other essential body compounds-
  Act as a necessary cofactor.
 Stimulates the synthesis of coenzyme.
 Synthesis of vitamin C
 Regulatory role in the incorporation of pyrimidine into the nucleic acid
structure.
 True in bone marrow, where R.B.C are manufactured.
 Heme synthesis
 Membrane metabolism
 Protection of vit A from oxidation in the gut.
 Increase in the absorption of vit. A
 Increase storage of vit. A
 Enhance the conversion of carotene to retinol, while large doses inhibit this
conversion.
Sources:-

 Vegetable oils
 Wheat germ oil is richest source
Deficiency:-

 Hemolytic anemia
 SIDS (sudden infants death syndrome)

VITAMIN K

*discover by “Dam and Schonheyder”(1934)

Forms:-

 Vitamin K1 – Phylloquinone – in plants

  Vitamin K2 – Menaquinone – in animals
 Vitamin K3 – Menadione – synthetic
Functions:-

 Blood clotting-
Sources:-

 Green vegetables are rich source

 Synthesis by intestinal bacteria
 Dark green leafy veg. highest rich source
 Alfalfa
Deficiency:-

 A prolonged coagulation time

 Increase the incidence of hemorrhage

WATER- SOUBLE VITAMINS

Vitamin C

Properties:-

 It is a simple 6-carbon compound closely related to the monosaccharide.

(C6 H6 O6)
 Easily destroyed by oxidation, light, alkali, heat especially in the presence of
iron or copper.
Functions:-

 Collagen formation
 Dentin formation
  Tyrosine metabolism
 Act as an antioxidants
 Synthesis of neurotransmitters – Vitamin C convert tyrosine to the
neurotransmitter norepinephrine to the amino acid tryptophan to the
precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin, which also play a role in
regulating blood pressure.
 Act as a reducing agent
 Utilization of iron and calcium
 Utilization of folic acid
 Conversion of cholesterol to bile acids
Food sources:-

 Citrus fruits like amla, lemon, orange, lime, guava. Amla is a richest source
Deficiency:-

 Scurvy –
- Adult scurvy – Enlargement or hypertrophy, of the cornea, congestion of
follicles or ducts, swollen joints, bleeding gums, muscular aches and pain,
fatigue, difficulty in breathing & pinpoint hemorrhages.

- Infantile scurvy – Occurs in between 5 to 24 months of age.

Symptoms:- Irritability, anorexia, growth failure, tenderness of hips & anemia.

Delayed or incomplete wound healing.

Method of estimation- Titrimetric method

 VITAMIN B1 (Thiamin)

Cure the paralytic polyneuritis

Function:-

 A part of the coenzyme TPP (Thiamin pyrophosphate) and TDP (Thiamin

diphosphate). The latter is thiamin with 2 molecules of phosphate attached to
it, while the former has 4 TDP, known as co-carboxylase & is req. in the
metabolism of CHO.
 First as part of TPP, thiamin is the coenzyme necessary for the
decarboxylation from pyruvic acid and enter the citric acid cycle.
 Thiamin is in activating transketolase, an enzyme necessary in the direct
oxidative pathway for metabolism of glucose that can occur in all cells
except skeletal cells.
 Acts in the transmission of high-frequency impulses at the nerve synapse,
either through the production or release of the neurotransmitter substance
acetyl-choline.
 Conversion of the amino acid tryptophan to niacin.
Deficiency:-

 Beri-Beri:- Wet beri-beri

Dry beri-beri Adult beri-beri

Infant beri-beri

- Wet beri-beri(edematous) –

It is an adult beri-beri. The victim suffers from swelling of the limbs, usually
throughout the body until the accumulation of fluid in heart muscle leads to
eventual heart failure and death. Difficultly in walking & suffers from wrist drop
and ankle drop.

- Dry (wasting) beri-beri –

A gradual loss of body tissue occurs, with the patient becoming thin & emaciated.
In both forms, symptoms are numbness, disorderly thinking & nausea.

Infant Beri-Beri: symptoms:

 Cyanosis: too much carbon dioxide in the blood

 Tachycardia: a very fast heartbeat
 Cry changing from a loud piercing one to a thin, weak, almost inaudible
one.
 Wernicke‟s Korskoff”s syndrome

Sources:-

 Whole cereals (35%)

Present in outer layer
Whole pulses (35%)
of cereals & pulses
 Meat, fish, poultry – 29%
 Fruits & vegetables – 18%
 Dairy products – 10%
 Dry beans, peas, nuts – 6%
 Eggs – 2%
 RIBOFLAVIN (Vit B2)

Functions:-

 It is a part of several enzymes & coenzyme –

 FMN (Flavin mononucleotide or riboflavin monophosphate)
 FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotide)
FMN & FAD which is FMN with an ATP group are attached to a variety of
proteins & are known as flavoprotein.
 Riboflavin is also an integral part of other enzyme specially involved in the
transfer of hydrogen atoms in protein metabolism.
 Conversion of folic acid to its coenzymes.
 Convert tryptophan to niacin.
 DNA synthesis, indirect effect on cell proliferation & hence on growth.
 Production of corticosteroids in the adrenal cortex, the formation of R.B.C in
bone marrow.
 Synthesis of glycogen, fatty acid catabolism & the effectiveness of the
thyroid in regulating enzyme activity.
Sources:-

 Dairy products – 36%

 Meat, fish, poultry eggs – 28%
 Cereal products – 23%
 Fruits & veg. – 10%
 Dried beans, peas, nuts – 2%
Deficiency:-

 Ariboflavinosis (Cheilosis) – Condition in which cracks appear in corners of

the mouth & lips become inflamed.
  Glossitis – The tongue becomes smooth & takes on a characteristic
purplish-red color in a condition called glossitis.

NIACIN (Vit B3)

History:- The disease known as pellagra in Italy & mal del sol or mal de la rosa in
spain was first described in the eighteenth century. It occurred mainly among the
poor, who used corn introduced from the New World as the dietary staple.

The association of pallegra with diets monotonously high in highly refined maize
or corn, leal to the theory that it was caused by a mold or toxic or infectious
substance in spoiled corn.

A lack of nitrogen was implicated, & latter the absence of lysine, tryptophan or
cysteine in conjunction with high leucine content in corn diets suggested that an
amino acids imbalance was the cause.

The skin symptoms associated with pellagra were aggravated by exposure to sun
light, leading to the belief that the disease was the result of sun poisoning (mal del
sol)

Pellagra – Pelle - Skin

Agro - Rough

*60mg tryptophan 1mg of niacin

 Function:- Required by all living cells, where it plays a vital role in the
release of energy from all three energy building nutrients – CHO, fat &
 protein & is involved in the synthesis of protein, fat & pentose needed for
nucleic acid (DNA) formation.

 It is part of the coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

(NADP) & nicotinamide adenine dinueleotide (NAD). They were previously
known as coenzyme I and II and as DPN and TPN (di-and triphospho-
pyridine nucleotide).
Sources:-

 Meat, fish, poultry, eggs- 45%

 Cereals (whole), pulses(whole) – 31%
 Fruits & vegs. (including dried beans) – 21%
 Milks & it products – 2%
Deficiency:-

 Pellagra – Symptoms known as 4 D‟S

- Dermatitis
- Diarrhea

- Depression

- Death

PYRIDOXINE (Vit B6)

Function:-

 Function as coenzyme for many biological reactions (Pyridoxal phosphate

PLP)
  Zinc or magnesium catalyzes the formation of this coenzyme in both the
liver & R.B.C.
 It is involved primarily with reactions essential in protein metabolism & is
necessary in both the synthesis & catabolism of all amino acids.
 Vit B6 is necessary for the process of transamination, deamination and
decarboxylation.
 Decarboxylation of glutamic acid to form a neurotransmitter in the brain is
dependent on vit B6, as is the removal of sulfur from sulfur – containing
amino acids such as cysteine.
 Conversion of methionine to taurine also require vit B6.
 Play role in hemoglobin synthesis as a cofactor in the formation of a
precursos of heme.
 Conversion of the amino acid tryptophan into the vitamin niacin.
 Essential for the production of antibodies.
 Essential for production of precursors of nucleic acids.
Sources:-

 Meat & eggs – 43%

 Fruits & vegetables – 31%
 Dairy products – 10.3%
 Dried peas & beans – 4.4%
 Cereals- 11%
Deficiency:-

 Microcytic hypochromic Anemia

 Folacin (Folic acid) vitamin B9

Functions:-

 Essential role in metabolism, especially in rapidly proliferating cells, such as

R.B.C., W.B.C. or cells of the intestinal mucosa.
 Blood formation
 Involving the transfer of single – carbon units, such as methyl groups.
 The synthesis of the purines, adenine & guanine & pyrimidine & thymine,
all part of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.
 The conversion or oxidation of the essential amino acid phenylalanine to
tyrosine also requires folacin.
 Metabolism of long-chain fatty acids in the brain.
Sources:-

 Liver, kidney, yeast & mushrooms are also rich sources, but since they play
a relatively insignificant role in most diet, fruits & vegs make a much more
important contribution to the dietary intake.
Deficiency:-

 A deficiency of the vitamin has been implicated in conditions ranging from

toxemia of pregnancy (20% of pregnant women found to be deficient) to
parasitic infestation, infections, scurvy & rheumatoid arthritis.
 Megaloblastic anemia
Colour index = % hemoglobin / % red blood cells
Normal value = 1
Megaloblastic anemia = > 1
 COBALAMIN (Vit B12)
 Last vitamin to be discovered
 Contains cobalt so called cobalamin.
Function:-

 Necessary for normal growth, for maintenance of healthy nervous tissue &
for normal blood formation.
 Act as a coenzyme – cobamide coenzyme.
 Vit B12 coenzymes are necessary to provide the methyl groups for synthesis
of DNA.
 Nucleic acid synthesis.
 Involved in the conversion of homocysteine to the amino acid methionine.
 Essential for the release of folic acid from the methyl folate reserves in the
liver & in human blood serum.
 The animal protein factor (APF) known to stimulate growth in animals is
identical with vit B12.
Food sources:-

 Vit B12 is is found only in foods of animal origin. Animals absorb the
vitamin after it has been synthesized by bacteria in their rumin from the
plant foods they eat, provided sufficient cobalt is available.
 The best sources of vit B12 are the animal foods – liver, kidney, meat.
Meats & eggs – 80%

Dairy products – 18%

Flour & cereals – 1.5%

Deficiency:-

 Pernicious anemia – It is defined as a type of vit B12 deficiency that results

from impaired uptake of vitamin B12 due to the lack of a substance known
as factor (IF) produced by the stomach lining.
It is a condition in which the body does not have a sufficient numbers of red
blood cells or b hemoglobin. It is a disease where large, immature, nucleated
cells (megaloblasts, which are forerunners of R.B.C) circulated in the blood, &
do not function as blood cells.

BIOTIN (Vit B7 or vitamin H)

 Raw egg white includes a carbohydrate containing protein – Avidin, which
binds biotin in a complex too big to be absorbed but which the digestive
enzymes cannot break to release the biotin. Cooking denatures avidin
Function:-

 Role of biotin is co-enzymes is in carboxylation, which involves the transfer

of carbon dioxide in various reactions.
 Biotin is found involved in both the synthesis & oxidation of fatty acids &
the oxidation of CHO.
 It also stimulates protein synthesis in the microsomes of the cell.
 It is necessary for the synthesis of nicotine acid.
 The synthesis of the digestive enzyme pancreatic amylases is another biotin-
dependent reaction as is antibody formation.
 Play an important role in CHO metabolism.
Food sources:-

 Present in almost all foods. Most occurs bound to protein from which it can
readily be liberated.
 Liver, kidney, milk, egg yolk & yeast are richest food sources.
Deficiency:-

 Dermatitis
 Leiner‟s disease
 Seborrheic dermatitis

Minerals

96% of body weight is made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
nitrogen of protein and water.

The remaining 4% about 2.7 kg in the adult male, is made up of as 60 different

mineral elements. Approximately 21 is essential in human nutrition

Classification

1) Macro minerals (more than 0.005% weight or 50 ppm)

Example: Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium

2) Micro minerals or trace elements (less than 0.005% body weight)

Example: Iron, zinc, selenium, manganese, copper iodine etc.

 Calcium

In adult body between 1.5% and 2% of the weight is calcium. Of this 850 to 1200
g, 99% is in the hard tissues- bones and teeth.

The remaining 10 g are widely distributed.

In the blood- normal range 9 to 11 mg/dl

About a third of the 5 to 6 g of calcium in blood is loosely bound to protein and 5%

is found as calcium citrate, bicarbonate and phosphate. Approximately 1 g of
calcium is found in the extracellular fluids and 4 to 5 g is soft tissues.

Functions:

 Bone formation
 Tooth formation
 Growth
 Blood clotting- Injury

Blood calcium Blood platelets

Prothrombin calcium Thrombin Fibrinogen

Fibrin (blood clot)

 Catalyst for biological reactions:

a) The absorption of vitamin B 12 through the intestinal wall depends on calcium.

b) The fat- splitting enzyme, pancreatic lipase is activated by calcium.

c) The cells of the pancreas that secrete insulin must have calcium in the
intercellular fluid before they can respond to the stimulation from glucose.
d) Formation and breakdown of acetylcholine, the substance necessary for the
transmission of an impulse from one nerve fiber to the next, is dependent on
calcium.

 Maintenance and function of cell membrane

 Regulation of muscular contraction and transmission of nerve impulses
 Regulation of strontium uptake

Factors favoring calcium absorption:

 Vitamin D
 Acidity of digestive mass
 Need for calcium- during pregnancy, lactation, adolescent
 Parathyroid hormone
 Lysine
 Lactose
 Calcium/phosphorus ratio: 1:1, 2:1

Factors depressing calcium absorption:

 Oxalic acid
 Phytic acid/ phytate
 Dietary protein
 Fat
 Emotional stability
 Increased gastrointestinal motility
 Lack of exercise
 Hormonal control of calcium metabolism

 Parathyroid: help to increase the level of calcium in blood. By: increase

resorption of calcium and phosphorus in bone, increase calcium
absorption in intestinal wall and increase calcium resorption in kidney,
increase vit D activity.
 Thyroid gland secretes calcitonin: help to decrease the level of calcium in
blood.

Sources:

 Milk and its products

 Renin coagulation retains more calcium in the curd than either a
combination of acid coagulation alone.
 Green leafy vegetables

Deficiency:

 Osteoporosis: Decrease in mass or amount of bone in the skeletal. There is

a reduced amount of bone of normal composition. It is a condition found
primarily among middle-aged and elderly women in which bone mass or
amount of bone in the skeleton has been diminished but the remaining bone
mass is of normal composition.
 Osteomalacia: is most likely to occur among women living in areas of low
sunshine, those whose clothing prevents exposure to sunlight, those whose
diets are low in calcium, those taking anticonvulsive drugs.

It is a condition in which the mineral content of the bone is reduced but the
total amount of bone remains the same.
 Tetany: When the level of calcium in the blood (in extracellular fluid)
drops below a critical level, there is a change in the stimulation of nerve
cells, resulting in increased excitability of the nerve and spasmodic and
uncontrolled contraction of muscle tissue.

Toxicity:

 Hypercalcemia: Calcification is soft bones and tissue.

 Calcium rigor: The muscle fibers enter a state of tonic contraction
known as calcium rigor.

Phosphorus

Functions:

 Regulation of energy release: Energy is stored when a third

phosphate molecule is attached to the compound ADP (adenosine di
phosphate) to form ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)
 Absorption and transportation of nutrients: Phosphate is attached to
many substances within the cell, such as monosaccharaides in a
process known as phosphorylation.
 Part of essential body compounds: The active forms of some
vitamins contain phosphorus- thiamin pyrophosphate is an example.
All enzymes are proteins and many proteins contain phosphorus. The
role of phosphate as an integral part of the nucleic acids DNA and
RNA.
 Calcification of bones and teeth
 Regulation of acid-base balance
Food sources-

Foods rich in protein are also rich in phosphorus. Meat, fish, poultry, eggs and
cereal products.

Deficiency: Demineralization of bone

Magnesium

Functions:

 Within the cell, magnesium plays an important role as catalyst to several

hundred biological reactions.
 It also influences protein synthesis by affecting the arrangement of the
protein-synthesizing organelles of the cell, the ribosomes and by facilitating
the attachment of RNA to the ribosome.
 Only 1% of magnesium occurs in extracellular fluids.
 Promote the conduction of nerve impulses and to allow normal muscular
contraction.
 Magnesium and calcium play antagonistic role, calcium acting as a
stimulator and magnesium as a relaxant substance. Adequate magnesium
may increase the stability of calcium in tooth enamel.
 It also influences the secretion of thyroxin and the maintenance of normal
basal metabolic rate and facilitates adaptation to cold.

Deficiency:

 Low magnesium tetany

  In the absence of adequate magnesium the cardiovascular system and the
renal system are also affected, with symptoms such as vasodilation and
skin changes.

Food sources: Vegetables are the best source followed by legumes, sea food, nuts,
cereals and dairy products.

Absorption is reduced in diets high in calcium, fat, phytic acid.

Sodium

Functions:

 Water balance: Sodium is the major extracellular electrolyte. It accounts

for most of the osmotic pressure that keeps the water from leaving the
blood and going into the cell. This balance a similar pressure caused by
potassium within the cell, which acts to keep fluid in the cell.
 Acid-base balance: Sodium accounts for 90% of the alkalinity of the
extracellular fluids and helps to maintain body neutrality by counteracting
the effect of the acid forming elements.
 Nerve conduction: In the transmission of nerve impulses a change in the
permeability of the nerve cell membrane allows sodium to enter and for a
temporary period this changes the electrical charge on the membrane. This
charge travels down the nerve fiber as a nerve impulse or message.
 Contraction of muscles: Involves a temporary exchange of sodium and
potassium in the contracting muscle cell.
 It is also essential for the absorption of glucose and in the transport of other
nutrients across membranes.
Deficiency: Hyponatremia (serum Na < 135 meq/l)

Toxicity: Hypernatremia (serum Na >150 meq/l)

Hormones involved in the regulation of serum sodium

 Vasopressin (ADH): Serve to stimulate the reabsorption of water by the

glomerulus and renal convoluted tubule.
 Atrial natriuretic hormone: Counter acts vasopressin and thus induces water
loss, sodium loss and potassium loss. It also decreases blood pressure and
increase the glomerular filtration rate. Suppresses renin release and
aldosterone release. Antagonizes angiotensin II and norepinephrine.
 Renin: Catalyzes the conversion of inactive angiotensin I to active
angiotensin.
 Angiotensin II: At low serum sodium levels it conserves sodium by
stimulating its reabsorption. Stimulates vasoconstriction which increases
blood pressure. Reduce water loss; decrease the G.F.R. stimulates
aldosterone release.
 Aldosterone: Conserve sodium by increasing sodium resorption by the
kidney.

Food sources:

 Sodium chloride (Nacl, table salt)

 Food rich in added salt such as potato chips, salted nuts.
 Processed foods- added salt
 Pickles, cheese spread, frozen foods
 MSG (monosodium glutamate)- added in chiese foods.
 Potassium

Potassium is a positively charged ion with chemical properties similar to those of

sodium. But potassium is intracellular fluid (inside the cell)

Sodium to potassium ratio of 1:10 is maintained within the cell, compared to 28:1
in extracellular fluids.

Functions:

 Acts as a catalyst in many biological reactions especially involved in the

release of energy and in glycogen and protein synthesis.
 Maintaining osmotic pressure of the cell essential to the regulation of fluid
balance.
 Acid-base balance
 It also plays a role in the transmission of nerve impulses and in the release of
insulin from the pancreas.
 Potassium acts along with magnesium as a muscular relaxant in opposition
to calcium, which stimulate muscular contraction.

Deficiency:

Hypokalemia (plasma levels <3.5meq/l)

Toxicity:

Hyperkalemia (plasma levels> 7meq/l)

Sources: Potassium is distributed in a great many foods, especially meat, milk and
some fruit like orange juice, avocados, banana etc.
 Micro- Minerals

Iron (Fe)

Iron represents about 0.004% of the body weight an amount that varies from 3 to 5
g.

Distribution:

 Hemoglobin- 60 to 75%
 Myoglobin- 3%
 Storage iron (liver, spleen and bone marrow)- 0 to 30%
 Tissue iron (enzymes)- 5 to 15%
 Transport iron (transferrin)-1%
 Serum ferritin- 1%

Functions:

 Carriers of oxygen and carbon dioxide

 Blood formation: red cell formation, Hb formation and destruction of R.B.C
(in liver, spleen, bone)
 Other functions:
a) Catalyzing the conversion of beta-carotene
b) Synthesis of purines
c) An integral part of nucleic acid
d) Removal of lipids from the blood
e) Collagen synthesis
f) Antibody production
g) Detoxification of drugs in the liver
h) Act as a metalloenzymes
 i) Lactoferrin in breast milk is an iron-containing substance
effective against E. coli organisms.

Factors favoring iron absorption:

 Acidity
 Vitamin C
 Some amino acids
 Form of iron- heme iron (present in non-veg), ferrous form
 High need
 Composition of meal- veg (low absorption), non-veg (high absorption)

Factors which decrease iron absorption:

 Alkalinity
 Bulk in diet/fiber
 Phytic acid/phytate
 High phosphorus
 Poor fat absorption
 Non-heme iron (in veg.)
 Tannins

Deficiency:

Anemia:

1) Nutritional anemia:

 Microcytic (small cells) hypochromic (lack of color or Hb) anemia

 Sickle cell anemia: R.B.C like look sickle
  Pernicious anemia: Number of R.B.C is low not Hb level. It is caused
primarily by failure in the absorption of vitamin B 12 or cobalamin.
3) Hemorrhagic anemia: by excessive loss of blood. Ex: surgery, bleeding of
wounds, menstrual losses etc.
4) Koilonychia: spoon shape nails

Toxicity:

1) Hemosiderosis: Accumulation of iron in liver and spleen

2) Hyperplasia: Increase in cell number

3) Hemochromatosis:

Sources: Meat, fish, poultry, egg, bajra, rice flakes, soyabean, gingelly seeds, niger
seeds, dates, jaggery. In jaggery (2g/100) but high absorption.

Not present in milk and its products.

Absorption and metabolism:

 Food- Ferric iron (Fe+++)

 Stomach-Ferrous (Fe++)
 Intestinal cell- Ferric
 Blood- Ferrous
 Iodine

Iodine is present in the body in minute amounts, about 0.00004% of body

weight (15 to 23mg).

 70 to 80% (about 10mg) present in thyroid gland.

 20 to 30% is in other tissues, particularly the salivary, mammary, gastric
gland and in the kidney.
 In the circulation it occurs either as free iodine or as protein-bound iodine
(PBI).
 Thyroid hormone: Thyroxin, T3 (more active), T4.
 T4:T3-4:1

Function: part of thyroxin

Sources: Sea foods, fortified salt (iodized salt)

Factor affecting (inhibit) the iodine absorption:

 Goitrogen: Substances that interferes with iodine absorption. Foods of the

cabbage family such as turnips, cabbage, cauliflower, radish. Soyabean,
cassava etc. also present.
 Arachidoside: Groundnut, almond

Deficiency:

 Goiter: A condition characterized by a swelling in the neck as a result of the

enlargement of the thyroid gland.
 Cretinism: is frequently encountered among children born to mothers who
have had a limited iodine intake during adolescence and pregnancy.
Symptoms- physically dwarfed, mentally retarded and have thick, dry, pasty skin
and enlarged protruding abdomens.

 Myxedema: occurs in adults.

Symptoms- Coarse, sparse hair, dry, yellowish skin, poor tolerance for cold and a
low husky voice.

 Still birth

Toxicity:

 Hyperthyroidism: BMR may be elevated is also known as Grave‟s disease

and exophthalmic goiter.

Symptoms- Nervousness, weight loss, increased appetite, intolerance to heat,

tremors when the hand is out stretched and protruding eyeballs.

Important points related vitamins and minerals:

 Beta- carotene- HPLC (method of estimation)

 Thiamin- carbohydrate metabolism
 Pyridoxine- transmission reaction
 Riboflavin- oxidation-reduction reaction
 Folic acid- transfer of single carbon unit
 Ascorbic acid-hydroxylation of amino acid
 Folic acid- Megaloblastic anemia, Macrocytic anemia
 Iron- Hypochromic microcytic anemia, sickle cell anemia
 Vit B12- Pernicious anemia
 Niacin- Castle necklace
 Calcium- Tetany
 Riboflavin- Angular stomatitis, Glossitis
 Protein- Flaky paint dermatosis
 Thiamin- Neuropathy
 HbAic- >7%
 Disorders of vitamin D deficiency- Osteomalacia, Rickety rosary, Bow legs
 Correct sequence the stages in the development of iron deficiency- 1)
Deficient iron stores 2) Iron deficiency erythropoiesis 3) Iron deficiency
anemia
 Disorders of iodine deficiency- Cretinism, hypothyroidism, mental
retardation, goiter, still birth, Abortion, impaired coordination, mental
retardation
 Active form of vitamin D- Dihydroxycholecalciferol (DHCC), 1,25 DHCC
 Functions of vitamin A- Vision, immune response, maintenance of
differentiated epithelia
 Function of zinc- DNA and RNA synthesis
 Protein- Flaky paint dermatosis
 Thiamin- Neuropathy
 Riboflavin- Glossitis
 Factors enhance the bioavailability of iron – Ascorbic acid, animal protein
 Infestation of which worm is responsible for the cause of anemia is rural
population- Hook worm
 Sequence of symptoms of vitamin A deficiency-
1) Night Blindness
2) Bitot spot
 3) Xerosis of conjunctiva
4) Xerosis of cornea
5) Blindness

Deficiency diseases and their symptoms

 Xerophtalmia-Keratomalacia
 Beri-Beri- Neuropathy
 Ariboflavinosis- Glossitis
 Pellagra- Diarrhea and Dementia
 Anemia- Koilonychias
 Rickets- Bow leg
 Scurvy- Petechial hemorrhage
 Nutrients play role in synthesis of hemoglobin- Vitamin C, Iron, Vitamin B
12 and Protein
 Functions of calcium- Formation of bone, neuromuscular excitation, blood
coagulation, membrane permeability.
 Functions of vitamin C- Collagen formation, acts as an antioxidant, acts as a
reducing agent.
 Functions of vit A- normal vision, integrity of epithelial tissue, immune
response
 Sequential order of the symptoms of vit A- Night blindness, keratinization,
keratomalacia, xeropthtalmia
 Correct sequence: night blindness, bitot‟s spot, conjuctival xerosis, corneal
xerosis,keratomalacia
 Correct sequence- night blindness, conjuctival xerosis, corneal xerosis,
keratomalacia, corneal scar
 Rickets- Kyphosis
 Fluorosis- Mottled teeth
 Beri-Beri- Parasthesia
 Pellagra- Delirium
 Iron- hemoglobin synthesis
 Zinc- normal taste acuity
 Riboflavin- Glossitis
 Ascorbic acid- Gingivitis
 Zinc- hypogeusia
 Folic acid- Neural tube defects
 Food exchange list

The exchange lists were first published by a Joint Committee of the American
Dietetic Association, American Diabetic Association and the US Public Health
Services in 1950, and were revised in 1976.

Comprehensive food exchange list

Food Exchange Amount(g) Protein (g) CHO Fat Energy

(g) (g) (Kcal)

Milk 250 ml 8 12 10 170

Meat/egg 40 7 Neg. 5 70

Pulse 30 7 17 Neg. 100

Cereals 20 2 15 Neg. 70

Vegetable A 100 Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg.

Vegetable B 100 2 7 Neg. 40

Fruit 100 Neg. 10 Neg. 40

Fat 5 - - 5 45

Sugar 5 - 5 - 20