Mat 501
Uploaded by
chhotisahu2912Mat 501
Uploaded by
chhotisahu2912ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Master of Science
(FIRST SEMESTER)
MAT 501
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY
HALDWANI, UTTARAKHAND
263139
COURSE NAME: ADVANCED ABSTRACT
ALGEBRA
COURSE CODE: MAT 501
Department of Mathematics
School of Science
Uttarakhand Open University
Haldwani, Uttarakhand, India,
263139
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
BOARD OF STUDIES-FEBRUARY 2023
Chairman
Prof. O.P.S. Negi
Honorable Vice Chancellor
Uttarakhand Open University
Prof. P. D. Pant Prof. Harish Chandra Prof. Manoj Kumar
Director Professor Professor and Head
School of Sciences Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics,
Uttarakhand Open University Institute of Science Statistics and Computer Science
Banaras Hindu University G.B. Pant University of
Varanasi Agriculture & Technology,
Pantnagar
Prof. Sanjay Kumar Dr. Arvind Bhatt Dr. Jyoti Rani
Professor Programme Cordinator Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics Associate Professor Department of Mathematics
DeenDayalUpadhyaya College Department of Mathematics Uttarakhand Open University
University of Delhi Uttarakhand Open University Haldwani, Uttarakhand
New Delhi Haldwani, Uttarakhand
Dr. Kamlesh Bisht Dr. Shivangi Upadhyay
Assistant Professor (AC) Assistant Professor (AC)
Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Uttarakhand Open University
Editor
Dr. Jyoti Rani
Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics,
School of Sciences, Uttarakhand Open University
Unit Writer Block Unit
Dr. Kamlesh Bisht
Assistant Professor (AC) I, II, III, IV 01 – 09, 11-14
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University
Dr. Jyoti Rani
Assistant Professor IV 10
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University
Course Title and Code : ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA (MAT-501)
Copyright : Uttarakhand Open University
Edition : 2023
*NOTE: The design and any associated copyright concerns for each unit in this book are the
sole responsibility of the unit writers.
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
COURSE INFORMATION
The present self learning material “Advanced Abstract Algebra” has been designed for
M.Sc. (First Semester) learners of Uttarkhand Open University, Haldwani. This self learning
material is writing for increase learner access to high-quality learning materials.This course is
divided into 14 units of study. The first unit is devoted to the normal subgroups and quotient
groups, Unit 2 explained about Conjugate element, Normalizer and Center of group and Unit 3
explained about the homomorphism and isomorphism mapping between the groups. Unit 4
explained to Cayley’s theorem and concept of class equation Unit 5 explain about the direct
product of groups and Cauchy’s theorem for finite abelian groups and Unit 6 are focused on
Sylow’s theorems and their application. The aim of Unit 7, 8 and 9 are to introduce the concept
composition series, jordan holder theorem and solvable group. Unit 10 and Unit 11 explain
about the important concept and their related theorems of rings, ideal, integral domain and
fields. Unit 12 explained about the unique factorization domain, principal ideal domain and
euclidean domain and Unit 13 explain the polynomial ring and irreducibility criteria. Unit 14
will explain the field extension, Galois groups and Galois extension. This material also used
for competitive examinations. The basic principles and theory have been explained in a simple,
concise and lucid manner. Adequate number of illustrative examples and exercises have also
been included to enable the leaner’s to grasp the subject easily.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 1
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Contents
Course: Advanced Abstract Algebra Course code: MAT501
Credit: 4
Unit Block and Unit title Page
number Number
BLOCK – I NORMAL SUBGROUPS AND HOMOMORPHISM
1 Normal Subgroups and Quotient Groups 4-17
2 Conjugate element, Normalizer and Center of group 18-29
3 Homomorphism and Isomorphism 30-47
BLOCK – II CLASS EQUATION AND SYLOW’S THEOREM
4 Cayley’s Theorem and Class Equation 49-65
5 Direct product of Groups and Cauchy’s Theorem for Finite Abelian Groups 66-81
6 Sylow Subgroups, Sylow’s Theorem and their applications 82-97
BLOCK – III COMPOSITION SERIES, JORDAN HOLDER THEOREM AND SOLVABLE
GROUP
7 Normal and Subnormal Series, Composition Series 99-106
8 Jordan Holder Theorem 107-111
9 Solvable Groups, Simplicity of An( n≥5), Nilpotent Groups 112-127
BLOCK – IV RINGS, FIELDS AND GALOIS EXTENSION
10 Rings and Ideals 129-142
11 Integral Domain and Fields 143-165
12 Unique Factorization Domain, Principal Ideal Domain, Euclidean Domain 166-191
13 Polynomial Rings and Irreducibility Criteria, Eisenstein’s Criterion of a 192-210
Irreducibility
14 Field extension, Galois Groups and Galois Extension 211-233
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 2
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
BLOCK I
NORMAL SUBGROUPS AND HOMOMORPHISM
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 3
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Unit-1: NORMAL SUBGROUP AND QUOTIENT GROUPS
CONTENT:
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Normal Subgroup
1.3.1 Simple group
1.4 Quotient group
1.5 Summary
1.6 Glossary
1.7 References
1.8 Suggested Readings
1.9 Terminal Questions
1.10 Answers
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Évariste Galois was a French mathematician born in
Bourg-la-Reine who possessed a remarkable genius for
mathematics. Among his many contributions, Galois founded
abstract algebra and group theory, which are fundamental to
computer science, physics, coding theory and cryptography.
It is tribute to the genius of Galois that he recognized that
those subgroups for which the left and right cosets coincide are
distinguished ones. Very often in mathematics the crucial
Évariste Galois
problem is to recognize and to discover what the relevant
25 October 1811 – 31 May
concepts are. 1832
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 4
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
In the previous sessions, we have already learned that how any set G can be formed a group
with respect to (w.r.t.) the given operation. We have also learned about various types of groups and
their properties. Some applications of group like subgroup, cyclic group, order of the group,
permutation group, homomorphism, isomorphism, center of the group, cosets and Lagranges theorem
are already studies in previous classes. In this unit we will learn about the Normal subgroups and its
use to construct the quotient group.
As we know that, in a group G, it is not always true that gH = Hg for all g G where, H is a
subgroup of a group G.
Example 1: Let G be a permutation group of degree 3 on three symbol 1, 2, 3 and H {I ,(1 2)} is a
subgroup of G. Since a (2, 3) G then the left coset of a in G i.e.,
aH {(2 3) I ,(2 3)(1 2)} (2 3),(1 3 2)
And the right coset of a in G is,
Ha {I(2 3),(1 2)(2 3)} (2 3),(1 2 3)
Here clearly, we can see that aH Ha
In other words, right cosets are not always the same as left cosets. Group theory depends heavily on
the subgroups for which this characteristic holds because they enable the creation of a new class of
groups known as factor or quotient groups. Homomorphisms, a generalisation of isomorphisms, can be
used to study factor groups.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to
Understand the basic definition of normal subgroup and quotient group.
Implement the application of theorems into various problem
Construction of various types of quotient groups
1.3 NORMAL SUBGROUP
Definition: A subgroup H of a group G is normal in G if gH = Hg for all g G. In other words, the
right and left cosets of a group G must be exactly the same for a subgroup H to be considered normal
subgroup.
If H is a normal subgroup of the group G then symbolically it is represented as H G .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 5
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Example 2: Let G be a permutation group of degree 3 on three symbol 1, 2, 3 and
H {I ,(1 2 3),(1 3 2)} is a subgroup of G. Since a (1, 2) G then the left coset of a in G i.e.,
aH {(1 2) I ,(1 2)(1 2 3),(1 2)(1 3 2)} (1 2),(2 3),(1 3)
And the right coset of a in G is,
Ha {I(1 2),(1 2 3)(1 2),(1 3 2)(1 2)} (1 2),(1 3),(2, 3)
Similarly, we can see that aH Ha a G
So, we can say that H is the normal subgroup of G.
Note 1: If we are saying that H is a normal subgroup of G i.e., gH = Hg for all g G then its mean that
there exist h H such that gh is any element of gH which will be equal to any element of h' g where
h' H i.e., gh h' g .
In example 2, (1 2)(1 3 2) (1 2 3)(1 2)
Proper subgroup:A subgroup H of a group G is called proper subgroup of G if H G and it is
represented as H G and it is read as “H is a proper subgroup of G”.
Since, G G i.e., G is subset of itself so G, is called improper subgroup of G.
A subgroup H which contains only identity element i.e., H e is called the trivial subgroup
of G.
1.3.1 SIMPLE GROUP
Definition: If a group has no proper normal subgroup is called a simple group.
Theorem 1: If G be a group and H is the subgroup of G. Then the following statement are equivalent.
1. The subgroup H is normal in G
2. For all a G, aHa1 H
3. For all a G, aHa1 H
Proof: (1) (2) . We have given H is the normal subgroup of G then aH Ha a G . It means for a
given h H , a G there exist h' H such that ah h'a . Since a G and G is the group then a 1 G
.
(ah)a 1 (ha)a 1
aha 1 h H
So, aHa1 H a G
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 6
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
(2) (3) Let a G and H is normal subgroup of G, then we have already prove that aHa 1 H .
Now we have only to show that H aHa 1 a G .
Since a G a 1 G
Therefore we have a 1 H a 1 H a G
1
a 1Ha H a G
aa 1 Ha a 1 aHa 1 a G
aa 1 Ha a 1 aHa 1 a G
H aHa 1 a G
Now again for each a G , aHa 1 H and H aHa 1
So, for all a G , H aHa 1
(3) (1) Suppose that H aHa 1 a G then we have to prove that H is normal in G.
Since, for all a G , H aHa 1
Ha aHa 1 a a G
Ha aH a G
each left coset of H in G is a right coset of H in G.
H is normal subgroup of G.
Theorem 2: A subgroup H of a group G is normal in G iff the product of two right or left coset of H in
G is again a right or left coset of H in G.
Proof: Suppose H is a normal subgroup in G and Ha, Hb are two right coset of H in G where, a, b G .
Then
( Ha)(Hb) H (aH )b
H ( Ha)b [ H is normal Ha aH ]
HHab [ HH H ]
Hab [ a G, b G ab G ]
Therefore, Hab is also a right coset of H in G.
Conversely, we will suppose that the product of two right cosets of H in G is again a right coset of H
in G. Let x be any arbitrary element of G then x 1 will also an element of G. So, Hx and Hx 1 are two
distinct right cosets of H in G. Thus, HxHx 1 is also a right coset of H in G. Therefore we must have,
HxHx1 H x G
h1 xhx1 H x G and h1 , h H
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 7
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
1
1
h1 h1 xhx 1 h1 H x G and h1 , h H
1 1
xhx1 H x G and h H [ h1 H H as h1 H since h1 H ]
H is a normal subgroup of G.
Theorem 3: Intersection of two normal subgroup of a group is also a normal subgroup of the group.
Solution: Let G be a group and H, K are of its two normal subgroup of G. Now, we have to prove that
H K is also a normal subgroup of G. Let a be any element of H K i.e.,
x H K x H and x K
Since, H and K are both normal in G. Therefore, a G, h H axa1 H
Similarly, a G, x K axa1 K
Now, again axa1 H , axa1 K axa1 H K
Hence H K is a normal subgroup of G.
Corollary: Arbitrary collection of normal subgroup is also a normal subgroup of the group i.e., let G
be a group and let H n : n be the family of normal subgroup of G where is the index set then
H n is the arbitrary intersection of the family of normal subgroups which is also a normal subgroup
n
of G.
Solved Examples
Example 3: Show that each subgroup of the Abelian group G is a normal subgroup of the group.
Solution: Let G be a Abelian group and H is a subgroup of the group. Suppose that h H and x G .
Now consider, xhx1 x( x 1h)
( xx1 )h
eh h H
So, x G, h H , xhx1 H H is a normal subgroup of G.
Example 4: Prove that the alternating subgroup An is the normal subgroup of the symmetric group S n
Solution: Suppose that S n and An . As we know that An is collection of all even permutation of
S n so, is a even permutation. Now, there are two cases arises,
Case I: If is odd permutation then 1 is also an odd permutation. As we know that product of odd
and even permutation is odd permutation, it means is odd permutation. Similarly, product of two
odd permutation is even permutation i.e., 1 is even permutation.
So, for S n , An , 1 An . Thus, An is normal subgroup.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 8
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Case II: If is even permutation then 1 is also an even permutation. As we know that product of
two even permutation is even permutation, it means is even permutation. Similarly, product of two
even permutation and 1 is even permutation i.e., 1 is even permutation.
So, for S n , An , 1 An . Thus, An is normal subgroup.
From the both cases we have conclude that An is normal subgroup of S n .
Example 5: If H is a subgroup of index 2 in G then H is a normal subgroup of G.
Solution: If H is a subgroup of index 2 in G, it means, number of distinct right (left) coset of H in G
are 2. So, G can be written in the union of two of its distinct right (left) cosets i.e.,
G H Hx H xH , here x H because if it is xH H Hx .
As we know that no element common to H and xH therefore, we must have xH Hxx G
Hence H is normal subgroup of G.
e.g. Index of alternating subgroup An in the symmetric group S n is 2. So, An is the normal subgroup in
the symmetric group S n .
Example 6: If H is normal in G and K is a subgroup of G such that H K G . Then, show that H is
also a normal subgroup of K.
Solution: We have given that H is normal in G so, H will also a subgroup of G. Since, H K where,
K is a subgroup of G. So we have only to show that H is also a normal subgroup of K. Let x be any
arbitrary element of K then x will also belong to G therefore we have Hx xH . Since, H is a subgroup
of G and x K we have Hx xH . Thus, H is normal subgroup of K.
Example 7: If N is normal in G and H is subgroup of G then show that H N is normal subgroup of
H.
Solution: As we know that intersection of two subgroup of G is also a subgroup of G then H N will
be subgroup of G. Similarly, since H N H so, H N will also subgroup of H. Now, only to
prove that H N is normal in H.
Let x be any element of H and a be any element of H N then a will belong in both H and N. Since,
N is normal in G then axa1 N . Again,
x, a H axa1 H
Thus, we can say that axa1 H N
i.e., H N is normal subgroup of H.
Example 8: Prove that every complex is commutative with normal subgroup.
Solution: Let N is a normal subgroup and H is any complex of the group G. Then we have to prove
that NH = HN.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 9
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Let nh NH where n N , h H . We can rewrite nh hh1nh h(h 1nh). Since, N is normal
subgroup therefore, h 1nh N . Hence nh HN which means, NH HN .
Again, let hn HN where n N , h H . We can rewrite hn hnh1h hnh1 h . Since, N is normal
subgroup therefore, hnh1 N . Hence hn NH which means, HN NH .
Hence NH = HN.
Example 9: If N is normal subgroup of G and H is subgroup of G, Prove the following
(i) HN is a subgroup of G
(ii) N is a normal subgroup of HN.
Solution: As, we know by theorem that if H, K are subgroup of G, then HK is subgroup of G iff HK =
KH. Using the previous example, HN will also a subgroup because N and H both are subgroup of G
such that NH = HN.
Now HN is subgroup of G and N is normal subgroup of G also N HN . Therefore, N is subgroup of
HN. We have only to prove that N is a normal in HN. Let h1n1 be arbitrary element of HN and n be any
1
element of N. Then h1 H , n1 N and we have (h1n1 )n(h1n1 ) 1 h1 (n1nn1 )h11 N . Since N is normal
1
in G and n1nn1 N , h1 G . Therefore N is a normal subgroup of HN.
Example 10: If N and M are two normal subgroups of G such that N M e. Then show that each
element of N commutes with each element of M.
Solution: Since N and M are two normal subgroups of G such that N M e. Then to prove that for
any element n N , m M
nm mn m, n
Consider the element nmn1m1 . As we know mnm1 N because N is normal and n N therefore,
nmn 1m1 N .
Again, as we know nmn1 M because M is normal and m M therefore, nmn 1m1 M .
Now, nmn 1m1 N and nmn 1m1 M nmn1m1 N M
nmn1m1 {e} [Because, N M e]
nm mn m M , n N
i.e., every element of N commutes with every element of M.
Example 11: If in a group G, H is the only subgroup of finite order m then H is normal in G.
Solution: We have given H is subgroup of G such that O(H) = m. To prove this example, first we
consider the set xHx1 xhx1 : h H and we will prove that this set is the subgroup of G. As we
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 10
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
know by the theorem that any set H will subgroup of G if ab 1 H a, b H . Let h1 , h2 H then
xh1 x 1 , xh2 x 1 xHx1
Now consider, xh1 x 1 xh2 x 1 xh1 x 1 xh21 x 1 xh1 x 1 x h21 x 1
1
xh1 e h21 x 1 x(h1h2 ) x 1 xHx 1
1
1
h1h2 xHx 1 h1 , h2 xHx 1 . Hence, xHx1 is subgroup of G.
Now we will prove that O ( xHx 1 ) m . Let H h1 , h2 , h3 ,..., hm where all hi , i 1to m are distinct
then xHx 1 xh1 x 1 , xh2 x 1 , xh3 x 1 ,..., xhm x 1 . Here, no element in xH x 1 are same because if it is,
xhi x 1 xh j x 1 hi h j , which is not possible. So, O ( xHx 1 ) m .
But we have H is the only such subgroup of order m. Therefore we must have, xHx1 H x G .
Thus, H is normal subgroup of G.
Example 12: By an example verify that if H is normal in G and K is normal in H then K may not be
normal in G.
Solution: Let us consider the following subgroup of the group S 4 on the four symbols a, b, c, d.
G I , (a b c ), (a d c b), (a b)(c d ), (a c)(b d ), (a d )(b c), (a c), (b d )
H I , (a b)(c d ), (a c)(b d ), (a d )(b c)
K I , (a b)(c d )
As we can easily seen that H is a subgroup of G and K is a subgroup of H. Index of H in G is 2 i.e.,
[G : H ] 2 , it means H is normal in G. Similarly, index of K in H is 2 i.e., [ H : K ] 2 , it means K is
normal in H. [[G : H ] O(G) / O( H ) 8 / 4 2 ]
Here, K is not normal in G because for the element (a, b, c, d ) G and the element (a, b)(c, d ) K .
We have (a b c d )(a b)(c d )(a b c d ) 1 (a b c d )(a b)(c d )(d c b a) (a d )(b c) K
Thus, K is not normal subgroup of G.
Example 13: If H is subgroup of G, let N ( H ) x G : xhx1 H then show that
(1) N(H) is the largest subgroup of G in which H is normal.
(2) H is normal in G iff N ( H ) G .
Solution 1: In example 11, we have already prove that N(H) is the subgroup of G which is normal in
G.
First we have to prove that H is a normal subgroup of N(H). Let h H , therefore hHh1 H .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 11
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Thus h N (H ) i.e., H N (H ) . So, H is subgroup of N(H). To show that H is normal in N(H). Let
x N (H ) , then xHx1 H
xH Hx x N (H )
H is normal in N(H).
Now, we have to prove that N(H) is largest such subgroup in which H is normal. For it, let K is a
subgroup of G in which H is normal then we have only to prove that K N (H ) .
Let k K , since H is normal in K, therefore we have Hk kH
kHk 1 H k K
k N (H )
K N (H )
2: Let H is the normal subgroup of G and x G . Then xH Hx x G
xHx1 H x G
x N (H ) therefore G N (H ) but we know N ( H ) G .
Thus, G N (H )
Conversely, let G N (H ) then x G x N (H )
xHx1 H x G
xH Hx x G
H is normal in G.
1.4 QUOTIENT GROUP
Definition: If H is a normal subgroup of a group G. Then the collection of all distinct cosets of H in G
denoted by G/H is a group with respect to the operation multiplication of cosets defined as,
(aH)(bH) = abH ‘or’ (Ha)(Hb) = Hab a, b G
Or
If H is a normal subgroup of a group G, then the set
G / H Ha : a G is always form a group under the composition multiplication of cosets such that
(Ha)(Hb) = Hab a, b G
Note: If H is a normal subgroup of the additive group G. Then the set G / H is defined as
G / H H a : a G with respect to the operation addition of cosets such that
( H a) ( H b) H (a b) a, b G
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 12
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Theorem 13: Set of all distinct cosets of normal subgroup of a group is a group with respect to
composition multiplication of cosets.
Proof: Let us consider collection of distinct right (left) cosets of normal subgroup H under G is
G / H Ha : a G
and the composition multiplication of cosets is
(Ha)(Hb) = Hab a, b G
Closure axioms: Let Ha, Hb G / H where a, b G then
( Ha)(Hb) H (aH )b H ( Ha)b HHab Hab G / H
Since we know that if H is normal subgroup of G then
(i) Ha aH a G
(ii) HH H
And also if G is a group then it will satisfy closure property i.e., if a, b G ab G
Associativity: Let Ha, Hb, Hc G / H where a, b, c G
Now consider, ( Ha)[(Hb)(Hc)] ( Ha)[H (bH )c] ( Ha)[H ( Hb)c] ( Ha)(Hbc)
Ha(bc) H (ab)c H (ab)(Hc) [(Ha)(Hb)](Hc)
[Because G is group so it will satisfy associative property]
Existence of identity: We know that H He G / H where e is the identity element of G, then we
have only to prove that H is the identity element of the group G / H .
Let Ha G / H then ( He)(Ha) H (ea) Ha
H is the identity element of the group G / H .
Existence of inverse: Let Ha G / H . Then Ha 1 G / H [Because if a G then
a 1 G Ha 1 G / H ]
Now, ( Ha)(Ha 1 ) H (aa 1 ) He H
So, coset Ha is the inverse of Ha 1 in G / H
Hence, collection of distinct right (left) of normal subgroup H in G is form a group with respect to the
operation product of cosets.
Example 14: The alternating group A3 I , (1 2 3), (13 2) is the normal subgroup of the symmetric
group S3 I , (12), (13), (2 3), (12 3), (13 2) then S3 / A3 A3 , (2 3) A3 is the quotient group.
Example 15: Consider the normal subgroup of 3Z of Z . The coset of 3Z in Z are,
0 3Z ...,6,3, 0, 3, 6, 9,...
1 3Z ...,5,2,1, 4, 7,10,...
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 13
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
2 3Z ...,4,1, 2, , 5, 8,11...
Here, Z (0 3Z ) (1 3Z ) (2 3Z )
The composition table of the group Z / 3Z is given below.
0 3Z 1 3Z 2 3Z
0 3Z 0 3Z 1 3Z 2 3Z
1 3Z 1 3Z 2 3Z 0 3Z
2 3Z 2 3Z 0 3Z 1 3Z
In general, the cosets of nZ in Z are
Z (0 nZ ) (1 nZ ) (2 nZ ) (3 nZ ) ... ((n 1) nZ ) then
G / nZ (0 nZ ), (1 nZ ), (2 nZ ), (3 nZ ),..., ((n 1) nZ )
The sum of the cosets k Z and l Z is k l Z . Notice that we have written our cosets additively,
because the group operation is integer addition.
O(G )
Example 16: If H is a normal subgroup of the finite group G then O[G / H ] .
O( H )
Solution: As we know that O[G / H ] Number of distinct right coset of H in G.
O[G / H ] Index of H in G.
Number of element in G
O[G / H ]
Number of element in H
O(G )
O[G / H ]
O( H )
Example 17: Prove that corresponding to every Abelian group its quotient group is Abelian but their
converses need not to be true.
Solution: Let G be a Abelian group and H is its normal subgroup. If elements a, b G are such that
Ha, Hb are distinct right cosets of quotient group G / H .
Now, ( Ha)(Hb) H (ab) H (ba) ( Hb)(Ha) [Since G is Abelian ab ba a, b G ]
G / H is Abelian group.
But converse is need not be true. Since S3 / A3 A3 , (2 3) A3 is Abelian group because order of
O[S3 / A3 ] 6 / 3 2 which is prime and we know that every group of prime order is Abelian while S 3
is not a Abelian group.
Example 18: If H is normal in G and a be any element of order n in G then order of the element Ha in
G/H is divisor of n.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 14
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Solution: As we know that the identity element of the quotient group G/H is H itself. We have given
in a group G, a G s.t. O (a ) n i.e. a n e . Let us assume O( Ha) m .
Now consider,
( Ha) n ( Ha)(Ha)(Ha).....upto n times H (aaa...upto n times) Ha n He H
But we have already assume that O( Ha) m i.e., ( Ha) m H .
O( Ha) / O(a) [If order of any element a in a group G is n then a m e iff n | m ]
Check your progress
Q
Problem 1: What will be the order of the group O 8 ?
{1,1}
Problem 2: Check the distinct right and left coset of S 3 ?
Problem 3: Check that A5 is the normal subgroup of S 5 ?
1.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have studied the basic definition of Normal subgroup, Simple group and Quotient
group. We have also learn about the above discussed group’s related theorems and there
implementation in various examples. The overall summarization of this units are as follows:
Right cosets are not always the same as left cosets
Alternating subgroup An is the normal subgroup of the symmetric group S n
If a group has no proper normal subgroup is called a simple group.
Quotient group always forms a group not a subgroup because identity element of group and
subgroup are always same while quotient group and group has always different identity
1.6 GLOSSARY
H is a subgroup of the group G is represented symbolically as H G .
H is a normal subgroup of the group G is represented symbolically as H G .
Group with no proper normal subgroup is called a simple group.
1.7 REFERENCES
Joseph A Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa, 1999.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 15
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
N. Herstein,(1975),Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri (2021 ), A Course in Abstract Algebra (5th Edition), Vikas
Publication House.
Vasishtha, A. R., & Vasishtha, A. K. (2006). Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra). Krishna
Prakashan Media.
1.8 SUGGESTED READING
P.B. Bhattacharya, S.K. Jain, S.R. Nagpaul: Basic Abstract Algebra, Cambridge Press, 1994.
David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote: Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), Wiley, 2011.
1.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Long Answer Type Question:
1. Prove that alternating group ( An ) is the normal subgroup the symmetric group ( S n ).
2. Prove that a factor group of a cyclic group is cyclic.
3. Suppose that a group G has a subgroup of order n . Prove that the intersection of all subgroups
of G of order n is a normal subgroup of G .
4. Show that S 4 has a unique subgroup of order 12.
5. Suppose that H is a normal subgroup of a finite group G . If G / H has an element of order n ,
show that G has an element of order n .
Short Answer Type Question:
6. Give one example each of the following
(a) A subgroup H of a group G which is not normal in G .
(b) A non-abelian subgroup H of a non-abelian subgroup G which is normal in G .
7. If G 30, H 5 then what will be G / H .
8. Prove that each subgroup of cyclic group is normal.
9. Determine the coset decomposition of the subgroup H I , (1 2) corresponding to the
symmetric group S 3 .
Fill in the blanks:
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 16
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
10. Product of two right coset in a group G is …….. in G .
11. Every subgroup H of index 2 in H is ……. in G .
12. If H is normal subgroup of G then G / H is called ……..
1.10 ANSWERS
Answer of self cheque question:
1. 4 2. 3. Yes
Answer of terminal question:
7. G/H 6 10. Right coset 11. Normal 12. Quotient group
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 17
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Unit-2: CONJUGATE ELEMENT, NORMALIZER AND
CENTER OF GROUP
CONTENT:
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Conjugate element
2.4 Normalizer of an element of a group
2.4.1 Self conjugate element
2.5 Centre of a group
2.6 Summary
2.7 Glossary
2.8 References
2.9 Suggested Readings
2.10 Terminal Questions
2.11 Answers
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The main purpose to learn about the conjugate element in a group is that to differentiate any group into
different conjugate classes by its property of satisfying the condition of equivalence relation. After
partition group into different conjugate classes we will learn about the important definition of
normalizer of any element in a group and centre of the group which will help us to define the class
equation.
In this unit we will also learn various theorems of conjugate element, normalizer and centre of
the group and their related application to solve different types of examples.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 18
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Cayley table for D4 showing elements of the center, {e, a2}, commute with all other elements
(this can be seen by noticing that all occurrences of a given center element are arranged
symmetrically about the center diagonal or by noticing that the row and column starting with
a given center element are transposes of each other).
∘ E B a a2 a3 ab a2b a3b
E E B a a2 a3 ab a2b a3b
B B E a3b a2b ab a3 a2 a
A a Ab a2 a3 e a2b a3b b
a2 a2 a2b a3 e a a3b b ab
a3 a3 a3b e a a2 b ab a2b
Ab ab A b a3b a2b e a3 a2
a2b a2b a2 ab b a3b a e a3
a3b a3b a3 a2b ab b a2 a e
2.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to
Understand the concept of conjugate element and equivalence relation in cojugacy.
Understand the application of normalize of an element.
Understand about the special type of normal subgroup name as center of the group.
2.3 CONJUGATE ELEMENT
Definition: Two elements a and b in a group G are said to be conjugate to each other or b is said to be
conjugate to a if x G s.t.
b x 1ax
Then b is called transform of a by x. Symbolically, it is denoted by b ~ a and this relation in G is
called relation of conjugacy.
Theorem 1: Conjugacy relation is an equivalence relation on G.
Proof: Reflexivity: Let a be any arbitrary element of a group G and e is the identity of the group.
Then
a e 1ae a ~ a a G . Therefore the relation is reflexive.
Symmetry: We have to prove if a ~ b then b ~ a . Let a ~ b then x G s.t.
a x 1bx
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 19
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
xax1 xx 1bxx 1 xax1 b
As we know if x G then x 1 G
Transitivity: Let a ~ b and b ~ c then a x 1bx, b y 1cy for some x, y G .
Again, a x 1 y 1cy x
a x 1 y 1cyx ( yx) 1 c( yx) [Since G is a group then yx G, yx G ]
1
a ~ c and thus, relation is transitive.
Hence, conjugacy is an equivalence relation.
Classes of conjugate elements: The differences between the classes are follows:
(1) Elements from the same classes will be conjugate.
(2) Different elements from different classes will be not conjugate.
~
The collection of all elements which are conjugate to a G will be denoted by C(a) or a and defined
as:
C (a ) x G x ~ a} or C (a ) b G b x 1ax}
For the finite group G, number of distinct element in C(a) will be denoted by ca.
2.4 NORMALIZER OF AN ELEMENT OF A GROUP
Definition: If G is a group and a be any arbitrary element of a group then normalizer of a is the
collection of such elements in G which commutes with a. It is denoted by N(a) and defined as:
N (a ) x G ax xa
Note 1: If e is the identity element of G then N (e) G
2: If G is abelian group and a G then N (a) G
Theorem 2: The normalizer of a G is the subgroup of G.
Proof: Since, N (a ) x G ax xa. Let x, y are any element of G then ax xa, ay ya . First, we
will show that, y 1 G . Since, y G y 1 G because G is a group.
Now, y 1 ay y 1 y 1 ( ya) y 1 [Pre and post multiply by y 1 in ay ya ]
y 1a( yy 1 ) ( y 1 y)ay 1 [G satisfied the associativity]
y 1ae eay 1 [e is the identity element of G]
y 1a ay 1
y 1 N ( a )
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 20
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Now we have to prove that xy 1 N (a )
Consider, a ( xy 1 ) (ax) y 1
a( xy 1 ) ( xa) y 1 [ax = xa]
a( xy 1 ) x(ay 1 ) [G satisfied the associativity]
a( xy 1 ) x( y 1a) [ y 1a ay 1 ]
a( xy 1 ) ( xy 1 )a [G satisfied the associativity]
xy 1 N (a)
Hence, normalizer of any element a G i.e., N (a) is the subgroup of G.
Theorem 3: Any two elements of a group give rise to same conjugate to a G iff they belong to the
same right coset of normalizer of a in G.
Proof: Let us consider, x, y G then x N (a) x and y N (a) y . Since x, y are in the same right coset
of N(a) in G.
N ( a) x N ( a) y [If H is subgroup and x H then Hx H ]
xy 1 N (a) [If H is a subgroup of G, then Ha Hb ab1 H ]
axy1 xy 1a [By definition of normalizer of an element of G]
x 1 axy 1 y x 1 xy 1a y
x 1ax( y 1 y) ( x 1 x) y 1ay
x 1axe ey 1ay
x 1ax y 1ay
x, y give rise to same conjugate of a.
O (G )
Theorem 4: If G is a finite group then the number of distinct element in C(a) are .
O ( N (a ))
O(G )
Then further prove that O(G ) , where summation runs over one element of each
O( N (a))
conjugate class.
Proof: By the previous theorem 6, we know that two elements of a group give rise to same conjugate
to a G if they belong to the same right coset of normalizer of a in G. In the other sense it means,
different conjugate to a G belongs to different right coset of N(a) in G. Thus we get a “one-to-one
correspondence between the conjugates of a G and right cosets of N(a) in G”.
Thus, ca = Number of distnict element in C(a)
= Number of distinct right coset of N(a) in G.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 21
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
O (G )
= The index of N(a) in G =
O ( N (a ))
Further, If C (a1 ), C (a2 ), ..., C (ak ) are k distinct conjugate class in G, Then
G C (a1 ) C (a2 ) ... C (ak )
Number of element in G = Number of element in C (a1 ) + Number of element in C (a2 ) + …+
Number of element in C ( ak )
O (G ) ca , where summation runs over one element of each conjugate class
O(G )
O(G )
O( N (a))
Hence proof the result.
2.4.1 SELF CONJUGATE ELEMENT
Definition: An element a G is said to be self conjugate if a x 1ax x G i.e, C(a) contains only
singleton element {a}. In other manner, we can say those self conjugate elements are those elements of
G which commutes with every element of G. Sometimes self conjugate element is also called invariant
element of G.
2.5 CENTRE OF A GROUP
Definition: Collection of all self conjugate element of a group is called centre of group G. It is denoted
by Z(G) and defined as,
Z (G ) x G xa axa G
e.g.: The centre of the quaternion group Q8 1,1, i,i, j, j, k ,k is Z (Q8 ) 1,1,.
Theorem 5: The centre of a group G, Z(G) is the normal subgroup of group.
Proof: First we will prove that Z(G) is subgroup of G. For it, let x1 , x2 Z (G) then be definition
x1a ax1a G and x2 a ax2a G
Since we have, x2 a ax2a G x2
1
x2 a x2 1 x2 1 (ax2 ) x2 1a G
1 1 1 1
( x2 x2 )ax2 x2 a ( x2 x2 )a G
1 1
eax2 x2 aea G
1 1
ax2 x2 aa G
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 22
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
1
x2 Z (G )
1
Now consider, x1 x2 a x1 ( x2 a )
1
1 1 1 1
x1 (ax2 ) [ x2 Z (G ) x2 a ax2 ]
1
( x1a ) x2 [By associativity]
1
(ax1 ) x2 [ x1 Z (G) x1a ax1 ]
1
a ( x1 x2 ) [By associativity]
1
x1 x2 Z (G )
Hence Z(G) is subgroup of G.
Now we have only to prove that Z(G) is always normal in G. For it let x Z (G), a G then,
axa1 (ax)a 1
( xa)a 1
x(aa 1 )
x(e) x Z (G)
Thus, x Z (G), a G axa1 Z (G)
Hence, Z(G) is the normal subgroup of group of G.
Theorem 6: Any element, a Z (G) iff N (a) G .
Proof: Let a Z (G) then xa axx G
Also, N (a) x G | xa axx G
So, a Z (G) xa axx G
x N (a)x G [By definition of N(a)]
N ( a) G
Corollary: If G is finite a Z (G) iff O( N (a)) O(G) .
Theorem 7: If G be the finite group and Z(G) be the centre of the group G. Then class equation of G
can be written as,
O(G )
O(G ) O[ Z (G )]
aZ ( G ) O[ N ( a )]
Where, summation runs over one element a in each conjugate class containing more than one element.
Proof: As we know by the previous theorem that class equation of G is
O(G )
O(G ) , where, summation runs over one element a in each conjugate class.
O( N (a))
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 23
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
By corollary, we know that if G is finite a Z (G) iff O( N (a)) O(G) .
O(G )
a Z (G ) iff 1
O( N (a))
Number of elements in conjugate class of a is one whenever a Z (G) .
Thus, order of Z(G) will be equal to the number of conjugate classes each having single element which
O(G )
is itself. If we take a such element which belongs any of these conjugate classes, we have 1
O( N (a))
. Hence the class equation can be rewrite as,
O(G ) O(G )
O(G )
aZ ( G ) O ( N ( a ))
aZ ( G ) O ( N ( a ))
O(G )
Since, O( Z (G ))
aZ ( G ) O ( N ( a ))
O(G )
Hence, O(G ) O( Z (G ))
aZ ( G ) O ( N ( a ))
…(1)
Note: This equation (1) is called the class equation of any finite group G.
Example 1: Find the class equation for the group S3.
Answer: We know the symmetric group ( S 3 ) on three symbols 1, 2, 3 is
S3 I , (1 2), (13), (2 3), (1 2 3), (13 2).
Then we have,
Z( S 3 ) = {e} and C(12) = {(12),(23),(13)} because (1 2)(13)(1 2) 1 (2 3) shows that (2 3) is a
conjugate of (1 3).
Similarly we can find, C(123) = {(123),(132)}. Hence the class equation of S 3 is,
| S 3 | = |Z( S 3 )| + |C(12)| + |C(123)| i.e., 3! = 1 + 3 + 2.
Theorem 8: If O(G) P n , where P is a prime number, then Z (G) {e} .
Proof: As we know for a finite group G the class equation of G is
O(G )
O(G ) O( Z (G ))
aZ ( G ) O ( N ( a ))
where, summation runs over those conjugate class which
containing more than one element. We have given O(G) P n so, the divisor of O(G) are
1, p, p 2 ,..., P k ,...P n i.e., of the form P k where1 k n .
Since a G we have N(a) is subgroup of G. By Lagrange’s theorem we know that O( N (a)) | O(G) .
Also we know that if a Z (G) N (a) G O[ N (a)] O(G) .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 24
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Thus if a Z (G) then O[ N (a)] will be of the form P k where1 k n .
Let us consider, O(Z (G)) m , where m is a positive integer m n . Now by class equation
Pn Pn
Pn m k
aZ ( G ) P
m P n
k where1 k n
aZ ( G ) P
… (1)
Since P | P n so, P will divide each term of the right hand side of the equation (1)
P|m
Therefore centre of G must contain element other then identity. Therefore Z (G) {e} .
Theorem 9: Every group of order P 2 is Abelian.
Proof: We have given order of the group is P 2 i.e., O(G) P 2 . So, the positive divisors of P 2 are
1, P, P 2 . By the previous theorem 11 we know that if O(G) P n , where P is a prime number, then
Z (G) {e} . It means, O(Z (G)) 1. As we know that centre of the group is subgroup of G and by
Lagrange’s theorem “Order of every subgroup of a finite group is divisor of the order of the group”. So
either O(Z (G)) P or O(Z (G)) P 2 .
If O(Z (G)) P 2 then we have nothing to prove.
Otherwise, if O(Z (G)) P there exist an element x G which is not in Z(G) i.e., x Z (G) .
Since N(x) is subgroup of G and x N (x) . Also a Z (G) ax xax G .
a N (x)
Z (G) N ( x)
Since x Z (G) O(( N ( x)) P but O( N ( x)) must be divisor of P 2
O(( N ( x)) must be equal to P 2
N ( x) G
x Z (G) , thus we get a contradiction.
Hence, O(Z (G)) P 2 G is Abelian group because Z (G) is always Abelian group.
Example 2: Is a group of order 121 is Abelian?
Answer: Since, O(G) 121 112 , where 11 is a prime number. Hence G will be Abelian group.
Example 3: Prove that corresponding to every cyclic group its quotient group is cyclic but their
converses need not to be true.
Solution: Let G be a cyclic group such that G a i.e., a is the generator of G and H is its
subgroup. Then according to theorem every subgroup of G will be normal subgroup of G. If elements
a n G then Ha n ( Ha) n will be element of quotient group G / H .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 25
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Therefore G / H is a cyclic group and Ha will be generator of it.
But converse is need not be true. Since S3 / A3 A3 , (2 3) A3 is Abelian group because order of
O[S3 / A3 ] 6 / 3 2 which is prime and we know that every group of prime order is cyclic while S 3 is
not a Abelian group.
Theorem 10: If G / Z (G) is cyclic if and only if G is Abelian.
Proof: Let us consider G / Z (G) is cyclic. It means, if the element a is the generator of G then Z (G)a
will be generator of G / Z (G) .
Let x, y G then Z (G) x, Z (G) y G / Z (G) positive integers m, n such that
Z (G ) x Z (G )a Z (G )a m & Z (G ) y Z (G )a Z (G )a n
m n
we have x x1a m where x1 Z (G) and y y1a n where y1 Z (G)
Now, xy ( x1a m )( y1a n ) x1 (a m y1 )a n ) x1 ( y1a m )a n ( x1 y1 )a m a n ( y1 x1 )a m a n
y1 x1 (a m a n ) y1 x1a n a m y1a n x1a m xy
G is abelian.
Conversely, assume that G is Abelian. If G is Abelian then Z (G) G .
G / Z (G) {e} i.e. trivial subgroup which is always cyclic.
Hence the theorem.
Example 4: If G be a non-Abelian group of order P3 where P is prime then Z(G) has exactly P
element.
Proof: We have given be a non-Abelian group of order P3 where P is prime. Then According to
Lagrange’s theorem possibilities of order of Z(G) is 1, P, P 2 , P3 .
Case Ist: We know by previous theorem if O(G) P n , where P is a prime number, then
Z (G) {e} O[Z (G)] 1 .
Case IInd: Let O[Z (G)] P 2 OG / Z (G) P3 / P 2 P
G / Z (G) is cyclic and by theorem we can say that G is Abelian which is a contradiction. So our
assumption is wrong.
Case IIIrd: Let O[Z (G)] P3 OG / Z (G) P3 / P3 1
G / Z (G) {e} is cyclic and by theorem we can say that G is Abelian which is again a
contradiction. So again our one of the assumption is wrong.
So, the only possibilities is left that O[Z (G)] P i.e., Z(G) has exactly P element.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 26
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Check your progress
Problem 1: Find the finite number of distinct classes in Q4 {1,1, i,i} ?
Problem 2: Find the number of element in the centre of Q4 {1,1, i,i} ?
Problem 3: Find the class equation of Q4 {1,1, i,i} ?
2.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have studied the definition and theorems related to conjugate of an element, normalizer
of an element and centre of the group and also learn their implementation on various examples. We
have also learn in this unit how these subgroup are essentials in the formation of class equation which
will further discussed briefly in the upcoming units. The overall summarization of this units are as
follows:
Conjugacy relation is an equivalence relation on G.
O(G )
O(G ) O( Z (G ))
aZ ( G ) O ( N ( a ))
is known as class equation of any group.
Every group of order p 2 is abelian group.
2.7 GLOSSARY
b ~ a denotes two elements a, b of a group G are conjugate to each other.
C (a) denotes collection of elements of group which are conjugate to a.
c a denotes number of elements in group which are conjugate to a.
Z (G) denotes centre of the group.
N (a) denotes the normalizer of a.
2.8 REFERENCES
Joseph A Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa, 1999.
N. Herstein,(1975), Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri (2021 ), A Course in Abstract Algebra (5th Edition), Vikas
Publication House.
Vasishtha, A. R., & Vasishtha, A. K. (2006). Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra). Krishna
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 27
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Prakashan Media.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_(group_theory)#:~:text=By%20definition%2C%20the%2
0center%20is,of%20each%20element%20of%20G.
2.9 SUGGESTED READING
P.B. Bhattacharya, S.K. Jain, S.R. Nagpaul: Basic Abstract Algebra, Cambridge Press, 1994.
David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote: Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), Wiley, 2011.
2.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Long Answer Type Question:
1. Prove that any two conjugate classes of a group are either disjoint or identical.
2. If the order of a group G is prime ( p ), then prove of G has exactly p elements.
3. If H is normal subgroup of G, having prime index p then prove that G / N is cyclic.
4. If G be a non-Abelian group of order O(G) 1331 then prove that number of elements in
centre of group Z(G) are 11.
5. If G be a group of order O(G) 121 then find the number of elements in its centre.
6. State and prove the class equation.
7. Prove that cojugacy is an equivalence relation.
Short Answer Type Question:
8. Find the number of elements of the in the centre of the group having order
O(G) 5, 7, 25, 31, 49 .
9. Prove that centre of the group is an abelian group
10. If G is a non-abelian of order 8 then prove that Z (G) has exactly 2 element.
11. Find number of element which are conjugate to (1 2) S 3 .
12. Prove that if G is finite, a Z (G) iff O( N (a)) O(G) .
Fill in the blanks:
13. Two elements a and b in a group G are such that b x 1ax then b will called ……… to a.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 28
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
14. Every group of order p 2 ( p prime) is …….
15. Centre of the group G is the ……… subgroup of G.
16. If G is non-abelian group of order 125 then Z(G) has …….. elements.
2.11 ANSWERS
Answer of self cheque question:
1. 4 2. 4 3. 1+1+1+1
Answer of terminal question:
5. 121 8. 5, 7, 25, 31, 49 11. 3 13. Conjugate
14. Abelian 15. Normal 16. 5
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 29
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Unit-3: HOMOMORPHISM AND ISOMORPHISM
CONTENT:
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Homomorphism
3.3.1 Kernel of homomorphism
3.4 Isomorphism
3.5 Fundamental theorems
3.6 Summary
3.7 Glossary
3.8 References
3.9 Suggested Readings
3.10 Terminal Questions
3.11 Answers
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The term "homomorphism" appeared as early as 1892, when it
was attributed to the mathematician Felix Klein (1849–1925).
Christian Felix Klein was a German mathematician and
mathematics educator, known for his work with group
theory, complex analysis, non-Euclidean geometry, and on the
associations between geometry and group theory. His
1872 Erlangen program, classifying geometries by their
basic symmetry groups, was an influential synthesis of much of Christian Felix Klein
the mathematics of the time. 25 April 1849 – 22 June 1925
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 30
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
In this section we introduce the reader to the idea of an isomorphism which could also be
termed as an ‘indirect’ equality in algebraic systems. Indeed, if two systems have the same
number of elements and behave exactly in the same manner, nothing much is lost in calling
them equal, although at times the idea of equality may look little uncomfortable, especially in
case of infinite sets.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to
Understand the concept of special types of mapping between two groups named as
homomorphism and isomorphism. It may be possible these groups are under the different
binary operations.
Know that under the isomorphism mapping how the properties of two groups are same.
Understand about the other type of mapping like endomorphism, automorphism.
Understand the basic properties of homomorphism and isomorphism and their related other
theorems and definitions.
3.3 HOMOMORPHISM
Definition: A mapping f from a group (G,) into the group (G ' , .) is said to be a homomorphism if it
preserve the composition under f i.e.,
f (a * b) f (a). f (b) a, b G
Or
A mapping f : G G ' is said to be homomorphism if,
f (a * b) f (a). f (b) a, b G
where, G and G ' are the groups under the operation ' ' and ' . ' respectively.
Note 1: The range of f in G is called the homomorphic image of G ' .
2: In general, we take both the groups G and G ' under the same operation multiplication and write f is
a homomorphism between G to G ' if, f (ab) f (a) f (b) a, b G , without the loose of generality.
Example 1: A mapping f : Z E , from set of integer to the set of even integer such that
f ( x) 2 x x Z
is a homomorphism.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 31
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Answer: We have given the mapping f : Z E such that
f ( x) 2 x x Z
at first, we will check mapping is well defined as x y 2 x 2 y f ( x) f ( y)
Now, we will check mapping also preserve the composition for it for any x, y Z
f ( x y) 2( x y) 2 x 2 y f ( x) f ( y)
f preserve the composition.
Hence given mapping f is an homomorphism.
Example 2: Show that the Mapping f : Z G , from set of integer under the operation addition to the
group G 1, 1 under the operation multiplication defined as
1, if x is even
f ( x)
1, if x is odd
is a homomorphism.
Answer: Case I: If x, y Z both are even integers. It means f ( x) 1, f ( y) 1 then their sum will also
an even integer i.e.,
f ( x y) 1 1.1 f ( x) f ( y) x, y Z
Case II: If x, y Z both are odd integers i.e., f ( x) 1, f ( y) 1 then their sum will be even integer
i.e.,
f ( x y) 1 (1).(1) f ( x) f ( y) x, y Z
Case III: If x, y Z are such that x is even integer and y is odd integer i.e., f ( x) 1, f ( y) 1 then
their sum will be odd integer then,
f ( x y) 1 1.(1) f ( x) f ( y) x, y Z
Case IV: If x, y Z are such that x is odd integer and y is even integer i.e., f ( x) 1, f ( y) 1 then
their sum will be odd integer then,
f ( x y) 1 (1).(1) f ( x) f ( y) x, y Z
Hence the given mapping f is an homomorphism.
Example 3: Show that the Mapping f : R R , from set of positive real numbers to the set of real
number defined as f ( x) log x x R is an homomorphism.
Answer: As we know that set of positive real numbers ( R ) is form group under the operation
multiplication and the group R is form group under the operation addition.
Here, clearly the mapping is well-defined since, for
x y
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 32
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
log x log y [Taking logarithm both side]
f ( x) f ( y) x, y R
Now, f ( xy) log( xy) log x log y f ( x) f ( y) x, y R
Hence f is a homomorphism.
Homomorphism onto: A onto mapping from a group (G,) into the group (G ' , .) is said to be a
homomorphism onto if it preserve the composition under f i.e.,
f (a * b) f (a). f (b) a, b G .
Endomorphism: A homomorphism from a group G to itself is called an endomorphism.
Example 4: If G be a group and a mapping such that, f : G G such that f ( x) x 1 be a
homomorphism then show that G is a Abelian group.
Proof: Since G be a group then for any elements x, y G , G will satisfies the closure property i.e.,
xy G and for every element belongs to G there exist its inverse in G.
Now, xy y 1 x 1 f y 1 x 1 f y 1 f x 1 yx
1
G is Abelian group.
Theorem 1: If f : G G ' be a homomorphism then,
(i) If e is the identity of G, then f (e) is the identity of G '
For any element a G , f (a 1 ) f (a )
1
(ii)
(iii) If H is subgroup of G then f (H ) is subgroup of G '
(iv)
If K is subgroup of G ' , then f 1 ( K ) k G f (k ) G ' is a subgroup of G. Furthermore, if
K is normal in G ' then f 1 ( K ) is normal in G.
(v) If order of any element a G is finite then the order of f (a) is divisor of the order of
a G .
Proof (i): Let e and e ' are the identity elements of the group G and G ' . Since f is the mapping from
G to G ' then f (e) will be the elements of G ' .
Now, e' f (e) f (e) f (ee) f (e) f (e) , then by the right cancellation law
e ' f (e)
i.e., f (e) is the identity of G ' .
(ii): Let a be any element of G then a 1 will be also in G because G itself a group. Since we have,
e' f (e) f (aa 1 ) f (a) f (a 1 ) … (1)
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 33
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
As we know that if a G f (a) G ' and G ' is also a group then f (a ) G '
1
Now multiplying by f ( a ) both side in equation (1)
1
Then, f (a) e ' f (a )
1 1
f (a) f (a ) f (a)
1 1
f (a ) f (a 1 ) f (a)
So, f (a ) f (a )
1
(iii): We have given H is subgroup of G then to prove that f (H ) is subgroup of G ' . If
x, y H xy 1 H [By the subgroup test of any nonempty subset of G]
Since f is the homomorphism then there exist a, b f ( H ) s.t. a f ( x), b f ( y)
Now consider, ab 1 f ( x) f ( y ) f ( x) f ( y 1 ) f ( xy 1 ) f ( H )
1
Hence we have prove that if a, b f ( H ) then ab 1 f ( H )
f (H ) is subgroup of G ' .
(iv): Let K is subgroup of G ' and define H to be f 1 ( K ) ; that is H is the set of all g G such that
f ( g ) K G ' . If a, b H , then f (ab 1 ) f (a ) f (b 1 ) f (a ) f (b) K . Since K is subgroup of
1
G ' . Therefore, ab1 H and H is the subgroup of G.
If K is normal in G ' then we have to show g 1hg H for h H , g G
But, f ( g hg ) f ( g ) f (h) f ( g ) f ( g )
1 1 1 1
f (h) f ( g ) f ( g )1 f ( g ) f (h) f ( h) K
Since K is normal in G therefore g 1hg H
H is normal subgroup of G.
(v): Let a G and O(a) m i.e., a m e
Taking f-image both side we get, f (a m ) f (e)
f (a) f (a) f (a).... f (a) (m times) f (e)
f (a ) e '
m
If order of f (a) in G ' is n then o( f (a)) | O(a)
3.3.1 KERNEL OF A HOMOMORPHISM
Definition: If f : G G ' is a homomorphism then kernel of homomorphism is the collection of all
elements of domain set which are mapped into the identity elements of range set.
OR
If f : G G ' is a homomorphism then,
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 34
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
ker f x G | f ( x) e'
Where e ' is the identity element of G '
Theorem 2: If f : G G ' is a homomorphism then ker f is the normal subgroup of G.
Proof: Since we have given f : G G ' is an homomorphism and we know that
ker f x G | f ( x) e' then first we will prove that ker f is a subgroup of G. for it let
x, y ker f f ( x) e' , f ( y) e'
Now, f ( xy 1 ) f ( x) f ( y 1 ) f ( x) f ( y ) e ' [e ' ]1 e '
1
xy 1 ker f
Hence x, y ker f we have xy 1 ker f it means ker f is the subgroup of G.
Now we have to prove that ker f is the normal subgroup of G. For it let g be any element of G and k
be any element of ker f . Then f (k ) e ' , we have
f ( gkg 1 ) f ( g ) f (k ) f ( g 1 ) f ( g )e ' f ( g 1 ) f ( g ) f ( g ) e '
1
xgkg 1 ker f
Hence, ker f is normal subgroup of G.
Theorem 3: A homomorphism f : G G ' is one-one if and only if ker f {e} .
Proof: We have given f : G G ' is an homomorphism and let mapping is ono-one. If x ker f be
any element
Then f ( x) e ' and also f (e) e '
Since f is one-one so, f ( x) f (e) x e x ker f
Hence, ker f {e} .
Conversely, let ker f contains only the identity element.
For it let, f ( x) f ( y)
then f ( x)[ f ( y)]1 e'
f ( xy 1 ) e '
xy 1 ker f {e}
xy 1 {e}
x y
f is one-one.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 35
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
3.4 ISOMORPHISM
Definition: A mapping f from a group (G,) into the group (G ' , .) is said to be isomorphism if it
satisfies the following condition,
(i) f is ono-one i.e, f is injective
(ii) f is on-to i.e, f is surjective
(iii) f (a * b) f (a). f (b) a, b G i.e., f preserve the composition
Example 5: Show that the Mapping f : R R , from set of positive real numbers to the set of real
number defined as f ( x) log x x R is an isomorphism.
Answer: In the previous example we have already proved that given mapping is a homomorphism.
Now, we are going only to show that mapping (f) is a bijective mapping (i.e., f is one-one and on-to)
One-One: Let x, y R s.t., f ( x) f ( y)
log x log y
elog x elog y
x y
f is one-one mapping.
On-to: If y R be any real number then clearly e y R . It means for each y R we have e y R
such that f (e y ) log(e y ) y R
f is on-to mapping.
Hence, f is an isomorphism.
Example 6: Show that there is no isomorphism from f : Q Q {0} where, Q is set of rational
number.
Answer: To prove this example let we assume that f : Q Q {0} is an isomorphism. Since f is an
isomorphism so f will also a on-to function i.e., for 2 Q {0} x Q s.t.,
f ( x) 2
x x
f 2
2 2
x x
f f 2 [Since, f preserve the compostion]
2 2
x x
f f 2
2 2
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 36
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
x
y 2 2 where, y f , which is a contradiction because there is no rational number which is
2
the solution of quadratic equation x 2 2 0 . Hence our assumption is wrong. So, there is no map
f : Q Q {0} which is an isomorphism.
Theorem 4: Let N be a normal subgroup of a group G. A mapping f , f : G G / N defined as
f ( x) Nx x G then f is a homomorphism of G onto G / N and ker f N .
Proof: We have given the mapping f : G G / N such that f ( x) Nx x G . As we know if x G
then Nx G / N .
First we will check that f is a onto homomorphism from G to G / N . For it, let a, b G / N then,
f (ab) Nab ( Na)( Nb) f (a) f (b) [ N is normal subgroup of G]
f is a homomorphism from G to G / N .
Since for each element Nx G / N there exist an element x G such that f ( x) Nx x G .
Hence, f is on-to mapping.
Let ker f is the kernel of this homomorphism then, ker f x G | f ( x) N
Now, we have only to prove that ker f N . Let x be any element of ker f . Then f ( x) N , where N
is the identity of G / N . But according to mapping f ( x) Nx N i.e., Nx N x N
[Because if H is normal subgroup of G and Hx H then x H ]
So, x ker f x N . Therefore ker f N
Conversely, let y be any element of N . Then Ny N
We have f (n) Nn N . Therefore n ker f
Thus, n N n ker f . Therefore N ker f
Hence, ker f N .
3.5 FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS
Theorem 5: Fundamental theorem on group homomorphism: If f : G G' is onto
G
homomorphism then G ' where K ker f
K
OR
In other word, “Every homomorphic image of a group G is isomorphic to some quotient group of G”.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 37
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
G
Proof: We have given a on-to homomorphism f from G to G ' . Let we define a map : G ' s.t.
K
( Ka) f (a), a G
First, we have to show that is an isomorphism. For it initially we shall show the mapping is well-
defined by, Ka kb
ab1 K ker f
f (ab 1 ) e '
f (a) f (b 1 ) e'
f (a ) f (b) e '
1
f (a) f (b)
( Ka) ( Kb)
On retracing theses steps backwards, we will get that is one-one.
Again as ( KaKb) ( Kab) f (ab) f (a) f (b) ( Ka) ( Kb)
is an homomorpshism.
Now we will check is onto, let g ' G ' be any element. Since f : G G ' is onto then there exist
g G such that,
f (g) g '
Now, Kg f ( g ) g ' .
is on-to
is an isomorphism.
G
Hence, G' .
K
Theorem 6: (Second fundamental theorem of Isomorphism). If H and K are two subgroups of the
group G where H is normal subgroup of G then,
HK K
.
H H K
Proof: By the previous theorems in normal subgroups we can easily seen that H K will be normal
subgroup of K because H K H and H K K . Similarly, as H HK G, H will be normal
in HK.
HK
Now, we define a map f : K s.t.,
H
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 38
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
f (k ) Hk
Then as k1 k2 Hk1 Hk2 f (k1 ) f (k2 )
Which shows the mapping is well-defined.
Again, f (k1k2 ) Hk1k2 Hk1Hk2 f (k1 ) f (k2 )
f is an homomorphism.
Obviously, the mapping is on-to also then by using the first fundamental theorem we find that
HK K
H ker f
Since, k ker f f (k ) H
Hk H
k H [As H is normal subgroup of G]
k H K [ k K as ker f K ]
So, ker f H K
Hence the theorem is proved.
K
Lemma: Let in a group G , if H, K are normal in G such that H K , then is a normal subgroup of
H
G
and converse of the theorem is also true.
H
K G
Proof: is a non empty subset of , by definition.
H H
K
Now, for any Hk1 , Hk 2
H
1 1 K
( Hk1 )( Hk 2 ) 1 ( Hk1 )( Hk 2 ) Hk1k 2
H
K
is a subgroup.
H
K G
Again for any Hk and Hg , we notice that
H H
K
( Hg ) 1 ( Hk )( Hg ) Hg 1 HkHg Hg 1kg
H
as g G, k K , K is normal in G gives g 1kg K .
Conversely, let any element x G and k K . In order to prove that K is normal in G we must show
that xkx1 K .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 39
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
G K K
We know that Hx where x G and Hk where k K . Since we have given is a normal
H H H
G
subgroup of , therefore
H
K
( Hx)( Hk )( Hx) 1
H
K
Hxkx1 [As H is normal in G]
H
xkx1 K
K
K is normal subgroup of G . Also the quotient group implies that H is normal in G. Therefore, K
H
is normal subgroup of G and H K .
Theorem 7: (Third isomorphism theorem). If two subgroups H, K are normal in G such that
H K , then
G G\H
K K\H
K
Proof: By the above lemma we know that if H, K are normal in G such that H K , then is a
H
G G\H
normal subgroup of and, therefore, we can talk about .
H K\H
G G
First, we will define a map f : s.t.,
H K
f ( Ha) Ka, a G
Since, H is well defined as
Ha Hb
ab1 H K
Ka Kb
f ( Ha) f ( Hb)
Now, we will check f is a homomorphism as
f ( HaHb) f ( Hab) Kab ( Ka)(Kb) f ( Ha) f ( Hb) .
Here, ontoness of f is obvious.
Using first fundamental theorem of group homomorphism we can write that,
G G/H K
, so, we will claim that ker f .
K ker f H
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 40
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
G
A member of ker f will be some member of .
H
Now, Ha ker f f ( Ha) K
Ka K
aK
K
Ha
H
G G/H
Hence we find
K K/H
Hence our result is proved. This theorem is also named as “Freshman’s Theorem”.
K K
Remarks: In the above theorem, since we have put ker f because we have notice that is
H H
G G/H K
normal in and hence we are talking about . Thus we do not need to prove separately that
H K/H H
G
is normal in .
H
Theorem 8: Let the mapping f : G G ' be an onto homomorphism with ker f K . Let the
subgroup H ' of the group G ' , define
H x G | f ( x) H '
Then
(i) H is subgroup of G and K H .
(ii) H ' is normal in G ' iff H is normal in G .
G' G
(iii) H ' is normal in G ' then
H' H
(iv) There exist a one to one association from the from the family S ' of all subgroup of G ' onto
the family S of all subgroup of G , that contain K .
Proof (i): Since, f (e) e' H ' e H , it means H .
Let x, y H f ( x), f ( y) H '
f ( x), f ( y) H '
f ( x) f ( y ) H '
1
f ( xy 1 ) H '
xy 1 H
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 41
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Thus H is subgroup of G.
Since x ker f K f ( x) e' H '
Hence for each x K we have x H K H .
(ii): Suppose H is normal subgroup of G . Let the elements g ' G ' , h ' H ' . Since the given mapping
is onto so g G, h H s.t. f ( g ) g ' , f (h) h' . Since h H , h' H '
Now,
g 1h ' g ' f ( g ) f (h) f ( g )
1
f ( g 1 ) f (h) f ( g ) f ( g 1hg ) H ' [Because H is normal subgroup in G means g 1hg H ]
Thus H ' is normal in G ' .
Conversely, assume that H ' is normal in G ' .
For any elements h H , g G ,
f g 1hg ( f ( g ))1 f (h) f ( g ) H '
as f (h) H ' , f ( g ) G '
as f (h) H ' , f ( g ) G ' [ H ' is normal in G ' ]
g 1hg H
i.e., H is normal in G
G'
(iii) Let us defining a mapping : G s.t.,
H'
(g) H ' f (g)
Since is well define as g1 g 2 f ( g1 ) f ( g 2 )
H ' f ( g1 ) H ' f ( g 2 )
( g1 ) ( g 2 ) , which shows mapping is well defined.
Now, we will verify that the mapping preserve the composition as
( g1 g 2 ) H ' f ( g1 g 2 ) H ' f ( g1 ) f ( g 2 ) H ' f ( g1 ) H ' f ( g 2 ) ( g1 ) ( g 2 )
G'
Again, for any H ' g ' '
, since g ' G ' and f is onto g G s.t., f ( g ) g '
H
Or that ( g ) H ' f ( g ) H ' g ' showing that is onto.
By using fundamental theorem then
G' G
H '
ker
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 42
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Now, x ker ( x) H '
H ' f ( x) H '
f ( x) H ' x H
Hence ker H
(iv) Define mapping : S ' S , s.t.,
(H ' ) H
Where H is x G | f ( x) H ' for any H ' in S ' by (i) we know that it is subgroup of G, containing K
and thus a member of S. is well defined mapping.
Let now ( H ' ) (T ' ) where H ' , T ' S '
Then H T where
H x G | f ( x) H '
T x G | f ( x) T '
Now for any h' H ' G ' , since f : G G ' is onto, we can find h G, s.t.,
f (h) h ' H '
But this shows h H T
f (h) T '
h' T ' H ' T '
Similarly T ' H '
i.e., T ' H ' or is one-one.
We will show now that is onto.
Let H S be any member, H is a subgroup of G and K H .
Consider f ( H ) f (h) | h H
Then f (H ) as e H f (e) e' f ( H )
Again, for any f (h1 ), f (h2 ) f ( H ), h1 , h2 H
1
And f (h1 )( f (h2 )) 1 f (h1h2 ) f ( H )
i.e., f (H ) is subgroup of G ' .
We show f ( H ) H ' is the required pre-image of H under ,
i.e., we show ( H ' ) H ,
For it we have to show H x G | f ( x) H '
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 43
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Let x H then f ( x) f ( H ) H '
x x G | f ( x) H '
Or that H x G | f ( x) H '
Again, if x x G | f ( x) H '
Then f ( x) H ' f ( H )
h H , s.t. f ( x) f (h)
f ( xh1 ) e'
xh1 ker f K
x Kh H K H
Thus x G | f ( x) H ' H
Hence H x G | f ( x) H '
Or that ( H ' ) H and so is onto
Hence the theorem proved.
Example 7: Show that any infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to G Z , the group of integers.
Solution: Let G a be any infinite cyclic group.
Define, f : G Z , s.t.,
f ( a i ) i, i Z
Since G a is of infinite order, a i G for all i Z and a i a j for no i j
Thus a i a j i j f (a i ) f (a j ) or that f is well defined.
Again f (a i ) f (a j ) i j a i a j f is 1-1.
f (a i .a j ) f (a i j ) i j f (a i ) f (a j )
Shows that f is a homomorphism.
f is obviously onto and hence the isomorphism is established.
Corollary: Every subgroup of an infinite cyclic group is an infinite cyclic group which is isomorphic
to the group itself.
Example 8: Any finite cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to Z n the group of integers
addition modulo n.
Solution: Let G a be a cyclic group s.t.,
O(G) O(a) n
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 44
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
then G e, a, a 2 ,..., a n1 , Z n 0, 1, 2, ...., n 1
Define f : G Z n s.t., f (a i ) i
f is clearly well defined 1-1 onto mapping.
Again f (a i .a j ) f (a i n j ) i n j f (a i ) n f (a j )
Thus f is a homomorphism and hence an isomorphism.
Remark: Any two cyclic groups of same order (finite or infinite) are isomorphic.
Check your progress
Problem 1: Since Q4 Z 2 Z 2 , then find whether the identity element 1 of Q4 map in
Z2 Z2 ?
Problem 2: Is Z 4 Q8 and why?
3.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have studied about the mapping like homomorphism, isomorphism and also learn their
implementation on various examples. After completions of this unit we have learned that two groups if
isomorphic to each other than their all properties in terms of cardinality, order of elements, cyclic will
be same. On the other manner we can say that if two groups are isomorphic in which one group is
completely given then on the basis of given group we can unfold the unknown group completely even
these groups are under the different binary operations. We have also learned about the fundamental
theorems of isomorphism which are helpful to solve out various problems.
One of the important concept we have learned in this unit that every infinite cyclic group is
isomorphic to the set of integers (Z).
3.7 GLOSSARY
G G ' represents two groups G , G ' are isomorphic to each other.
ker f represents the kernel of homomorphism mapping f.
3.8 REFERENCES
Joseph A Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa, 1999.
N. Herstein,(1975), Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 45
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri (2021 ), A Course in Abstract Algebra (5th Edition), Vikas
Publication House.
Vasishtha, A. R., & Vasishtha, A. K. (2006). Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra). Krishna
Prakashan Media.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_(group_theory)#:~:text=By%20definition%2C%20the%2
0center%20is,of%20each%20element%20of%20G.
3.9 SUGGESTED READING
P.B. Bhattacharya, S.K. Jain, S.R. Nagpaul: Basic Abstract Algebra, Cambridge Press, 1994.
David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote: Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), Wiley, 2011.
3.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Long Answer Type Question:
1.
If f : G G ' is an homomorphism then prove that the set A x G | f ( x) e' where e ' is
the identity element of G ' is the normal subgroup of G .
2. Prove that every finite cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to the set of integer under the
operation addition modulo n.
3. Prove that every infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to Z .
4. Prove that if H and K are two subgroups of the group G where H is normal subgroup of G
HK K
then, .
H H K
5. Prove that every homomorphic image of a group G is isomorphic to some quotient group of G.
6. Prove that there is no isomorphism from Q to Q * Q {0} .
7. If f : G G ' is an homomorphism then order of any element f (a ) G ' is divisor of the order
of a G .
8. If two subgroups H, K are normal in G such that H K , then
G G\H
K K\H
9. Prove that relation of isomorphism is an equivalence relation.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 46
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Short Answer Type Question:
10. If f : G G ' is an homomorphism and H is subgroup of G then f (H ) is subgroup of G ' .
11. If f is a homomorphism from f : G G ' then prove that f is one-one if and only if ker f {e} .
12. Prove that any finite cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to the quotient group Z / N , where
N n
13. An endomorphism f in a group G such that f ( x) x 1 then G is abelian.
Fill in the blanks:
14. If f : G G ' be a homomorphism then for any element a G , f (a 1 ) ............
15. If two groups G ,G ' are isomorphic then O(G) ..........
16. If two groups G ,G ' of finite order are isomorphic then number of elements of order n in G are
= ………….
17. If f : G G ' be a homomorphism and e is the identity element of G then identity element of
G ' will be …………
18. ……… is the infinite cyclic group
19. A cyclic group of order 123456789 is isomorphic to ……….
3.11 ANSWERS
Answer of self cheque question:
1. (0, 0) 2. No, because is abelian group while is not
Answer of terminal question:
14. f (a)1 15. O (G ' ) 16. Number of elements of order n in G '
17. f(e) 18. Z 19. Z123456789
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 47
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
BLOCK II
CLASS EQUATION AND SYLOW’S THEOREM
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 48
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Unit-4: CAYLEY’S THEOREM AND CLASS EQUATION
CONTENT:
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Cayley’s theorem
4.4 Class Equation
4.5 Partition of an integer
4.6 Summary
4.7 Glossary
4.8 References
4.9 Suggested Readings
4.10 Terminal Questions
4.11 Answers
4.1 INTRODUCTION
British mathematician Arthur Cayley FRS, who lived from 16
August 1821 to 26 January 1895, was very active and focused
primarily on algebra. He contributed to establishing the current
British school of pure mathematics.
Cayley used to find it amusing to solve challenging arithmetic
problems as a kid. He enrolled in Trinity College in
Cambridge, where he excelled in mathematics, Greek, French,
German, and Italian. He practised law for 14 years. Arthur Cayley FRS
16 August 1821 – 26 January 1895
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Cayley
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 49
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Theorizing that every square matrix is a root of its own characteristic polynomial, he established what
is now known as the Cayley-Hamilton theorem for matrices of orders 2 and 3. He was the first to
introduce the contemporary definition of a group as a set with a binary operation that complies with
certain rules. Mathematicians used to refer to permutation groups when they used the term "groups." In
honour of Cayley, Cayley's theorem, Cayley tables, and Cayley graphs all bear his name.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to
Understand the concept that how we can define an isomorphism from any group to the
permutation group which is named as Cayley’s theorem.
Solve more examples on class equation.
Understand the basic properties of Cayley’s theorem and class equation and also their related
other theorems.
4.3 CAYLEY’S THEOREM
Theorem 1: Every group G is isomorphic to a permutation group.
Proof: A(G) is the collection of all permutations of the set G, where G is the any group. Let us define a
map f a : G G such that
f a ( x) ax , where a G
First we will check the mapping is well defined as,
x y ax ay f a ( x) f a ( y)
One-One: f a ( x) f a ( y)
ax ay
xy [By cancellation rule in G]
mapping is one-one
Onto: For any y G , since f a (a 1 y ) a (a 1 y ) y . Here we can easily see that a 1 y is pre-image of
y or that f a is onto and hence permutation on G .
Thus, f a A(G )
Assume that K be set of all such permutations. Now we will show that K is a subgroup of A(G) .
Since K is non-empty set because f e K .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 50
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Let f a , f b K
Then since f bf b1 ( x) f b f b1 ( x) f b (b 1 x) b(b 1 x)
ex f e ( x) x
We find f b1 f b
1
[Note f e I , identity of A(G) ]
Also as f a f b ( x) f a (bx) a(bx) (ab) x f ab ( x) x
We find f ab f a f b
So, f a f b f a f b1 f ab1 K
1
K is subgroup of A(G) .
Define mapping : G K , s.t.,
( a) f a
then is well defined as well as one-one map as,
a b
ax bx
f a ( x) f b ( x) x
f a fb
a b
Obviously, is onto and
(ab) f ab f a f b (a) (b)
Hence, is a homomorphism and also an isomorphism which proves the result that every group G is
isomorphic to a permutation group.
Remarks: We can define other statement of Cayley’s theorems like “ If G is finite group of order n
then G will be isomorphic to the subgroup of symmetric group S n .
Example 1: Using Cayley’s theorem find the permutation group which is isomorphic to the group
G {2,4,6,8} under the operation multiplication modulo (10 ) .
Answer: Let A be any permutation group such as defined in the Cayley’s theorem.
A f a | a G, where f a is defined as f a ax s.t. a, x G
So, f 2 (2) 4, f 2 (4) 8, f 2 (8) 6, f 2 (6) 2
f 4 (2) 8, f 4 (4) 6, f 4 (8) 2, f 4 (6) 4
f8 (2) 6, f8 (4) 2, f8 (8) 4, f8 (6) 8
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 51
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
f 6 (2) 2, f 6 (4) 4, f 6 (8) 8, f 6 (6) 6
Thus, f 6 I and K f 2 , f 4 , f8 , f 6 I
If we identify f 2 with the permutation (1 2 3 4) , other permutations are (13) (2 4) , (14 3 2) . Hence
A (1 2 3 ), (13) (2 4), (1 4 3 2), I is required permutation group isomorphic to G .
Example 2: Using Cayley’s theorem find the permutation group which is isomorphic to the D4 .
Answer: As we know that the dihedral group ( D4 ) of order 8 is
D4 a, a 2 , a 3 , a 4 , ab, a 2b, a 3b, a 4b | a 4 e b 2 , ab ba 1
Let the set defined in the Cayley’s theorem is given by K f x | x G where function defined by,
f x ( y) xy and D4 K by the theorem. Now we determine K , the required permutation group as
f a (a ) a 2 , f a (a 2 ) a 3 , f a (a 3 ) a 4 e, f a (ab) a 2 b
f a 2 (a 2b) b, f a (a 3b) b, f a (b) ab, f a (e) a
Thus f a can be identified with the permutation (1 2 3 4)(5 6 7 8)
Again, f a 2 (a ) a 3 , f a 2 (a 2 ) e, f a 2 (a 3 ) a, f a 2 (ab) a 3b
f a 2 (a 2b) b, f a 2 (a 2b) ab, f a 2 (b) a 2b, f a 2 (e) a 2
Thus, f a 2 can be identified with (13) (2 4)(5 7) (6 8) .
In the continuation, we can say, f a3 (1 4 3 2) (5 8 7 6)
Again, f ab (a ) aba b, f ab (a 2 ) aba 2 a 3b etc., we get
f ab (18)(2 7)(3 6)(4 5)
Similarly, f a 2b (15)(2 8)(3 7)(4 6)
f a3b (1 6)(2 5)(3 8)(4 7)
f b (17)(2 6)(3 5)(4 8)
(1234)(5678), (13)(24)(57)(68), (1432)(5876), I , (18)(27)(36)(45),
Therefore, K
(15)(28)(37)(46), (16)(25)(38)(47), (17)(26)(35)(48)
Hence, K D4
4.4 CLASS EQUATION
In the unit 2 we have already learned about some important theorems of class equations and their proof
which are as follows:
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 52
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Theorem 2: If G be the finite group and Z(G) be the centre of the group G. Then class equation of G
can be written as
O(G )
O(G ) O[ Z (G )]
aZ ( G ) O[ N ( a )]
In this section we will learn applications part of class equation in different type of examples. Example
3: If n is the index of Z (G) in a group G then the conjugate class has at most n elements.
O(G ) O(G )
Answer: We have n and O(cl (a))
O( Z (G )) O( N (a))
Since, Z (G) N (a) always
O(Z (G)) O( N (a)) O( N (a)) k.O(Z (G))
O(G ) n.O( Z (G )) n
i.e., O(C (a))
O( N (a)) k .O( Z (G )) k
Hence, maximum value of O(C (a)) is when k 1 .
Example 4: If P3 be order of a non-abelian group then determine O(Z (G)) and also number of
conjugate classes of G.
Solution: We have given group (G) is non-abelian, a G , s.t., Z (G ) N (a ) G
Since we know that O(Z (G)) | O(G) P 3
So, the possibilities that O(Z (G)) will be 1, P, P 2 , P3
Similarly O( N (a)) 1, P, P 2 , P 3
But by the previous theorems we know that O(Z (G)) 1 . Since group is non-abelian then
O ( Z (G )) P 3 . So, the only possibilities will be O(Z (G)) P or P 2 .
Similarly, O( N (a)) P or P 2 and as Z (G ) N (a )
So, we find O(Z (G)) P, O( N (a)) P 2
Let we assume k be the total number of conjugate classes. Since
G C (a )
aG
O(G ) O(C (a)) O(C (a)) O(C (a))
aG aZ ( G ) aZ ( G )
p 3 O( Z (G )) O(C (a))
aZ ( G )
When a Z (G) then number of conjugate classes is O(Z (G)) p
[Since a Z (G) C(a) {a} or O(C(a)) 1 ]
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 53
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
So, k p are remaining classes and each have order given by
O(G ) p3
O(C (a)) p
O( N (a)) p 2
Hence, p3 p k p p k p 2 p 1
Example 5: Write the class equation of quaternion group Q8 1, i, j, k
Solution: We have the quaternion group Q8 1, i, j, k.
First we determine the conjugate class of i . Since we know that in any group a N (a)
[ x a x a m and as a.a m a m .a , we find a m N (a ) ]
Thus, i N (i) or {i, i 2 , i 3 , i 4 1} N (i)
Therefore, i N (i) Q8 gives 4 | O( N (i)) | 8
Since j N (i) because ji ij
And j Q8 N (i ) Q8
Hence O( N (i)) 4 or N (i) i
O(G )
As we know that O(C (a))
O( N (a))
O(Q8 ) 8
O(C (i )) 2
O( N (i )) 4
C (i) i,i [as i C (i) and i kik 1 , i C (i) ]
Similarly other conjugate classes are C( j ) j, j, C(k ) k ,k, {1}, {1}
Since we know that O(C(a)) 1 a Z (G) then as O(C(1)) 1, O(C(1)) 1
Z (Q8 ) 1,1
Now, we verify the class equation as
O(G ) O( Z (G )) O(C (a))
aZ ( G )
8 1 1 (2 2 2) , which is the class equation of the group Q8 .
Example 6: For a finite group G let number of conjugate class is 3. Then prove that either group is
cyclic or isomorphic to S 3 .
Solution: Since we have given that group G has number of conjugate classes are 3. If these conjugate
classes are of order 1, then O(G) 3 , which is of order prime that means group will be cyclic. If G has
a class of order >1 then G is non-abelian because if G will abelian then there does not exist any class
of order >1.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 54
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Let three classes of G are C1 , C2 , C3 .
Assume that O(C3 ) 1 .
If O(C1 ) O(C2 ) 1 O(C3 ) n 2 [If we have assume that O(G) n ]
O(C3 ) n 2 | O(G) and also we have n 2 | n 2
(n 2) | n (n 2) 2
n 2 1or 2
n 3or 4
G is abelian. [Because we know every group of order p or p 2 is abelian]
Now there is only one possibility left that in G one class is of length 1. Let
O(C1 ) 1, O(C2 ) 1, O(C3 ) 1. It means O(Z (G)) 1 .
By class equation, n O(G) O(C1 ) O(C2 ) O(C3 ) 1 O(C2 ) O(C3 )
But O(C3 ) | O(G) n, O(C3 ) | O(C3 )
O(C3 ) | n O(C3 ) 1 O(C2 )
O(C3 ) 1 O(C2 )
Similarly, O(C2 ) 1 O(C3 )
If O(C3 ) 1 O(C2 ) and O(C2 ) 1 O(C3 )
Then O(C3 ) O(C2 ) , O (C 2 ) O (C3 )
O(C3 ) O(C 2 )
O(C3 ) | 1 O(C3 ) O(C3 ) | 1 O(C3 ) 1
This is a contradiction
Thus either O(C3 ) 1 O(C2 )
Or O(C2 ) 1 O(C3 )
If O(C3 ) 1 O(C2 )
Then O(G) 1 O(C2 ) 1 O(C2 )
O(G) 2O(C2 ) 2
But O(C2 ) | O(G), O(C2 ) | O(C2 ) O(C2 ) | 2O(C2 )
O(C2 ) | O(G) 2O(C2 ) 2
O(C2 ) 2 and O(C3 ) 3
Or that O(G) 6
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 55
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Similarly, if O(C2 ) 1 O(C3 ) , then O(G) 6
G is non-abelian group of 6 which is isomorphic to S 3 i.e., G S 3 .
Example 7: Let G be a group such that e a G, O(a) finite. If G has only two conjugate classes
then prove that G is a group of order 2.
Answer: Let e b G . Since G has only 2 conjugate classes, namely {e} and C (a) .
b C (a)b g 1ag for some g G .
O(b) O(a) for all b e in G .
Suppose O(a) mn, m 1, n 1
Then O(a m ) m
Since order of all non identify elements in G is same, O(a m ) mn
n mn m 1 ; a contradiction
O(a) p prime
O(b) p for all e b G
Suppose p 2
then a 2 e a 2 C (a)
a 2 g 1ag for some g G
(a 2 ) 2 ( g 1ag ) 2 g 1a 2 g
(a 2 ) 2 ( g 1ag ) 2 g 1 ( g 1ag ) g g 2 ag 2
In this way, we get a 2 g p ag p
p
Since O( g ) O(a) p
a 2 eae a
p
1
a2 e O(a) p | 2 p 1
p
By Fermat’s theorem, p | 2 p 2
p | (2 p 1) (2 p 2) 1, a contradiction
p2
O(a) 2 . So, O(b) 2 for all e b G
G is abelian.
So, each conjugate class in G is of length one. Since G has only two classes, which means G is of
order 2.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 56
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Note: There are infinite group having non-trivial element has finite order and group has only 2
conjugate classes. Therefore, it is necessary to assume that e a G s.t. O(a) finite.
4.5 PARTITION OF AN INTEGER
Let n be a positive integer. A sequence of positive integers n1 , n2 , ..., nk where n1 n2 ... nk such
that n n1 n2 ... nk is called a partition of n and n1 , n2 , ..., nk are called parts of partition.
For example, let n 3 , then number of partition are 3 i.e.,
1 1 1
3 1 2
3
let n 4 , then number of partition are 5 i.e.,
1 1 1 1
1 1 2
4 2 2
1 3
4
The number of partition of any integer n is denoted by P(n) . For example, P(1) 1,
P(2) 1, P(3) 4, P(4) 5 e.tc.
Theorem 3: The number of conjugate classes in S n is P(n) .
Proof: Let A Collection of all conjugate classes in S n .
B Collection of all partition of n.
Let C ( ), Sn .
Assume that as product of disjoint cycles as (a1 ... an1 )(b1 ... bnk ) where n1 ... nk n .
the selection of cycles in a pattern such that n1 ... nk . This gives a partition
n1 , n2 ,..., nk of n.
Now we define f : A B s.t.,
f (C( )) n1 , n2 ,..., nk
f is well defined as C( ) C( )
, C ( )
, are conjugate in S n
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 57
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
, are similar in S n
a1 ,..., an1 ... b1 ,..., bnk
a1' ,..., a ' n 1 ...b ,..., b
'
1
'
nk
f (C( )) n1 , n2 ,..., nk f (C( ))
Suppose C ( ) C ( )
So, , are not conjugate , are not similar
, have different cycle structure
Corresponding partitions are different
i.e., n1 , n2 ,..., nk n '1 , n ' 2 ,..., n ' r where, of course,
n n1 n2 ... nk n '1 n ' 2 ... n ' r
f (C( )) f (C( ))
f is one-one
f is onto for, let n1 , n2 ,..., nk B be a partition of n . Then n n1 n2 ... nk
Define a1 ,..., an1 ... b1 ,..., bnk S n
Then C( ) A
And f (C( )) n1 , n2 ,..., nk
f is both 1-1 and onto
So, O( A) O( B) P(n)
number of conjugate classes in S n is P(n)
Example 8: Verify the class equation in S 4 and also find its all conjugate classes.
Answer: By the theorem 4 we know that number of conjugate classes in S 4 are P(4) which is 5. Also
we know that two conjugate classes of any group are either disjoint or identical. In other word we can
say that two permutations are conjugate if and only they are similar. In S 4 the base elements of
conjugate classes are I , (1 2), (1 2 3), (1 2 3 4), (1 2)(3 4)
1 n!
As we know that in the permutation group S n number of distinct r-cycle are . So, in S 4
r (n r )!
1 4!
number of distinct cycle of length 2 are 6
2 (4 2)!
1 4!
Similarly, in S 4 number of distinct cycle of length 3 are 8
3 (4 3)!
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 58
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
1 4!
Similarly, in S 4 number of distinct cycle of length 4 are 6
4 (4 4)!
in S 4 number of permutation of type (a b)(c d ) are (1 2)(3 4), (13)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3)
so, O(C((1 2)(3 4)) 3
Since centre of S 4 contains only identity element so, O(Z (S4 )) 1 i.e., O(C ( I )) 1
Now the class equation of S 4 is,
O( S 4 )
O( S 4 ) O( Z ( S 4 ))
aZ ( S 4 ) O( N ( a ))
O( Z ( S 4 )) O(C (a))
aZ ( S 4 )
i.e., 24 1 6 8 6 3
Example 9: Find the class equation of a group of order 6.
Answer: Let G be a group of order 6. So, there are two cases arises that either group is abelian or not.
Case I: Let group is abelian then we know that G will be isomorphic to Z6 i.e.,
G Z 6 or G Z 2 Z3
Since G is abelian then O(Z (G)) 6
So, the class equation will be, 6 1 1 1 1 1 1
Case II: If group is non-abelian then we know that G will be isomorphic to S 3 or D3 i.e.,
G S 3 D3
As we know that the permutation on group on the 3 symbol 1, 2, 3 is
S3 I , (1 2), (13), (2 3), (123), (132).
Initially we examine the conjugacy classes of S 3 for it first we will find center element of S 3 .
Since, (1 2)(13) (13 2) (1 2 3) (13)(1 2) and (12)(2 3) (12 3) (13 2) (2 3)(12) and so
(1 2), (2 3), (13) Z (S3 )
Further, (1 2 3)(1 2) (13) (2 3) (1 2)(1 2 3) and (13 2)(12) (2 3) (13) (12)(13 2) .
So, (1 2 3), (13 2) Z (S3 ) . So the only trivial conjugacy class is [(1)]={1} i.e., Z ( S 3 ) I or
O(Z (S3 )) 1 .
Now observe that for the element (12) we have that:
(12)(12)(12) 1 (12)(12)(21) (12)
(13)(12)(13) 1 (13)(12)(31) (23)
(23)(12)(23) 1 (23)(12)(32) (13)
(123)(12)(123) 1 (123)(12)(321) (23)
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 59
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
(132)(12)(132) 1 (132)(12)(231) (13)
So, the conjugacy class of (12) is C((12)) (12), (13), (23) and the conjugacy classes of remaining
elements are C ((123)) C ((132)) (123), (132)
So, the conjugacy classes of S 3 is,
S3 C( I ) C((12)) C((123))
And the class equation is,
6 1 3 2
Hence,
G Z6 Z2 Z3
IF group
is Class equation is
Abelian
6 111111
O(G) 6
G S3 D3
IF group
is non- Class equation is
Abelian
6 1 3 2
Note: Two permutations in S n are conjugates iff they have the same cycle type. Let S n
and also let m1 , m2 ,..., mr are the distinct integers which appear in a1 , a2 ,..., ar times respectively in the
cycle type of (including 1 cycles). Let a i be the number of cycles of length mi , i 1to r , so that
r
a m
i 1
i i n
n!
then, number of conjugate of
(m a !)(m a2 !)...(mrar ar !)
a1
1 1
a2
2
OR
n!
Number of element commutes with
(m a !)(m a2 !)...(mrar ar !)
a1
1 1
a2
2
Example 10: Find the number of cycle which commute with (5 4 3)(2 6)(7 8 910) S10
Solution: We first rewrite the given permutation as (1)(5 4 3)(2 6)(7 8 910) S10 . Since all cycles of
permutations are disjoint so they are commutes i.e., (1)(2 6)(5 4 3)(7 8 910) S10 . So, cycle type of
is,
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 60
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Cycle of length 1 (1)
Cycle of length 2 (2 6)
Cycle of length 3 (5 4 3)
Cycle of length 4 (7 8 910)
i.e., cycle type of (1,2,3,4) , where 1 2 3 4 10
10! 10!
So, number of conjugate of 1 1 1 1
(1 1!)(2 1!)(3 1!)(4 1!) 2.3.4
Example 11: Find the number of cycle which commute with (5 9 6)(8 7 4)(1 2) S11
Solution: We first re-write the given permutation as (1 2)(5 9 6)(8 7 4) S11 . Since all cycles of
permutations are disjoint so they are commutes i.e., (3)(4)(10)(11)(1 2)(5 9 6)(8 7 4) S11 . So, cycle
type of is,
Cycle of length 1 (3)(4)(10)(11)
Cycle of length 2 (1 2)
Cycle of length 3 (5 9 6)
Cycle of length 4 (8 7 4)
i.e., cycle type of (1,1,1,1,2,3,3) , where 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 11
11! 11!
So, number of conjugate of 4 1 2
(1 4!)(2 1!)(3 2!) 4!.2.9.2
Example 12: Evaluate all permutations in A5 which commutes with
(i) (12345) (ii) (123) (iii) (12)(34)
O( S 5 ) 120
Solutions (i): As we know that O( A5 ) 60 . Since (12345) A5 and
2 2
, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 I are distinct permutation in A5 .
O( N ( )) 5 in A5
O( A5 ) 60
O(C ( )) 12 in A5
O( N ( )) 5
As we know (12345) and (13245) break up into two conjugate classes each conjugate classes are of
length 12 in A5 .
(ii): Let S5 s.t. fixes 1, 2, 3. Then either (4 5) or I . Since , 2 , are all permutation
in S 5 commuting with . Thus , 2 , I are only permutation in A5 commuting with .
O( N ( )) 3 in A5
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 61
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
O( A5 ) 60
O(C ( )) 20 in A5
O( N ( )) 3
C ( ) has all cycles of length 3 in S 5
(iii): As we know that there are 8 permutations in S 5 commuting with which are:
I , (12), (34), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23), (1324), (1423). From this set only even permutation
I , (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23) A5 . All these permutations of A5 commuting with (12)(34)
O( N ( )) 4 in A5
O( A5 ) 60
O(C ( )) 15 in A5 which is same like O(C( )) in S 5 .
O( N ( )) 8
Hence conjugate class of in A5 and S 5 remains same.
Example 13: Find all the conjugate classes of A5 and also show that A5 is simple.
Answer: By using the previous examples we can verify that A5 has 5 conjugate classes and these are:
C( I ) {I }
C((123)) {All 20 permutation commute with cycle (123) of length 3 in S 5 .}
C ((12)(34)) {All 15 permutation commute with cycle (12)(34) in S 5 .}
C ((12345)) {12 cycles of length 5}
C ((13245)) {12 cycles of length 5}
These are the total 60 elements in A5 .
Let H be any subgroup of A5 which is normal s.t H {I } , H {A5 } . As H is the union of some
conjugate classes in A5 . Since I H , O( H ) cannot divide O ( A5 ) 60 .
Hence, A5 is simple.
Check your progress
Problem 1: What will be the class equation of any group of order 3?
Problem 2: What will be the class equation of Klein group (Klein group: Any group of
order 4 such that each of its non-identity elements are self inverse, generally this group is
denoted by K 4 -group)?
Problem 3: Which of the following isomorphism relation is correct and why?
(i) D2 Z 4 (ii) D2 Z 2 Z 2
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 62
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
4.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have studied about the Cayley’s theorem, various examples related to the class
equations and partition of an integer. After completions of this unit learners will be able to
characterized to any group into distinguish conjugacy classes and also by the class equation of any
group learners will be able to find the number of element in the centre, number of different conjugate
classes, number of element in the different conjugate class and order of the group. In a simple way we
can say that with the help of conjugate classes we can get most of the information about the group
without any prior knowledge.
4.7 GLOSSARY
P(n) denotes the partition of any positive integer.
1 n!
In the permutation group S n number of distinct r-cycle is .
r (n r )!
n!
Number of element commutes with cycle .
(m a !)(m a2 !)...(mrar ar !)
a1
1 1
a2
2
4.8 REFERENCES
Joseph A Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa, 1999.
N. Herstein,(1975), Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri (2021 ), A Course in Abstract Algebra (5th Edition), Vikas
Publication House.
Vasishtha, A. R., & Vasishtha, A. K. (2006). Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra). Krishna
Prakashan Media.
See Cayley (1858) "A Memoir on the Theory of Matrices", Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London, 148 : 24 : "I have verified the theorem, in the next simplest case, of a
matrix of the order 3, … but I have not thought it necessary to undertake the labour of a formal
proof of the theorem in the general case of a matrix of any degree."
Cayley (1854) "On the theory of groups, as depending on the symbolic equation θn =
1," Philosophical Magazine, 4th series, 7 (42) : 40–47. However, see also the criticism of this
definition in: MacTutor: The abstract group concept.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 63
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
4.9 SUGGESTED READING
P.B. Bhattacharya, S.K. Jain, S.R. Nagpaul: Basic Abstract Algebra, Cambridge Press, 1994.
David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote: Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), Wiley, 2011.
Michael Artin: Algebra (2nd edition), Pearson, 2014.
4.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Long Answer Type Question:
1. State and prove the Cayley’s theorem.
2. Prove that dihedral group D3 is isomorphic to the symmetric group S 3 .
3. Find number of conjugate classes in S 5 .
4. Find the class equation of a non-abelian group of order 8.
5. Find the number of cycle which commute with (5 9 6)(8 7 4) S11 .
6. Prove that A5 is simple.
7. Let G be a group such that e a G, O(a) finite. If G has only two conjugate classes then
prove that G is a group of order 2.
8. Prove that the number of conjugate classes in S n is P(n) .
9. Find the conjugate class of i and -1 in Q8 and also find the class equation of Q8 .
Short Answer Type Question:
10. Write the class equation of non-abelian group of order 2 3 .
11. Write all the partition of 5 i.e., P(5) .
12. Find the number of elements in the centre of the group having class equation
8 1 1 (2 2 2) .
13. Write the class equation of U (7) 1,2,3,4,5,6 under the operation multiplication modulo 7.
Fill in the blanks:
14. Every group G is isomorphic to a ………….
15. A5 is …………………. group.
16. Number of conjugate classes in S n are ………….
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 64
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
17. The class of non-abelian group of order 6 is …………
18. If the class equation of any group is 4 1 1 1 1 then group is ………………
4.11 ANSWERS
Answer of self cheque question:
1. 1+1+1 2. 1+1+1+1
3. is correct because is abelian group not cyclic.
Answer of terminal question:
11!
3. 6 5. 9. C(i) {i, i}, C (1) {1} and class equation is
(1 5!)(32.2!)
5
8 1 1 (2 2 2) 14. Permutation group 15. Simple 16. P(n)
17. 6 = 1+2+3 18. Abelian
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 65
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Unit-5: DIRECT PRODUCT OF GROUPS AND CAUCHY’S
THEOREM FOR FINITE ABELIAN GROUPS
CONTENT:
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 External direct product
5.4 Internal direct product
5.5 Cauchy’s theorems
5.6 Summary
5.7 Glossary
5.8 References
5.9 Suggested Readings
5.10 Terminal Questions
5.11 Answers
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Baron Augustin-Louis Cauchy, a French mathematician, engineer,
and physicist who lived from 21 August 1789 to 23 May 1857,
produced groundbreaking discoveries in the fields of continuum
mechanics and mathematical analysis. He rejected the prior authors'
heuristic principle of the universality of algebra and was one of the
first to state and formally verify calculus truths. He practically
Augustin-Louis Cauchy
single-handedly founded abstract algebra's study of permutation 21 August 1789 to 23 May 1857
groups and complex analysis. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-
Louis_Cauchy
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 66
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
According to Cauchy's theorem, which is found in mathematics and more especially group theory, if
G is a finite group and p is a prime integer that divides G's order (the number of its members), then
G includes one element of order p .
The direct product is an operation in mathematics, notably in group theory, that takes two
groups, G and H , and creates a new group, commonly designated G H . One of the crucial ideas of
direct product in mathematics, this operation is the group-theoretic equivalent of the Cartesian product
of sets.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to
Implementation of Cauchy’s theorem in different types of group.
Describe the direct product of two or more than two groups.
Analyze the theorems related to Cauchy’s theorem and direct product of groups.
5.3 EXTERNAL DIRECT PRODUCT
In this section, we create an appropriate binary operation ( ) that we term the external direct product
of groups on the cartesian product G1 G2 of two groups, G1 and G2 . This method is frequently used
to create new groups out of existing ones as well as to break down existing groups into their
component parts. Thus, an essential idea in the structure theory of finite groups is the external direct
product of groups.
Let the n groups, G1 , G2 , G3 ,..., Gn are such that G G1 G2 G3 ... Gn under the operation ,
defined by
a1 , a2 , a3 ,..., an * b1 , b2 , b3 ,..., bn a1b1 , a2b2 , a3b3 ,..., anbn
Where each a1 , a2 , a3 ,..., an , b1 , b2 , b3 ,..., bn G G1 G2 G3 ... Gn and ai bi , i 1to n
For e.g., if the binary operation between the groups K 4 Z defined by
(a, m) (b, n) (ab, m n) (a, m), (b, n) K 4 Z
Since the group K 4 Z have the identity element (e,0) and for every element (a, n) K 4 Z there
exist (a, n) 1 (a,n) K 4 Z [Because every element in K 4 is self inverse and K 4 is additive
inverse of n in Z ]
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 67
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Similarly, (G,) is a group with identity elements e (e1 , e2 , e3 ,..., en ) and
1 1 1 1
(a1 , a2 , a3 ,..., an ) 1 (a1 , a2 , a3 ,..., an ) for every (a1 , a2 , a3 ,..., an ) G where ei is the element of
G i for every i 1,2,..., n
Definition: Let G1 , G2 , G3 ,..., Gn are n groups and G G1 G2 G3 ... Gn then (G,) is called the
external direct product of the groups Gi , i 1 to n .
Example 1: Consider the group S 3 and infinite group (Z , ) . Then the operation on S 3 Z is given
by: ( , m) ( , n) ( , m n)
Since identity element is (e, 0) and ( , m) 1 ( 1 ,m) S 3 , m Z . For example,
((1 2),4) 1 ((1 2),4)
And ((1 2 3),2) 1 ((13 2),2)
Now,
((1 2),4) ((13),7) ((1 2)(13),4 7) ((13 2),11)
And ((13),7) ((12),4) ((13)(12),7 4) ((12 3),11)
Which shows that S 3 Z is non-commutative. Also S 3 Z is an infinite group.
Note: It is interesting to observe that non-commutativity of S 3 Z comes from the non-commutative
group S 3 whereas the infiniteness comes from Z .
Theorem 1: Let G1 and G2 are two groups. Then G1 G2 G2 G1 .
Proof: First, we define the mapping f : G1 G2 G2 G1 by,
f (a, b) (b, a) (a, b) G1 G2 .
Then
f ((a1 , b1 ) (a2 , b2 )) f (a1a2 , b1b2 )
f (b1b2 , a1a2 )
(b1 , a1 ) (b2 , a2 )
f (a1 , b1 ) (a2 , b2 )
f is a homomorphism and also f is one-one and on-to
f is an isomorphism.
Hence, G1 G2 G2 G1
Theorem 2: Let G1 , G2 ,..., Gn are n-groups. Then the group G G1 G2 ... Gn is abelian if and only
if each of the group Gi , i 1 to n is abelian.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 68
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Proof: First we assume that G is abelian then we will prove that each Gi , i 1 to n will also abelian.
Let us assume for 1 i n and a, b Gi . Then e1 , e2 ,..., ei1 , a, ei1 ,..., en , e1 , e2 ,..., ei1 , b, ei1 ,..., en ,
G and commutativity of G implies that
e1 , e2 ,..., ei1 , a, ei1 ,..., en e1 , e2 ,..., ei1 , b, ei1 ,..., en e1 , e2 ,..., ei1 , b, ei1 ,..., en
e1 , e2 ,..., ei1 , a, ei1 ,..., en
e1 , e2 ,..., ei1 , ab, ei1 ,..., en e1 , e2 ,..., ei1 , ba, ei1 ,..., en
ab ba
Thus i 1 to n, Gi is abelian.
Conversely, assume that each Gi , i 1 to n is abelian. Let a1 , a2 ,..., an , b1 , b2 ,..., bn G . Then
ai bi Gi and since each Gi is abelian, so ai bi bi ai ,1 i n .
Now, a1 , a2 ,..., an b1 , b2 ,..., bn a1b1 , a2b2 ,..., anbn
b1a1 , b2 a2 ,..., bn an
b1 , b2 ,..., bn a1 , a2 ,..., an
Gi is abelian
Theorem 3: If G1 , G2 ,..., Gn are n-groups then Z G1 G2 ... Gn Z (G1 ) Z (G2 ) ... Z (Gn ) .
Proof: To prove the mentioned theorem, it will be sufficient to prove that result is true for n 2 . Let
two groups are G1 , G2 and also consider x G1 , y G2 . Then
( x, y) Z (G1 G2 )
( x, y) ( g1 , g 2 ) ( g1 , g 2 ) ( x, y)( g1 , g 2 ) G1 G2
( xg1 , yg2 ) ( g1 x, g 2 y)( g1 , g 2 ) G1 G2
xg1 g1 x and yg2 g 2 yg1 G1 , g 2 G2
x Z (G1 ) and y Z (G2 )
( x, y) Z (G1 ) Z (G2 )
Thus Z (G1 G2 ) Z (G1 ) Z (G2 )
Example 2: Prove by example that product of two cyclic may or may not be cyclic.
Proof: As we know that Z 4 , Z 6 are two cyclic group while Z 4 Z 6 is not a cyclic group because order
of Z 4 Z 6 is 24 but Z 4 Z 6 have no element of order 24.
In another example Z 2 , Z 3 are two cyclic group and Z 2 Z 3 is also a cyclic group because order of
Z 2 Z 3 is 6 and (1, 2) Z 2 Z 3 have order 6. Then by theorem Z 2 Z 3 is cyclic.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 69
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Theorem 4: Let two finite cyclic group G1 , G2 of order m, n respectively. Then G1 G2 is cyclic if and
only if gcd(m, n) 1
OR
Element (a, b) is a generator of G1 G2 iff elements a, b are individually generators of the group G1 , G2
respectively.
Proof: First we assume that G1 G2 is cyclic group and also assume that (a, b) is generator of G1 G2
i.e., G1 G2 (a, b) . Then O((a, b)) mn . Let d gcd(m, n) .
mn n m
m n
Now (a, b) d
(a d
,b d
) (e1 , e2 )
mn
mn |
d
d 1
Conversely, assume that gcd(m, n) 1 . Let us consider that a is the generator of G1
( G1 a ) and b is the generator of G2 ( G2 b ). If we denote O(a, b) k then
(a, b) mn (a mn , b mn ) (e1 , e2 )
k | mn
Now, (a k , b k ) (a, b) k (e1 , e2 )
a k e1 and b k e2 ; and so, m | k , n | k
Then gcd(m, n) 1 mn | k
Therefore, k mn O(G1 G2 ) G1 G2 .
Hence G1 G2 (a, b) is cyclic group.
Corollary: Z m Z n Z mn iff gcd(m, n) 1
Proof: By the previous theorem we know that in a group for any element a G1 of order m and
b G2 of order n, if gcd(m, n) 1 , then
O((a, b)) mn
Hence, Z m Z n Z mn gcd(m, n) 1
e.g., Since gcd(2,3) 1 Z 2 Z3 Z 2.3 or Z 2 Z 3 Z 6
Theorem 5: For the finite groups G1 and G2 the order of (a, b) G1 G2 is
O((a, b)) lcm(O(a), O(b)) .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 70
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Proof: As we know by definition that if (a, b) G1 G2 a G1 , b G2 . Thus
a G1 , b G2 , O(a) in G1 , O(a) in G2 and O((a, b)) in G1 G2 all are finite.
Now, let n is the least positive integer such that (a, b) n (e1 , e2 ),
n is the least positive integer such that a n e1 and b n e2
O(a) | n, O(b) | n [By theorem that for any integer n, a n e O(a) | n ]
Thus, O((a, b)) lcm(O(a), O(b))
Note: It is not necessary that external direct product of two cyclic group is always a cyclic group. For
e.g. let Z Z is a cyclic group such that Z Z (a, b) . Since (1,1) Z Z , so r Z s.t.,
r (a, b) (1,1) a b 1or 1 .
(a, b) (n, n) | n Z Z Z . Which is a contradiction.
our assumption is wrong that Z Z is a cyclic i.e., Z Z is not a cyclic group.
Theorem 6: Let two groups are G1 and G2 . Then
G1 G2 / G1 {e' } G2 and G1 G2 /{e} G2 G1
Proof: First we define mapping, f : G1 G2 G2 s.t.,
f ( x, y) y ( x, y) H K .
So, f is a homomorphism and
ker f ( x, y) G1 G2 | f ( x, y) e'
( x, y) G1 G2 | f ( x, y) e'
( x, e' ) | x G1
G1 {e ' }
Since f is also onto function. Hence by using the first isomorphism theorem G1 G2 / G1 {e' } G2 .
Similarly, we have G1 G2 /{e} G2 G1 .
Theorem 7: Let G and G ' are two groups. If H and H ' are two normal subgroups of G and G '
respectively, then H H ' is normal in G G ' and
G G' / H H ' G / H G' / H '
Proof: First we will define the mapping, f : G G ' G / H G ' / H ' by,
f ( x, y) ( xH , yH ' ) ( x, y) G G ' .
Then, ( x, y), ( z, w) G G ' ,
f ( ( x, y) ( z, w)) f ( xy, zw)
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 71
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
( xyH , zwH ' )
'
( xHzH , yH ' wH ' )
'
( xH , yH ' ) ( zH , wH ' )
f ( x, y) f ( z, w)
f is a homomorphism and also f is onto. Then by first isomorphism theorem,
G G ' / ker f G / H G / H '
Now we have only to show that ker f H H '
So, ker f ( x, y) G G ' | f ( x, y) ( H , H ' )
( x, y) G G ' | ( xH , yH ' ) ( H , H ' )
( x, y) G G ' | xH H and yH ' H '
( x, y) G G ' | x H and y H '
H H'
Hence the theorem proof.
5.4 INTERNAL DIRECT PRODUCT
The external direct products of groups, which give us a way to think of a family of different
groups as subgroups of a bigger group, were introduced and described in the preceding section.
Consider two groups G1 and G2 with identical elements e1 and e 2 , respectively, to be more precise.
Then two normal subgroups of G1 G2 are N1 G1 e2 G1 and N 2 e1 G2 G2 . In this section
we will consider the reverse problem i.e., in a given group whether there is family of subgroups
H 1 , H 2 ,..., H k of G such that,
G H1 H 2 ... H k
As we may anticipate, not all groups can achieve it. Even if a group G can exist, certain requirements
must be met by any subgroups whose exterior direct product is isomorphic to G . The result below
gives us an idea of the requirements that the subgroups must meet. Going forward, we will no longer
use to denote the group operation of the direct product, but rather just multiplicative notation.
Theorem 8: Let the family of groups are G1 , G2 ,..., Gn . If G G1 G2 ... Gn and
H i e1 , e2 ,..., ei1 , ai , ei1 ,..., en | ai Gi for each i 1, 2, ..., n . Then
1. H i is a normal in G and H i G i 1 to n
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 72
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
2. Every element of G can be expresses uniquely as h1h2 ...hn where hi H i for each i 1, 2, ..., n .
Proof 1: Since we know that H i because e1 , e2 ,..., en H i
Let us consider a e1 , e2 ,..., ei1 , ai , ei1 ,..., en , b e1 , e2 ,..., ei1 , bi , ei1 ,..., en H i . Then
ab 1 e1 , e2 ,..., ei 1 , ai , ei 1 ,..., en e1 , e2 ,..., ei 1 , bi , ei 1 ,..., en
1
e1 , e2 ,..., ei 1 , ai , ei 1 ,..., en e1 , e2 ,..., ei 1 , bi , ei 1 ,..., en
1
1
e1 , e2 ,..., ei 1 , ai bi , ei 1 ,..., en H i
So, by the necessary and sufficient condition for being subgroup of any group H i is subgroup of G .
Now for each g g1 , g 2 ,..., g n G ,
gag 1 e1 , ,..., ei 1 , g i ag i1 , ei 1 ,..., en H i
Hence H i is normal in G .
2: Let any element a a1 , a2 ,..., an G where ai Gi so hi e1 , e2 ,..., ei1 , ai , ei1 ,..., en H i for
each i 1, 2, ..., n are s.t., a h1h2 ,..., hn
Now we will prove the uniqueness property. For it suppose a k1k2 ,..., kn where k i H i
ki e1 , e2 ,..., ei1 , ai , ei1 ,..., en for some bi Gi . Then
a1 , a2 ,..., an a k1k2 ...kn (b1 , b2 ,..., bn )
ai bi and hence hi ki i 1,2,..., n
Since each element in G is of the form h1h2 ,..., hn where hi H i i 1to n , it follows that
G H1 H 2 ...H n . Also Gi H i i 1,2,..., n
G H1 H 2 ... H n
Definition: Let Ni , i 1 to k are the normal subgroup of a group G . If each element of G is uniquely
expressed as a a1a2 ...ak where ai Ni i 1, 2, ..., n then G is called internal direct product of
Ni , i 1 to k .
The word "internal" emphasises the fact that all of the components of the group N i must be subgroups
of the same group G and that the product a a1a2 ...ak formed by the members of the group
N1 , N 2 ,..., N k is truly a product of the group G .
Example 3: For the Klein’s 4-group K 4 {e, a, b, c} , H1 {e, a} and H 2 {e, b} are normal subgroup
of K 4 group. Now, H1H 2 {e, a}{e, b} {e, a, b, c} K 4
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 73
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Each element of K 4 group is expressed as product of an element of normal subgroup H1 and an
element of H 2 .
Now, we have only to prove the uniqueness property, for it assume x1 , x2 H1 and y1 , y2 H 2 such
1 1
that x1 y1 x2 y2 . Then x2 x1 y 2 y1 N1 N 2 {e}
1 1
x2 x1 e y 2 y1
x1 x2 and y1 y2 .
Hence, K 4 group is internal direct product of normal’s H1 and H 2 .
Example 4: As we know for every nonzero complex number z has unique representation z rei
where r | z | and ampz . Then group of positive real numbers ( r R ) and
ei S 1 u C | | u | 1. Hence C is internal direct product of R and S 1 .
Example 5: Set of integer ( Z ) cannot be represented as internal direct product of two subgroup of Z .
It is to note that for distinct non zero integer m and n , mn mZ nZ mZ nZ 0.
A group must meet the following requirements in order to be an internal direct product of a certain
family of normal subgroups. This lemma is required in order to demonstrate this result.
Lemma 1: Let H 1 , H 2 ,..., H k are normal subgroup of G. If
H i H1 H 2 ..., H i1H i1...H k e i 1,2,..., k then xi x j x j xi xi H i , x j H j , i j .
Proof: Let us consider xi H i and x j H j . Then xi x j xi x j xi H j xi
1 1
1
H j H j , since H j is
1 1
normal in G . Similarly, xi x j xi x j H i .
Hence xi x j xi x j H i H j H i H1 H 2 ..., H i1 H i1...H k {e}
1 1
And so xi x j x j xi .
Theorem 9: Let H 1 , H 2 ,..., H k are normal subgroup of G . Then G is the internal direct product of
H1 , H 2 ,..., H k iff
(i) G H1 H 2 ...H k and
(ii) H i ( H1H 2 ...H i1 H i1...H k ) {e} for each i 1,2,..., k
Proof: Let we assume that G internal direct product of normals H 1 , H 2 ,..., H k of G . Then a G,
unique xi H i s.t., a x1 x2 ...xk and so a H1 H 2 ...H k . Hence G H1 H 2 ...H k . Also
H 1 H 2 ...H k G, since every H i is subgroup of G . Thus G H1 H 2 ...H k . Now consider
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 74
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
a H i ( H1H 2 ...H i1H i1...H k ) . Then a Ni and a x1 x2 ...xi1 xi1...xk for some
x j N j , j 1,..., i 1, i 1,..., k
e...eae...e a a1...ai1eai1...ak .
Since each such representation is unique, it follows that a e. Thus
H i ( H1 H 2 ...H i1 H i1...H k ) {e} for each i 1,2,..., k .
Conversely, assume the given condition satisfies by the family of normal subgroup H 1 , H 2 ,..., H k .
Then ,
G H1 , H 2 ,..., H k x G can be represented as x x1 x2 ...xk where xi H i .
Now we have to prove that such representation is unique. For it, let us suppose that another
representation is x y1 y2 ... yk where yi H i . Then by lemma 1, x1 x2 ...xk y1 y2 ... yk implies that
1 1 1 1 1 1
xi yi ( y1 x1 )( y 2 x2 )...( yi 1 xi 1 )( yi 1 xi 1 )...( y k xk )
H i ( H1 H 2 ...H i1 H i1...H k ) {e}
Thus, xk yk i 1, 2, ..., k
representation is unique for every x G .
Corollary: Let N1 and N 2 are normal subgroup of G . Then G is internal direct product of N1 and
N 2 if and only if G N1 N 2 and N1 N 2 {e} .
By the definition of internal direct product we can stated it as: If G N1 N 2 then G is internal direct
product of the normals G N1 and G N 2 .
Conversly, up to isomorphism, every internal direct product can also be realised as an external direct
product.
Theorem 10: If G is the internal direct product of the normal subgroups H 1 , H 2 ,..., H k , then
G H1 H 2 ... H k .
Proof: First we define, f : G H1 H 2 ... H k by,
f ( x1 x2 ...xk ) ( x1 x2 ...xk ) ( x1 , x2 ,..., xk ) G
By the previous theorem we know that every element in G has the unique representation x1 x2 ...xk for
xi G , so f is well defined and also one-one and on-to both.
Now for each x x1 x2 ...xk , y y1 y2 ... yk G ,
f ( xy) f ( x1 x2 ...xk y1 y2 ... yk )
f ( x1 y1 x2 y2 ...xk yk ) [By Lemma 1]
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 75
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
f ( x1 y1 , x2 y2 ,..., xk yk )
( x1 , x2 ,..., xk ), ( y1 , y2 ,..., yk )
f ( x) f ( y )
f is an isomorphism.
5.5 CAUCHY’S THEOREM
Theorem 11: Let p is a prime and G is a finite group s.t. p | O(G) , then x G s.t., O( x) p.
Proof: First we prove the result for finite abelian group G by the induction on n O(G) . Since result
is true for n 1. Assume that it is true for all group having order less than O(G) . If Group has non-
trivial subgroup then G is cycilc group of prime order.
Since p | O(G), O(G) p, G x s.t. O( x) O(G) p . So result follows.
Let now H be a non-trivial subgroup of G i.e., H {e} , G . Since G is abelian, H is normal in G . If
p | O( H ) , then, by induction hypothesis as O( H ) O(G), H is abelian, x H s.t.
O( x) p, x H x G . So, result is again true.
Let p is not divisor of O(H ) .
G
Since O(G) O(G / H ). O(H ) and p | O(G) , we find p | O .O( H )
H
G
But p is not divisor of O(H ) , hence p | O(G / H ) . Also O O(G ) as H {e} and G is abelian
H
G
means is abelian.
H
G
So, by induction hypothesis has an element Hy of order p .
H
( Hy) p H
Hy p H
yp H
( y p )t e where t O(H )
( yt ) p e
O( y t ) | p
O( y t ) 1 or p
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 76
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
If y t e (i.e. (O( y t ) 1) then Hy t He H
( Hy ) t H
O( Hy) | t
p | t O( H ) , which is a contradiction
O( y t ) p, y t G
Hence for this case result is true.
By induction, result is true for all abelian groups.
Let now G be a any group. We again use induction on O(G) . The result is vacuously true for
O(G) 1 . Assume result is true for all groups with order less then O(G) . If T G and p | O(T ) then
by induction hypothesis x T s.t. O( x) p . So, result is true in this case. Assume p is not divisor of
O(T ) for all T G . Consider the class equation of G
O(G )
O(G ) O( Z (G ))
aZ ( G ) O ( N ( a ))
Now a Z (G) N (a) G
p is not divisor of O( N (a))
O(G ) O(G )
p| [as O(G ) .O( N (a)) ]
O( N (a)) O( N (a))
O(G )
p
aZ ( G ) O ( N ( a ))
O(G )
Since p | O(G) , we have p | O(G )
aZ ( G ) O( N ( a ))
O( Z (G ))
But p is not divisor of O(T ) T G
And Z (G) G G is abelian.
But result is true for abelian groups. Hence, by induction, result is true for all groups.
Example 6: Prove that an abelian group of order pq (where p, q are distinct primes) is cyclic.
Solution: Using the Cauchy’s theorem, a, b G s.t., O(a) p, O(b) q . Also as
gcd( p, q) 1, ab ba
O(ab) O(a).O(b) pq
i.e., ab is an element of G having order equal to O(G) . Hence by theorems G is cyclic groups.
For e.g., abelian group of order 6, 10, 15 are all cyclic
Example 7: Any group (G) of order 2n , where n is odd integer ( 1) , is not simple.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 77
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Solution: Let a be any element of the group G . Define,
f a : G G s.t.,
f a ( x) ax
Then f a is 1 1 onto map, i.e., a permutation
Let G ' Collection of such permutations then G ' forms a group and G G ' .
Since 2 | O(G) , then by Cauchy’s theorem there exist an element g G , s.t., O( g ) 2 and f g G ' .
As we know every permutation can be written as product of disjoint cycles either 1-cycle or 2-cycle as
O( g ) 2 i.e., g 2 e
Notice f g ( x) f g ( fg ( x)) g 2 x x I ( x)
2
fg I
2
For permutation of 3-cycle (a b c), (a b c) 2 I .
Since, permutation f g in the cycle form cannot have any 1-cycle also, as suppose (x) is a 1-cycle then
xx
i.e., f g ( x) x gx x g e
not true as O( g ) 2 .
Hence f g as permutation can be expressed as product of 2-cycles only. Since O(G) 2n there can be
n two cycles.
So f g can be expressed as product of n (odd) number of transposition or that f g is an odd permutation.
Thus in the even permutation G ' has n / 2 elements. f g G ' , f g is odd, so G ' contains both even and
odd permutations.
If H contains only even permutations then,
O(G ' ) O(G ' )
O( H ) 2
2 O( H )
H is of index 2 in G ' and is, therefore, normal.
Since G ' G and G ' has a normal subgroup, G will have a normal subgroup or that G is not simple.
For e.g., any group having order 30 is not simple as O(G) 30 2.15 .
Check your progress
Problem 1: Check that the group having order 34 is simple or not?
Problem 2: Check that the abelian group having order 34 is cyclic or not?
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 78
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Problem 3: Which of the following external direct product of groups are cyclic and why?
(i) Z4 Z6 (ii) Z2 Z3
5.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have studied about the external direct products, internal direct products and Cauchy’s
theorem for finite abelian group and also there related theorems and examples. After completions of
this unit learners are able to memorise the following things:
External direct product of groups is also a group and this direct product does not affected by the
operations of each individual groups.
External direct product of infinite cyclic groups is not cyclic group and also external direct
product of finite cyclic groups may or may not be cyclic.
Any group of order 2n , where n is odd integer ( 1) , is not simple
5.7 GLOSSARY
G1 G2 G3 ... Gn denotes the external direct product of the groups G1 , G2 , G3 ,..., Gn
If H 1 , H 2 ,..., H k are normal subgroup of G . Then G is the internal direct product of
H1 , H 2 ,..., H k iff G H1 H 2 ...H k and H i ( H1H 2 ...H i1 H i1...H k ) {e} for each i 1,2,..., k
5.8 REFERENCES
Joseph A Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa, 1999.
N. Herstein,(1975), Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri (2021 ), A Course in Abstract Algebra (5th Edition), Vikas
Publication House.
Vasishtha, A. R., & Vasishtha, A. K. (2006). Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra). Krishna
Prakashan Media.
https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/Home/ViewSubject?catid=ZLCHeZEhCZ8yCri36nSF3A==
https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/Home/ViewSubject?catid=ZLCHeZEhCZ8yCri36nSF3A==
5.9 SUGGESTED READING
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 79
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
P.B. Bhattacharya, S.K. Jain, S.R. Nagpaul: Basic Abstract Algebra, Cambridge Press, 1994.
David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote: Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), Wiley, 2011.
Michael Artin: Algebra (2nd edition), Pearson, 2014.
5.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Long Answer Type Question:
1. If G1 and G2 are two finite groups. Then prove that for each element a G1 and b G2 , the
order of the element (a, b) in the group G1 G2 is lcm(O(a), O(b)) .
2. If G1 and G2 are two groups. Then G1 G2 / G1 {e2 } G2 and G1 G2 /{e1} G2 G1
3. If G1 and G2 are two groups and H1 , H 2 are two normals of G1 ,G2 respectively then prove that
H1 H 2 is normal in G1 G2 and G1 G2 / H1 H 2 G1 / H1 G2 / H 2 and
G1 G2 /{e1} G2 G1
4. Let H 1 , H 2 ,..., H k are normal subgroup of G . Then prove that G is the internal direct product
of H1 , H 2 ,..., H k iff
(i) G H1 H 2 ...H k and
(ii) H i ( H1H 2 ...H i1 H i1...H k ) {e} for each i 1,2,..., k
5. If G1 , G2 ,..., Gn are the family of groups s.t., G G1 G2 ... Gn and
H i e1 , e2 ,..., ei1 , ai , ei1 ,..., en | ai Gi for each i 1, 2, ..., n . Then prove that
(i) H i is a normal in G and H i G i 1 to n
(ii) Every element of G can be expresses uniquely as h1h2 ...hn where hi H i for each i 1, 2, ..., n .
6. Prove that if any group G is internal direct product of normal subgroups H1 , H 2 , H 3 ,..., H k
then, G H1 H 2 H 3 ... H k
7. If any prime p divides the order of any group G then x G s.t., O( x) p.
8. Prove that for any group (G) having order 2n , where n is odd integer ( 1) , is not simple.
9. Prove that Z m Z n Z mn if and only if gcd(m, n) 1
Short Answer Type Question:
10. Prove that S 3 Z non-commutative and non-cyclic infinite group.
11. Prove that the external direct product of two cyclic groups Z 4 and Z 6 is not cyclic.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 80
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
12. Prove that the external direct product G1 G2 of two groups G1 and G2 is abelian if and only if
G1 and G2 both are abelian.
13. Prove that external direct product of two infinite cyclic group is not cyclic.
14. If H and K are two normal subgroup of G . Then G is internal direct product of H and K if and
only if G HK and H K {e} .
Fill in the blanks:
15. Z 2 Z 3 is isomorphic to ………….
16. Group of order 74 is …………………. group.
17. Any abelian group of order 35 is ………….
18. The external direct product of N (set of natural numbers) and Z (set of integers) is……
19. Z m Z n Z mn iff gcd(m, n) ………
5.11 ANSWERS
Answer of self cheque question:
1. No 2. Yes 3. is cyclic because gcd(2,3) = 1.
Answer of terminal question:
15. Z6 16. Simple 17. Cyclic
18. not a group 19. 1
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 81
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Unit-6: SYLOW SUBGROUPS, SYLOW’S THEOREM AND
THEIR APPLICATIONS
CONTENT:
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 p- Group
6.4 Sylow’s Theorems
6.4.1 Sylow’s First Theorem
6.4.2 Sylow’s Second Theorem
6.4.3 Sylow’s Third Theorem
6.5 Summary
6.6 Glossary
6.7 References
6.8 Suggested Readings
6.9 Terminal Questions
6.10 Answers
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Norwegian mathematician Peter Ludwig Mejdell Sylow (12 December 1832 – 7 September 1918)
established key ideas in group theory.
He was born and passed away in Christiania, which is now Oslo. Sylow was the brother of Carl Sylow,
a military commander and sports figure, and the son of government minister Thomas Edvard von
Westen Sylow. He attended Christiania Cathedral School in 1850 and Christiania University in 1856.
Sylow taught in the high school at Hartvig Nissen School before going on to lead Halden as its
headmaster from 1858 to 1898.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 82
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Peter Ludwig Mejdell Sylow
12 December 1832 –7 September 1918
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Ludwig_Mejdell_Sylow#:~:text=Sylow%20was%20a%20high%20school,his%20theorems%20regarding%20Sylow%
20subgroups
In 1862, he taught Galois theory as a guest lecturer at Christiania University. He then raised the
query that resulted in his theorems concerning Sylow subgroups. After publishing the Sylow theorems
in 1872, Sylow spent the next eight years of his life working with Sophus Lie to edit his countryman's
mathematical writings, Niels Henrik Abel. He was appointed as a professor at the University of
Christiania in 1898.
He received the Kronprinsens gullmedalje (Crown Prince's Gold Medal) from the University of
Oslo in 1853. He was chosen for admission to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters in
1868. He received an honorary degree from the University of Copenhagen in 1894, and he afterwards
joined Acta Mathematica as an editor.
Three conclusions on the structure of finite groups were proven by the French mathematician
M. L. Sylow, and they are used to describe simple groups. It's noteworthy to note that M. L. Sylow
was able to demonstrate same conclusions for permutation groups. George Frobenious was inspired by
the Cayley's Theorem to demonstrate the Sylow Theorems in a broader context. Here, we demonstrate
the Sylow Theorems using group action methods. To do this, we must first demonstrate the following
two findings on group behaviour.
We will talk about Sylow's three theorems, p-groups, and their applications in this unit. The
concepts created are so valuable that much about a group's nature may be understood just by knowing
its arrangement.
6.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to
Memorized about the Sylow’s group which is the extension of Lagrange’s theorem.
Implementation of Sylow’s theorems to find the number of subgroups of the group on the basis
of order of the group.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 83
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Analyze the theorems related to Sylow’s theorem and Sylow groups.
6.3 p-Group
Definition: Any group is called p-group if its each element has order p r where p prime. Here it
should be remember that p will be same for all element of group and only r may different for different
elements.
e.g., In the K 4 I , (1 2)(3 4), (13)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3) group and the Quaternian group
Q8 1, i, j, k, each elements are of order 2 r . So, these groups are called 2-group.
Here we will learn about mainly about the finite groups.
Theorem 1: Any finite group G is p-group iff O(G) p n .
Proof: Let we assume that G is p-group then there exist prime q s.t., q | O(G) . Then by Cauchy’s
theorem there exist an element a G s.t., O(a) q . But according to definition of p-group O(a) p r .
q pr
q p i.e., p is the only element s.t., p | O(G) . Thus O(G) p n
Conversely, let we consider O(G) p n and any element a G . Then by Lagrange’s theorem
O( x) | O(G) p n O( x) p r
Hence, order of each element of group is of the form p r . So, G is p-group.
Note (i): Each p-group has non-trivial centre because each group of order p n , O(Z (G)) 1 .
(ii): Any p-group may or may not be abelian. For e.g., K 4 is abelian and Q8 is not abelian while both
are 2-group.
Example 1: Let H, K are two subgroup of finite group G then either H K or K H . Then prove
that G is p-group.
Solution: If G is a cyclic group of prime order and G has no proper subgroup, thus result is true.
Let us suppose that H ( G) is a proper subgroup of G .
First we will prove that G will be cyclic.
Since H G, x G, s.t., x H .
Let K x , then K H as x K , x H
So, according to given condition, H K
If K G then G is cyclic (as K is cyclic)
Suppose K G then y G s.t., y K
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 84
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Let L y then L
K and by given condition K L
If L G , G will be cyclic, L G proceed as above and as G is finite, after a finite steps, we find that
G is cyclic.
To prove that G is p-group, suppose two distinct primes p, q s.t., p, q | O(G) . Since G is cyclic,
subgroup H and K of G with O( H ) p, O( K ) q (For the cyclic group convers of Lagrange’s
theorem holds)
Now, H
K as O( H ) | O( K )
K
H as O( K ) | O( H )
Wherever there is a conflict with the claimed statement.
Hence only one prime dividing O(G) or that G is a p-group.
Converse of this example also holds.
Example 2: If H and K are two subgroup of a finite cyclic p- group G then either K H or H K .
Proof: Let G x is cyclic group and x is its generator, then O(G) O( x) p n where p prime.
Let H x m
Let d gcd(m, p n )
Then x d x ma p b x ma .x p b ( x m ) H [as O( x) p n ]
n n a
Thus, x d H
Again as d | m , m dq
So, x m ( x d ) q x d
Or that H x m x d
And hence H x d where d | p n
And so H x p
i
Let K is another subgroup of G , then K x p . Suppose i k and let i k t where t 0 is an
k
integer.
Now x p x p
i k t
xp k pt
K
H xp K
i
If k i, then K H
Hence prove the result.
Example 3: Prove that each proper subgroup is proper subgroup of its normalizer in finite p-group G .
OR
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 85
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
If O(G) p n , H G, H G, then g G, g H , s.t. gHg 1 H
Solution: We will prove result by induction method on n . Let n 1. Then O(G) p . Since H G ,
O( H ) 1 .
H {e} or gHg 1 g{e}g 1 {e} H e g G.
g e gH
Thus it is true for n 1. Let it is true for all groups which have order less than p n . Let O(G) p n .
Suppose H N (H ) .
Since Z (G) N ( H ) H , H G
H G
is a proper subgroup of
Z (G ) Z (G )
G
Now, O p m , m n
Z (G )
G H
For convenience, we write Z (G) N , then by induction hypothesis, Ng , Ng , s.t.
N N
Ng
H
Ng 1 H
N N
H
NgNhNg 1 h H
N
Nghg 1 Nh1 for some h1 H
1
ghg 1h1 N Z (G ) H
ghg 1 H h H
gHg 1 H
gHg 1 H as O( gHg 1 ) O( H )
H
Thus g N (H ) and as Ng , g H , or that N ( H ) H , a contradiction. Hence H N (H )
N
Thus result is true for n also.
By induction, result is true for all n 1 .
Example 4: Let for a prime ( p ) O(G) p n . If H G s.t. O( H ) p n1 , then show that H is normal
subgroup in G.
Solution: H N ( H ) G
Since O( H ) p n1 | N ( H ) | O(G) p n
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 86
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
O( N ( H )) p n1 or p n
If O( N ( H )) p n o(G)
Then N ( H ) G
And so H is normal in G .
If O( N ( H )) p n1
Then N ( H ) H
Since Z (G) N ( H ) H
H
O p n1m , where O(Z (G)) p m , m 0
Z (G )
G
and O p nm ,
Z (G )
Now we will prove result by induction method on n . When n 1, H {e} and so H is normal in G .
G
Assume result to be true for all p groups with order less then O(G) . Here is a p group s.t.,
Z (G )
G H H
O p nm , n m n (as m 0 ) and O p nm1. By induction hypothesis, is
Z (G ) Z (G ) Z (G )
G
normal H is normal in G . So N ( H ) G H G , a contradiction. Thus, O( N ( H )) p n1 .
Z (G )
So result is true for n also. Hence, result is true for all n 0
Lemma 1: Let G be a group of order p n , p be a prime and S be a finite G -set. If
S0 a S | ga ag G, then | S || S 0 | (mod p)
Proof: Let a S . Then a S0 if and only if the orbit [a] {a} , equivalently | [a] | 1 . Hence
S can be written as a disjoint union S S0 [a1 ] [a2 ] ... [ak ] where [a1 ], [a2 ],...,[ak ] are
distinct orbits of G on S and disjoint with S 0 . Then | S || S0 | | [a1 ] | | [a2 ] | ... | [ak ] | . Since
|G|
ai S0 , so there is g G such that gai ai g Gai and so | Gai || G | . Thus | [ai ] || 1.
| Gai |
k
Then | [ai ] || 1 and | [ai ] | [G : Gai ] || G | p n p || [ai ] | 1 i k . Hence | p [ai ] and it follows that
i 1
S S 0 (mod p ) .
Recall that if every element of a group G has order p n ; n 0 for some fixed prime p , then G
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 87
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
is called a p - group. With the help of Cauchy's Theorem we have proved that a finite group G is a p -
group if and only if G p n for some n 0 .
We call a subgroup H of a group G a p -subgroup if H is a p -group. In particular, for every
prime p , {e} is a p -subgroup of every group G , since {e} 1 p 0 .
Lemma 2: If H is a p -subgroup of a finite group G , then [ NG ( H ) : H ] [G : H ] (mod p) .
Proof: Let S be the set of all left cosets of H in G. Then H S S given by ( g , aH ) ( ga) H is an
action of H on S . Since H is a p -group, S S 0 (mod p) .
Here S [G : H ] . Now for a G ,
aH S0 gaH g G
a 1 ga H g G
a 1 Ha H
a NG (H )
shows that S 0 is the set of all left cosets aH such that that a N G (H ) , that is S 0 [ N G ( H ) : H .
Hence [G : H ] [ NG ( H ) : H ] (mod p) .
Corollary 1: Let p be a prime and H be a p -subgroup of a finite group G . If p | [G : H ] , then
NG ( H ) H .
Proof: Since G is a finite group and H is a p -subgroup of G , so
[G : H ] [ NG ( H ) : H ] (mod p)
Then p | [G : H ] p | [ NG ( H ) : H ]. Since [ N G ( H ) : H ] 0 it follows that [ NG ( H ) : H ] p and the
result follows.
6.4 SYLOW’S THEOREMS
Now we will discuss about the three main fundamental theorem of Sylow’s named as Sylow’s theorem
and also their implementation in various examples.
6.4.1 SYLOW'S FIRST THEOREM
Theorem 2: (Sylow's First Theorem) Let G be a finite group of order p n m , where p is a prime,
n 0 and gcd( p, m) 1 . Then G has a subgroup of order p i 1 i n . Moreover, for every
subgroup of order p i i n , there is a subgroup K of order p i 1 such that H is normal in K .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 88
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Proof: We prove that G has a subgroup H of order p i 1 i n by induction on i . Since
n 0, p | G and it follows from the Cauchy's Theorem that G has a subgroup H of order p .
Assume that H is a subgroup of order p i ,1 i n . Since H is a subgroup of order p i , so
[G : H ] [ N ( H ) : H ](mod p) . Then p | [G : H ] p | [ N ( H ) : H ] N ( H ) / H , and
it follows from the Cauchy's Theorem that the quotient group N ( H ) / H has a subgroup K / H of
order p . Thus G has a subgroup K such that K K / H . H p i 1 . Hence, by the principle
of mathematical induction, G has a subgroup of order p i for every 1 i n . Finally, K N (H )
shows that H is normal in K .
As an immediate consequence we have following extension of Cauchy's Theorem:
Corollary: Let G be a finite group and p be a prime. If p n | G | , then G has a subgroup H of order
p n . The second part of the Sylow's first theorem motivates us to introduce the notion of maximal
p -subgroups.
Definition: Let p be a prime, then a subgroup P of G is called a Sylow p -subgroup if it is a
maximal p -subgroup of G , that is, if H is a p -subgroup of G and P H G then P H . If G is
a finite group then G can have only finitely many subgroups and a maximal p -subgroup.
If G is infinite then, also G has a maximal p -subgroup, by the Zorn's Lemma. Thus, for every prime
p every group G has a Sylow p -subgroup, though they may be trivial.
We have following equivalent characterization of Sylow p -subgroups.
Theorem 3: Let G be a finite group of order p n m, n 0 and gcd( p, m) 1 . Then a subgroup H is a
Sylow p -subgroup of G if and only if | H | p n .
Proof: First assume that H is a subgroup of G such that | H | p n . Let K be a p -subgroup of G such
that H K . Since K is a p -subgroup, so K p r for some r 0 . Now by the Lagrange's Theorem,
K G i.e. p r p n m and gcd(n, m) 1 together implies that r n . Also H K n r . Thus r n
and H K p n . Hence H K and H is a maximal p subgroup.
Conversely, suppose that H is a Sylow p -subgroup. Then H p r for some r 0 . Now, by the
Lagrange's Theorem, H G , that is p r | p n m and gcd(n, m) 1 r n . If r n
then, the Sylow's first theorem H is contained in a subgroup K of order p r 1 which contradicts that H
is a maximal p -subgroup of G . Thus r n and H p n
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 89
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Following result has an important role to characterize the nilpotent groups.
Theorem 4: Let G be a finite group. If every Sylow subgroup of G is normal, then G is a direct
product of its Sylow subgroups.
Proof: Let G p1 1 p2 2 ... pk k where p i are distnict primes. Since each Sylow subgroups of G is
n n n
normal, so G has unique Sylow p i -subgroup for every p i , say Pi . Let ai Pi and a j Pj , where
i j . Since both Pi and Pj are normal, so ai a j ai1a j 1 Pi Pj .
Now gcd Pi , Pj 1
by the Lagrange's Theorem, that Pi Pj 1 and so Pi Pj {e} . Thus ai a j a j ai . Now let
a Pr P1P2 ...Pr 1 Pr !...Pk . Then a a1a2 ...ar 1ar !...ak
where ai Pi . Now O(ai ) | Pi , that is O(ai ) | pi i . Thus O(a) | pr r and ai a j a j ai i j
n n
O(a ) | p1 1 ... pr 1
n nr 1
pr 1
nr 1 n
n n
... pk k . Since gcd pr r , p1 1 ... pr 1
nr 1
pr 1
nr 1
... pk
nk
1. So O(a) 1 and
a e . Thus Pr P1P2 ...Pr 1Pr !...Pk {e}
P1 P2 ...Pr 1 Pr !...Pk | P1 | | P2 | ... | Pr 1 | | Pr ! | ... | Pk | p1 1 ... pr 1 | G |
n nr 1 nr 1 nk
pr 1 ... pk
Hence G P1 P2 ...Pr 1 Pr !...Pk and G is an internal direct product of the Sylow subgroups
P1 , P2 ,..., Pr 1 , Pr ! ,..., Pk .
Lemma: Let G be a finite group of order p n m , where p is a prime, n 0 and gcd(m, n) 1 .
(i) Every conjugate of a Sylow p -subgroup is also a Sylow p -subgroup.
(ii) If G has unique Sylow p -subgroup P , then P is normal in G .
Proof (i): Let H be a Sylow p -subgroup of G and K be a conjugate of H . Then K aHa 1 for
some a G which implies that K H p n . Hence K is a Sylow p -subgroup of G .
(ii): Let H be the unique Sylow p -subgroup of G . Then g G, gHg 1 , is a Sylow p -subgroup and
uniqueness of H implies that gHg 1 H . Hence H is a normal subgroup of G .
The converse of this results is also true and can be verified by following theorems.
6.4.2 SYLOW'S SECOND THEOREM
Theorem 5: (Sylow's Second Theorem) Let G be a finite group of order p n m , where p is a prime,
n 0 and gcd(m, n) 1. Then any two Sylow p -subgroups of G are conjugate, and also isomorphic.
Proof: Let K and H are two Sylow p -subgroups of G .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 90
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Denote S aH a Gand define an action of K on S by (k , aH ) (ka) H . Since K is a p -group,
so it follows that
S S 0 (mod p ) , where
S 0 aH S | (ka ) H aH k K aH S | a 1ka H k K aH S | a 1 Ka H .
Now S G : H
|G|
m p | S , since gcd( p, m) 1 and p | S 0 . Thus S 0 0 . Let aH S 0 .
|H|
Then a 1 Ka H . Since a 1 Ka | K | p n | H | , so a 1 Ka H . Hence K and H are conjugate.
We have following useful corollaries.
Corollary: Let K be a finite group and P be a Sylow p -subgroup of G . Then P is normal in G iff it
is the unique Sylow p -subgroup of G .
Proof: First assume that P is normal. Let Q be a Sylow p -subgroup of G . Then P and Q are
conjugate, by the Sylow's second theorem. Hence there is a G such that Q apa 1 . Since P is
normal in G , so aPa1 P . Therefore Q P and G has unique Sylow p -subgroup.
The converse follows from the Lemma 1.
Corollary: Let G be a finite group. Then for every Sylow p -subgroup P of G
N ( N ( P)) N ( P)
Proof: Let a N ( N ( P)) then aN ( P)a 1 N ( P) and so aPa1 N ( P) .
Now P aPa 1 both P and aPa1 are Sylow p -subgroup of G and hence N (P) .
Since P is normal in N (P) , so P is the unique Sylow p -subgroup of N (P) , and it follows that
P aPa1 . Thus a N (P) and N ( N ( P)) N ( P) . Therefore N ( N ( P)) N ( P)
The number of Sylow p -subgroups within a group G has been defined via Sylow's third theorem.
Assume S is the collection of all Sylow p -subgroups. Every Sylow p -subgroup's conjugate is
likewise a Sylow p -subgroup, hence for any subgroup H of G ,
H S S , given by
(a, P) aPa1 , is an action of H on S . Also any two Sylow p -subgroup are conjugate on S , which
implies that if G acts on S by conjugation then there is single orbit of G on S .
6.4.3 SYLOW'S THIRD THEOREM
Theorem 6: (Sylow's Third Theorem) Let G be a finite group of order p n m , where p is a prime,
n 0 and gcd(m, p) 1 .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 91
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Then the number of Sylow p-subgroup ( n p ) is of the form 1 kp for some k 0 and is such that
np | pnm .
Proof: Let S be the set of all Sylow p -subgroups of G and P be a Sylow p -subgroup. Consider
action of P on S by conjugation, that is
( p, H ) pHp 1
Since P is a p -group, so S S 0 (mod p ) , where
S 0 H S | pHp 1 H p P =
H S | P N ( H ) . Then P S 0 and S 0 . Let Q S 0 then P N (Q) . Since both P, Q are
Sylow p - subgroups of G , so they are Sylow p -subgroups of N (Q) and are conjugate in N (Q) . Let
a N (Q) such that P aQa 1 . But then P Q , since aQa 1 Q . Hence S0 {P} and it follows that
| S | 1(mod p) , that is | S | 1 kp for some k 0 .
To prove the second part, consider action of G on S by conjugation. Then there is only one
orbit of G on S , and so S [ p] for every Sylow p -subgroup P of G . Thus
n p | S || [ P] | [G : G p ]
and hence n p | G
Applications of Sylow’s theorem for finite group are given below,
Example 5: Let G be a group of order 45 32.5 . Denote the number of Sylow 3-subgroups of G by
n3 . Then n3 3k 1 for some k 0 and n3 | 45 . Hence n3 1 and G has unique Sylow 3-subgroup
H . Thus H is a normal subgroup of G of order 32 9 .
Example 6: We will prove that each group having order 99 is abelian.
Let G be a group of order 99 11.32 . Let n3 be the number of Sylow 3-subgroups of G . Then,
n3 3k 1 for some integer k 0 and n3 | 99 . It follows that G has unique Sylow 3-subgroup, say H
which is normal in G and | H | 9. Similarly G has unique Sylow 11-subgroup, say K which is
normal in G and | K | 11 . Then H K {e} and | HK || H | | K | 99 implies that G HK . Thus G
is an internal direct product of H and K . Hence G H K . Since | H | 32 , so H is abelian and
| K | 11 implies that K is abelian. Therefore G is abelian. Also note that G Z 99 or Z 3 Z 33 .
Example 7: We will prove that each group having order 15 is cyclic.
Let G be a group of order 15 3 5 . Denote the number of Sylow 3-subgroups of G by n3 .
Then n3 1 3k for some k 0 and n3 | 15 . Hence n3 1 and G has unique Sylow 3-subgroup,
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 92
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
say H . Then H is normal in G . Similarly G has unique Sylow 5-subgroup K and so K is normal in
G . Since gcd(| H |, | K |) 1, so | H K | 1 and we have
| H || K |
| HK | 15
|H K |
Thus G HK and G becomes an internal direct product of K and H . Now | H | 3 , a prime
implies that H Z 3 . Similarly K Z 5 . Therefore,
G H K Z3 Z5 Z15
Example 8: Prove that each group having order 255 is cyclic.
Let G be a group of order 255 17.5.3 . Let n17 be the number of Sylow 17-subgroups. Then
n17 17k 1 for some integer k 0 and n17 | 255 implies that n17 1 . Thus G has unique Sylow 17-
subgroup, say H which is normal in G and | H | 17 . Then the normalizer of H is N ( H ) G . Since
N (H ) N (H )
is isomorphic to a subgroup of Aut (H ) , so divides | Aut ( H ) || Aut (Z17 ) | . Now
C(H ) C(H )
G G
Aut (Z17 ) U17 implies that divides 16. Also | G | 255 . Then gcd(16, 255) 1
C (H ) C(H )
G
1 and G C(H ) . Thus every element of H commutes with every element of G , whence
C(H )
H Z (G) . Then 17 | Z (G ) | , which also divides 255. Hence | Z (G) | 17, 51, 85 or 255 and so
G
15, 5, 3 or 1. But every group of order 15, 5, 3 or 1 is cyclic; and it follows that G is abelian.
ZG )
Now, by the fundamental theorem for finite abelian groups, G Z17 Z5 Z3 Z 255 .
Now we characterize all groups of order 2 p , where p is a prime.
Theorem 7: Let p be an odd prime. If G is a group of order 2 p , then G Z 2 p or G D p .
Proof: Let G be a group of order 2 p . Then Cauchy's Theorem implies that G has an element a of
order p and an element b of order 2. Denote H a . Then [G : H ] 2 implies that H is normal
in G. So bab bab1 H which implies that bab a i for some 0 i p . Then
a i (a i ) i (bab) i (bab 1 ) i ba i b . Also bab a i a b 1a i b 1 ba i b . Thus a i a , that is,
2 2
1
e and so p | i 2 1 (i 1)(i 1) , since O(a) p . Since p is a prime so p | i 1 or p | i 1 .
2
ai
If p | i 1, then i p i 1 0 i.e. i 1 . Then bab a; and so ba ab 1 ab , forcing
O(ab) lcm(O(a), O(b)) lcm(2, p) 2 p , since p is an odd prime. Hence G Z 2 p .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 93
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
If p | i 1 then i pk 1 for some integer k , and we have bab a i a 1 a p1 that
G
is, ba a p1b 1 a p1b . Also we have H a is normal in G such that 2 . Since
H
O(b) 2 | p | H | , so b H and bH H . Thus G / H H , bH . Therefore every element of G
can be written as b m a n and so G a, b . Since O(a) p, O(b) 2 and ba a p1b, it follows
that G D p .
Example 9: Let O(G) 30 . Then show that
(i) Either Sylow 3-subgroup or Sylow 5-subgroup is normal in G .
(ii) G has a normal subgroup of order 15.
(iii) Both Sylow 3-subgroup and Sylow 5-subgroup are normal in G.
Solution: O(G) 30 2 3 5
The number of sylow 3-subgroup is 1 3k and (1 3k ) | 10 k 0 or 3
If k 0 , then sylow 3-subgroup is normal.
Let k 0 , then k 3 . This gives 10 Sylow 3-subgroup H i of order 3 and so we have 20 elements of
order 3.
[For i j , O( H i H j ) | O( H i ) 3 O( H i H j ) 1 only and so these 20 elements are different.
Each H i has one element e of order 1 and other two of order 3.
a H i O(a) | O( H i ) 3 O(a) 1, 3 ].
The number of sylow 5-subgroup is 1 5k ' and (1 5k ' ) | 6 k , 0 or 1.
If k ' 0 . Then sylow 5-subgroup is normal.
Let k ' 0 . Then k ' 1 . This gives 6 Sylow 5 subgroup each of order 5 and we get 24 elements of
order 5. But we have already counted 20 elements of order 3. Thus we have more than 44 elements in
G , a contradiction. So, either k 0 or k ' 0 .
i.e., either Sylow 3-subgroup or Sylow 5-subgroup is normal in G .
Which proves (i).
Let H be a Sylow 3-subgroup of order 3 and K , a Sylow 5-subgroup of oder 5.
By (i), either H is normal in G or K is normal in G .
In any case, HK G, O( HK ) 15 as O( H K ) divides O( H ) 3 and O(K ) 5 O( H K ) 1.
Since index of HK in G is 2, HK is normal in G . This proves (ii).
Suppose, H is normal in G , K is not normal in G . By (i) G has 6 Sylow 5-subgroup and so 24
element of order 5. But O( HK ) 15 HK is cyclic
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 94
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
HK has (15) 8 elements of order 15.
Thus G has 24 8 32 elements, a contradiction.
K is normal in G .
If H is not normal in G , they by (i), G has 10 sylow 3-subgroup and so 20 elements of order 3. From
above HK has 8 elements of order 15 and K has 4 elements of order 5. This gives 20 8 4 32
elements in G , a contradiction.
H is normal in G . So both H and K are normal in G .
This proves (iii).
Check your progress
G
Problem 1: Check that O cannot be 77.
Z (G )
Problem 2: Check that S 4 has Sylow 2-subgroup or not?
Problem 3: Check that groups have following order must contain normal Sylow subgroup?
(i) 12 (ii) 28 (iii) 56
6.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have studied about the p groups and three fundamental Sylow’s theorem ( Sylow
first, second and third theorem) and also their applications and implementation on various examples.
After completions of this unit learners are able to memorise the following things:
Sylow’s theorems are the extension of Lagrange’s theorem.
Using the Sylow’s theorem we can find mainly normal subgroups or sugroups in any finite
groups.
6.6 GLOSSARY
Any group is called p-group if its each element has order p r where p prime.
Sylow's First Theorem: Let G be a finite group of order p n m , where p is a prime, n 0
and gcd( p, m) 1 . Then G has a subgroup of order p i 1 i n .
Sylow's Second Theorem: Let G be a finite group of order p n m , where p is a prime, n 0
and gcd(m, n) 1 . Then any two Sylow p -subgroups of G are conjugate, and also
isomorphic.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 95
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Sylow's Third Theorem: Let G be a finite group of order p n m , where p is a prime, n 0
and gcd(m, p) 1 . Then the number of Sylow p-subgroup ( n p ) is of the form 1 kp for some
k 0 and is such that n p | p n m .
6.7 REFERENCES
Joseph A Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa, 1999.
N. Herstein,(1975), Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri (2021 ), A Course in Abstract Algebra (5th Edition), Vikas
Publication House.
Vasishtha, A. R., & Vasishtha, A. K. (2006). Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra). Krishna
Prakashan Media.
RamjiLal, Algebra 1: Groups, Rings, Fields and Arithmetic, Springer, 2017.
https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/Home/ViewSubject?catid=ZLCHeZEhCZ8yCri36nSF3A==
6.8 SUGGESTED READING
P.B. Bhattacharya, S.K. Jain, S.R. Nagpaul: Basic Abstract Algebra, Cambridge Press, 1994.
David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote: Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), Wiley, 2011.
Michael Artin: Algebra (2nd edition), Pearson, 2014.
6.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Long Answer Type Question:
1. If G be a group of order p n , p be a prime and S be finite G- set. If
S0 a S | ga a g G, then prove that S S 0 (mod p)
2. State and prove the Sylow first theorem.
3. State and prove the Sylow second theorem.
4. State and prove the Sylow third theorem.
5. If G be a finite group and every Sylow subgroup of G is normal then prove that G is direct
product of its Sylow subgroup.
6. Prove that for a odd prime p , if G is a group of order 2 p , then G Z 2 p or G D p .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 96
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
7. If G be a finite group of order p n m, n 0 and gcd( p, m) 1 then prove that H is Sylow p
subgroup of G if and only if | H | p n .
8. Let G be a finite group then prove that for each Sylow p subgroup P of G N ( N ( P)) N ( P)
9. Let G be a finite group and P be a Sylow p subgroup G . Then P is normal in G if and only
if it is the unique Sylow p subgroup of G .
Short Answer Type Question:
10. Prove that group G having order 30 has a normal subgroup of order 15.
11. Prove that the group G having order 255 is cyclic.
12. Prove that the group G having order 33 is cyclic.
13. Prove that group G having order 45 has unique Sylow 3-subgroup.
14. Prove that each proper subgroup is proper subgroup of its normalizer in finite p-group.
Fill in the blanks:
15. Any group having each element of order p r is called ………….
16. If every Sylow subgroup of finite group G is normal, then G is a direct product of its
…………...
17. If G has unique Sylow p subgroup P , then P is …………… in G .
18. If G is a non-abelian group having order 14 then G ………….
19. Z m Z n Z mn iff gcd(m, n) ………
6.10 ANSWERS
Answer of self cheque question:
1. No 2. Yes
Answer of terminal question:
15. p group 16. Sylow subgroups 17. Normal
18. D7 19. 1
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 97
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
BLOCK III
COMPOSITION SERIES, JORDAN HOLDER
THEOREM AND SOLVABLE GROUP
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 98
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Unit-7: NORMAL AND SUBNORMAL SERIES,
COMPOSITION SERIES
CONTENT:
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Normal series
7.4 Composition series
7.5 Summary
7.6 Glossary
7.7 References
7.8 Suggested Readings
7.9 Terminal Questions
7.10 Answers
7.1 INTRODUCTION
A composition series in abstract algebra offers a technique to decompose an algebraic structure,
such as a group or a module, into manageable parts. Since many naturally occurring modules are not
semi-simple, they cannot be broken down into a straight sum of simple modules, necessitating the
consideration of composition series in the context of modules. The direct sum decomposition of a
module M into its simple constituents is replaced by a finite growing filtration of M by submodules
such that the subsequent quotients are simple.
There may not be a composition series, and if there is, it need not be unique. However, a
collection of findings together referred to as the Jordan-Hölder theorem states that wherever
composition series exist, the isomorphism classes of simple pieces and their multiplicities are defined
uniquely (albeit possibly not their exact locations within the composition series in issue). Thus,
Artinian modules and finite groups' invariants may be defined using composition series.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 99
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
A related but distinct concept is a chief series: a composition series is a
maximal subnormal series, while a chief series is a maximal normal series.
7.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to
Memorized about the maximal subgroup and simple group.
Analyze of normal and subnormal series and composition series.
Analyze the theorems and application of normal and composition series.
7.3 NORMAL SERIES
Definition: In a group G any normal subgroup H G is called a maximal normal subgroup of G if
there does not exist any normal subgroup K of G such that H K G .
Thus normal subgroup H G is maximal in G if whenever K G such that H K G then either
K H or K G .
In fact, any subgroup H G is maximal in G whenever H K G then either K H or K G .
Similarly, any normal subgroup M of G is called minimal or minimal normal subgroup of G
which are contained in M are {e} and M . Thus, if N is normal subgroup of G s.t., {e} N M then
either N {e} or N M .
Example 1: A3 is a maximal normal subgroup of S 3 . O( A3 ) 3 whereas O(S3 ) 6 . Clearly there
S S
cannot be any subgroup of order 4 or 5 in S 3 . We also notice that O 3 2 , a prime and thus 3 is
A3 A3
a simple group.
Example 2: If G is a simple group then it has no non trivial normal subgroup and so {e} will be a (and
only) maximal normal subgroup in G .
Theorem 1: H is maximal normal subgroup of G iff G / H is simple.
Proof: Let H be maximal normal in G . Any subgroup of G / H is of the form K / H where K G
and H K and also K / H is normal in G / H K G .
Thus any subgroup K / H will be non trivial normal subgroup of G / H if H K G , which
is not true as H is maximal normal. So G / H has no non trivial normal subgroup and is, therefore
simple.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 100
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Conversely, let G / H be simple. Suppose H is not maximal normal, then a normal subgroup K of
G s.t.,
H K G and thus K / H will be normal subgroup of G / H where K / H G / H , a
contradiction as G / H is simple.
Example 3: Any finite group G (with at least two elements) has a maximal normal subgroup.
Solution: If G is simple then it has no proper normal subgroup except {e} and thus {e} is a maximal
normal subgroup of G .
Suppose G is not simple. Then it has at least one normal subgroup N G, N {e} . If N is
maximal normal, we are done. If not, then there exist at least one normal subgroup M where
N M G . If M is maximal normal, we are done. We continue in this way if not. Given that and
only allow a finite number of subgroups, the aforementioned procedure must end after a finite number
of steps. A maximal normal subgroup will thus exist.
Example 4: Illustrate example of maximal normal subgroup while it is not a maximal subgroup.
Solution: Consider G Z 2 A5
Then H Z 2 {I } is normal in G and G / H A5 and so G / H will be simple and hence maximal
normal subgroup of G .
Since H (0, I ), (1, I ), (0,123 ), (0,132 ) G
Hence H is not a maximal subgroup of G .
Example 5: Let H, K be two distinct maximal normal subgroup of G then G HK and H K is a
maximal normal subgroup of H as well as K .
Solution: Since H, K are normal, HK is normal in G .
Since H HK G and HK is normal in G .
We must have HK H or G
Similarly HK K or HK G
Hence HK G (as HK G HK H , HK K H K ).
Again by isomorphism theorem
HK K
H H K
K G
Thus
H K H
G
Since H is maximal normal, is simple
H
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 101
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
K
i.e., is simple
H K
H K is maximal normal in K
Similarly, it is maximal normal in H .
Example 6: Show that Q, has no maximal normal subgroup.
Q Q
Solution: Suppose H is a maximal normal subgroup of Q, , then is simple and so has no
H H
non trivial normal subgroup i.e., it will have no non trivial subgroup ( Q being abelian, all subgroups
Q
are normal). Thus is a cyclic group of prime order p .
H
Q
Let H x be any element
H
Then p( H x) H
i.e., H px H or that px H x Q
y
let now y Q be any element, then Q
p
y
If x then y px y H or that
p
Q H Q H Q , a contradiction
Hence the result follows.
Definition: Let G be a group and sequence of subgroups
{e} H 0 H1 H 2 ...... H n G
is called a normal series of G if H i is normal subgroup of H i 1 , i 0,1, 2, ..., n 1
H i 1
The factor (quotient) groups ( i) are called the factors of normal series.
Hi
Here each H i is normal in H i 1 , although it may not be normal in G . Also it is possible that H i H i 1
for some i . The number of distinct number of (1) excluding G is called the length of the normal series.
The above is expressed in short by saying that N H 0 , H1 ,..., H n is a normal series of G . If N and
M are two normal series of G s.t., N M then M is called a refinement of N (a proper refinement if
(N M ) .
Remark: Some author mostly prefer to name the above subnormal series. It is then called a normal
series if H i is normal in G i.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 102
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
If G is any group then
{e} H 0 H1 G
Is an general example of a normal series.
Example 7: {I } A3 S3 is a normal series of S 3 .
{I } E K 4 A4 S4 is a normal series of S 4 , where
E {I , (1 2)(3 4)} , K 4 {I , (1 2)(3 4), (13)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3)}
We have seen earlier that E K 4 , but E is not normal in A4 (and so in S 4 ).
7.4 COMPOSITION SERIES
Definition: Let G a group. A sequence of subgroup
{e} H 0 H1 H 2 ...... H n G
of G is called a composition series of G if
(i) every H i is normal subgroup of H i 1 (i 0,1, ..., n 1)
(ii) H i H i 1 for any i and
H i 1
(iii) is a simple group i .
Hi
H i 1
The quotient groups are called factors of the series.
Hi
By using the theorem 1 condition (iii) can be replaced by H i is a maximal normal subgroup of
H i 1 i .
We notice that aforesaid composition series is a normal series. Converse of above is not true and that
composition series has no gaps.
It is possible that group may have more than one composition series.
Example 8: In the group (Z , )
{0} 8 4 Z is a normal series while it is not a composition series as 4 is not maximal in
Z . It is also to be notify that 4 2 Z .
Example 9: In the Quaternion group Q8 ,
{1} {1, 1} {1, 1, i, i} Q8
{1} {1, 1} {1, 1, j, j} Q8
{1} {1, 1} {1, 1, k , k} Q8
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 103
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
All are the composition series of Q8 . If we rewrite the first series as G0 {1}, G1 {1, 1}
G2 {1, 1, i, i} then G0 G1 G2 G
G 8 G 4 G 2
So, O 2, O 2 2, O 1 2
G2 4 G1 2 G0 1
i.e., all quotient groups are of prime order and thus have no trivial normal subgroup and hence are
simple.
Theorem 2: Each finite group G has a composition series. (Here group has more than one element)
Proof: We prove this by induction method on order of the group.
G1 G
If O(G) 2 then the only composition series of G is {e} G0 G1 G . Since G and as
G0 {e}
G1
O(G) 2 , a prime it is simple group and therefore is simple.
G0
Suppose for the groups with order less than O(G) result holds. Now we will show results holds for G .
If G is simple then {e} G is the composition series for G . Suppose G is not simple.
Although G is finite, it has a maximal normal subgroup N G and as O( N ) O(G) , results holds for
N which then has a composition series, say
{e} N1 N 2 ... N
Then the series
{e} N1 N 2 ... N G will be a composition series for G .
Hence results holds.
Remark: If O(G) 1 , Sometimes, we claim that the results holds trivially since ( G ) is a composition
series of G .
Check your progress
Problem 1: Check composition series of Z 24
Problem 2: Check out example of maximal normal subgroup while it is not a maximal
subgroup.
7.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have studied about following major topics and their related theorems and examples.
Maximal subgroup and on the basis of it to described the simple group.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 104
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Illustration of normal series, subnormal series and on the basis of these to describe the
composition series.
7.6 GLOSSARY
Sequence of subgroup of the group G, {e} H 0 H1 H 2 ...... H n G is called a normal
series of G if H i is normal subgroup of H i 1 , i 0,1, 2, ..., n 1
{e} H 0 H1 H 2 ...... H n G of G is called a composition series of G if
(i) every H i is normal subgroup of H i 1 (i 0,1, ..., n 1)
(ii) H i H i 1 for any i and
H i 1 H i 1
(iii) is a simple group i , where are called factors of the series.
Hi Hi
7.7 REFERENCES
Joseph A Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa, 1999.
N. Herstein,(1975), Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri (2021 ), A Course in Abstract Algebra (5th Edition), Vikas
Publication House.
Vasishtha, A. R., & Vasishtha, A. K. (2006). Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra). Krishna
Prakashan Media.
RamjiLal, Algebra 1: Groups, Rings, Fields and Arithmetic, Springer, 2017.
https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/Home/ViewSubject?catid=ZLCHeZEhCZ8yCri36nSF3A==
7.8 SUGGESTED READING
P.B. Bhattacharya, S.K. Jain, S.R. Nagpaul: Basic Abstract Algebra, Cambridge Press, 1994.
David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote: Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), Wiley, 2011.
Michael Artin: Algebra (2nd edition), Pearson, 2014.
7.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Long Answer Type Question:
1. Define normal series and also prove that H is maximal normal subgroup of G iff G / H is
simple.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 105
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
2. Define maximal subgroup and prove that finite group has maximal subgroup.
3. Prove that if H, K be two distinct maximal normal subgroup of G then G HK and H K is a
maximal normal subgroup of H as well as K .
4. Prove that group of rational number has no maximal normal subgroup.
5. Define the composition series and also prove that each finite group G has a composition series.
Short Answer Type Question:
6. Prove that alternating group A4 is maximal normal subgroup of S 4 .
7. Give an example of maximal normal subgroup while it is not a maximal subgroup.
8. Define maximal subgroup, simple group, normal series, composition series.
9. Find normal series of S 3 .
10. Find the composition series of Q8 .
Fill in the blanks:
11. A3 is maximal normal subgroup of ………….
12. If G is a simple group then it has no non trivial …………...
13. Each finite group has a …………………..
7.10 ANSWERS
Answer of self cheque question:
1. {0} 8 4 2 Z 24 , {0} 12 4 2 Z 24 ,
{0} 12 6 2 Z 24 , {0} 12 6 3 Z 24 2. See example 4
Answer of terminal question:
7. Z 2 A5 9. {I } A3 S 3 17. Normal 11. S3
12. Normal subgroup 13. Composition series
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 106
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Unit-8: JORDAN HOLDER THEOREM
CONTENT:
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Jordan-Holder theorem
8.4 Summary
8.5 Glossary
8.6 References
8.7 Suggested Readings
8.8 Terminal Questions
8.9 Answers
8.1 INTRODUCTION
German mathematician Ludwig Otto Hölder was born in
Stuttgart on December 22, 1859, and he passed away on
August 29, 1937.
In addition to being the grandson of professor Christian
Gottlieb Hölder (1776–1847) and the youngest of three sons
of professor Otto Hölder (1811–1890), Hölder also had two
brothers who went on to become professors. He began his
education at what is now the University of Stuttgart's
Polytechnikum before moving to Berlin in 1877 to study
Ludwig Otto Hölder
under Leopold Kronecker, Karl Weierstrass, and Ernst December 22, 1859 – August 29, 1937
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_H%C3%B6lder
Kummer.
He enrolled in the University of Berlin in 1877, and in 1882, he received his doctorate from the
University of Tübingen. His PhD dissertation was titled "Beiträge zur Potentialtheorie" (translation:
"Contributions to potential theory"). His next stop was the University of Leipzig, but he was unable to
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 107
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
complete his habilitation there. Instead, he earned a second doctorate and habilitation at the University
of Göttingen, both in 1884.
He was given a job as an exceptional professor at Tübingen in 1889 after failing to obtain
government clearance for a teaching seat in Göttingen. Despite a temporary mental impairment
delaying his admission, he started working there in 1890. He assumed Sophus Lie's previous position
as a full professor at the University of Leipzig in 1899. He served there as rector in 1918 after serving
as dean from 1912 to 1913.
In 1899, he wed Helene, a politician's and a bank director's daughter. They have two girls and
two boys. His daughter Irmgard married a mathematician named Aurel Wintner, and his son Ernst
Hölder went on to become another mathematician.
Hölder ratified the German university and high school professors' oath of loyalty to Adolf Hitler and
the National Socialist State in 1933.
Leonard James Rogers established Holder's inequality, which bears Hölder's name, first. It is
named after a publication in which Hölder criticises it while referencing Rogers. This paper also
contains a demonstration of what is now known as Jensen's inequality, along with certain side
conditions that Jensen eventually deleted. Other theorems by Hölder include the Jordan-Hölder
theorem, which states that every linearly ordered group satisfying an Archimedean property is
isomorphic to a subgroup of the additive group of real numbers, the classification of simple groups
with orders up to 200, the anomalous outer automorphisms of the symmetric group S6, and Hölder's
theorem, which states that the Gamma function does not satisfy any algebraic differential equation.
The Hölder condition (or Hölder continuity), another concept bearing his name, is applied in many
analytical fields, including the theories of partial differential equations and function spaces.
8.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to
Memorized about the Jordan- Hölder theorem.
Analyze the theorems related to Jordan- Hölder theorem.
8.3 JORDAN-HOLDER THEOREM
Theorem 1: Let G be a finite group with two composition series
G, H1 , H 2 ,..., H n {e} …(1)
and G, K1 , K 2 ,..., K m {e} …(2)
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 108
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Then n m and the two equivalent series of composition quotient groups., viz.,
G / H1 , H1 / H 2 ,..., H n1 / H n
And G / K1 , K1 / K 2 ,..., K m1 / K m
are abstractly identical i.e., they can be put into 1 1 correspondence such that the corresponding
quotient groups are isomorphic.
Proof: By using the induction technique on the order of the group G , we will demonstrate the
theorem. We will demonstrate that the theorem also holds true for G by making the assumption that it
holds true for all groups with orders lower than G . The theorem is obviously valid for every group of
order one; therefore we need not be concerned about where to begin the induction.
There are two cases arise:
Case I: H1 K1 . In this case, after removing G from (1) and (2), we obtain the remaining series as
two composition series for H1 . However, because H1 is a proper normal subgroup of G , its order is
lower than that of G . Therefore, the theorem holds true for H1 according to our induction hypothesis.
Since G / H1 G / K1 , therefore the theorem will remain true if we replace G in each of the series (1)
and (2).
Case II: H1 K1 . Using the third law of isomorphism, we have
H1K1 / H1 K1 / H1 K1
And H1K1 / K1 H1 / H1 K1
Also H1K1 is a normal subgroup of G containing H1 . Since H1 is maximal in G , therefore we must
have H1 K1 G
G / H1 K1 / D where D H1 K1
and G / K1 H1 / D
Now H1 is a maximal in G implies that G / H1 is simple. Therefore K1 / D is simple and this
implies that D is a maximal normal subgroup of K1 . Similarly D is a maximal normal subgroup of H1
.
Let D, D1 , D2 ,..., Dt {e} be a composition series for D. Then
G, H1 , D, D1 , D2 ,..., Dt {e} …(3)
and G, K1 , D, D1 , D2 ,..., Dt {e} …(4)
are two composition series for G . Let us write the composition quotient groups of (3) and (4) in the
order
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 109
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
G / H1 , H1 / D, D / D1 , D1 / D2 ,..., Dt 1 / Dt …(5)
and K1 / D, G / K1 , D / D1 , D1 / D2 ,..., Dt 1 / Dt …(6)
The quotient groups in (5) and (6) are equal in number and the corresponding quotient groups
isomorphic i.e., G / H1 and K1 / D , H1 / D and G / K1 , D / D1 and D / D1 , ..., are isomorphic.
The two composition series for G at this point, (1) and (3), each have H1 in the second position. Due
to instance 1, it is possible to place the quotient groups described by (1) and (3) into 1-1
correspondence, making the respective quotient groups isomorphic. To make the respective quotient
groups isomorphic, it is possible to put the quotient groups described by (2) and (4) into 1- 1
correspondence. As a result, the quotient groups defined by (1) and (2) are equal in number and are
isomorphic in some order since the relation of isomorphism in the set of all groups is an equivalence
relation. This completes the theorem's proof.
8.4 SUMMARY
After completing this unit we analyze that for any finite group (G) two composition series are always
identical i.e., they can be put into one-one correspondence such that the corresponding quotient groups
are isomorphic.
8.5 GLOSSARY
For a finite group (G) the Jordan- Hölder theorem states that two composition series
G, H1 , H 2 ,..., H n {e} … (1)
and G, K1 , K 2 ,..., K m {e} … (2)
the two corresponding series of composition quotient groups,
G / H1 , H1 / H 2 , ..., H n1 / H n
G / K1 , K1 / K 2 , ..., K m1 / K m , where m n
are abstractly identical.
8.6 REFERENCES
Joseph A Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa, 1999.
N. Herstein,(1975), Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri (2021 ), A Course in Abstract Algebra (5th Edition), Vikas
Publication House.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 110
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Vasishtha, A. R., & Vasishtha, A. K. (2006). Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra). Krishna
Prakashan Media.
RamjiLal, Algebra 1: Groups, Rings, Fields and Arithmetic, Springer, 2017.
8.7 SUGGESTED READING
P.B. Bhattacharya, S.K. Jain, S.R. Nagpaul: Basic Abstract Algebra, Cambridge Press, 1994.
David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote: Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), Wiley, 2011.
Michael Artin: Algebra (2nd edition), Pearson, 2014.
8.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Long Answer Type Question:
1. State and prove the Jordan- Hölder theorem.
Short Answer Type Question:
2. Write the statement of Jordan- Hölder theorem.
Fill in the blanks:
3. For a finite group (G) two composition series, the two composition quotient groups are
………….
8.9 ANSWERS
3. Identical
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 111
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Unit-9: SOLVABLE GROUPS, SIMPLICITY OF An (n 5) ,
NILPOTENT GROUPS
CONTENT:
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Nilpotent group
9.4 Solvable group-I
9.5 Solvable group-II
9.6 Summary
9.7 Glossary
9.8 References
9.9 Suggested Readings
9.10 Terminal Questions
9.11 Answers
9.1 INTRODUCTION
A group having an upper central series that ends with G is referred to as a nilpotent group G in
mathematics, more especially group theory. In other words, either its lower central series ends in 1 or
its central series has a limited length. A group that is "almost abelian" is what we would term a
nilpotent group. The fact that nilpotent groups may be solved and that for finite nilpotent groups, two
members with relatively prime orders must commute serves as the inspiration for this concept.
Additionally, it is true that supersolvable finite nilpotent groups exist. The Russian mathematician
Sergei Chernikov is credited with developing the idea in the 1930s. Nilpotent groups appear in both
group classification and Galois theory. They play a significant role in the categorization of Lie groups
as well.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 112
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
A group that can be created from abelian groups via extensions is referred to as a solvable
group or soluble group in mathematics, more especially in the subject of group theory. A group is
solvable if its derived series terminates in the trivial subgroup, to put it another way.
9.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to
Memorized about the Nilpotent group.
Analyze the definition and important theorems related to Solvable groups.
Analyze the further theorems on the alternating group ( An , n 5) .
9.3 NILPOTENT GROUP
On commutative groups, the converse of the Lagrange's Theorem is true. In this chapter, we
characterise a broader category of groups called nilpotent groups, which satisfy the opposite of
Lagrange's Theorem. Additionally, every nilpotent group is a direct result of the subgroups of Sylow,
and vice versa.
Definition (i): Let G be a group and denote
Z 0 (G) {e}, Z1 (G) Z (G) and Z i 1 (G) Z (G) is the unique normal subgroup of G such that
Z (G ) Z i1 (G ) and Zi1 (G) / Zi (G) Z (G / Zi (G))
Then the chain of normal subgroups
{e} Z1 (G) Z 2 (G) ...
is called upper central series and ascending central of G .
Definition (ii): A group G is defined to be nilpotent if Z n (G) G for some n N
Example 1: Each abelian group G is also a nilpotent group, since Z1 (G) Z (G) G . Converse of this
is also not true which shows in following result.
Theorem 1: Each finite p-group is nilpotent.
Proof: Let G be a finite p group. If | G | 1 , then G is nilpotent. Suppose that | G | 1 . Then G being
a nontrivial p group, it follows that Z1 (G) Z (G) {e} . If Z1 (G) G , then G / Z1 (G) is a nontrivial
p group and | Z (G / Z1 (G)) | 1. This implies Z 2 (G) contains Z1 (G) properly, that is
Z1 (G ) Z 2 (G ). If Z 2 (G) G , then similarly Z 2 (G) Z 3 (G) . If for all n N , Z n (G) G , then we
get an infinite number of strictly ascending chain of subgroups
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 113
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
{e} Z1 (G ) Z 2 (G ) ...
But it is not possible because G is finite group. Thus there is n Z such that Z n (G) G and G is
nilpotent.
Now we give an example of a subgroup which is not nilpotent.
Example 2: We know that Z (S3 ) {e} . Thus Z1 (S3 ) {e} and S3 / Z1 (S3 ) S3 . This implies
Z S3 / Z1 (S3 ) {{e}} . Since Z 2 ( S3 ) is the unique normal subgroup of S 3 such that
Z 2 (S3 ) / Z1 (S3 ) Z (S3 / Z1 (S3 )) {{e}} , so it follows that Z 2 (S3 ) / Z1 (S3 ) {e} . Similarly,
Z n (S3 ) {e} n N . Hence S 3 is not nilpotent.
Theorem 2: The direct product of finite number of nilpotent groups is nilpotent.
Proof: It will be sufficient to prove the result for the direct product of two groups. Let H and K be
two nilpotent groups and denote G H K .
First we prove that Z n (G) Z n ( H ) Z n ( K ) n N by the induction on n . We have already proved
that the external direct product of groups and results holds for n 1. Assume that
Z n (G) Z n ( H ) Z n ( K ) for some n 1 . Since Z n ( H K ) Z n ( H ) Z n ( K ) , so there is an
HK
isomorphism : H / Z n ( H ) K / Z n ( K ) .
Z n (H K )
Now we have,
Z (G / Z n (G)) Z ( H K / Z n ( H K ))
Z ( ( H / Z n ( H ) K / Z n ( K )))
(Z ( H / Z n ( H ) K / Z n ( K )))
(Z ( H / Z n ( H )) Z ( K / Z n ( K )))
(Z n1 ( H ) / Z n ( H )) Z n1 ( K ) / Z n ( K ))
Z n1 ( H ) Z n1 ( K ) / Z n ( H ) Z n ( K ))
Z n1 ( H ) Z n1 ( K ) / Z n ( H K )
It follows that Z n1 (G) Z n1 ( H )Z n1 ( K ) because Z n1 (G) is the only normal subgroup of G such that
Z n1 (G) / Z n (G) Z (G / Z n (G)) .
Accordingly, for all n 0,1, 2, ... Z n (G) Z n ( H ) Z n ( K ) according to the principle of mathematical
induction.
There is a positive integer n such that Z n ( H ) H and Z n ( K ) K since H and K are both nilpotent.
Hence
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 114
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
As H K is nilpotent, Z n ( H K ) Z n ( H ) Z n ( K ) .
Using a descending central series, we now provide an alternate equivalent characterisation of nilpotent
groups. Assume G is a group and H and K are its two subgroups. The subgroup produced by all
elements of the form hkh1k 1 for every h H and all k K is denoted by [ H K ] . Next, we have
Lemma 1: Let G be a group, H, K be two subgroups of G and K normal in G . Then
[ H , G] K if and only if HK / K Z (G / K ) .
Definition: Let G be a group. Define inductively
G[1] G
G [i 1] [G [i ] , G ] for all i 1
Then the chain of normal subgroups
G G[1] G[ 2] ...
is called the descending central series of G .
Theorem 3: Let G be a group. Then G is nilpotent if and only if G[ n1] {e} for some integer
n 0.
Proof: First assume that there is an integer n 0 such that G[ n1] {e} . Consider the series
{e} G[ n1] G[ n] ... G[1] G
it is easy to check that G[i ] / G[i1] Z (G / G[i1] ) for all i 1,2,..., n and G [ n1i ] Z i (G ) for all
i 1,2,..., n . Thus G G [1] Z n (G ) , and so G is nilpotent.
Conversely, suppose that G is nilpotent. Then there is an integer n 1 such that Z n (G) G
Thus we have a series of normal subgroups
{e} Z 0 (G) Z1 (G) ... Z n (G) G
Then it follows that G [ i ] Z n1i (G ) i 1, 2,..., n 1 . Thus G [ n1] Z 0 (G ) {e} , and so
G[ n1] {e} .
Theorem 4: Each subgroup of a nilpotent group is nilpotent.
Proof: Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. Since G is nilpotent, so there is an
integer n 0 such that G[ n1] {e} . Now we show that H [i ] G[i ] by the induction on i . Now
H [1] H G G[1] . Assume that H [ i ] G[ i ] . Then H [i1] [ H [i ] , H ] [G[i ] , G] G[i1] and
hence, by the principle of mathematical induction, H [i ] G[i ] for all i 1,2,..., n 1 . Hence
H [ n1] G[ n1] {e} , and so H is nilpotent.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 115
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Example 3: Let G S3 Z . Since S 3 is not nilpotent, so G is not nilpotent. Thus G is an
infinite group which is not nilpotent.
Theorem 5: A finite group G is nilpotent if and only if it is the direct product of its Sylow
subgroups.
Proof: Let G be a nilpotent group. First we show that every Sylow subgroup of G is normal. If
possible, let P be a Sylow subgroup of G such that N ( P) G . Denote H N (P) . Since G
nilpotent, there is n N such that
{e} Z 0 (G) Z1 (G) ... Z n (G) G
Since H is proper and Z 0 (G) H , so there is the largest index m n such that Z m (G ) H . Then
Z m1 (G ) H . Consider a Z m1 (G) \ H , then Z m1 (G ) \ Z m (G ) implies that
aZ m (G) Z (G / Z m (G)) and so haZ m (G) ahZ m (G) for every hH . Hence
h 1a 1ha Z m (G ) H which implies that a 1ha h(h 1a 1ha) H . Thus a 1 Ha H and a N (H )
. Therefore H N (H ) that is N ( P) N ( N ( P)) , which contradicts that P is a Sylow subgroup.
Thus N ( P) G and every Sylow subgroup of G is normal. Hence, G is a direct product of its
Sylow subgroups.
Conversely, let G be a direct product of its Sylow subgroups P1 , P2 ,..., Pk . Since Pi is a p i -group for
some prime p i , so Pi is nilpotent for every i 1,2,..., k Hence their direct product G is also
nilpotent.
The result that follows now demonstrates that the converse of Lagrange's Theorem is true for all
nilpotent groups.
Corollary 1: Let G be a finite nilpotent group. Then for every positive divisor m of | G | , G
has a subgroup of order m .
Proof: Let | G | p1 1 p2 2 ... pk k . Since G is nilpotent, iso G P1 P2 ... Pk , where Pi is the sylow
n n n
i
1 k 2 k
pi subgroup of G for i 1,2,..., k . Also | Pi | pi i . Let m be a positive integer such that m | G .
Then | G | p1 1 p2 2 ... pk , where 0 mi ni . Since Pi is pi group of order pi and mi ni , so
m m mk ni
Pi has a subgroup H i of order pi i , by the Sylow’s first theorem. Then H H1 H 2 ... H k is a
m
subgroup of G of order | H 1 || H 2 | ... | H k | p1 1 p2 2 ... pk m.
m m mk
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 116
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
9.4 SOLVABLE GROUP-I
Solvable groups first appeared in the setting of Galois theory. Galois developed this idea to explore the
quintics' radical solvability over an extended period of time. Solvable groups are a class of groups that
are fascinating in and of themselves, particularly in relation to the idea of finite groups. Here, we treat
the solvable groups using only group theory.
Definition 1: Let G be a group. Then a chain
G H 0 H1 ...H n1 H n {e}
of subgroups is called a solvable series of G if H i 1 is normal in H i and H i / H i1 is commutative for
every i 0,1,..., n 1.
A group G is called a solvable group if G has a solvable series.
Each abelian group is solvable. For, if G is abelian, then G H 0 H1 {e} is a solvable series for G
Example 4: S3 H 0 {e, (123), (132)} {e} is a solvable series for S 3 . Thus S 3 is a solvable group
while S 3 is not nilpotent.
Theorem 6: Every nilpotent group is solvable.
Proof: Let G be a nilpotent group. Then Z n (G) G for some positive integer n . Then the series of
normal subgroups
G Z n (G) Z n1 (G) ... Z 0 (G) {e}
is a solvable series, since Zi (G) / Zi1 (G) Z (G / Zi1 (G)) which is abelian for every i 1,2,..., n .
Hence G is a solvable group.
Now, taking into account subgroups and homomorphic images, we demonstrate that the class
of all solvable groups is closed under finite direct product.
Theorem 7: Each finite direct product of solvable group is solvable.
Proof: This is adequate to establish the conclusion regarding the direct product of two solvable groups.
Let G and H be two solvable groups. Then both G and H have a series of subgroups that can be
solved, say
G G0 G1 ... Gn {e}
And H H 0 H1 ... H m {e}
Consider following series of subgroups of G H :
G H G0 H 0 G1 H 0 ... {e} H 0 {e} H1 ... {e} H m {e} .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 117
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
This is a solvable series for G H , since Gi 1 H 0 is normal in Gi H 0 and {e} H i1 is normal in
Gi H 0 {e} H i
{e} H i , and both Gi / Gi 1 and H i / H i 1 are abelian.
Gi 1 H 0 {e} H i 1
Hence G H is a solvable group.
Theorem 8: Let G be a solvable group. Then every subgroup of G is solvable.
Proof: Let H be a subgroup of G . Since G is solvable, so it has a solvable series, say
G G0 G1 ... Gn {e}
Then Gi 1 is a normal subgroup of G i which implies that H Gi 1 is normal subgroup of H Gi .
Denote H i H Gi and consider the series
G H 0 H1 ... H n {e}
Of subgroup of H . Now
H i1 H Gi1 H Gi Gi1 H i Gi1
Hi Hi HG
Then using the second isomorphism theorem, that i i 1 . Since the quotient
H i 1 H i Gi 1 Gi 1
H i Gi 1
group is a subgroup of the abelian group Gi / Gi1 , so it is abelian group. Thus
Gi 1
Is a solvable series for H and the subgroup H is a solvable group.
Theorem 9: Let G be a solvable group. Then the quotient group G / H is solvable for every normal
subgroup H of G .
Proof: Let G G0 G1 ... Gn {e} be a solvable series of G . Since H is a normal subgroup, so
Gi H is a subgroup of G and H Gi H for each i . Consider the series
G / H G0 / H G1 H / H G2 H / H ... Gn H / H {H }
Of subgroup of G / H . Also Gi 1 is normal in G i and hence Gi 1 H is a normal subgroup of Gi H .
Thus Gi 1 H / H is a normal subgroup of Gi H / H .
Now using the third isomorphism theorem
Gi H / H
Gi H / Gi 1 H .
Gi 1 H / H
Define : Gi / Gi1 Gi H / Gi1H by
aGi1 aGi1 H .
Then Gi1 Gi1 H implies that is well-defined and for every ah Gi H ,
ahGi1 H aGi1 H hGi1 H aGi1 H aGi1
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 118
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
is onto.
Also is a homomorphism. Since Gi / Gi1 is abelian it follows that Gi H / Gi1 H Gi / Gi1 is
abelian. Thus the series
G / H G0 / H G1 H / H G2 H / H ... Gn H / H {H } is a solvable series and the quotient
group G / H is solvable group.
Corollary 2: Each homomorphic image of solvable group is solvable.
Proof: Let G be a solvable group and f : G G be an epimorphism. Then by the first isomorphism
theorem G / ker f G . Since G is solvable, the quotient G / ker f is a solvable group. Hence G is
solvable.
Theorem 10: If H be a normal subgroup of a group G . If both H and G / H are solvable, then G is
solvable.
Proof: The correspondence theorem implies that every subgroup of G / H is of the form K / H , where
K is a subgroup of G such that H K , and K / H is normal in G / H if and only if K is normal in G .
Since G / H is a solvable group, so it has a solvable series, say
G / H K 0 / H K1 / H ... K m / H {H } .
Ki / H K
Since K i1 / H is normal in K i / H , so Ki1 is normal in K i and i , by the third
K i 1 / H K i 1
isomorphism theorem. Thus K i / K i 1 is abelian.
Since H is a solvable group, it has a solvable series, say
H H 0 H1 ... H n {e}
Hence
G K 0 K1 ... K m H H1 ... H n {e}
is solvable series for G and G is solvable.
Now we have the following two intersection consequences.
Corollary 3: Let G be a group, H and K be two subgroup of G and H be normal in G . If both H
and K are solvable then HK is solvable.
Proof: First note that HK is a subgroup of G , since H is normal in G . Now, using the second
isomorphism theorem, we have HK / H K / H K . Since H K is a subgroup of the solvable
group K , it is solvable; and so K / H K is a solvable group. Then both H and HK / H are solvable,
whence HK is solvable.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 119
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Corollary 4: Let G be a solvable group and H, K be two normal subgroup of G such that both the
quotients G / H and G / K are solvable. Then G is solvable if and only if H K is solvable.
Proof: Let G be a solvable group. Since H K is a subgroup of G , so it is solvable.
Conversely, assume that H K is a solvable group. Both H and K are normal. Now using second
isomorphism theorem, HK / H K / H K . Since HK / H is a subgroup of the solvable group G / H
, so it is and hence K / H K is solvable. Then it follows that K is solvable, Since H K is solvable.
Thus both G / K and K are solvable, and hence G is solvable.
Example 5: Let G be a group of order 14 7 2 . Then it follows from the Sylow theorems that G has
a normal Sylow 7-subgroup 7 subgroup H . Since | H | 7 which is a prime, so H is a solvable
group. Similarly, | G / H | 2 the quotient G / H is solvable. Hence G is solvable.
Example 6: Let G be a group of order 2002 143 7 2 . Then it follows from the Sylow theorem
that G has a normal Sylow 143 subgroup H . Since | H | 143 which is a prime, so H is asolvable
group. Now | G / H | 14 and hence it is solvable. Thus G is a solvable group.
9.5 SOLVABLE GROUP-II
In this section, we characterise solvable groups in a way that is equivalent to the series of derived
subgroups. This similar characterization aids in our demonstration that S n cannot be solved for all
n 5 . A discussion of the opposite of Lagrange's Theorem on solvable groups marks the end of this
section.
Definition: Let G be a group. Then subgroup generated by the set {aba 1b 1 | a, b G} is called the
commutator subgroup of G .
It is denoted by G ' and the elements of the form aba 1b 1 | a, b G are called commutators.
If G is an abelian group, then for each a, b G, aba 1b 1 e and hence G ' {e} . Conversely,
if G ' {e} then aba 1b 1 e ab ba a, b G . Thus G is abelian. Hence G is abelian if and only
if G ' {e} . In some sense G ' is a reverse measure of how much G is commutative.
Theorem 11: Let G be a group. Then the derived subgroup G ' is a normal subgroup of G and the
quotient group G / G ' is abelian.
Proof: Let x G ' and g G . Then gxg 1 x 1 G ' . Since G ' is a subgroup, gxg 1 gxg 1 x 1 x G ' .
Hence G ' is a normal subgroup of G .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 120
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Let a, b G . Then ab(ba) 1 aba 1b 1 G ' abG' baG' , i.e., (aG' )(bG' ) (bG' )(aG' ) .
Hence G / G ' is abelian.
Theorem 12: Let G be a group and N be a normal subgroup of G . Then G / N is abelian if and only if
G' N .
Proof: Initialy first we assume that G / N is abelian, then (aN )(bN ) (bN )(aN ) a, b N , and so
abN baN . Hence aba 1b 1 ab(ba) 1 N a, b G
N contains all commutators of G and so G ' N
Conversely, if G ' N , then aba 1b 1 N abN baN a, b G. Hence G / N is abelian.
Definition: Let G be a group and we define the following,
G (1) G '
G ( i 1) G ( i )
'
Then G (i ) is called the i th commutator subgroup or derived subgroup of G .
Thus a sequence of subgroups G G (1) G ( 2 ) ... , where each G (i1) is a normal subgroup of G (i )
' ' ' '
and G ( i ) / G ( i 1) is abelian for every i 1,2,...
' '
Theorem 13: Let G be a group. Then G is solvable if and only if there is a positive integer n such that
G ( n ) {e} .
'
Proof: If G ( n ) {e} , then the chain G G (1) G ( 2 ) ...G ( n ) {e} become a solvable series for G.
' ' ' '
Hence G is solvable.
Conversely assume that G is a solvable group. Then G has a solvable series, say
G G0 G1 G2 ...Gn {e} . Since for every i, Gi is normal subgroup of Gi 1 and Gi 1 / Gi is
abelian, so G ' i 1 Gi . Hence
G (1) G ' G0 G1 , G ( 2 ) G1' G2 and so on.
'
Thus we get G ( n ) Gn {e} and so G ( n ) {e} .
Now we will prove that permutation group S n is not solvable for n 5 .
Lemma 2: If H is a subgroup of S n ( n 5 ) that contains all 3-cycles, then H ' contains all 3-cycles in
Sn .
Proof: Let (abc) be a 3-cycle in S n . Since n 5 , we have two symbols x and y such that
a, b, c, x, y are distinct. Denote (abx) and (acy) . Then
, H a b c a b xa c y a x ba y c 1 1 H '
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 121
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Hence H ' contains all 3-cycles in S n .
Theorem 14: S n is not solvable for n 5 .
Proof: Let A be the set containing all 3 cycle in S n . Since n 5 , so by the above lemma A S n' .
Applying the same repeatedly, we get A S n(k ) for each k N . Hence S n( k ) {e} for each k N and
S n is not solvable.
The Sylow theorems, which are valid for finite solvable groups, are now generalised as follows. P.
Hall demonstrated this outcome in 1928.
Definition: Let G be a group. A subgroup H of G is called a characteristic in G if ( H ) H for
every automorphism : G G ; and H is called fully invariant if f ( H ) H for all endomorphism
f :G G.
Let H be a characteristic of G and : G G be an automorphism. Then ( H ) H . Also
1 : G G is an automorphism and hence 1 ( H ) H . Then H 1 ( H ) ( H ) and hence
(H ) H .
Lemma 3: Let G be a group and H, K be two subgroup of G .
(i) If H is characteristic in K and K is normal in G , then H is normal in G .
(ii) Every normal Sylow subgroup is fully invariant.
(iii) If G is solvable and N is a minimal normal subgroup of G , then N is an abelian p group for
some prime p .
Proof (i): Let a G . Then : G G defined by ( g ) aga 1 is an automorphism. Since K is
normal in G , so |K : K K is an automorphism. Then |K ( H ) H , since H is a characteristic in
K . Thus aha 1 H h H and so H is normal in G .
(iii): Since the commutator subgroup N ' is fully invariant in N and N is normal in G , so it follows
that N ' is normal in G . Then, the minimality of N implies that N ' {e} or N ' N . Since N is
solvable, N ' N and so N ' {e} . Hence N is an abelian group. Also, by the minimality of N , | N | 1
. Let p be a prime such that p | N | and P be a Sylow p subgroup of N . Then | P | 1 . Since N is
abelian, so P is normal; and it follows that P is fully invariant. Hence P is normal in G . Then
minimally of N implies that N P .
We also require the conclusion regarding Sylow subgroups, which we declare here without providing
any evidence.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 122
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Lemma 5: (Frattini Argument) Let K be a normal subgroup of a finite group G . If P is a Sylow p
subgroup of K and M N G (P ) , then G KM .
Proof: We prove this result by induction on | G | . The result is trivial for all groups G with | G | 5 .
Consider a group G and assume that the result holds for all groups of order | G | . Let | G | mn and
gcd(m, n) 1 .
Now two cases are arises:
Case I: G has a proper normal subgroup N such that n | | N | . By Lagrange’s theorem, | N | m1n1
where m1 | m and n1 | n . Also n | | N | implies that n1 n . Since G is solvable, so G / N is a solvable
m n m n
group and | G / N | . mn together with gcd , 1 implies, by the induction hypothesis
m1 n1 m1 n1
m
that, G / N has a subgroup K / N of order , where K is a subgroup of G . Then K is solvable, and
m1
m
| K || K / N | . | N | .m1n1 mn1 mn
m1
K has a subgroup H of order m .
Case II: n divides the order of every normal subgroup of G . Since G is finite, it has a minimal
normal subgroup, say H . Then H is abelian and | H | p r for some prime p , Since G is solvable.
Now, using Lagrange’s theorem, p r | | G | mn . Then n | p r and H is a Sylow p subgroup of G .
Since H is normal in G , it is the unique Sylow p subgroup of G . If K is minimal normal subgroup
of G , then arguing similarly we have | K | q 8 for some prime q and K is the unique Sylow q
subgroup of G. Since n | H | and n | K | , so p, q cannot be distnict. Thus H is the unique minimal
normal subgvroup of G , that is H is contained in every proper normal subgroup of G .
Let K / H be a minimal normal subgroup of G / H . Since G / H is solvable, | G / H | q 8 for
some prime q p . Then K is a normal subgroup of G such that | K | p r q8 . If Q is a Sylow q
| H |.| Q |
subgroup of K , then HQ K and | HQ | | H | . | Q | p r q 8 | K |
| H Q |
K HQ . Let M NG (Q) . We shall show that | M | m .
Set N M K N K (Q) . Then Fratini argument gives us us G KM and we have
M | G |.| N |
G / K KM / K M / K M . Then | M | . Now QN K
N |K|
K HQ HN K , that is K HN . Thus,
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 123
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
| G |.| N |
| M |
|K|
| G |.| N |
| HN |
| G |.| H N |
|H|
| H N | .
m. | H N | [| H | p r n]
Thus it is only to show | H N | 1 , which will prove in two parts
(i) H N Z (K ) and (ii) Z ( K ) {e}
(i) Let a H N . Since K HQ , every element of K is of the form hb where h H , b Q .
Since H is abelian, a commutes with h . So it suffices to show that a commutes with every b Q .
Now (aba 1 )b 1 Q , since a N N k (Q) and (aba 1 )b 1 H , since H is normal in G . Thus
aba 1b 1 H Q {e} and hence ab ba .
(ii) Since K G , so Z ( K ) G , if Z ( K ) {e} . Then it contains a minimal subgroup, say U .
Since U Z (K ) , so U is normal in G and becomes a minimal normal subgroup of G . Since H is
unique subgroup which is normal in G . Thus U H Z (K ) . Now K HQ ,
P is a character subgroup of K .
Since K G , it follows by Lemma that Q G .
Since H is the unique minimal normal subgroup of G , so H Q
Which is a contradiction. Hence Z ( K ) {e} .
Check your progress
Problem 1: Check that for which value of n, S n is solvable.
Problem 2: Check that Z14 is solvable or not?
Problem 3: Give an example of a group which is solvable group but not nilpotent group?
9.6 SUMMARY
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 124
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
In this unit, we have studied about major topics in group theory like nilpotent group, solvable group
and symmetric groups S n for (n 5) and their related theorems and examples. After completion of
this unit we have learned the following important concepts:
Each abelian group G is also a nilpotent group and solvable group.
Each finite p-group is nilpotent.
Direct product of finite number of nilpotent groups is nilpotent.
Each subgroup of a nilpotent group is nilpotent.
Each nilpotent group is solvable.
Finite direct product of solvable group is solvable.
Each subgroup of solvable group is solvable.
Homomorphic image of solvable group is solvable.
S n is not solvable for n 5 .
9.7 GLOSSARY
Nilpotent group: Any group is nilpotent if Z n (G) G for some n N
Solvable group: Let G be a group. Then a chain G H 0 H1 ...H n1 H n {e}
of subgroups is called a solvable series of G if H i 1 is normal in H i and H i / H i1 is
commutative for every i 0,1,..., n 1 .
A group G is called a solvable group if G has a solvable series.
9.8 REFERENCES
Joseph A Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa, 1999.
N. Herstein,(1975), Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri (2021 ), A Course in Abstract Algebra (5th Edition), Vikas
Publication House.
Vasishtha, A. R., & Vasishtha, A. K. (2006). Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra). Krishna
Prakashan Media.
RamjiLal, Algebra 1: Groups, Rings, Fields and Arithmetic, Springer, 2017.
9.9 SUGGESTED READING
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 125
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
P.B. Bhattacharya, S.K. Jain, S.R. Nagpaul: Basic Abstract Algebra, Cambridge Press, 1994.
David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote: Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), Wiley, 2011.
Michael Artin: Algebra (2nd edition), Pearson, 2014.
9.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Long Answer Type Question:
1. Prove that every finite p group is abelian.
2. Prove that a finite group G is nilpotent if and only if it is the direct product of its Sylow
subgroups.
3. If G be a solvable group. Then the quotient group G / H is solvable for every normal subgroup
H of G .
4. If G be a group, H and K be two subgroup of G and H be normal in G . If both H and K are
solvable then HK is solvable.
5. If G be a group, H and K be two normal subgroup of G such that both the quotients G / H and
G / K are solvable. Then G is solvable if and only if H K is solvable.
6. S n is not solvable for every n 5 .
Short Answer Type Question:
7. Prove that direct product of a finite number of nilpotent groups is nilpotent.
8. Prove that every subgroup of a nilpotent group is nilpotent.
9. If G be a finite nilpotent group then prove that for every positive divisor m of | G | , G has a
subgroup of order m.
10. Prove that every nilpotent group is solvable.
11. Every homomorphic image of a solvable group is solvable.
12. If H be a normal subgroup of a group G . If both H and G / H are solvable, then G is solvable.
13. If G be a solvable group. If | G | mn such that gcd(m, n) 1 , then G has a subgroup of order
m.
14. If G be a group. Then prove that G is solvable if and only if there is a positive integer n such
that G ( n ) {e} .
Fill in the blanks:
15. Every finite p group is………….
16. S 3 is …………….. nilpotent group
17. Direct product of finite number of nilpotent group is ……………..
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 126
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
18. Every subgroup of nilpotent group is ………………..
19. S n is not solvable for every ………………..
20. Every nilpotent group is ……………………
21. Every finite direct product of solvable groups is ……………..
22. Every subgroup of solvable group is ……………………
9.11 ANSWERS
Answer of self cheque question:
1. n 1, 2, 3, 4 2. Solvable 3. S3
Answer of terminal question:
15. Nilpotent 16. Not 17. Nilpotent
18. Nilpotent 19. n5 20. Solvable
21. Solvable 22. Solvable
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 127
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
BLOCK IV
COMPOSITION SERIES, JORDAN HOLDER
THEOREM AND SOLVABLE GROUP
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 128
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
UNIT-10: RING AND IDEALS
CONTENTS:
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Ring. Definition
10.4 Ring with Unity. Definition
10.5 Commutative Ring. Definition
10.6 Boolean Ring. Definition
10.7 p-Rings. Definition
10.8 Zero divisor
10.9 Ring without zero divisors
10.10 Characteristics of a Ring. Definition
10.11 Subring
10.12 Improper and Proper Subring
10.13 Ideal. Definition
10.14 Improper and Proper ideal
10.15 Principal ideal
10.16 Principal ideal ring
10.17 Prime ideal
10.18 Quotient ring
10.19 Summary
10.20 Glossary
10.21 References
10.22 Suggested Reading
10.23 Terminal questions
10.24 Answers
10.1 INTRODUCTION
In algebra, the study of rings is known as ring theory. In rings, addition and multiplication are
defined and have characteristics in common with those of the operations specified for integers. Ring
theory explores the structure of rings, their representations, or in other words, modules, special classes
of rings (such as group rings, division rings), as well as a variety of properties that have proven useful
both for the theory's own purposes and for its practical applications, such as homological properties
and polynomial identities. Rings that are commutative are significantly easier to understand than those
that are not.
Commutative ring theory, often known as commutative algebra, is a significant branch of
modern mathematics that has its roots in algebraic geometry and algebraic number theory, which offer
several natural instances of commutative rings. The relationship between these three disciplines
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 129
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
algebraic geometry, algebraic number theory, and commutative algebra is so close that it is sometimes
impossible to determine which discipline a given result belongs to. A basic theorem for algebraic
geometry is, for instance, Hilbert's Nullstellensatz, which is formulated and proven in terms of
commutative algebra.
Noncommutative rings have a very distinct character since they have a greater potential for
strange behaviour. Although the theory has grown on its own, a relatively recent tendency has
attempted to mirror the commutative growth by geometrically modelling the theory of some classes of
noncommutative rings as if they were rings of functions on (inexistent) "noncommutative spaces."
With the advancement of noncommutative geometry and the discovery of quantum groups, this
movement began in the 1980s. Noncommutative rings, particularly noncommutative Noetherian rings,
have been better understood as a result.
An ideal of a ring in mathematics, and more specifically in ring theory, is a unique subset of its
constituent parts. Certain subsets of the integers, such as the even numbers or the multiples of 3, are
generalized by ideals. The defining characteristics of an ideal are closure and absorption: adding and
subtracting even numbers maintains evenness, and multiplication an even number by any integer (even
or odd) yields an even number. Similar to how a normal subgroup may be used to create a quotient
group in group theory, an ideal can be used to create a quotient ring.
The ideals are the non-negative integers that correspond one-to-one with the integers; each
ideal in this ring is a main ideal made up of multiples of a single non-negative number. However, in
other rings, the ideals might not exactly match the ring components, and when certain integer qualities
are generalized to rings, they tend to attach to the ideals rather than the ring components more
naturally. For instance, the Chinese remainder theorem may be used to ideals and the prime ideals of a
ring are comparable to prime integers. The ideals of a Dedekind domain, a significant type of ring in
number theory, have a variant of unique prime factorization.
10.2 OBJECTIVES
The study of rings is a deep and multifaceted field with applications in various areas of mathematics
and beyond, the importance of ideals in the study of rings and algebraic structures. Ideals provide a
powerful framework for understanding the algebraic properties of rings and their connections to
various mathematical fields.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 130
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
10.3 RING
Let R be a non empty set and be arbitrary.The set R with two binary operations addition
and multiplication is called a ring if the following conditions are satisfied:
i. is an abelian group.
ii. is semi group.
iii. Distributive laws holds, i.e.,
[Right dstributive law]
[Left DISTRIBUTIVE law]
10.4 RING WITH UNITY
A ring having multiplicative identity element is called Ring with Unity or Ring with identity element.
10.5 COMMUTATIVE RING
A ring for which multiplicative is commutative is called commutative ring.
Example:
1. is a ring. This ring is called ring of integers.
2. is a ring, being fixed integer. This ring is Commutative ring.
3. is a ring. This ring is called ring of real numbers.This ring is a commutative ring with
unity element.
4. is a commutative ring. This ring is called ring of rational numbers.
10.6 BOOLEAN RING
A ring is called Boolean ring if all elements are indempotent.i.e.,
10.7 p- RING
A ring is called p-ring if
Similarly we define 2-ring.
10.8 ZERO DIVISOR
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 131
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
The non zero elements a,b of a ring R are knows as proper divisors of zero or zero divisors if
or .
Example:
1. The ring has matrices has zero divisors, for example if
Then
Hence the ring of matrices has zero divisors.
2. The rings of a number do not have zero divisors. For no two non-zero numbers such that their
product is zero.
10.9 RING WITHOUT ZERO DIVISORS
A ring is called without zero divisors if product of two non-zero elements of R is not zero if
where both and .
If we say that R is aring with zero divisors
10.10 CHARACTERISTIC OF A RING
The characteristic of a ring R is explained as the smallest positive in integer . s.t. . If
their exist no positive integer, then R is called characteristic zero. Therefore R is of characteristic zero
if and for any positive integer .
Theorem 1: (Elementary properties of ring) If are arbitrary elements of a ring R, then
Prove that.
i.
Solution: Let
by left distribution law
Now we get
Again
by right distribution law
By cancellation law in (R,+), we obtain
ii.
Solution: From (1) and (2) ,we obtain the results
For
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 132
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Since the additive inverse of is a
Similarly
and
Since the additive inverse of is a .
From (3) and (4), we obtain
iii.
Solution: Let by (ii)
again by (ii)
For –
iv.
Solution:
v.
Solution:
Theorem 2: If R is a ring with unity element 1, then
and
Proof:
Since , [For ]
Again
This implies Also
Now taking in above equation
For in additive group or .
Theorem 3: A ring without zero divisors iff the cancellation laws hold in .
Proof: Suppose R be a ring without zero divisors.
To prove that cancellation laws hold in R.
Since let .
Then
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 133
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Also and has no zero divisors.
Hence
Thus
Similarly we can show that
Conversely, Let R be a ring s.t. cancellation laws hold in R.
To prove that R has no zero divisors.
Suppose the contrary. Then R has zero divisors, then
and
for a.0=0 By left cancellation law
A Contradiction, for
Similarly . A Contradiction, for .
Theorem 4: If R is a Boolean ring then
(i)
(ii) is commutative.
PROOF:
(i) Suppose
is Boolean ring,
(R is Boolean)
or .
(ii) Now
is Boolean
By distributive law
Finally,
.
Left cancellation law of addition in R gives .
Taking , we get
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 134
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
, by left cancellation law
.
Theorem 5: If R is any ring with identity 1, show that R has positive characteristic iff is the at
least positive integer for which , 0 being additive identity of R.
Proof: Let R be a ring with unity element e.
characteristic of R is 0.
Suppose finite number so that n is at least positive integer s.t. . Let a be any
element of R. Then
For .
.
Thus is the least positive integer s.t. .
This proves that the characteristic of R is n.
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example 1: Let and be arbitrary elements of a ring R whose characteristic is two and .
Then prove that,
Solution: Suppose
The characteristic of R is two
Hence,
Example 2:If any element a has the multiplicative inverse, then a cannot be a divisor of zero, where
the underlying set of a ring.
Solution: Suppose let R be a ring and s.t. has the inverse so
To prove that is not zero divisor of zero. Suppose not then
is divisor of zero so the element and
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 135
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Contrary . Hence required the solution.
10.11 SUBRING
Let R be a ring. A non empty subset s of the set R is said to be a subring of R if S is closed under
addition and multiplication in R and S itself is a ring for those operations.
iff is closed for compositions in R
iff .
Theorem 1: The necessary and sufficient conditions for a non empty subset S of a ring R to be a
subring of R are (i) a,b S a-b S. (ii) ) a,b S ab S.
Proof: Let S be a Subring of a ring R so that S itself is a ring.
To prove that
(i) a,b S a-b S. (ii) a,b S ab S.
S is ring (S, +) is an abelian group.
Hence a,b S a, -b S [Each elemant of S has additive inverse in S]
a+(-b) S [S is closed w.r.t.(+)]
a-b S. Hence the condition (i)
Again S is ring (S, is a semi group
is closed w.r.t. multiplication
ab S a,b S. Hence the condition (ii)
Conversely, let S is non empty subset of R s.t. the conditions (i) and (ii) hold.
To prove that S is a subring of R, it is enough to show that S is a ring.
The condition (i) says that
a,a S a-a S 0 S.
Again 0 S, a S 0-a S -a S.
i.e. a S -a S.
Consequently, a, b S a, -b S
a-(-b) S by condition (i)
a+b S
a,b S a,b
a+b= b+a. Fot (R, +) is a abelian group.
Similarly, we can show that
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 136
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
a+ (b+c) = (a+b)+c a,b, c S.
Hence the above facts prove that (S, +) is an abelian group. Associatively of multiplication over
addition holds in S. Since they hold in R. Finally we have show that (S, +, ) is a ring.
Theorem 2: The intersection of two subring is again a subring.
Proof: Let and be two subring of ring R.
Since 0 and 0 at least 0 . Therefore is non-empty.
Let a,b , then
a a and a
and b b and b .
But and are subring of R, therefore
a, b a-b and ab
and a, b a-b and ab .
Consequently, a,b a-b and ab
Hence is a subring of R.
10.12 PROPER AND IMPROPER SUBRING
If R is any ring, then and R are always subring of R. These are said to be improper subrings. The
subrings of R other than these two, if any, are said to be proper subrings of R.
Example:
(i) The ring of Gaussian integers is a subring of ring of complex numbers.
(ii) The ring of rational numbers is a subring of ring of real numbers.
The ring of integers is a subring of a ring of rational numbers.
10.13 IDEALS
A non empty Subset S of a ring R is called a left ideal of R if:
(i) S is additive Subgroup of R.
(ii) r R, s S rs S.
A non empty subset S of a ring R is called a right ideal of R if:
(i) S is additive subgroup of R.
(ii) r R, s S rs S.
A non empty subset of a ring R is called an ideal or two sides ideal if it is both left ideal and right
ideal, i.e. if:
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 137
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
(i) S is additive Subgroup of R.
(ii) r R, s S rs S, sr S.
Example:
(i) The subring of even integers is an ideal of ring integers.
(ii) The set is an ideal of the ring of integers. M being any fixed integer.
(iii) If R is a ring, then the set is a right ideal of R. a being any fixed element
of R.
(iv) If R is a ring, then the set is a left ideal of R. a being any fixed element of
R.
10.14 IMPROPER AND PROPER IDEALS
Let be a ring. The ideal R and are called improper or trivial ideals of R. Any ideal other
than these two ideals is called a proper (or non trivial) ideal of R.
10.15 PRINCIPAL IDEAL
A left ideal generated by single element a R is also called principal left ideal of R. The set
is a principal left ideal of R. a being fixed element of R.
If R is a ring with unity element e, and a R, then Ra is principal left ideal of R.
A right ideal generated by single element a R is also called right principal ideal of R. The set
is a principal right ideal of R. a being fixed element of R.
If R is a ring with unity element e, then aR is defined as right ideal generated by an element a R. aR
is also defined as principal right ideal of R.
An ideal of a ring R is called principal ideal of R, if it is generated by single element of R.
That is to say, the set
is a principal ideal of R, generated by single element a R. This set is also called ideal generated by an
element a R. The expression for principal ideal can be simplified if R is a ring with unity element e.
In this case
. For
, where
=
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 138
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
= , where .
Hence a principal ideal of R is the set if is a ring with unity element .
10.16 PRINCIPAL IDEAL RING
A commutative ring with unity for which every ideal is a principal ideal is said to be a principal ideal
ring.
10.17 PRIME IDEAL
Let R be a commutative ring. An ideal S of ring R is said to be a prime ideal of R if
S S or .
If an ideal S of a ring R is generated by an element , then we write
.
Similarly if an ideal S of a ring R is generated by elements , then we write
.
Example: The ideal is prime.
Solution: Let is prime ideal of R generated by 3 and we also write
Here . Also 3 is prime
and
or
is prime
Theorem: If R is a commutative ring with unity and , then is a principal ideal
of R, generated by a.
Proof: Let R be a commutative ring with unity element e and ,
(i) To prove that Ra is ideal of R.
(ii) To prove that Ra = (a), i.e., the ideal Ra is generated by a.
Let S be an ideal generated by an element of a, so that
. For R is commutative.
.
, where
, where .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 139
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Finally, .
Hence,
But .
Hence .
Now we have shown that Ra is an ideal generated by a single element a. By definition, Ra is a
principal ideal of R.
10.18 QUOTIENT RING
Let R be a ring and S be an ideal of R. Let denote the family of cosets of S in R, i.e.,
Let be arbitrary elements of . Define the operations of addition and multiplication on
as follows:
.
Then R/S is a ring w.r.t. these operations. This ring is called quotient ring or factor ring.
Theorem: The intersection of two ideals is an ideal.
Proof:
(i) and both are additive subgroups of R.
(ii)
and .
To prove that is an ideal of R. For this we have to prove the following:
(iii) is additive subgroup of R.
(iv)
Evidently
and
and
and , by (ii)
.
Check your progress
Problem 1: Check that the singleton set {0} is ring or not?
Problem 2: Check that the singleton set contain the identity element form a ring?
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 140
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Problem 3: Check that the set {0,1} is ring with unity or not?
10.19 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have studied the basic terminology used in ring theory. We have also read about the
basic idea of ring with some theorems and examples. We have defined commutative and non
commutative. In this unit first we have defined subring, Boolean ring, characteristic of ring with
examples. After that we have described the definition of ideal, prime ideal, principal ideal and quotient
ring with examples then important theorem related to these topic described. This unit is basic outlook
of ring theory and concepts of this unit will be beneficial for the learners in the upcoming units.
10.20 GLOSSARY
Ring
Characteristic of ring
Subring
Ideal
Principal ideal
Quotient ring
10.21 REFERENCES
Joseph A Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa, 1999.
N. Herstein,(1975), Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri (2021 ), A Course in Abstract Algebra (5th Edition), Vikas
Publication House.
Vasishtha, A. R., & Vasishtha, A. K. (2006). Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra). Krishna
Prakashan Media.
RamjiLal, Algebra 1: Groups, Rings, Fields and Arithmetic, Springer, 2017.
10.22 SUGGESTED READING
P.B. Bhattacharya, S.K. Jain, S.R. Nagpaul: Basic Abstract Algebra, Cambridge Press, 1994.
David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote: Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), Wiley, 2011.
Michael Artin: Algebra (2nd edition), Pearson, 2014.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 141
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
10.23 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Long Answer Type Question:
1. Prove that set of integers is a commutating ring ‘or’ (Z ,,.) is a commutative ring.
2. Prove that set of rational numbers is a commutative ring.
3. Prove that ring without zero divisors iff the cancellation laws hold in
4. State and prove the necessary and sufficient condition for any subset of ring to be a subring.
5. Prove that set of rational numbers is a subring of set of real number.
6. Prove that subring of even integers is an ideal of ring of integers.
Short Answer Type Question:
7. If R is any ring with identity 1, then prove that R has positive characteristic iff is the at
least positive integer for which , 0 being additive identity of R.
8. In any ring (R) any element a has the multiplicative inverse, then prove that a cannot be a
divisor of zero.
9. Prove that intersection of two subring of a ring is also a subring.
10. Prove that intersection of two ideal of a ring is also an ideal of ring.
11. Define the ring and subring with example.
12. Define the ideal, prime ideal and principal ideal with example.
13. Define proper and improper ideal with example.
14. Let and be arbitrary elements of a ring R whose characteristic is two and . Then
prove that,
Fill in the blanks:
15. Intersection of two subring of any ring is also a ………….
16. Intersection of two ideal of any ring is also an ………….
17. Set of rational number is subring of set of ……………..
18. A ring (R) without zero divisors iff the cancellation laws ……………….. in .
19. Set of integers is a ……………….. ring with unity
10.24 ANSWERS
Answer of self cheque question:
1. Yes 2. Yes 3. Yes
Answer of terminal question:
15. Subring 16. Ideal 17. Real 18. R 19. Commutative
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 142
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Unit-11: INTEGRAL DOMAIN AND FIELDS
CONTENT:
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Integral domain
11.4 Field
11.4.1 Subfield
11.5 Division ring or skew-field
11.6 Summary
11.7 Glossary
11.8 References
11.9 Suggested Readings
11.10 Terminal Questions
11.11 Answers
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will learned about the more important tools used in the ring theory like integral domain,
field and division ring or skew field. A field in mathematics is a set on which the operations addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division are defined and function in the same manner as they do for
rational and real numbers. As a result, a field is a basic algebraic structure that is often utilised in
number theory, algebra, and many other branches of mathematics.
The domains of rational numbers, real numbers, and complex numbers are the most well-
known ones. Mathematicians frequently utilise and study a variety of different fields, notably in
number theory and algebraic geometry, including fields of rational functions, algebraic function fields,
algebraic number fields, and p-adic fields. On finite fields, or fields with a finite number of elements,
the majority of cryptographic procedures are based.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 143
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
The idea of a field extension expresses the relationship between two fields. The goal of the
Galois theory, which Évariste Galois founded in the 1830s, is to comprehend the symmetries of field
extensions. This theory demonstrates, among other things, that it is impossible to square a circle and
trisect an angle with a compass and straightedge. Additionally, it demonstrates that quintic equations
are typically algebraically intractable.
In many areas of mathematics, fields are fundamental concepts. This comprises many
mathematical analysis disciplines that are based on fields with extra structure. Analysis's fundamental
theorems rely on the real numbers' structural characteristics. What's more, any field may be utilised as
the scalars for a vector space, which is the usual generic setting for linear algebra. In-depth research is
done on number fields, the siblings of the subject of rational numbers. Geometric object attributes may
be described with the use of function fields.
11.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to
Memorized about the integral domain which is the extension of ring.
Analyze about the field which further essential tool used is Linear Algebra.
Memorized the concept of division ring or skew field.
Implementation of the concept of integral domain, field and division ring or skew field.
11.3 INTEGRAL DOMAIN
Definition: Any ring (R) is called integral domain, if it satisfies the following conditions
(i) R should be commutative ring
(ii) R has unit element
(iii) R should be without zero divisors.
Some authors defining to integral domain in a different way that an integral domain is a commutative
ring without zero divisors. They do not demand that an integral domain have the unit element without
a doubt.
Set of integer ( I ) is a most common example of a ring to be an integral domain. We know that I is a
commutative ring with unity and also I does not possess zero divisors. We know that if a, b are
integers such that ab 0 , then either a or b must be zero.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 144
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
The other rings which are examples of infinite integral domains are (C,,.), (Q,,.), ( R,,.) and the
example of finite integral domain is ({0,1, 2, 3, 4}, 5 , 5 ) .
Inversible elements in a ring with unity: In a ring (R) each element possess additive inverse.
Therefore when we talking about inversible of an element, we only asking about invertiablity with
respect to the operation multiplication. If R is a ring with unity, then an element a R is called
inversible, if there exist b R such that ab 1 ba . Then we rewrite b a 1 .
Examples (i): In the ring of integers 1 and -1 are the only two inversible elements.
(ii): In the set of n n non singular matrices with real numbers as elements are the only inversible
elements of the ring of all n n matrices with elements as real numbers.
Theorem 1: A commutative ring R is an integral domain iff a, b, c R (a 0)
ab ac b c
Proof: Let R is an integral domain.
Also let ab ac (a 0)
Then ab ac 0
a(b c) 0
a 0 or b c 0
Since a 0 , we get b c
Conversely, let the given condition holds good.
Let a, b R be a arbitrary elements with a 0 .
Suppose ab 0
Then ab a.0
b 0 using given condition
Hence ab 0 b 0 whenever a 0 or that R is an integral domain.
Remark: Any ring (R) is said to satisfy left cancellation law if a, b, c R (a 0)
ab ac b c
Similarly we can talk of right cancellation law. It is to notify that cancellation is of only non zero
elements.
11.4 FIELD
Definition: A ring (R) with at least two elements is called a field (F ) if it satisfies following
conditions,
(i) It should be commutative
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 145
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
(ii) It has unity
(iii) Each non-zero element possess multiplicative inverse.
For example, ring of rational numbers (Q, , .) is a field because it satisfies aforementioned following
conditions. Similarly, rings of real numbers ( R, , .) and complex numbers (C, , .) are also common
example of fields.
({0,1, 2, 3, 4}, 5 , 5 ) is an example of finite fields
If a, 0 b are elements of a finite field F , then we shall often write
a
ab 1 b 1a . In a field F , we have
b
a c
(ab 1 ) (cd 1 ) (bd 1 )(bd )[(ab 1 ) (cd 1 )]
b d
ad bc
(bd 1 )[(bd )(ab 1 ) (bd 1 )(bd )(cd 1 )] (bd 1 )(ad bc)
bd
[Because in the field ( F ) multiplication is commutative]
ac ac
Also (ab 1 )(cd 1 ) (ac)(b 1d 1 ) (ac)(bd ) 1 .
bd bd
11.4.1 SUBFIELDS
Definition: A non-empty subset K of a field F is said to be subfield if K is closed w.r.to. operation
addition and multiplication in F and K itself is a field for these operation.
Conditions for a subfield: The necessary and sufficient condition for a non-empty subset K of field
F to be subfield are
(i) a K, b K a b K
(ii) a K , 0 b K ab1 K
Proof: Necessary condition: Let the subset K of field F is itself a field.
K is a group w.r.to. addition i.e. for each a, b K a b K
Now each non-zero element of K possesses multiplicative inverse. Therefore
a K , 0 b K ab1 K
Hence condition is necessary.
Sufficient condition: Suppose K is non-empty subset of F and satisfying the condition (i) and (ii). As
similar we have proved in case of subring that ( K ,) is abelian group, in similar we will prove (i) that
( K ,) is abelian group.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 146
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Now let a be any non-zero element of K. Then from (ii) we have
a K , 0 a K aa 1 K 1 K
Now 1 K , therefore again from (ii), we have
1 K , 0 a K 1a 1 K a 1 K .
Each non-zero element of K possesses multiplicative inverse.
Now let a K and 0 b K . Then b 1 K . From (ii), we have
a K , 0 b 1 K a(b 1 ) 1 K ab K
Also if b 0, then ab 0 and 0 K
ab K a, b K
Associativity of multiplication and distributivity of multiplication over addition must hold in K since
they hold in F
11.5 DIVISION RING AND SKEW FIELD
Definition: A ring (R) with at least two elements is called a division ring or a skew field if is satisfies
following conditions
(i) Has unity
(ii) Each non-zero element possesses its multiplicative inverse.
Thus a commutative division ring is a field.
A division ring is a field if it is also commutative but every field is also a division ring.
Theorem: Every field is an integral domain.
Proof: As we know that a field (F ) is a commutative ring with unity, therefore to prove that every field
is an integral domain we have only to prove that a field has no zero divisors.
Let a, b be elements of F with a 0 such that ab 0
Since a 0, a 1 exists and we have
ab 0 a 1 (ab) a 1 0
( a 1a)b 0
1b 0 [ a 1a 1 ]
b 0 [ ab b ]
Similarly, let ab 0 and b 0
Since b 0, b 1 exists and we have
ab 0 (ab)b 1 0b 1
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 147
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
a(bb1 ) 0 a1 0 a 0
Hence in a field ab 0 a 0 or b 0 . Since field has no zero divisors therefore every field is an
integral domain.
The converse of this theorem is not true i.e., every integral domain is not a field. For example, ring of
integer is an integral domain while it is not a field because only inversible element in the ring of
integer are 1 and -1.
Note: In the field unity and zero are different elements i.e., 1 0 . Let a be any non-zero element of a
field. Then a 1 exists and is also non-zero. For, a 1 0 aa 1 a0 1 0 a1 a0 a 0
This is a contradiction. Now, field has no zero divisors. Therefore, 1 a 1a 0 .
Remarks: As we know field has no zero divisors. Therefore in the field product of two non-zero
elements will again a non-zero element. Also each non-zero element and unit element possesses non-
zero multiplicative inverse. Since multiplication is commutative as well as associative, therefore the
non-zero elements of a field form abelian group w.r.to. multiplication.
Theorem 2: A skew field (D) has no zero divisors.
Proof: Let D be a skew-field. Then D is a ring with unit element 1 and each non-zero element of D
possesses multiplicative inverse.
Let a, b be elements of D with a 0 s.t. ab 0
Since a 0, a 1 exists and we have
ab 0 a 1 (ab) a 1 0
(a 1a)b 0 1b 0 b 0
Similarly, let ab 0 with b 0
Since b 0, b 1 exists and we have
ab 0 (ab)b 1 0b 1
a(bb1 ) 0 a1 0 a 0
Hence a skew field has no zero divisors.
Theorem 3: Every finite integral domain is a field ‘OR’ A finite commutative ring without zero
divisor is a field.
Proof: Let D be a finite commutative ring without zero divisor having n elements a1 , a2 , ..., , an . In
order to prove that D is a field, we must produce an element 1 D such that 1a a a D . Also we
should show that for every element a 0 D there exist an element b D such that ba 1 .
Let a 0 D . Consider the n products aa1 , aa2 , aa3 ,..., aan .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 148
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
All these are element of D . Also they are all distinct. For suppose that aai aa j for i j .
Then a (ai a j ) 0 … (1)
Since D is without zero divisors and a 0, therefore (1) implies
ai a j 0 ai a j , contradicting i j .
aa1 , aa2 , aa3 ,..., aan are all n distinct elements of D placed in some order. So one of these elements
will be equal to a . Thus there exists an element, say, 1 D such that
a1 a 1a [ D is commutative]
We shall show that this element 1 is the multiplicative identity of D . Let y be any element of D .
Then from the above discussion for some x D , we shall have ax y xa
Now, 1y 1(ax) [ ax y ]
(1a) x
ax [1a a ]
y [ ax y ]
y1 [ D is commutative]
Thus 1y y y1, y D . Therefore 1 is the unit element of the ring D.
Now 1 D . Therefore from the above discussion one of the n products aa1 , aa2 , aa3 ,..., aan will be
equal to 1. Thus there exists an element, say b D such that
ab 1 ba
b is the multiplicative inverse of the non-zero element a D . Thus every non-zero element of D is
inversible.
D is a field.
Definition: In a ring R any element a is said to be idempotent if a 2 a . Any ring R will be called
Boolean Ring if and only if all of its elements are idempotent i.e., if a 2 a a R .
Example 1: In the ring of set M of 2 2 matrices over the field of real number with respect to matrix
addition and multiplication evaluate the following:
(i) Is it a commutating ring with unity elements?
(ii) Find the zero elements.
(iii) Does this ring possess zero divisors?
Solution: Let A, B M . Then A B M and AB M . Therefore M is closed with respect addition
and multiplication of matrices.
As we know that both addition and multiplication of matrices are associative composition.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 149
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
A ( B C ) ( A B) C A, B, C M
and A( BC) ( AB)C A, B, C M
Commutative property holds in addition of matrices. Hence, A, B M , we have A B B A .
If O be the null matrix of the type 2 2 , then O M and O A A A M .
Further multiplication of matrices is distributes w.r.to. addition.
A( B C) AB AC
and ( B C) A BA CA A, B, C M
M is a ring with respect to the given compositions.
Multiplication of matrices is not in general a commutative composition. For example, if
2 4 1 2
A ,B
3 5 0 1
2 8 8 14
Then, AB and BA
3 11 3 5
Thus AB BA and so the ring is a non-commutative ring
1 0
If I be the unit matrix of the type 2 2 i.e., I then I M . Also we have
0 1
AI A IA A M
I is the multiplicative identity.
Thus the ring possesses the unit element and we have I 1 (the unit element of the ring)
The ring possesses zero divisors. For example if
0 1 2 3 0 0
A ,B , then AB
0 1 0 0 0 0
Thus the product of two non-zero elements of the ring is equal to the zero element of the ring.
Example 2: DO the following sets from integral domains w.r.to. ordinary addition and multiplication?
If so state if they are fields.
(i) The set of numbers of the form b 2 with b rational.
(ii) The set of even integers.
(iii) The set of positive integers.
Solution (i): Let A b 2 : b Q .
We have 3 2 A and 5 2 A . Then 3 2 5 2 30 . Now 30 can not be put in the form b 2
where b is rational number. Therefore 30 A . Thus A is not closed with respect to multiplication.
Therefore the question of A becoming a ring does not arises.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 150
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
(ii): Let R be set of all even integers. Then R is a ring with respect to addition and multiplication
of integers. Additionally, the composition of multiplication is commutative. Since the product of two
non-zero even integers cannot equal zero, which is the zero element of this ring, R has no zero
divisors. Since the integer 1 R, therefore R is a ring without unity. If the presence of the unit clement
is not a requirement for an integral domain, then R will be one. However, since the multiplicative
identity does not exist, R is not a field.
(iii): N should be the collection of positive integers. The additive identity does not exist since the
number 0 N . N won't be a ring, then.
Example 3: Show that collection of numbers of the form a b 2 , with a and b as rational numbers
is a field.
Solution: Let R a b 2 : a, b Q
Let a1 b1 2 R and a2 b2 2 R where a1 , b1 , a2 , b2 Q
We have a1 b1 2 a2 b2 2 a1 a2 (b1 b2 ) 2 R . Since a1 a2 , b1 b2 Q
Also a1 b1 2 a2 b2 2 a1a2 2b1b2 a1b2 a2b1 2 R .
Since a1a2 2b1b2 , a1b2 a2b1 Q
Thus R is closed w.r.to. addition and multiplication.
We know that addition and multiplication are both associative and commutative compositions in the
set of real numbers since all the components of R are real numbers.
Further we have 0 0 2 R since 0 Q .
If a b 2 R , then
0 0 2 a b 2 0 a (0 b) 2 a b 2
0 0 2 is the additive identity.
Now again if a b 2 R , then ( a ) (b) 2 R and we have
[(a ) (b) 2 ] [a b 2 ] 0 0 2
each element of R posses its own additive inverse.
Since multiplication is distributive w.r.to. addition in the set of real number.
Again 1 0 2 R and we have
1 0 2 a b 2 a b
2 a b 2 1 0 2 R
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 151
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
So, 1 0 2 is the multiplicative identity. Thus R is commutative ring with unity and the zero
element of the ring is 0 0 2 and 1 0 2 is the unit element. If each non-zero element of R has a
multiplicative inverse, then R will now be a field.
Let a b 2 0 0 2 be any element of this ring i.e., one of the element a and b is not zero.
1 a b 2 a b 2
Then 2
a b 2 (a b 2 )(a b 2 ) a 2b
2
a b
2 2
2 2
2
a 2b a 2b
Now if a , b are rational numbers, then we can have a 2 2b 2 only if a 0, b 0 . As we know that at
least one of the rational numbers a and b is not 0 . There we cannot have a 2 2b 2 i.e., a 2 2b 2 0 .
a b
Both numbers and 2 are rational number and not both of them are zero.
a 2b
2 2
a 2b 2
a b
2 2
2 2
2 is non-zero multiplicative inverse of a b 2 . Hence the given
a 2b a 2b
system is a field.
Example 4: Give an example of an infinite commutative ring without zero divisors which is not a
field.
Solution: Let Z be the set of integers. Then (Z , , .) is an infinite commutating ring without zero
divisors and is not a field.
Example 5: If ( R, , .) be a ring with n elements, n 2 with no zero divisors, show that R is a
division ring.
Solution: Let R be a finite consisting of n elements, where n 2 s.t., R has no divisor of zero.
To prove that R is a division ring we have enough to prove that.
(i) R has a unit element 1.
(ii) Every non-zero element of R has multiplicative inverse in R .
(i) Prove of (i) is the part of Theorem 3.
(ii) 1 R a x j R s.t. a x j 1, 1 j n
a is left inverse of x j in R .
But left inverse = Right inverse.
a is the multiplicative inverse of x j in R
Theorem 4: In the ordered integral domain D , the unity element is a positive element of D .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 152
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Proof: Let P be the collection of positive elements of integral domain D . We have to prove that 1 P
, for it we assume that 1 P .
Since 1 P , 1 0 1 P [By definition of P ]
(1)(1) P
1 P , which is a contradiction.
Hence the unity element is positive element of D .
Theorem 5: The field ( I p , p , p ) is not ordered, where I p {0, 1, 2,..., p 1} and p prime.
Proof: To prove ( I p , p , p ) is not ordered.
Suppose the contrary. Then ( I p , p , p ) is ordered. Let P be the set of positive element of I p . Since
additive identity of I p is '0' . By definition of P, 1 I P
only one of the following is true:
1 0,1 P or additive inverse of 1 P .
Evidently 1 0 . Hence 1 P or additive inverse of 1 P . Since P is closed w.r.to p .
1 P 1 p 1 P 2 P 2 p 1 P 3 P
Repeating this process, we find that 1 P p 1 P , i.e., 1 P
additive inverse of 1 belongs to P . Which is a contradiction.
For both the possibilities 1 P, p 1 P cannot holds simultaneously.
Here our initial assumption is wrong.
Therefore the required result follows.
Theorem 6: The set of complex number is not ordered integral domain.
Proof: Let C be the set of complex numbers. We know that (C,, .) is an integral domain. Let P be the
set of positive element of C . Evidently i C and i 0 .
Hence either i P or i P .
i P i.i P , by definition of P
1 P. For i 2 1 .
A contradiction . For 1 P , by theorem 4.
i P .
Again, i P (i)(i) P i 2 P 1 P .
Again we get a contradiction, i P .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 153
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Thus i 0, i P, i P, i.e., any one of the following:
i 0, i P, i P,
does not hold. Hence C is not an ordered integral domain.
Theorem 7: The characteristic of a ring with unity is zero or n 0 according as the unity element
regarded as a member of additive group of R of order 0 or n .
OR
If R is any ring with identity 1 , shows that R has positive characteristic n iff n is the least positive
integer for which n.1 0, 0 being additive identity of R .
Proof: Let R be a ring with unity element e.
O(e) 0 Characteristic of R is 0.
Suppose O(e) n a finite number so that n is the least positive integer s.t. ne 0 . Let a be any
element of R . Then
na n(ea). 1For ea a ae
(ne)a 0a 0
Thus n is the least positive integer s.t. na 0 . Hence the characteristics of R is n .
Theorem 8: Every finite integral domain D is of finite characteristics.
Proof: Let ( D, , .) be a finite integral domain so that ( D, , .) is a finite abelian group. We also known
that characteristic of D is the order of unity element e of ( D, , .) .
( D, , .) is finite group O(e) finite.
Characteristic of D is finite.
Theorem 9(a): The characteristic of an integral domain is either 0 or a prime number according as the
unity element e regarded as a member of the additive group of integral domain is of order 0 or a prime
number.
Proof: (i) Let D be an integral domain. Then we prove that characteristic of D is either 0 or p 0 .
[Proved in theorem 8]
(ii) If the characteristic is zero, the proof is complete.
Let the characteristic be p 0 . We have to show that p is a prime number.
Suppose p is not prime. Then p is composite integer. So we can write p p1 p2 : where 1 p1 , p2 p .
Characteristic of D is p order of e of the group ( D,) is p . [ e is unity element of D ]
o(e) p pe 0
p1 p2e 0 p1 ( p2e) 0
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 154
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
( p1e)( p2e) 0
p1e 0 or p2e 0 [For D has no zero divisor]
Characteristic of D is either p1 or p2 p
Ch. D p . A contradiction.
Hence p is not composite.
Therefore p is prime.
Theorem 9(b): The characteristic of an integral domain is 0 or n 0 according as the order of any
non-zero element regarded as member of the additive group of the integral is either 0 or n .
Proof: Let ( D, , .) be an integral domain and a D and a 0 and O(a) 0 or n regarded as a
member of ( D, ) .
Then na 0, 0a 0 ...(1)
Aim: Characteristic of D is 0 or n .
For this have to show that nx 0 x D .
If x D , then (1) (na) x 0 (a a ... a to n terms) x 0
(ax ax ... a to n terms) 0
a( x x ....to n terms) 0 a(nx) 0, a 0
nx 0 as D is free from zero divisors. Hence n is the least positive integer, according to (1).
Example 6: If there exist a positive integer m such that ma 0 a F , then show that m is a prime.
What is this integer? F being a field.
Answer: Let F be a field and a F be arbitrary. Also let
ma 0 …(1)
where m is a positive integer. Let e be the multiple identity of F .
Then ae ea 0
(1) m(ea) 0 (me)(a) 0 me 0 or a 0
in particular me 0 …(2)
For F has no divisor of zero
F is field F is integral domain s.t. (2) holds.
It means that m is the characteristic of F . To prove that m is prime.
Now write proof of theorem 9a.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 155
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Theorem 10: Each non-zero element of an integral domain D , regarded as an element of the additive
group D , is of the same order.
Proof: Let a, b be arbitrary non-zero elements of an integral domain D s.t. a b .
Let O(a) n, O(b) m , where a, b are regarded as element of ( D, ) so that na 0, mb 0 ,
D is an integral domain D has no zero divisors.
cancellation law hold in D .
na 0 a a ... upto n terms 0
ba a ... upto n terms b.0 0
ba ba ... upto n terms 0
n(ba) 0 (nb)a 0 0a (nb)a 0a
nb 0 , by cancellation law
O(b) n m n. For O(b) m
mb 0 b b ... upto n terms 0
ab b ... upto n terms a.0 0
ab ab ... upto n terms 0
m(ab) 0 0b
(ma)b 0b . Also b 0
ma 0 , By cancellation law
O(a) m n m . For O(a) n
Thus we have shown that n m, m n .
m n, i.e., O(a) O(b) .
When considered as members of an additive group, any two non-zero components of D have the same
order.
Therefore, when considered a member of ( D, ) , every non-zero element of D is of the same order.
Example 7: Give an example of skew-field which is not field.
Solution: Let R be a set of matrices of the form,
a b
A
b a
Where a and b are complex numbers.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 156
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
c d
B
c
Let ,
d
p q
C
p
be any two member of R . Then
q
ac b d
A B
(b d a c
ac bd ad bc
AB
(bc a d bd ac
If we take a c, b d , ac bd , ad bc , then we have
A B R
AB R
(i) ( R, ) is an abelian group.
Closure axiom: A B R (already proved)
Commutativity: A B B A .
This flows from the fact that a b b a
0 0
Existence of identity: O R
0 0
is additive identity s.t. A O O A A
Associative law: A ( B C ) ( A B) C
It follows from the fact that
a (b c) (a b) c
a c
Existence of inverse: A R
c a
is inverse of A s.t. A ( A) O
(ii) (R, .) is a group
Closure axioms: AB R (already proved)
1 0
Existence of identity: I R is identity s.t. AI IA A .
0 1
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 157
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Associative law: ( AB)C A( BC)
For (ab)c a(bc)
Existence of inverse: If A O , then
adjA 1 a b
A1 R
| A | (a a bb) b a
is inverse of A s.t. AA1 A1 A I
Commutative law: AB BA is not satisfied here.
c d a b
For BA
d d b a
ac bd bc ad
BA , by (1)
a d b c b d a c
Or BA AB
(iii) Distributive law: A( B C ) AB AC
( B C ) A BA CA
It is true in general in case of matrices.
These fact show that ( R, , .) is askew field but not field.
Example 8: Prove that the set I 7 {0,1, 2, ..., 6} forms a field w.r.t. addition and multiplication modulo
7.
Solution: Let I 7 {0,1, 2, ..., 6} .
Let a, b, c I 7
a b if a b 7
We define a 7 b
r if a b 7
Where r is remainder when a b is divided by 7,
0r 6
Evidently, a 7 b I 7
(i) First, we have to prove that ( I 7 , 7 ) is an abelian group.
Closure axioms: a 7 b I 7 (already proved)
Existence of identity: 0 I 7 , called additive identity s.t.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 158
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
a 7 0 0 7 a a
Commutative law: a 7 b b 7 a .
This follow from the fact that, a b b a
Associative law: a 7 b 7 c a 7 (b 7 c)
Since (a b) c a (b c)
Therefore each side leaves the same remainder when divided by 7.
(a b) 7 c a 7 (b c)
Or (a 7 b) c a 7 (b 7 c)
Existence of inverse: a I 7 , its inverse
(7 a) I 7 (if a 0 ) s.t.
(7 a) 7 a a 7 (7 a) 0 .
Inverse of 0 is 0 itself.
(ii) Write I ' 7 {1, 2, 3, ..., 6} I 7 {0} .
Let a, b, c I ' 7 . Define
ab if ab 7
a 7 b
s if ab 7
Where s is the remainder when ab is divisible by 7.
0s6
s 0 ab is divisible by 7.
But 7 has divisor a or b is divisible by 7
a 7, b 7 .
A contradiction as a, b 7 .
s 0. Consequently 0 s 6 .
This s I 7' a 7 b I 7'
Aim: Now we have to prove that ( I 7' , 7 ) is an abelian group.
Closure axioms: a 7 b I 7' (already proved)
Commutative law: a 7 b b 7 a
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 159
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Associative law: (a 7 b) 7 c a 7 (b 7 c) .
Since (ab)c a(bc)
Existence of identity: 1 I 7' is identity element s.t.
17 a a 7 1 a .
Existence of inverse: a I 7' , we have its inverse x I 7' s.t.
a 7 x x 7 a 1 .
For the equation ax 1 (mod p) has a solution x if p is prime.
[Inverse of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 are respectively 1, 4, 5, 2, 3, 6]
Thus ( I 7' , 7 ) is an abelian group.
(iii) Distributive law: a 7 (b 7 c) (a 7 b) 7 (a 7 c)
(b 7 c) 7 a (b 7 a) 7 (c 7 a)
This follows from the fact that
a (b c) ab ac and (b c)a ba ca
Above arguments lead to the fact that ( I 7 , 7 , 7 ) is a field.
Similar example 9: Let p be a positive prime number. Prove that the set I p {0, 1, ..., p 1} forms a
field w.r.t. addition and multiplication modulo p ’OR’Ring of integers modulo a prime number p , is a
field.
Example 10: If I 5 {0,1, 2, 3, 4} then prove that ( I 5 , 5 , 5 ) is a field, where 5 and 5 respectively
denote addition and multiplication modulo 5.
Answer: The composition tables for two operations are given below:
(i) Closure axiom: From the two composition tables it is quite clear that all the entries in both
composition tables belong to I 5 . Hence I 5 is closed w.r.to. both operation
(ii) Commutative law: The entries in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th rows are coincident with the corresponding
element of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th columns respectively relative to the both operations. Hence 5 and 5
both are commutative in I 5 .
(iii) Associative law: It is easy to verify that the associative law holds for 5 ,
i.e., a 5 (b 5 c) (a 5 b) 5 c a, b, c I 5 .
Similarly, a 5 (b 5 c) (a 5 b) 5 c a, b, c I 5
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 160
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
5 0 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4
0 0 1 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 0 2 2 4 1 3
3 3 1 4 2
2 2 3 4 0 1
4 4 3 2 1
3 3 4 0 1 2
4 4 0 1 2 3
(iv) 0 is the additive identity and 1 is the multiplicative identity for I 5 .
For 0 5 a a a I 5
1 5 a a a I 5 s.t. a 0
This follows from the composition tables.
(v) Existence of inverse: The additive inverse of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 are 0, 4, 3, 2, 1 respectively. The
multiplicative inverses of non-zero elements 1, 2, 3, 4 are 1, 3, 2, 4 respectively.
(vi) Distributive law: Multiplication is distributive over addition, i.e.,
a 5 (b 5 c) a 5 b 5 a 5 c a, b, c I 5
(b 5 c) 5 a b 5 a 5 a 5 c 5 a a, b, c I 5
For a 5 (b 5 c) a 5 (b c). For b 5 c b c (mod 5)
least positive remainder when a (b c) is divided by 5.
least positive remainder when ab ac is divided by 5.
ab 5 ac
a 5 b 5 a 5 c . For a 5 b a b (mod 5)
In similar way, we can prove other distributive law.
Hence ( I 5 , 5 , 5 ) is a field.
Example 10: The set of all residue classes modulo a positive integer p is an integral domain iff p is
prime.
Solution: Let R denote the set of all residue classes modulo a positive integer p so that
R [ x] : x 0,1, 2, 3, ..., p 1
Then we know that R is a commutative ring with unity element [1], [0] being the zero element of R .
Let [a], [b] R be arbitrary so that
0 a, b p 1
R will be an integral domain iff it is free from zero divisors, i.e., iff
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 161
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
[a][b] [0] [a] [0] or [b] 0
So we have to show that p is prime iff
[a][b] [0] [a] [0] or [b] 0
(i) p is prime, [a][b] [0] p is prime, ab 0 (mod p)
a 0 (mod p) or b 0 (mod p)
[a] [0] or [b] [0] or b 0 (mod p)
(ii) Conversely supplies,
[a][b] [0] [a] [0] or [b] [0].
Now we have to prove that p is prime. For it let p is of composite order.
If p is of composite order p is expressible as, p p1 p2 , where 1 p1 , p2 p
[ p] [ p1. p2 ], [ p1 ] [0], [ p2 ] [0]
[ p1. p2 ] [0]. For [ p] [0]
[ p1 ] 0 or [ p2 ] [0], by assumption.
Which is a contradiction.
For [ p1 ] 0 and [ p2 ] [0].
Which shows our assumption is wrong. Therefore p is prime.
Similar problem 11: The set of all integers modulo a positive integer p is an integral domain iff p is
prime.
Hint: ( I p , p , p ) is integral domain, where I p {0, 1, 2, 3, ..., p 1} .
Check your progress
Problem 1: Check I 4 {0,1, 2, 3} is field or not?
Problem 2: Check that the set {0,1} form a field?
Problem 2: Check that the singleton set {0} form a field and why?
11.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have studied about the integral domain, field, division ring or skew field in a ring.
Throughout the all units we have learned about the basic definitions and their related theorems and
examples on these major topics. In many areas of mathematics, fields are fundamental concepts. This
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 162
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
comprises many mathematical analysis disciplines that are based on fields with extra structure.
Analysis's fundamental theorems rely on the real numbers' structural characteristics. What's more, any
field may be utilised as the scalars for a vector space, which is the usual generic setting for linear
algebra. In-depth research is done on number fields, the siblings of the subject of rational numbers.
Geometric object attributes may be described with the use of function fields. The overall
summarization of this units are as follows:
A nonzero commutative ring without any nonzero zero divisors is referred to as an integral
domain.
Having no nonzero zero divisors, an integral domain is a nonzero commutative ring.
Every field is an integral domain.
Every finite integral domain is field.
11.7 GLOSSARY
Integral Domain: Any ring without zero divisor is called integral domain
Field: A commutative ring with unity having each non-zero element possess its multiplicative
inverse is called field.
Division ring: A ring with unity having each non-zero element possess its multiplicative
inverse is called division ring.
11.8 REFERENCES
Joseph A Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa, 1999.
N. Herstein,(1975), Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri (2021 ), A Course in Abstract Algebra (5th Edition), Vikas
Publication House.
Vasishtha, A. R., & Vasishtha, A. K. (2006). Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra). Krishna
Prakashan Media.
RamjiLal, Algebra 1: Groups, Rings, Fields and Arithmetic, Springer, 2017.
11.9 SUGGESTED READING
P.B. Bhattacharya, S.K. Jain, S.R. Nagpaul: Basic Abstract Algebra, Cambridge Press, 1994.
David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote: Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), Wiley, 2011.
Michael Artin: Algebra (2nd edition), Pearson, 2014.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 163
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
11.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Long Answer Type Question:
1. Show that in an integral domain all non-zero elements generate additive cyclic groups of the
same order which is equal to the characteristic of the integral domain.
2. Give without proof, an example of an integral domain which contains only five elements. Is
this an ordered integral domain? Give reason?
a b
3. Show that the matrices , a, b real, forms a field.
b a
4. Prove that a non-zero finite integral domain is a field.
5. Prove that ( I 7 , 7 , 7 ) is a field, where 7 and 7 respectively denote addition and
multiplication modulo 5.
6. Give an example of skew-field which is not field.
7. Show that collection of numbers of the form a b 2 , with a and b as rational numbers is a
field
Short Answer Type Question:
8. If D is a non-zero integral domain, then characteristic of D is either zero or a prime number.
9. The set of complex number is not ordered integral domain
10. Prove that a skew field has no zero divisor.
11. Write the definition of following with suitable example.
(i) Field
(ii) Integral domain
(iii) Skew-field
12. A commutative ring R is an integral domain iff a, b, c R (a 0)
ab ac b c
Fill in the blanks:
13. A commutative R is an integral domain iff …………………….
14. Every field is an ……………..
15. A skew field has no ………………….
16. Every finite integral domain is ………
17. The set of all residue classes modulo a positive integer p is an integral domain iff p is
………………..
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 164
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
11.11 ANSWERS
Answer of self cheque question:
1. No 2. Yes 3. No, because it does not contain unity element
Answer of terminal question:
13. Cancellation law holds 14. Integral domain 15. Zero divisor
16. Field 17. Prime
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 165
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Unit-12: UNIQUE FACTORIZATION DOMAIN, PRINCIPAL
IDEAL DOMAIN, EUCLIDEAN DOMAIN
CONTENT:
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Isomorphism of rings
12.4 Field of quotient
12.5 Ideals
12.5.1 More about ideals
12.6 Principal ideals
12.7 Euclidean and principal ideal domain
12.8 Unique factorization domain
12.9 Summary
12.10 Glossary
12.11 References
12.12 Suggested Readings
12.13 Terminal Questions
12.14 Answers
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will learn about the more important tool in ring theory is that isomorphic
relation between two rings, ideals of the ring and their applications and theorems.
The existence of gcd, Euclid's Lemma and Unique Factorization Theorem in Z and in F[x],
where F is a field, all are consequences of the Division Algorithm. In this unit, we consider integral
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 166
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
domains having a division algorithm. In this we will learn the fundamental theorem of arithmetic states
that every integer n > 1 is a product of primes and this product is unique up to the order of the prime
factors. Here we characterize the integral domains D such that every nonzero non unit element of D
can be expressed as product of irreducible elements uniquely in some sense. We call such integral
domains UFD. In a UFD, irreducible and prime elements are precisely the same. Thus every nonzero
non unit element of a UFD is a product of prime elements also.
12.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to
Memorized about the isomorphism of two rings.
Analyze about the ideals of the ring.
Memorized about the Euclidean domain (ED), principal ideal domain (PID) and unique
factorization domain (UFD).
Analyze the relation between ED, PID and UFD.
12.3 ISOMORPHISM OF RINGS
Definition: Any ring R is said to be isomorphic to other ring R ' if there exists a one-one and onto
mapping f from R to R ' such that
(i) f (a b) f (a) f (b)
(ii) f (ab) f (a) f (b) a, b R .
Also such a mapping f is said to be an isomorphism of R onto R ' . Symbolically it is denoted as
R R ' , also R is said to be isomorphic image of R ' .
Note: The compositions in the two rings have been represented by the identical symbols in the
aforementioned definition of ring isomorphism. The constituent parts of any composition are revealed
to us by the elements. For example, a, b R . When we write a b, ab then the respective
compositions are addition and multiplication of R . Again f (a), f (b) R ' . When we write
f (a) f (b), f (a) f (b) then the respective compositions are addition and multiplication of R '
Relation of isomorphism in the set of all rings.
We can demonstrate that the relation of isomorphism in the set of all rings is an equivalence relation,
as we have done in groups. In order to ensure that rings of the same class are all isomorphic to one
another and rings of other classes are not, the set of all rings will be divided into disjoint equivalence
classes. One can say that any two rings in the same equivalence class are abstractly similar.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 167
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Properties of isomorphism of rings:
Theorem 1: If f is an isomorphism of a ring R onto a ring R ' , then
(i) The image of 0 R is 0 R ' i.e., the additive identity element of ring R map into additive
identity of the ring R ' .
(ii) The negative of the image of an element of R is that element's image of its negative i.e.,
f (a) f (a) a R .
(iii) If R is the commutative ring, then R ' is also a commutative a commutative ring.
(iv) If R is without zero divisors, then R ' is also without zero divisors.
(v) If R is with unit element, then R ' is also with unit element.
(vi) If R is field, then R ' is also a field.
(vii) If R is skew field, then R ' is also a skew field.
Proof (i): Let a R . Then f (a ) R ' . Let 0 ' denote the zero element of R ' . To prove that f (0) 0' .
We have f (a) 0' f (a) f (a 0) f (a) f (0). By cancellation law for addition in R ' , we get
from f (a) 0' f (a) f (0), the result that 0 ' f (0).
(ii) We have f (a) f (a) f [a (a)] f (0) 0'
f (a) is the additive inverse inverse of f (a) in R ' . Thus f (a) f (a)
(iii) Let f (a) and f (b) be any two elements of R ' . Then a, b R
We have f (a) f (b) f (ab) f (ba) [ R is commutative ab ba ]
f (b) f (a) .
R ' is also commutative.
(iv) We have f (0) 0' . Also f is one-one. Therefore 0 is the only element of R whose f -image is 0 '
.
(v) Let 1 be the unit element of R . Then f (1) R ' . If f (a) is any element of R ' , we have
f (1) f (a) f (1a) f (a) and f (a) f (1) f (a1) f (a).
f (1) is the unit element of R ' .
(vi) R is commutative with unity if R is a field, and each non-zero element of R will have a
multiplicative inverse. Now that this has been shown in (iii) and (v), R ' will be commutative and
possess the unit element i.e., f (1) .
Let f (a) be any non-zero element of R ' . Then
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 168
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
f (a) 0' a 0 a 1 exists.
Now f (a 1 ) R ' and we have
f (a 1 ) f (a) f (a 1a) f (1) and f (a) f (a 1 ) f (aa 1 ) f (1).
f (a 1 ) is the multiplicative inverse of f (a).
Hence R ' is a field.
(vii) As shown in (v) R ' will be with unit element i.e., f (1) as shown in (vi) each non-zero element of
R ' will be inversible. Therefore R ' is a skew-field.
Imbedding of a ring: A ring R is said to be imbedded in a ring R ' if there is a subring S ' of R ' s.t. R
is isomorphic to S ' .
Any ring R is imbedded to other ring R ' if there exists a one-one and onto mapping f from R to R '
such that,
f (a b) f (a) f (b), f (ab) f (a) f (b) a, b R .
Theorem 2: Any ring R without a unity element may be imbedded in a ring that contains a unity
element.
Proof: Let R be any ring without unity element. Let Z is the ring of integers and
R ' R Z {(a, m) : a R, m Z} .
When appropriate binary operations have been specified in R Z , then it becomes a ring with a unity
element containing a subring, isomorphic to R .
If (a, m) and (b, n) are any two elements of R Z , then we define addition in R Z by the equation
(a, m) (b, n) (a b, m n) …(1)
And multiplication in R Z by the equation
(a, m)(b, n) (ab na mb, mn) … (2)
Since a b R and m n Z , therefore (a b, m n) R Z . Thus R Z is closed w. r. to addition.
Further, ab, na, mb R ab na mb R . Also mn Z . Therefore (ab na mb, mn) R Z and
R Z is closed w. r. to. multiplication.
Now let (a, m), (b, n), (c, p) be any element of R Z . Then we observe:
Associativity in addition: We have
[(a, m) (b, n)] (c, p) (a b, m n) (c, p)
([a b] c, [m n] p) (a [b c], m [n p])
(a, m) (b c, n p) (a, m) [(b, n) (c, p)]
Commutativity in addition: We have
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 169
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
(a, m) (b, n) (a b, m n)
(b a, n m) [ Commutativity holds in addition]
(b, n) (a, m) .
Existence of identity: We have (0,0) R Z . Here the first 0 is the zero element of R and the second
0 is the zero integer.
Since, (0,0) (a, m) (0 a, 0 m) (a, m)
(0, 0) is the additive identity.
Existence of inverse: If (a, m) R Z , then
(a,m) R Z and we have
(a,m) (a, m) (a a, m m) (0,0) .
(a,m) is additive inverse of (a, m)
Associativity of multiplication: We have
[(a, m)(b, n)](c, p) (ab na mb, mn)(c, p)
((ab na mb)c p(ab na mb) (mn)c, (mn) p)
(abc n(ac) m(bc) p(ab) ( pn)a ( pm)b (mr )c, (mn) p)
Also (a, m)[(b, n)(c, p)] (a, m)(bc pb nc, np)
(a(bc pb nc) (np)a m(bc pb nc), m(np))
(abc a( pb) a(nc) (np)a m(bc) m( pb) m(nc), (mn) p)
(abc a( pb) a(nc) (np)a m(bc) m( pb) m(nc), (mn) p)
(abc p(ab) n(ac) (np)a m(bc) (mp)b (mn)c, (mn) p).
We see that, (a, m)[(b, n)](c, p) (a, m)[(b, n)(c, p)]
Distributive law: We have
(a, m)[(b, n) (c, p)] (a, m)(b c, n p)
(a(b c) (n p)a m(b c), m(n p))
(ab ac na pa mb mc, mn mp)
(a, m)(b, n) (a, m)(c, p)
In a similar manner, we may demonstrate that the other distributive law is equally valid.
In light of the operations described on it, R Z is a ring.
Existence of identity: We have
(0,1) R Z . If (a, m) R Z , then
(0,1) (a, m) (0a m0 1a,1m) (0 0 a, m) (a, m)
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 170
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Also (a, m)(0,1) (a 0 1a m0, m1) (0 a 0, m) (a, m) .
(0,1) is the multiplicative identity. So, R Z is a ring with unity element (0, 1).
Now consider the subset S ' R {0} of R Z which consists of all pairs of the form (a, 0) . We shall
show that R {0} is a subring of R Z . Let (a, 0), (b, 0) be any two elements of R {0} .
Then (a, 0) (b, 0) (a, 0) (b, 0) (a b, 0) R {0}.
Also, (a, 0)(b, 0) (ab 0a 0b, 00) (ab 0 0, 0) (ab, 0) R {0} .
R {0} is a subring of R Z .
Finally we have to show that R R {0} . Let be a mapping from R to R {0} defined as
(a) (a, 0) a R .
is one-one: For it, let (a) (b) (a, 0) (b, 0) a b is one-one.
is onto: Let (a, 0) R {0} . Then a R and we have (a) (a, 0) . Therefore is onto.
preserves addition and multiplication: If a, b R , then
(a b) (a b, 0) (a, 0) (b, 0) (a) (b) .
Hence preserve the composition. i.e., R R {0} .
12.4 FIELD OF QUOTIENT
Definition: If ring S has a subset S ' such that ring R is isomorphic to ring S , then the two rings can
be embedded.
We shall demonstrate that D can be embedded in a field F , i.e., there exists a field F that includes a
subset D' isomorphic to D , if D is a commutative ring without zero divisors. The elements of D will
be used to build a field F , and this field F will have a subset D' such that D and D' are isomorphic.
The "field of quotients" of D , or simply the "quotient field" of D , is referred to as this field F .
We can claim that D and D' are abstractly the same since D is isomorphic onto D' . We can
then state that the quotient field F of D is a field containing D if we identify D' with D . We will
also see that the smallest field that contains D is F .
Construction of quotient field: The ring of integer I is well known to all of us. Additionally, the set
of quotients of the components of I is the same as our familiar set Q of rational numbers.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 171
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
p 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Thus Q : p I , 0 q I . Since set of rational numbers ( Q ) are ..., , , , , , , ,...
q 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
with the integers ( I ) ...,3, 2, 1, 0,1, 2, 3,... then I Q . Also (Q, , .) is a field. It is the smallest
a c
field containing I . Also if and Q , then we remember that
b d
a c a c ad bc a c ac
(i) iff ad bc (ii) (iii)
b d b d bd b d bd
These facts serve as our inspiration as we move on with creating the quotient field of any integral
domain. The following theorem applies.
Theorem 3: A commutative ring without zero divisors can be imbedded in a field.
OR
Each integral domain can be imbedded in a field.
OR
It is feasible to create a field F from the components of an integral domain D that has a subset D' that
isomorphic to D .
Proof: Let us suppose that D is a commutative ring without zero divisors. Let D0 be the collection of
all non-zero elements of D . Let S D D0 i.e., let S be the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) where
a, b D and b 0 . Let us define a relation (~) in S s.t.,
(a, b) ~ (c, d ) iff ad bc . Now we have to show that this relation is an equivalence relation.
Reflexivity: As we know D is commutative, therefore ab ba a, b D
Thus, (a, b) ~ (b, a) (a, b) S
Transitivity: Let (a, b) ~ (c, d ) and (c, d ) ~ (e, f )
ad bc and cf de
adf bcf and bcf bde .
adf bde
adf bde [D is a commutative ring]
adf bde 0 (af be)d 0
af be 0 [d 0 and D is without zero divisors]
af be (a, b) ~ (e, f ) .
given relation is an equivalence relation ~ in S .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 172
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
S can be partitioned into disjoint equivalence classes and we denote the equivalence classes
a
containing (a, b) by and other notations are ( a, b) or [a, b] .
b
(c, d ) S | (c, d ) ~ (a, b) .
a
Then
b
a c
Obviously, iff (c, d ) ~ (a, b) i.e., iff ad bc
b d
a ax
Also, x D0 . The reason is that (a, b) ~ (ax, bx) since abx bax .
b bx
a
These equivalence classes are quotients. Let F be the set of all such quotients i.e., F : (a, b) S
b
Now defines operations addition and multiplication in F as follows:
a c ad bc a c ac
and .
b d bd b d bd
ad bc ac
Since D is without zero, therefore b 0, d 0 bd 0 . Since both the element and are
bd bd
belongs to field. F is therefore closed in terms of addition and multiplication. Now, we'll demonstrate
that addition and multiplication in F have clear definitions. For it we have to show that if,
a a' c c' a c a' c' a c a' c'
' and ' , then ' ' and
b b d d b d b d b d b' d '
a a' c c'
We have ' ab ' ba ' and ' cd ' dc '
b b d d
a c a' c'
Now to show that , we are to show that
b d b' d '
ad bc a ' d ' b 'c '
i.e., (ad bc)b' d ' bd (a ' d ' b'c ' ).
bd b'd '
Now (ad bc)b' d ' adb' d ' bcb' d ' ab' dd ' bb'cd '
ba' dd ' bb' dc' [ ab' ba ' and cd ' dc ' ]
bda' d ' bdb'c ' bd (a ' d ' b'c ' ) , which was desired.
a c a' c'
Again we have to show that we have to show
b d b' d '
ac a ' c '
' ' i.e., acb' d ' bda'c '
bd b d
Now acb' d ' ab'cd ' ba ' dc' bda'c ' , which was desired.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 173
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Hence both operations addition and multiplication are well defined on F. Now we have that F is a
field.
Associativity of addition: We have,
a c e ad bc e (ad bc) f bde
b d f bd f bdf
adf bcf bde adf b(cf de) a c e
bdf bdf b d f
Commutativity in addition: We have
a c ad bc cb da c a
b d bd db d b
Existence of identity: We have
0 c
F where a 0 . If is any element of F , then
a d
0 c 0d ac 0d ac ac c
[acd adc ]
a d ad ad ad d
0
So, F is the identity element. It is also noted tthat,
a
0 0 c 0
a, b D0 . Also iff ca d 0 i.e., c 0
a b d b
a a
Existence of inverse: If F , then F.
b b
a a (a)b ba 0 0
Also we have, 2 [0a b 2 0]
b b b2 b a
a a
is the additive inverse of
b b
a c e ace (ac)e a(ce) a ce a c e
Associativity of multiplication: .
b d f bdf (bd ) f b(df ) b af b d f
Commutativity of multiplication: We have
a c ac ca c a
. .
b d bd db d b
Existence of multiplicative identity: We have
a c
F where a 0 . Also if F , then
a d
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 174
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
a c ac c
[(ac, ad ) ~ (c, d ) because acd adc ]
a d aa d
a
is the multiplicative identity. It is also notify that
a
a b
a, b D0
a b
a
Existence of multiplicative inverse: Let 0 F . Then .
b
. Since we have
the unity element
is the inverse of w.r. to. the operation multiplication.
Distribution of multiplication over addition: We have
In similar way other distributive law also holds.
Under the definitions of addition and multiplication given above, F is a field. The field of quotients of
D is the name given to this field, F. We will now demonstrate that the field F includes a subset D' such
that D and D' are isomorphic.
Let D' . Then . If are element of , then
Since . Therefore if is any non-zero fixed element of D, we re-write
D' .
Let us defined the function s.t.,
is an isomorphism of onto .
is one-one: Since we have,
since
is one-one.
is onto: If , then . Also we have . Thus is onto .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 175
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Also
and .
is an isomorphism from D onto i.e., .
12.5 IDEALS
Definition (a): In a ring (R) a non empty subset (S ) is said to be left ideal of R if:
(i) S should be subgroup of R w.r.to addition.
(ii) rs S r R, s S
Definition (b): In a ring (R) a non empty subset (S ) is said to be right ideal of R if:
(i) S should be subgroup of R w.r.to addition.
(ii) sr S r R, s S
Definition (Ideal): A non-empty subset S of a ring R is said to be an ideal (also a two-sided ideal or
left ideal/right ideal) if and only if it is both a left ideal and a right ideal. As a result, it may be claimed
that a non-empty subset S of a ring R is an ideal of R . If,
(i) S is a subgroup of the additive group of R , or a subgroup of R under addition.
(ii) rs S and rs S r R, s S .
S is a subring of R if S is an ideal of the ring R because S is a subgroup of R under addition and
from condition (ii), we have xs S x, s S because x S x R . S is hence closed in terms of
multiplication. S is a subring of R as a result. Each ideal of a ring R is a subring of R as a result.
However, not all subrings are perfect. A stronger closure feature than the subring is necessary for an
ideal. If S is a subgroup of R under addition, then S will be a subring if S is closed under
multiplication, meaning that the result of two components of S is once more contained in S . However,
S will be an ideal if S contains the result of any element of S and any element of R .
Every left ideal will also be a right ideal if R is a commutative ring. Thus, every left (right) ideal is an
ideal in a commutative ring.
Note: Every ring R always has two improper ideals: one that is R itself and the other that is made up
entirely of zeros. These are referred to as the unit ideal and the null ideal, respectively. Other ideals
are called proper ideal. Any ring having no proper ideals is called simple ring.
Theorem 4: The intersection of two left ideals/right ideals of a ring is again left ideals/right ideals of
the ring.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 176
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Proof: Let R be a ring and I1 , I 2 be two ideals of the ring. Then we have to prove that I1 I 2
is also an ideal of R . For it, we will first show that I1 I 2 is left ideal of R i.e.,
r R, s I1 I 2 rs I1 I 2 .
We have, s I1 I 2 s I1 , s I 2 .
Since both I1 , I 2 are left ideals of the ring (R) . Therefore,
r R, s I1 rs I1 and r R, s I 2 rs I 2
Now, rs I1 , rs I 2 rs I1 I 2
Hence, I1 I 2 is a left ideal of R .
In a similar way we can prove that I1 I 2 is also a right ideal of R .
Theorem 5: Arbitrary intersection of left ideal/right ideal of a ring is also left ideal/right ideal of the
ring.
Proof: Let R be a ring and let S t : t T be the family of left ideal of R where T is the index set such
that t T . S t be the left ideal of R. Let S x R : x S t t T be the intersection of family of
tT
left ideal of R . We will prove this theorem same as theorem 4.
a 0
Example 1: The set N of all 2 2 matrices of the form , where a, b are integers is a left ideal
b 0
but not a right ideal in the ring ( R ) of all 2 2 matrices with elements as integers. In this case, N is
the portion of R that consists of all the entries with zeros in the second column.
a 0 c 0
Answer: Let A ,B be any two elements of N .
b 0 d 0
a 0 c 0 a c 0
Then, A B N .
b 0 d 0 b d 0
N is a subgroup of R under addition.
w x a 0
Now let U be any element of R and A be any element of N .
y z b 0
w x a 0
Then UA be any element of R and A be any element of N.
y z b 0
w x a 0 wa xb 0
Then UA N
y z b 0 ya zb 0
Therefore N is a left ideal of R . It is not a right ideal, since
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 177
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
1 0 1 2
1 0 N , 0 1 R,
1 0 1 2 1 2
And the product is not an element of N.
1 0 0 1 1 2
Theorem 6: A field has no proper ideals i.e., any field ( F ) has only two ideals (0) and F is itself.
Proof: Let S be any non-zero ideal of the field F and let a be any non-zero element of S . We have
a 1 F . Since S is an ideal, therefore
a S , a 1 F aa 1 S 1 S
Now let x F . Then
1 S , x F 1x S x S
Thus each element of field (F ) belongs to S . Therefore F S . Since we know that S F .
Therefore S F
Hence the only ideals of the field (F ) are 0 and F itself.
Theorem 7: If R is a commutative ring and a R , then
Ra ra : r R is an ideal of R .
Proof: In order to prove that Ra is an ideal of R , we should prove that Ra is a subgroup of R under
addition and that if u Ra and x R then xu and ux are also in Ra . Since R is a commutative ring,
therefore xu ux . Thus we only need to check that xu is in Ra .
Now, let u, v Ra . Then u r1a, , v r2 a for some r1 , r2 R .
We have u v r1a r2 a (r1 r2 )a Ra since r1 r2 R . Thus u, v Ra u v Ra .
Ra is a subgroup of R under addition.
Now again, x R .
Then xu x(r1a) ( xr1 )a Ra . Since xr1 R .
Ra is an ideal of R .
Theorem 8: A commutative ring with unity is a field if it has no proper ideals.
Proof: Assume that R is a commutative ring of unity with no appropriate ideals, meaning that the
only two ideals of R are (0) and R . We must demonstrate that each nonzero element of R has a
multiplicative inverse in order to prove that R is a field.
Let a be any non-zero element of R .
The set Ra ra : r R is an ideal of R. Since 1 R , therefore 1a a Ra . Thus 0 a Ra .
Therefore the ideal Ra (0) . Since R has no proper ideals, therefore the only possibility is that
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 178
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Ra R . Thus each element of R is a multiple of a by some element of R . In particular, 1 R so it can
be realised as a multiple of a . Thus there exist an element b R such that ba 1 .
a 1 b . Hence each non-zero element of R possesses multiplicative inverse.
Hence R is a field.
12.5.1 MORE ABOUT IDEALS
In a ring (R) ideal generated ideal generated by given subset of R : We can locate ideals containing
M if M is any subset of a ring. As an illustration, the ring R is an ideal that may include any subset of
R.
Smallest ideal containing subset: Let M represent any arbitrary subset of a ring. The smallest ideal of
R containing M if is therefore an ideal S of if,
M S,
and if every ideal of R containing M contains S.
Definition: Let M be any arbitrary subset of R and let R be a ring. The ideal created by M is stated to
be the smallest ideal of R containing M, and it is indicated by the symbol (M).
In particular, we write (a) in instead of M if M only consists of one element, let's say a, of the
ring R. A principal ideal is an ideal like (a) that is produced by just one ring element.
12.6 PRINCIPAL IDEAL
Definition: Any ideal S of a ring R will be called principal ideal if there exist an element a S s.t.
any ideal T of R that contain a also contains S i.e., S (a).
Therefore, the principal ideal is an ideal generated by a single element in itself.
In a ring (R) if 1 R , then the ideal generated by 1 is whole ring i.e., (1) R , since each
element of R can be expressed as r1 . Ring itself is referred to be the unit ideal for this reason. The null
ideal is the ideal produced by the zero element of R, or (0), which only contains the zero element.
Every ring R has (0) as at least one of its primary ideals. Every ring with unity has two primary ideals
at a minimum, namely (0) and (1).
Theorem 9: If a is an element in a commutative ring R with unity, then the set S ra r R is a
principal ideal of R generated by the element a i.e., S (a) .
Proof: First we have to prove that a S . Since R is ring with unit element 1, therefore 1a a S .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 179
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
We must now demonstrate that S is an ideal of R. Therefore, we must first demonstrate that S is a
subgroup of R under addition. Let the two element of S are u, v . Then u r1a, v r2 a for some
r1 , r2 R .
We have u v r1a r2 a (r1 r2 )a S . Since r1 r2 R .
Since S is a subgroup of R under addition.
Now we have to prove that x R, u S xu S and ux S . But R is a commutating ring then,
xu ux and thus we have only to prove that xu S .
We have xu x(r1a) ( xr1 )a S .
As we know xr1 R
S is an ideal of R and a S.
Now to prove that S is an ideal which is generated by the element a , We have only to show that if T
is an ideal of R and a T , then S T .
Let ra S then r R . If T is an ideal of R s.t. a T then r R, a T ra T . Thus S T .
Hence S is principal ideal of R s.t. S (a) .
Example 2: To find the principal ideal in the ring (R) of integer generated by 5.
Solution: Since we know ring of integer (I ) is a commutative ring with unity.
Since (5) 5r | r I
Thus, principal ideal of R generated by 5 is
(5) ...,10, 5, 0, 5,10, ...
and obviously, (5) (5)
12.7 EUCLIDEAN AND PRINCIPAL IDEAL DOAMIN (PID)
Definition: Let E be an integral domain. A function v : E * Z # is called a Euclidean
valuation on E if
(i) for all a, b E with a 0 , there exist q, r E such that b aq r , where either r 0 or
v(r ) v(a) and
(ii) v(r ) v(ab) , for all a, b E *
An integral domain E together with a valuation v on E is called a Euclidean domain. It is denoted by
( E , v) .
Example 3: The ring Z of all integers can be considered as a Euclidean domain with the valuation
v : Z * Z # defined by v(a) a , a 0 .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 180
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Example 4: Consider polynomial ring F[x], where F is a field. Then F[x] is an integral domain.
Define as v : F[ x] \ {0} Z # by
v( f ( x)) deg f ( x), f ( x) F[ x] \ {0}.
Let f ( x), g ( x) F ( x), g ( x) 0 . Since F is a field, so every nonzero element in F and hence the
leading coefficient of g(x) is a unit. It follows, by the Division Algorithm for polynomials, that there
exist unique q( x), r ( x) F[ x] such that f ( x) q( x) g ( x) r ( x) where either r ( x) 0 or
deg r ( x) deg g ( x) . Hence, we have f ( x) q( x) g ( x) r ( x) , where either
r ( x) 0 or v(r ( x)) v( g ( x)) .
Since there is no zero divisors in F, so for any two nonzero elements f(x) and g(x) in F[x], we have
deg( f ( x) g ( x)) deg f ( x) deg g ( x) deg f ( x), i.e. v( f ( x) g ( x)) v( f ( x)). Hence, F[x] is a
Euclidean domain.
Now we show that every field is a Euclidean domain. In search of a suitable Euclidean valuation on a
field, we first prove the following result:
Theorem 10: Let E be a Euclidean domain with the valuation v. Then for every a E * , v(a) v(1) if
and only if a is a unit in E.
Proof: For all a E * , v(a) v(1a) v (1).
Suppose a is a unit. Then there exists an element b E such that ab 1which implies that
v (1) v(ab) v(a) . Hence v (a) v(1).
Conversely, suppose that v (a) v(1) a E * . Now a 0 implies that there exist q, r E such that
1 qa r , where r 0 or v(r ) v(a) v(1) r = 0 . Since v(r ) v(1) is impossible, we have r = 0.
Thus 1 qa and hence a is a unit. Hence, if it is possible to define a Euclidean valuation v on a field
F, then v(a) v(1) for every a F * , since every nonzero element of F is a unit. Thus v is a constant
mapping.
Example 5: Let F be a field. Then v : F * Z # given by:
v(a) 2 a F *
is a Euclidean valuation. (Note that image of v may be any nonnegative integer.) Thus C, R and Q all
are Euclidean domain. Every ideal of Z is a principal ideal. Now we consider the integral domains
such that every ideal is a principal ideal.
Definition: An integral domain R is called a principal ideal domain (PID) if every ideal of R is a
principal ideal. Thus Z is a PID. Also every field is a PID.
Theorem 11: Every Euclidean domain is a principal ideal domain.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 181
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Proof: Let ( E, v) be a Euclidean domain. Consider an ideal I of E. If I {0} , then I 0 . Let
I {0} . Then N v( x) | x I , x 0 is a nonempty set of non negative integers; and so, by the well-
ordering principle, it has the least element. Let a I , a 0 be such that v(a) is the least element of N,
i.e. v(a) v( x) x I , x 0 . We show that I = Ea. Since a I , it follows that E(a) I . Let b I b
2 I. Since E is a Euclidean domain, there exist q, r E such that b qa r , where
r 0 or v(r ) v(a) . If r 0 , then r b aq I shows that v(r ) N ; and since v(r ) v(a) this
contradicts the minimality of v(a) in N. Therefore, r = 0 and so b aq Ea . Thus I Ea , and hence
I = Ea.
Now we characterize the polynomial rings which are Euclidean domains.
Theorem 12: Let F be a commutative ring with 1. Then the following conditions are equivalent:
1. F is a field;
2. F[x] is a Euclidean domain;
3. F[x] is a principal ideal domain.
Proof 1 2 : Follows from Example 4.
2 3 : Follows from Theorem 11.
3 1 : First note that F[x] is an integral domain, since F is so. Let a F be a nonzero element of F.
Consider I a, x , the ideal of F[x] generated by a and x. Since F[x] is a principal ideal domain,
there exists u( x) F[ x] such that I u( x) u( x) f ( x) | f ( x) F[ x]. Now a, x u( x) implies
that there exist g ( x), h( x) F[ x] such that u( x) g ( x) a and u( x)h( x) x .
Since F is an integral domain, u( x) g ( x) a shows that u(x) is nonzero and deg(u( x)) 0 which
implies that u( x) b F . Again, bh( x) x bc 1 for some c F . Thus b is a unit and so
I b F[x] . Then 1 I 1 af1 ( x) xf2 ( x) for some f1 ( x), f 2 ( x) F[ x] . This implies that
1 da for some d F . Thus a is a unit in F and hence F is a field.
Since Z is not a field, It follows that Z[x] is not a principal ideal domain. In the following example we
give an example of an ideal of Z[x], which is not principal.
Example 6: In Z[x], we show that the ideal x, 2 is not a principal ideal. On the contrary, if
possible, assume that x, 2 is a principal ideal and x, 2 u( x) , u( x) Z[ x] . Now
2 u( x) implies that 2 u( x) f ( x) for some f ( x) Z[ x] . Since Z is an integral domain, so
deg u( x) 0 and u( x) a Z . Since x a , there is g ( x) Z[ x] such that x ag (x) . It follows
that ab 1for some b Z , and so 1 a x, 2 . Hence there are h( x), k ( x) Z[ x] such that
1 xh( x) 2k ( x) 1 2c for some c Z , a contradiction. Therefore x, 2 is not a principal ideal.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 182
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Theorem 13: Let R be a Euclidean domain (principal ideal domain) and a, b R not both zero. Then
a and b have a gcd d.
Proof: For every gcd d of a and b, there exist s, t R such that d sa tb . a, b are relatively prime if
and only if there exist s, t R such that 1 sa tb . Now we show that the irreducible elements and the
prime elements coincide in a PID.
Theorem 14: Let R be a principal ideal domain and p R . Then p is irreducible if and only if it is
prime.
Proof: As we know that every prime element is irreducible in an integral domain. Suppose that p is
an irreducible element in R . Consider a, b R and assume that p | ab. Then ab pc for some c R .
Since R is a principal ideal ring, there is d R such that p, b d . Then there exists q R such
that p dq . Since p is irreducible, either d or q must be a unit. If d is a unit, then p, d d R
. Hence 1 p, b and so 1 = sp + tb for some s, t R . This implies that
a asp atb asp tcp (as tc) p . Thus p | a . If q is a unit, then d q 1 p p . This implies
that d p p, b d . Hence p p, b and so b p . Thus p | b . Recall that if
F is a field then a polynomial p(x) is irreducible if and only if F[ x] / p( x) is a field. Hence p(x) is
irreducible if and only if p(x) is a maximal ideal in F[x]. We show that this result holds in every
PID.
Theorem 15: Let R be a principal ideal domain. Then M is a maximal ideal of R if and only if
M q for some irreducible element q R .
Proof: Already we know that if M q is a maximal ideal then q is an irreducible element.
Conversely, suppose that q is an irreducible element and M q . Consider an ideal I of R such that
M I R. Since R is a principal ideal domain, there exists a R such that I a . Now
q M a shows that q ab for some b R . Irreducibility of q implies that either a or b is a unit.
If a is a unit then I a R . If b is a unit then a qb1 q M . This implies that a M
and hence M I . Thus M is a maximal ideal of R.
If a ring R becomes a PID then primality and irreducibility are no longer different, and as a
consequence we have the following important corollary.
Corollary: Let R be a principal ideal domain. Then a nonzero proper ideal P of R is prime if and only
if it is maximal.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 183
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
12.8 UNIQUE FACTORIZATION DOAMINS (UFDs)
Definition : An integral domain D is called a factorization domain if every nonzero non unit element a
of D can be expressed as a product a p1 p2 p3 ... pm of irreducible elements.
2: A factorization domain D is called a unique factorization domain (UFD) if for every nonzero non
unit element a of D, a p1 p2 p3 ... pm q1q2 q3 ...qm are two irreducible factorizations of a then m n
and there is a permutation such that each p i is an associate of q (i ) .
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic shows that the ring Z of integers is a unique factorization
domain. Later we see that every principal ideal domain is a unique factorization domain.
Recall that in an integral domain every prime element is irreducible. Now we have the following
theorem:
Theorem 16: In a unique factorization domain, every irreducible element is prime.
Proof: Suppose that D is a unique factorization domain and let p be an irreducible element of D .
Consider a, b D and assume that p | ab . Then ab pc for some c D . If a 0 then p | a and if a
is a unit then b pa 1c shows that p | b . Similarly for b. Now we assume further that a and b are
neither zero nor units. Then c 0 . Also c is not a unit, otherwise pc is irreducible and then either a or b
becomes a unit which is against our assumption. Since D is a unique factorization domain, a, b and c
have irreducible factorizations, say a a1a2 a3 ...ar , b b1b2b3 ...bs and c c1c2c3 ...ct . Then
a a1a2 a3 ...ar b1b2b3 ...bs pc1c2c3 ...ct implies that p is associate of one of the irreducible elements
a1 , a2 , a3 ,..., ar , b1 , b2 , b3 ,...bs . If p is associate of some a i , say ai pu , u is a unit, then
a pua1a2 a3 ...ai1ai1...ar shows that P | a . Similarly, if p is associate of some b j , then p | b . Thus p
is a prime element.
Theorem 17: Let a and b be two nonzero elements in a unique factorization domain D. Then
gcd(a, b) exists in D.
Proof: If either of a and b, say a is a unit, then a | b implies that a is a gcd(a, b) . Suppose that neither
a nor b is a unit and a P1 1 P2 2 ...Pr r and b P1 1 P2 2 ...Pr r where p1 , p2 , p3 ,..., pr are irreducible
l l l m m m
elements, l1 , l2 ,..., lr , m1 , m2 ..., mr are nonnegative integers (most likely some of them are zero). Let
ni min{li , mi }. We show that d P1 1 P2 2 ...Pr r is a gcd(a, b) . It follows directly that d | a and d | b .
n n n
Let c | a and c | b . If c is a unit, then c | d . Otherwise the uniqueness of the irreducible factorizations
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 184
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
of a and b implies that c up1 1 p2 2 ... pr r where 0 k i li , mi i . Then k i ni and it follows that c | d .
k k k
Hence d gcd(a, b)
Now we show that every principal ideal domain is a unique factorization domain. For this let us first
prove a series of lemmas:
Lemma 1: Every ascending chain of ideals in a principal ideal domain is finite.
Proof: Let D be a principal ideal domain. Let a1 a2 a3 ... be an ascending chain of
ideals in D . Then I i ai is an ideal of D and so, since D is a principal ideal domain, there is
a D such that I a . Now a i ai implies that a ak for some k N . Then
a a j and so a a j for all j k . Also a j a . Thus a a j for all j k .
Thus the sequence of ideals is finite.
Lemma 2: A factorization domain is a unique factorization domain if and only if every irreducible
element is prime.
Proof: The necessary part follows from the Theorem 16.
Conversely, suppose that D is a factorization domain in which every irreducible element is a prime
element. Since D is a factorization domain, every nonzero nonunit element of D has an irreducible
factorization. We prove that this factorization is unique (up to associates and order of the factors) by
induction on the number n of irreducible factors in irreducible factorization of an element. If n 1 then
the result follows from the definition of irreducible elements. Assume that the result is true for n s .
Suppose a D and assume that a p1 p2 ... ps q1q2 ...qt be two irreducible factorizations of a. Now
p s is prime; and so p s | q1q2 ...qt which implies that p s | qt , upon rearrangement. Since both p s and qt
are irreducible elements in D, this implies that qt up s for some unit u. Then we have
p1 p2 ... ps1 q1q2 ...qt 1u
which implies, by the induction hypothesis, that s 1 t 1 and each p i is associate to some q j ,
1 i s 1,1 j t 1 . Also p s is associate to qt . Thus the result follows.
Now we prove the main theorem.
Theorem 18: Every principal ideal domain is a unique factorization domain.
Proof: In a principal ideal domain, every irreducible element is prime; and so due to the Lemma 2 it is
sufficient to show that every principal ideal domain is a factorization domain. Let D be a principal
ideal domain and a D be a nonzero and non unit element of D. We show that a is a product of
irreducible elements. If possible, let a be not a product of irreducibles. Then a is not an irreducible
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 185
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
element, and so there are two non units a1 , a1 D such that a a1 a1 and at least one, say a1 is not a
' '
product of irreducible element. Since a1 is not a unit, we have a a1 .
'
Again since a1 is not a product of irreducibles, similarly we get a2 D such that
a a1 a2 and a 2 is not a product of irreducibles. We continue and get a strictly
ascending infinite chain of ideals
a a1 a2 ...
in D. This contradicts that D is a principal ideal domain. Thus a has an irreducible factorization. The
converse of the above theorem is not true, in general. We know that Z[x] is not a principal ideal
domain; in the following we show that Z[x] is a UFD. In fact, we prove a more general result that D[x]
is a UFD whenever D is so.
Definition: Let D be a unique factorization domain and f ( x) a0 x n a1 x n1 ... an be a nonzero
polynomial on D. Then gcd(a0 , a1 ,..., an ) is called content of f (x) .
This is denoted by c( f ).
Since gcd is not unique, in fact it is unique up to associates, it follows that c( f ) is unique up to
associates.
Definition: Let D be a unique factorization domain. A nonzero polynomial f ( x) D[ x] is called a
primitive polynomial if c( f ) is unit.
If D is a unique factorization domain, and f ( x) a0 x n a1 x n1 ... an1 x an D[ x] be a nonzero
polynomial. Since some a i is nonzero the gcd(a0 , a1 ,..., an ) exists in D, say d gcd(a0 , a1 ,..., an ) . Then
there are ai D such that ai dai' and gcd( a0' , a1' ,..., an' ) 1 . Thus f1 ( x) a0' x n a1' x n .. an' is
'
primitive and f ( x) c( f ) f1 ( x)
Lemma 3: Product of two primitive polynomials is primitive.
Proof: Let D be a unique factorization domain and f ( x) a0 x m a1 x m1 ... am1 x am and
g ( x) b0 x n b1 x n1 ... bn1 x bn be two primitive polynomials over D. If possible, let
m n
h( x) f ( x) g ( x) ci x ni be not primitive. Then d gcd(c0 , c1 ,..., cmn ) is not a unit and so there is
i 0
an irreducible element p in D such that p | ci i. Suppose k, l be the smallest nonnegative integers
such that p | a k and p | bl . Then p | ck l ak l b0 ak l 1b1 ... ak 1bl 1 ak bl ak 1bl 1 ... a0bk l
and p | ak l b0 ak l 1b1 ... ak 1bl 1 ak bl ak 1bl 1 ... a0bk l
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 186
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
p | ak or p | bl . This contradicts the choice of k and l.
Lemma 4: Let R be a UFD and f ( x), g ( x) R[ x] be two primitive polynomials. Then f(x) and g(x)
are associates in R[x] if and only if they are associates in Q(R)[x].
Proof: Let f(x) and g(x) be associates in Q(R)[x]. Since Q(R) is a field, so the units in Q(R)[x] are
precisely the nonzero elements of Q(R). Hence there is a unit w ab1 Q( R) such that
g ( x) ab 1 f ( x) which implies that bg ( x) af ( x) . It follows that a bu for some unit u R , since
both f(x) and g(x) are primitive in R[x]. Therefore g ( x) uf ( x) and so f(x) and g(x) are associates in
R[x].
Converse is trivial, since every unit in R[x] is a unit in Q(R)[x].
Lemma 5: Let R be a UFD and f ( x) R[ x] be a non constant primitive polynomial. If f(x) is
irreducible over R then it is irreducible over Q(R).
Proof: On the contrary, if possible, let f(x) be reducible over Q(R). Since Q(R) is a field, so the units in
Q( R)[ x] are precisely the nonzero elements of Q(R). Hence there are two non constant polynomials
1 1 1
g ( x), h( x) Q( R)[ x] such that f ( x) g ( x)h( x) . Let g ( x) a0b0 a1b1 x ... an bn x n . Then for
b b0b1b2 ...bn R, bg ( x) R[ x]. Denote a cont(b( g ( x)) in R. Then bg ( x) ag * ( x) where
g * ( x) R[ x] is a primitive polynomial. Similarly there are c, d R such that dh( x) ah* ( x) where
h* ( x) R[ x] is a primitive polynomial. Thus bdf ( x) acg * ( x)h* ( x) . Since product of two primitive
polynomials is primitive, it follows that both f (x) and g * ( x)h* ( x) are primitive. Hence ac ubd for
some unit u R , and f ( x) ug * ( x)h * ( x) which shows that f(x) is reducible over R, a contradiction.
Therefore f(x) is irreducible in Q(R)[x].
Lemma 6: If R is a unique factorization domain, then the polynomial ring R[x] is also a unique
factorization domain.
Proof: We first show that R[x] is a factorization domain. We apply induction on deg f(x), where f(x) is
a nonzero non unit element of R[x]. If deg f(x) = 0, then f ( x) R and it is a product of irreducibles,
since R is a UFD. Let deg f ( x) 0 . Then f ( x) c f f * ( x) where f * ( x) R[ x] is a primitive
polynomial. Since c f R so c f is either unit or a product of irreducible elements in R. If f * ( x ) is
irreducible, we are done. Otherwise, there are two nonzero non units g ( x), h( x) R[ x] such that
f * ( x) g ( x)h( x) . Since f * ( x ) is primitive, so neither g (x) nor h(x) is a constant. Hence
deg g ( x) deg f * ( x) deg f ( x) and deg h( x) deg f * ( x) deg f ( x) . Then both g (x) and h(x) are
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 187
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
products of irreducible elements in R[x], by induction hypothesis. Therefore,
f ( x) a1a2 ...ar p1 ( x) p2 ( x)... pn ( x) where a1 , a2 ,..., ar R and p1 ( x), p2 ( x),..., pn ( x) R[ x] are
irreducible elements.
To prove the uniqueness of the factorization, assume that
f ( x) a1a2 ...ar p1 ( x) p2 ( x)... pm ( x) b1b2 ...bs q1 ( x)q2 ( x)...qn ( x)
Where a1 , a2 ,..., ar , b1 , b2 ,..., bs R and p1 ( x), p2 ( x),..., pm ( x), q1 ( x), q2 ( x),..., qn ( x) R[ x] are
irreducible elements. Since a1a2 ...ar b1b2 ...bs c f , so it follows that
p1 ( x) p2 ( x)... pm ( x) uq1 ( x)q2 ( x)...qn ( x)
for some unit u R . Since Q[R] is a field, so Q( R)[ x] is a UFD. Also the irreducible polynomials
p1 ( x), p2 ( x),..., pm ( x), q1 ( x), q2 ( x),..., qn ( x) R[ x] are primitive, which implies that they are also
irreducible in Q( R)[ x] . Hence it follows that m n and there is a permutation S n such that pi (x)
is an associate of q ( i ) ( x ) in Q( R)[ x] and so pi (x) is an associate of q ( i ) ( x ) in R[x] , by Lemma 4.
Therefore the factorization f(x) in R[x] is unique.
This result shows that Z[x] is a unique factorization domain. Similar result is not true for principal
ideal domain or Euclidean domain; e.g. Z is a principal ideal domain but Z[x] is not.
Unlike to the PID, Bezout's identity does not hold in UFD. For example, consider the UFD Z[x]. Then
gcd( x 2, x 4) 1 , but there are no f ( x), g ( x) Z[ x] such that
1 ( x 2) f ( x) ( x 4) g ( x)
otherwise 1 2a0 4b0
In most of the deductions regarding divisibility in Z, we prefer to use B_ezout's identity, hardly we use
the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. Here we show that the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
can also be used in these deductions.
Example 7: Let D be a UFD and a, b, c be there non zero elements of D such that a | bc and
gcd(a, b) 1 . We show that a | c . If a or b is a unit, the result follows trivially. Assume that neither a
nor b is a unit. Let a a1n1 a2n2 ...arnr and b b1m1 b2m2 ...bsms where a i and b j are irreducible elements and
1 ni , m j for every i 1, 2,..., r and j 1, 2,..., s . Since gcd(a, b) 1, so no a i is an associate of any
b j . If c is a unit then bc aq, q D implies that b aqc1. This contradicts that D is a UFD, since no
a i is an associate of any b j . Thus c is a non unit. Let c c1l1 c2l2 ...ctlt be an irreducible factorization of c.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 188
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Then bc aq implies that b1m1 b2m2 ...bsms c1l1 c2l2 ...ctlt a1n1 a2n2 ...arnr q. Since no a i is an associate of any b j , so
every a i is an associate to some c k and ni lk . Hence a | c.
Check your progress
Problem 1: What are the ideals of the set I 5 {0,1, 2, 3, 4} ?
Problem 2: Check out the principal ideal in the ring (R) of integer generated subgroup while it is not a
maximal subgroup.
12.9 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learned about the important relation between two rings name as isomorphic
relation. If two ring are isomorphic to each other then we can unfold the information about the
unknown ring on the basis of known ring. In this unit we have also learned about the ideals of the
ring. On the basis of ideals we have further learned about the principal ideal domain. The other
important topics of this unit are Euclidean domain and unique factorization domain. The overall
summarization of this units are as follows:
Every field has no proper ideal.
Each integral domain can be imbedded in a field.
In a unique factorization domain, every irreducible element is prime.
Every principal ideal domain (PID) is unique factorization domain (UID).
Arbitrary intersection of ideals of ring is again an ideal of the ring.
Each field has no proper ideal.
Commutative ring with unity is a field if it has no proper ideals
Every Euclidean domain is a PID.
12.10 GLOSSARY
R R ' : Denotes two rings R, R ' are isomorphism to each other.
UFD: Unique factorization domain.
PID: Principal ideal domain.
ED: Euclidean domain.
12.11 REFERENCES
Joseph A Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa, 1999.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 189
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
N. Herstein,(1975), Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri (2021 ), A Course in Abstract Algebra (5th Edition), Vikas
Publication House.
Vasishtha, A. R., & Vasishtha, A. K. (2006). Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra). Krishna
Prakashan Media.
RamjiLal, Algebra 1: Groups, Rings, Fields and Arithmetic, Springer, 2017.
12.12 SUGGESTED READING
P.B. Bhattacharya, S.K. Jain, S.R. Nagpaul: Basic Abstract Algebra, Cambridge Press, 1994.
David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote: Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), Wiley, 2011.
Michael Artin: Algebra (2nd edition), Pearson, 2014.
12.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Long Answer Type Question:
1. Prove that any ring R without a unity element may be imbedded in a ring that contains a unity
element.
2. Prove that each integral domain can be imbedded in a field?
3. In a unique factorization domain, every irreducible element is prime.
4. Prove that every principal ideal domain (PID) is unique factorization domain (UID).
5. If a is an element in a commutative ring R with unity, then prove that the set S ra r R is
a principal ideal of R generated by the element a i.e., S (a) .
Short Answer Type Question:
6. Prove that intersection of two ideal of a ring is again a ideal of the ring.
7. Prove that arbitrary intersection of ideals of ring is again an ideal of the ring.
8. Prove that each field has no proper ideal
9. Prove that a commutative ring with unity is a field if it has no proper ideals.
10. To find the principal ideal in the ring (R) of integer generated by 7.
11. Prove that product of two primitive polynomials is primitive.
12. Let a and b be two nonzero elements in a unique factorization domain D. Then prove that
gcd(a, b) exists in D.
Fill in the blanks:
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 190
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
13. In a UFD, every irreducible element is …………………….
14. Every PID is ……………..
15. Product of two primitive polynomials is ………………….
16. Every Euclidean domain is a ………
17. If every ideal of integral domain is principal ideal then an integral domain is called …..
12.14 ANSWERS
Answer of self cheque question:
1. {0} and F itself 2. 7 {...,14,7,0,7,14,...}
Answer of terminal question:
13. Prime 14. UFD 15. Primitive 16. PID 17. PID
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 191
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Unit-13: POLYNOMIAL RINGS AND IRREDUCIBILITY
CRITERIA, EINESTEIN’S CRITERIA OF IRREDUCIBILITY
CONTENT:
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Introduction of polynomials
13.4 Division algorithm
13.5 Arithmetic of polynomial
13.6 Irreducibility of polynomial
13.7 Eisenstein's criteria for rreducibility
13.8 Summary
13.9 Glossary
13.10 References
13.11 Suggested Readings
13.12 Terminal Questions
13.13 Answers
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we give some results to test irreducibility of polynomials over a field, specially over
the field Q of all rational numbers. If K is a subfield of F , then every polynomial p(x) over K can
also be considered as a polynomial over F . It follows that if p(x) is irreducible over F then it is so
over K , but the converse is not true. For example, x 2 3 is irreducible over Q but reducible over R
Eisenstein's criteria in mathematics provides a necessary condition for a polynomial with
integer coefficients to be irreducible over the rational numbers, that is, not factorizable into the product
of non-constant polynomials with rational coefficients. This condition does not apply to all
polynomials with integer coefficients that are irreducible over the rational numbers, but it does allow
irreducibility to be shown with minimum effort in certain crucial examples. It can be used immediately
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 192
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
or after the original polynomial has been transformed. This criteria is named after Gotthold Eisenstein.
It was known as the Schönemann-Eisenstein theorem in the early twentieth century since Theodor
Schönemann was the first to publish it.
Theodor Schönemann, commonly known as Schoenemann, was a German mathematician who
produced numerous significant discoveries in number theory involving the theory of congruences,
which are published in Crelle's journal volumes 17 to 40. Notably, he obtained Hensel's lemma before
to Hensel, Scholz's reciprocity rule prior to Scholz, and Eisenstein's criteria prior to Eisenstein. He also
investigated what are now known as finite fields (more general than those of prime order) in the form
of integer polynomials modulo both a prime number and an irreducible polynomial (remaining
irreducible modulo that prime number).
13.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to
Memorized about the polynomial ring.
Analyze about the division algorithm in terms of polynomials.
Analyze about the irreducibility criteria of polynomials
Analyze the Eisenstein’s criteria for irreducibility over Q .
13.3 INTRODUCTION OF POLYNOMIALS
Let R be a commutative ring with unity 1. A polynomial over R is defined as an infinite sequence
(a0 , a1 , a2 ,...) such that all but finitely many a i are 0, i.e. there is a nonnegative integer n (depending
on the sequence (a0 , a1 , a2 ,...) under consideration) such that ai 0 for all i n ; and the set of all
polynomials on R is denoted by R[x] . Thus
R[ x] a0 , a1 , a2 ,... | ai R and ai 0 for all but finitelymany i
We now define addition and multiplication on R[x] as follows:
(a0 , a1 , a2 ,...) (b0 , b1 , b2 ,...) (a0 b0 , a1 b1 , a2 b2 ,...)
and (a0 , a1 , a2 ,...).(b0 , b1 , b2 ,...) (c0 , c1 , c2 ,...),
i
where ci ar bi r for i 0,1, 2, ...
r 0
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 193
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
We leave it to the reader to verify that R[ x], , . is a commutative ring with unity 1, 0, 0, ... . Also
0, 0, 0, ... is the zero element of R[x] and the additive inverse of (a0 , a1 , a2 ,...) is (a0 ,a1 ,a2 ,...) The
mapping
a (a,0,0,...)
is a monomorphism of the ring R into R[x] . Thus, R can be considered as a subring of R[x] and we
no longer distinguish between a and (a,0,0,...) .
The particular element (0,1, 0, 0, 0...) is called the indeterminate over R and is usually denoted by x .
Then according to the definitions of addition and multiplication in R[x] , we have
x 2 0,1, 0, 0, ...0,1, 0, 0, ... 0,1, 0, 0, ...
x3 0,1, 0, 0, ...0,1, 0, 0, ... 0, 0, 0,1, 0, ...
.
.
.
and then
a1 x a1 , 0, 0, 0, ...0,1, 0, 0, ... 0, a1 , 0, 0, 0, ...
a2 x 2 a2 , 0, 0, 0, ...0, 0,1, 0, ... 0, 0, a2 , 0, 0, ...
.
.
.
Thus we have
(a0 , a1 , a2 ,..., an , 0, ...) (a0 ,0,0, ...) (0, a1 ,0,0, ...) ... (0,...,0, an ,0, ...)
a0 a1 x a2 x 2 ... an x n
The elements a0 , a1 , a2 ,..., an are called the coefficients of the polynomial
P ( x) a0 a1 x a2 x 2 ... an x n . If a n 0 , then a n is called the leading coefficient and if the leading
coefficient a n 1 , then p(x) is called a monic polynomial. We define the zero element (0, 0, 0, ...) of
the ring R[x] as the zero polynomial, and it will be denoted by 0. Thus a polynomial
P ( x) a0 a1 x a2 x 2 ... an x n is zero if and only if a0 a1 a2 ... an 0 .
Example 1: Consider the polynomial ring Z 6 [ x] . Then f ( x) [2]x 3 and g ( x) [3]x 2 are two nonzero
elements of Z 6 [ x] but f ( x) g ( x) [0] . This shows that Z 6 [ x] is not an integral domain.
Now we characterize the rings R for which the associated polynomial ring R[x] is an integral domain.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 194
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Theorem 1: Let R be a commutative ring with unity 1. The R[x] is an integral domain if and only if R
is an integral domain.
Proof: First assume that R is an integral domain. Then R[x] is a commutative ring with 1. Let
f ( x) a0 a1 x a2 x 2 ... an x n and g ( x) b0 b1 x b2 x 2 ... bn x n be two nonzero polynomials in
R[x] . Then, we may consider a n 0 and bm 0 and so a n bm 0 , since R is an integral domain. Then
the polynomial f ( x) g ( x) c0 c1 x c2 x 2 ... cn m x n m is such that cnm anbm 0 . This implies
that f ( x) g ( x) 0 . Thus, R[x] is an integral domain.
The converse follows directly.
In fact, even if R is a field then also R[x] is not a field, for x has no multiplicative inverse.
Definition: Let f ( x) a0 a1 x a2 x 2 ... an x n be a nonzero polynomial in R[x] . If an 0 then a n is
called the leading coefficient of p(x) ; and n is called the degree of p(x) . It is denoted by deg f ( x) . In
this case, a n is called the leading coefficient of f (x) . If the leading coefficient is 1, then f (x) is called
a monic polynomial.
We do not define degree of the zero polynomial.
Example 2: Consider the polynomial ring Z 6 [ x] . Then f ( x) [2]x 3 x [1] and g ( x) [3]x 2 [2] are
two nonzero polynomials of degree 3 and 2, respectively. Now f ( x) g ( x) x 3 [3]x 2 [2]x [2]
shows that f ( x) g ( x) deg f ( x) deg g ( x)
In general, we have the following inequality.
Theorem 2: Let be a commutative ring with unity and f ( x), g ( x) be two nonzero polynomials in R[x]
1. If f ( x) g ( x) 0, then deg f ( x) g ( x) deg f ( x) deg g ( x) . Equality holds if R is an
integral domain.
2. If f ( x) g ( x) 0, , then deg( f ( x) g ( x)) max{deg f ( x), deg g ( x) }
Proof 1: If f ( x) a0 a1 x a2 x 2 ... an x n and g ( x) b0 b1 x b2 x 2 ... bm x n , then
f ( x) g ( x) a0b0 (a0 b1 a1b0 ) x ... an bm x n m . If f ( x) g ( x) 0 , then at least one of the coefficients
of f ( x) g ( x) is nonzero. Suppose a n bm 0 , then deg( f ( x) g ( x)) n m deg f ( x) deg g ( x) . If
a n bm 0 (which can hold if R has zero divisors), then deg( f ( x) g ( x)) n m deg f ( x) deg g ( x) .
2: If deg f ( x) deg g ( x) , then f ( x) g ( x) (a 0 b0 ) (a1 b1 ) x ... (a n bm ) x m ... a n x n
shows that the leading coefficient of f ( x ) g ( x) is a n 0 and so
deg( f ( x) g ( x)) n max{deg f ( x), deg g ( x)} . If deg f ( x) deg g ( x), then
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 195
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
f ( x) g ( x) (a0 b0 ) (a1 b1 ) x ... (an bn ) x n shows that either f ( x) g ( x) 0 or
deg( f ( x) g ( x)) n max{deg f ( x), deg g ( x)} ( or accordingly an bn 0 or 0)
Now we characterize the units in a polynomial ring R[x] .
Theorem 3: Let R be a commutative ring with 1. Then f ( x) a0 a1 x a2 x 2 ... an x n R[ x] is a
unit if and only if a 0 is a unit and a i is nilpotent in R i 1, 2, ..., n
Proof: First assume that a 0 is a unit and a1 , a2 ,..., an an are nilpotents in R . Then a1 x, a2 x 2 ,..., an x n are
nilpotents and so a1 x a2 x 2 ... an x n is a nilpotent in R[x] . Since a 0 is a unit, so it follows that
a0 a1 x a2 x 2 ... an x n is a unit.
We prove the converse by induction on the deg f ( x). If deg f ( x) 0 , then the result follows directly.
Let us make our induction hypothesis that the result holds for every nonzero polynomial of degree less
than n . Let f ( x) a0 a1 x a2 x 2 ... an x n be a unit in R[x] . Then there is a polynomial
b0 b1 x b2 x 2 ... bm x m R[ x] such that
(a0 a1 x a2 x 2 ... an x n )(b0 b1 x b2 x 2 ... bm x m 1
This implies that
a0b0 1 (1)
a0b1 a1b0 0 (2)
a0b2 a1b1a2b0 0 (3)
.
.
.
an2bm an1bm1 anbm2 0 (4)
an1bm anbm1 0 (5)
anbm 0 (6)
We multiply a n to both sides of (5) and get
an bm1 0
2
2
Again multiplying an to both sides of (4), we get
an bm2 0
3
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 196
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
m 1
Proceeding similarly we get an b0 0 . Since, by (1), b0 is a unit, so a nm 1 0 . Thus an 0 is a
nilpotent and so is an x n 0 . Then it follows that g ( x) f ( x) an x n a0 a1 x ... an1 x n1 is a unit,
since f (x) is a unit. Since deg g ( x) n , so a 0 is a unit and a1 , a2 ,..., an1 are nilpotents in R , by the
induction hypothesis. Thus the result follows.
13.4 DIVISION ALGORITHM
In the ring Z of all integers, for any two nonzero integers m and n , we have unique integers q and r
such that n mq r , where 0 r | m | . The usual process, we do for computing q and r , is known as
long division (Division Algorithm).
Let us define divisibility first. Let f (x) and g (x) be two nonzero polynomials in R[x] . If there exists
q( x) R[ x] such that f ( x) q( x) g ( x) , then we say that g (x) divides f (x) or that g (x) is a factor of
f (x) . It is denoted by g ( x) | f ( x)
Theorem 4 (Division Algorithm): Let R be a commutative ring with 1 and f ( x), g ( x) be two nonzero
polynomials in R[x] such that the leading coefficient of g (x) is a unit in R . Then there exist unique
polynomials q( x), r ( x) R[ x] such that
f ( x) q( x) g ( x) r ( x)
where either r ( x) 0 or deg r ( x) deg g ( x)
Proof: We initially prove the existence of such polynomials q(x) and r (x) . Note that g (x) is a
nonzero polynomial, since the leading coefficient is nonzero. If g ( x) | f ( x) , then there exists
q( x) R[ x] s.t. f ( x) g ( x)q( x) which gives the desired presentation where r ( x) 0 . If g ( x) | f ( x) ,
then consider the set
S f ( x) q( x) g ( x) | q( x) R[ x].
Now, by the well-ordering principle, the set N {deg h( x) | h( x) S} (since g ( x) | f ( x), so S does not
contain the zero polynomial), we have a polynomial r (x) having the least degree among all
polynomials in S . Then there exists q( x) R[ x] such that f ( x) g ( x)q( x) r ( x) . So it is sufficient to
show that deg r ( x) deg g ( x) . Let g ( x) a0 a1 x ... an x n and r ( x) b0 b1 x ... bm x m . Since
1
a n is a unit so an exists in R . Suppose, on the contrary, deg r ( x) deg g ( x) . Let we define
s ( x) r ( x) bm an1 x mn g ( x) .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 197
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Then s( x) 0 , otherwise r ( x) bm an1 x mn g ( x) and f ( x) (q ( x) bm a n1 x m n ) g ( x) which contradicts
g ( x) | f ( x) . Now s ( x) f ( x) (q( x) bm an1 x mn ) g ( x) shows that s( x) S and then
deg s( x) deg r ( x)
contradicts the choice of r (x) in S . Therefore deg r ( x) deg g ( x) .
To prove the uniqueness of q(x) and r (x) , assume that there are polynomials q ' ( x), r ' ( x) R[ x] such
that
f ( x) q ( x) g ( x) r ( x) q ' ( x) g ( x) r ' ( x)
where r ( x) 0 or deg r ( x) deg g ( x), r ' ( x) 0 or deg r ' ( x) deg g ( x) . Then
r ( x) r ' ( x) (q ' ( x) q( x)) g ( x).
If r ( x) r ' ( x) 0 then q ' ( x) q ( x) 0 , and since the leading coefficient of g (x) is a unit,
deg((q ' ( x) q( x)) g ( x) deg(q ' ( x) q( x)) deg g ( x) deg g ( x) , that is
deg(r ( x) r ' ( x)) deg g ( x),
Which is impossible since deg r ( x), deg r ' ( x) deg g ( x) . Thus, r ( x) r ' ( x) 0 . Then
0 (q ' ( x) q( x)) g ( x),
q ' ( x) q( x) 0 , since the leading coefficient of g (x) is a unit.
Thus r ( x) r ' ( x) and q ' ( x) q ( x)
Definition: Let R be a commutative ring with 1 and f ( x), g ( x) be two nonzero polynomials in R[x]
such that the leading coefficient of g (x) is a unit in R. Then the unique polynomials q( x), r ( x) R[ x]
in the above Theorem, are called the quotient and remainder, respectively, after dividing f (x) by
g (x) .
Let R be a commutative ring with 1 and f (a ) a0 a1a ... an x n R[ x] . For all a R we define
f (a ) a0 a1a ... an a n
Definition: Let R be a commutative ring with 1 and f ( x) R[ x] be two nonzero polynomials. If r R
is such that f (r ) 0, then r is called a root or zero of f (x) . A root r is said to be of multiplicity
m 1 if f ( x) ( x r ) m g ( x) where g ( x) R[ x] is such that g (r ) 0 .
Theorem 5 (Remainder theorem): Let R be a commutative ring with 1 , f ( x) R[ x] be a nonzero
polynomial and a R . Then there exists unique q( x) R[ x] such that
f ( x) ( x a)q( x) f (a)
Proof: Denote g ( x) ( x a) . Then the leading coefficient of g (x) is 1, a unit in R , and so there are
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 198
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
unique q( x), r ( x) R[ x] such that f ( x) ( x a)q( x) r ( x) , where r ( x) 0 or deg r ( x) deg g ( x) .
Now if r ( x) 0 , then deg r ( x) 1 shows that r ( x) R . Thus in either case r ( x) b R, , and we
have f ( x) ( x a)q( x) b . This implies that f (a) b , and hence f ( x) ( x a)q( x) f (a).
Corollary 1(Factorization Theorem): Let R be a commutative ring with 1 , f ( x) R[ x] a non zero
polynomial and a R . Then x a | f ( x) if and only if a is a root of f (x) .
Thus a is a root of f (x) if and only if f ( x) ( x a)q( x) for some q( x) R[ x] . This
immediately
gives us the following result
Theorem 6: If R is an integral domain and f (x) is a nonzero polynomial in R[x] of degree n , then
f (x) has at most n roots in R counted according to multiplicity.
Proof: We will prove this theorem by induction on deg f ( x) n . If n 0 , then f (x) is a nonzero
constant in R and hence has no roots. Let us assume n 0 . If f (x) has no roots in R , the result holds.
Suppose f (x) has a root, say a R . Then f ( x) ( x a) f1 ( x) . Since R is an integral domain, so
deg f1 ( x) n 1 . Then f1 ( x) has at most n 1 roots in R , by the induction hypothesis. Also, if b a
is a root of f (x) in R , then f (b) (b a) f1 (b)
f1 (b) 0
since R is an integral domain, that is, b is a root of f1 ( x) . Therefore f (x) has at most n roots in R .
Corollary 2: Let R be an integral domain and f ( x), g ( x) R[ x] such that deg f ( x), deg g ( x) n .
If f (a) g (a) for n 1 elements a R , then f ( x) g ( x)
Proof: If, on the contrary, f ( x) g ( x) , then h( x) f ( x) g ( x) is a nonzero polynomial over R
such that deg h( x) n and h(x) has at least n 1 roots in R . This theorem is the contradiction of
theorem 6. Therefore f ( x) g ( x).
13.5 ARITHMETIC OF POLYNOMIAL
Theorem 7: Every ideal in F[x] is principal ideal, where F is principal ideal.
Proof: Let I be an ideal of F[x] . If I {0} , then I 0 . Suppose I {0} . By the well-ordering
principle on the set N deg f ( x) | 0 f ( x) F[ x] we have a polynomial, say d ( x) I with the
least degree in I . Then d ( x) I . For the reverse inclusion, let f ( x) I . By the Division
Algorithm, there are q( x), r ( x) F[ x] such that f ( x) d ( x)q( x) r ( x) where either r ( x) 0 or
deg r ( x) deg d ( x) . If r ( x) 0 , then r ( x) f ( x) d ( x)q( x) I contradicts that d (x) is a polynomial
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 199
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
of least degree in I . Hence r ( x) 0, f ( x) d ( x)q( x) d ( x) , and so I d ( x) . Thus
I d ( x) . is a principal ideal.
Suppose f ( x), g ( x) F[ x] be two polynomials. A nonzero polynomial d ( x) F[ x] is called a
common divisor of f (x) and g (x) if d ( x) | f ( x) and d ( x) | g ( x) . If f (x) and g (x) are not both zero,
then the ideal f ( x), g ( x) is a principal ideal and so there is d ( x) F[ x] such that
f ( x), g ( x) d ( x) then d ( x) | f ( x) and d ( x) | g ( x) . This shows that every divisor of d (x) is a
common divisor of f (x) and g (x) . Thus common divisor of polynomials f (x) and g (x) exists in
F (x) and there may be several common divisors. To introduce a polynomial equivalent of the concept
of the greatest common divisor (gcd) of two integers, the first difficulty is that there is no natural or
standard partial ordering between polynomials that allows us to make our choice unique by
considering the 'greatest' among all common divisors. If d (x) and d ' ( x) are two gcd of f (x) and
g (x) , then our experience in Z shows that d ( x) | d ' ( x) and d ' ( x) | d ( x)
d ' ( x) ad ( x) for some a F *
To get some degree of uniqueness, we need begin with the monic common divisors.
Definition: Let f ( x), g ( x) F[ x] be two polynomials not both zero. Then a polynomial d ( x) F[ x] is
called a greatest common divisor of f ( x), g ( x) if d (x) is a monic polynomial such that:
1. d ( x) | f ( x) and d ( x) | g ( x)
2. c( x) | f ( x) and c( x) | g ( x) c( x) | d ( x)
Now we have to show that the gcd of f ( x), g ( x) exists in F[x] uniquely.
Theorem 8: Let f ( x), g ( x) F[ x] be two polynomials not both zero. Then gcd of f ( x), g ( x) exists in
F[x] and it is unique.
Moreover, if d (x) is the gcd of f ( x), g ( x) , then there exist u( x), v( x) F[ x] such that
d ( x) f ( x)u( x) g ( x)v( x)
Proof: Consider I { f ( x)r ( x) g ( x)s( x) | r ( x), s( x) F[ x]} . Then I is the ideal f ( x), g ( x) of
F[x] generated by f (x) and g (x) . It is a nonzero ideal since either of f (x) and g (x) is nonzero. Since
F is a field, every ideal of F[x] is principal. Suppose d1 ( x) a0 a1 x ... an x n F [ x], an 0 is
1 1
such that I d1 ( x) . Since F is a field, so that an exists in F and d ( x) an d1 ( x) F [ x] is a
monic polynomial such that d ( x) d1 ( x) f ( x), g ( x) . Then f ( x), g ( x) d ( x)
d (x) d(x) is common divisor of the polynomials f ( x), g ( x) . Now d ( x) f ( x), g ( x)
d ( x) f ( x)u( x) g ( x)v( x)
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 200
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
for some u( x), v( x) F[ x] . If h( x) F[ x] is a common divisor of f ( x), g ( x) , then
h( x) | f ( x)u( x) g ( x)v( x) d ( x) . Thus d (x) is a greatest common divisor of f ( x), g ( x) .
To prove the uniqueness of gcd, consider a gcd c( x) F[ x] of f ( x), g ( x) . Then c( x) | d ( x) and
d ( x) | c( x) , and so d ( x) ac( x) for some a a F * . Since both c(x) and d (x) are monic, it follows
that c( x) d ( x)
We denote the gcd of f ( x), g ( x) by gcd( f ( x), g ( x)).
Example 3: Consider two polynomials f ( x) 2( x 1)( x 2) and g ( x) 2( x 2)( x 3) over R . Then
d ( x) x 2 is the monic common divisor of f (x) and g (x) of greatest degree. Thus
gcd( f ( x), g ( x)) x 2.
Definition: Let f (x) and g (x) two polynomials in F[x] not both zero. If gcd( f ( x), g ( x)) 1 , then
f ( x), g ( x) are said to be relatively prime.
Theorem 9: Two polynomials f ( x), g ( x) F[ x] are relatively prime if and only if
1 f ( x)u( x) g ( x)v( x) for some u( x), v( x) F[ x] .
Proof: Let 1 f ( x)u( x) g ( x)v( x) , where u( x), v( x) F[ x] . If d ( x) gcd( f ( x), g ( x)) , then
d ( x) | f ( x), d ( x) | g ( x)
d (x) | 1
Since d (x) is monic, so it follows that d ( x) 1 . Hence f (x) and g (x) are relatively prime.
Converse of this theorem will be follows from Theorem 8.
Corollary 3: Let K be a subfield of F and f ( x), g ( x) K[ x] . Then f (x) and g (x) are relatively
prime in K[x] if and only if so in F[x] .
Proof: Let f (x) and g (x) be relatively prime in K[x] . Then 1 f ( x)u( x) g ( x)v( x) for some
u( x), v( x) K[ x] . Since K[ x] F[ x] , it follows that 1 gcd( f ( x), g ( x)) in F[x] , by Theorem 9.
Conversely, assume that f (x) and g (x) be relatively prime in F[x] . Then
1 f ( x)u( x) g ( x)v( x) for some u( x), v( x) F[ x] . Let d ( x) gcd( f ( x), g ( x)) in K[x] . Then
d ( x) | f ( x), d ( x) | g ( x) and d ( x) | f ( x)u( x) g ( x)v( x) in F[x] . It follows that d (x) | 1, and since d (x)
is monic, so d ( x) 1 . Thus f (x) and g (x) are relatively prime in K[x] .
Definition: Let F be a field. A nonconstant polynomial f ( x) F[ x] of degree n is called irreducible
over F if there is no factorization f ( x) g ( x)h( x) in F[x] such that deg f ( x) n and deg g ( x) n .
In the other way f (x) is said to be reducible.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 201
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Thus, a nonconstant polynomial p(x) is irreducible iff it has only two monic divisors 1 and
a 1 p( x) where, a is leading coefficient of p(x) .
Theorem 10: Let F be a field and f ( x), p( x) F[ x] . If p(x) is irreducible, then
gcd( p( x), f ( x)) 1 if p( x) | f ( x)
a 1 p( x) if p( x) | f ( x)
Where, a is leading cofficient of p(x) .
Proof: Let p( x) | f ( x) . Since p(x) is irreducible, so it has no monic divisors other than 1 and
a 1 p( x)
Where, a is leading coefficient of p(x) . But a 1 p( x) is not a divisor of f (x) , since p( x) | f ( x) .
Hence gcd( p( x), f ( x)) 1
If p( x) | f ( x) , then a 1 p( x) is the monic common divisor of highest degree. It follows that
gcd( p( x), f ( x)) a 1 p( x) .
Theorem 11: Let F be a field and p( x) F[ x] . Then p(x) is irreducible iff for any
f ( x), g ( x) F[ x], p( x) | f ( x) g ( x) implies either p( x) | f ( x) or p( x) | g ( x) .
Proof: Let p( x) | f ( x) g ( x) and p( x) | f ( x) . Since p(x) is irreducible, so 1 gcd( p( x), f ( x)) . Then
1 p( x)u( x) f ( x)v( x) for some u( x), v( x) F[ x] . It follows that
g ( x) p( x) g ( x)u( x) f ( x) g ( x)v( x) . Now p( x) | f ( x) g ( x)
p( x) | p( x) g ( x)u( x) f ( x) g ( x)v( x), i.e., p( x) | g ( x)
Conversely, let p( x) f ( x) g ( x) . Then either p( x) | f ( x) or p( x) | g ( x) . If p( x) | f ( x) , then
deg p( x) deg f ( x) deg f ( x) deg g ( x) deg p( x)
deg p( x) deg g ( x) .
Similarly, if p( x) | g ( x) , then deg p( x) deg g ( x) . Thus p(x) is an irreducible polynomial.
The relevance of prime integers is undeniably demonstrated in the Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic. A similar conclusion is obtained here, demonstrating that every nonconstant polynomial
over a field may be represented as a combination of irreducible polynomials.
Theorem 12: Let F be a fied. Then every non constant polynomial f ( x) F[ x] can be written
uniquely as a product of a nonzero constant and monic irreducible polynomials in F[x] up to the order
of the irreducible factors.
Proof: We initially prove that, the existence of such factorization by using the mathematical induction
on n deg f ( x) . If n 1 then f ( x) ax b; a 0 . Since F is a field, so a 1 1 exists in F and
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 202
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
x a 1b is a monic irreducible polynomial in F[x] . Then f ( x) a( x a 1b) shows that we are done
for n 1. Let f (x) be a polynomial of degree n 1and leading coefficient a . If f (x) is irreducible,
then f ( x) a(a 1 f ( x)) is a desired factorization. If f (x) is reducible then f ( x) g ( x)h( x) F[ x] in
F[x] with deg g ( x) deg f ( x) and deg h( x) deg f ( x) . By the induction hypothesis,
g ( x) bp1 ( x) p2 ( x)... pr ( x), h( x) cq1 ( x)q2 ( x)...qs ( x) and
f ( x) bcp1 ( x) p2 ( x)... pr ( x)q1 ( x)q2 ( x)...qs ( x) where b, c F and pi ( x), qi ( x) are monic irreducible
polynomials in F[x] .
Now, to prove the uniqueness of the factorization, let us suppose
ap1 ( x) p2 ( x)... pm ( x) bq1 ( x)q2 ( x)...qn ( x)
where a, b F and pi ( x), qi ( x) are monic irreducible polynomials in F[x] . Since all pi ( x), qi ( x) are
monic, so a b . Then p1 ( x) p2 ( x)... pm ( x) q1 ( x)q2 ( x)...qn ( x)
q1 ( x) | p1 ( x) p2 ( x)... pm ( x)
Since q1 ( x) is irreducible, so either of p1 ( x) p2 ( x)... pm ( x) is divisible by q1 ( x) , say q1 ( x) | p1 ( x) . It
follows that p1 ( x) q1 ( x) , since both p1 ( x) and q1 ( x) are monic and irreducible
p2 ( x)... pm ( x) q2 ( x)...qn ( x) (By the cancellation property)
Continuing cancelation of irreducible factors, we get pn1 ( x) p2 ( x)... pm ( x) 1 if m n or
qm1 ( x)q2 ( x)...qn ( x) 1 if n m , which is a contradiction, since every irreducible polynomial is non
constant. Thus m n and after reindexing, pi ( x) qi ( x) .
13.6 IRREDUCIBILITY OF POLYNOMIAL
There is a simple characterization on irreducibility of polynomials of degree 2 or 3.
Theorem 13: Let f ( x) F[ x] be a polynomial of degree 2 or 3. Then f (x) is reducible over F if and
only if f (x) has a root in F .
Proof: First suppose that deg f ( x) 3 and f (x) has a root in F , say a . Then x a divides f (x) in
F[x] and so f ( x) ( x a)q( x) for some q( x) F[ x] . Thus f (x) is reducible over F .
Conversely suppose that f (x) is reducible over F . Then f ( x) g ( x)h( x) for some g ( x), h( x) F[ x]
with deg g ( x) 1 and deg h( x) 1 . Now deg( g ( x)h( x)) 3 shows that either deg g ( x) 1 and
deg h( x) 2 or deg g ( x) 2 and deg h( x) 1 . If deg g ( x) 1 , then g ( x) ax b for some
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 203
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
a, b F , a 0 . Now a 1b F shows tha g (a 1b) 0 shows that f (a 1b) 0 has a root in F . If
h( x) 1 , then similarly f (x) has a root in F .
A similar argument can be used for the case when deg f ( x) 2 .
Example 4: Consider f ( x) x 2 x [1] Z 2 [ x] . Then f ([0]) [0]2 [0] [1] [0] and
f ([1]) [1]2 [1] [1] [0] shows that f (x) has no roots in Z 2 . Also deg f ( x) 2 . Thus, by theorem
13, f (x) is irreducible over Z 2 .
Example 5: Consider f ( x) ( x 2 1)( x 2 2) Q[ x] . Then f (x) has no root in Q , still it is reducible
over Q . Thus the above result does not hold for polynomials of degree more than 3.
Theorem 13 is an appropriate criteria for assessing polynomial irreducibility over finite fields. Because
the nonexistence of roots in an infinite field is difficult to verify, it does not operate well over an
infinite field. Now we demonstrate a lovely strategy for checking the nonexistence of roots of a
polynomial over Q in a finite number of steps. We'll start with a well-known lemma known as Gauss's
Lemma.
If f ( x) a0 a1 x ... an x n Z [ x] , then for any m N denote
f ( x) [a0 ] [a1 ]x ... [an ]x n Z m [ x] . Since : Z Z m defined by (a) a is a ring
homomorphism, so it follows that * : Z [ x] Z m [ x] given by * ( f ( x)) f ( x) is a ring
homomorphism.
Lemma 1: Let f ( x) Z[ x] . If f ( x) G( x) H ( x) over Q where deg G( x), deg H ( x) deg f ( x) then
there are g ( x), h( x) Z[ x] with deg G( x) deg g ( x) and deg H ( x) deg h( x) s.t. f ( x) g ( x)h( x) .
Proof: Let n1 , n2 Z be such that n1G( x), n2 H ( x) Z[ x] . Consider g1 ( x) n1 ( x)G( x), h1 ( x) n2 H ( x)
and n n1n2 . Then
nf ( x) n1G( x)n2 H ( x) g1h1 ( x)
If p is a prime divisor of n , then the identity nf ( x) g1 ( x)h1 ( x) becomes g1 ( x)h1 ( x) 0 in Z p [x] .
Since Z p [x] is an integral domain, so at least one of g1 ( x) and h1 ( x) say is 0. Hence p divides all the
coefficients of g1 ( x) , that is, g1 ( x) pg 2 ( x ) for some g 2 ( x) Z[ x] . If n pm , then
pmf ( x) pg 2 ( x)h1 ( x)
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 204
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
mf ( x) g 2 ( x)h1 ( x) . Note that deg g 2 ( x) deg g1 ( x) deg G( x) and deg h1 ( x) deg H ( x) .
Continuing cancelation of prime factors of n , we reach our desired factorization f ( x) g ( x)h( x) in
Z[x] .
Theorem 14: Let f ( x) a0 a1 x ... an x n Z [ x] be a polynomial of degree n 1 . If there exists a
prime p such that f ( x) [a0 ] [a1 ]x ... [an ]x n is of degree n and irreducible over Z p , then f (x) is
irreducible over Q .
Proof: Suppose that p is a prime such that deg f ( x ) is n and f (x) is irreducible over Z p . If possible,
let f (x) be reducible over Q . Then there exist polynomials g ( x) b0 b1 x ... bk x k and
h( x) c0 c1 x ... cl x l in Z[x] , 0 k , l n such that f ( x) g ( x)h( x) . Then n k l . Since degree
of f ( x) ([b0 ] [b1 ]x ... [bk ]x k )([c0 ] [c1 ]x ... [cl ]x l ) is n k l , it follows that [bk ][cl ] [0]
in Z p , and hence [bk ] [0] and [cl ] [0] . Consequently, g (x) and h(x) are nonconstant polynomials
in Z p [x] . g (x ) and h(x) are non units, since the nonzero elements
of Zp are the only units of Z p [x] . Hence f (x) is reducible over Z p , a contradiction. Thus f (x) is
irreducible over Q .
Example 6: Suppose the polynomial f ( x) 7 x 3 8 x 2 over Q. Then in Z 3 [ x] ,
f ( x) x 3 [2]x [2] . Now f ([0]) [2], f ([1]) [2] and f ([2]) [2] shows that f (x) has no root in
Z 3[ x] . Thus f (x) is irreducible over Z 3 and hence f (x) is irreducible over Q .
13.7 EISENSTEIN’S CRITERIA FOR IRREDUCIBLITY
Now we will learn about the famous Eisenstein's criterion for irreducibility of polynomials over Q .
Theorem 15: Eisenstein's irreducibility criterion (EIC) Let f ( x) a0 a1 x ... an x n Z [ x] . If
there is a prime integer p such that p | ai for all i n , p | a n and p 2 | a n , then f (x) is irreducible over
Q.
Proof: Assume, on the contrary, that f (x) is reducible over Q . Then by Gauss's lemma
f ( x) (b0 b1 x ... bk x k )(c0 c1 x ... cm x m )
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 205
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
in Z[x] where k , m n . Let g ( x) b0 b1 x ... bk x k and h( x) c0 c1 x ... cm x m . Then we have
f ( x) g ( x)h( x) in Z p [x ] . Since p | a n , so [an ] is a unit in Z p . Then p | ai for all i n implies
f ( x) ux n . Because irreducible polynomial factorization over a field is unique, so we have and
g ( x) ux k and h( x) vx m where u and v are units in Z p . Thus [b0 ] [0] [c0 ] in Z p ,
p | b0 and p | c0 . Then p 2 | b0 c0 a0 , a contradiction. Hence f (x) is irreducible in Q[x] .
Example 7: Let f ( x) x 5 12x 4 9 x 2 6 . Then 3 | 6, 3 | 9, 3 | 12, 3 | 1, 32 | 6 shows that f (x) is
irreducible over Q , by Eisenstein's criterion.
Corollary 4: For every prime integer p , the p -th cyclotomic polynomial
p ( x) 1 x ... x p 1
is irreducible over Q .
x p 1
Proof: Note that p ( x) which implies
x 1
p ( x 1) x p1 x p 2 ... p
Since p is prime, we have p | i, 0 i p . Hence p ( x 1) is irreducible in Q[x] , by
Eisenstein's criterion and it follows that p (x) is irreducible over Q .
Irreducible polynomials are commonly utilised in abstract algebra applications such as coding theory,
Galois theory, and so on. We show how to employ irreducible polynomials to build finite fields of
non-prime order. First, we show the following fact, which is essential for building finite fields.
Theorem 16: Let F be a field and p(x) be a nonzero polynomial over F . Then the following
conditions are equivalent:
(i) p(x) is irreducible;
(ii) F[ x] / p( x) is an integral domain;
(iii) F[ x] / p( x) is a field.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 206
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Proof: (i) (iii) : F[ x] / p( x) is a commutative ring with unity, since F[x] is so. Consider a
nonzero element F[ x] p( x) of F[ x] / p( x) . Then f ( x) p( x) and so p( x) | f ( x) in
F[x] . Since p(x) is irreducible, so 1 gcd( p( x), f ( x)) . Then u( x) f ( x) v( x) p( x) 1 , for some
u( x), v( x) F[ x]
(u( x) p( x) )( f ( x) p( x) ) 1 p( x) . Thus
f ( x) p( x) is a unit in F[ x] / p( x) and hence F[ x] / p( x) is a field.
(iii) (ii) : Follows trivially.
(ii) (i) (ii) ): F[ x] / p( x) is an integral domain and so contains at least two elements. Thus
F[ x] p( x) and so p(x) is a non constant. Suppose that p( x) f ( x) g ( x) , for some
f ( x), g ( x) F[ x] . Then f ( x), g ( x) p( x)
( f ( x) p( x) )( g ( x) p( x) ) 0 p( x) .
Since F[ x] / p( x) contains no zero divisor, it follows that f ( x) p( x) 0 p( x) or
g ( x) p( x) 0 p( x) , equivalently f ( x) p( x) or g ( x) p( x) . If f ( x) p( x)
then there is q( x) p( x) such that f ( x) p( x)q( x) . Hence p( x) f ( x) g ( x) p( x)q( x) g ( x) and
so deg g ( x) 0 . Thus g (x) is a unit. Similarly, if g ( x) p( x) , then f (x) is a unit. Thus p(x) is
irreducible over F .
Example 8: Consider the irreducible polynomial f ( x) x 2 x [1] Z 2 [ x] . Then it follows that
F Z 2 [ x] / x 2 x [1] { f ( x) x 2 x [1] | f ( x) Z 2 [ x]} is a field. We show that this is a
field of four elements. Now the Division Algorithm implies that for every f ( x) Z 2 [ x] there are
unique polynomials q( x), r ( x) Z 2 [ x] such that
f ( x) ( x 2 x [1])q( x) r ( x)
where r ( x) 0 r(x) = 0 or deg r ( x) deg( x 2 x [1]) 2 . Then r ( x) [a]x [b] for some
[a], [b] Z 2 . Now f ( x) ([a]x [b]) ( x 2 x [1])q( x) x 2 x [1]
F Z 2 [ x] / x 2 x [1]
{ f ( x) x 2 x [1] | f ( x) Z 2 [ x]}
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 207
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
{([a]x [b]) x 2 x [1] |[a], [b] Z 2 }
{0 x 2 x [1] , [1] x 2 x [1] , x x 2 x [1] , x [1] x 2 x [1] } .
Thus F is a field of four elements.
Check your progress
Problem 1: Check the polynomial f ( x) 1 x x 2 x 3 x 4 is irreducible over Q ?
Problem 2: Check the polynomial f ( x) x 5 15x 4 10x 2 5 is irreducible over Q ?
13.8 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learned about the important definition of polynomial ring, irreducible polynomial
and important concept of Eisenstein's criteria of irreducibility of a polynomial over Q . The overall
summarization of this units are as follows:
If F is a field then every ideal in F[x] is principal ideal.
R[x] is an integral domain if and only if R is an integral domain.
Two polynomials in F[x] , f (x) and g (x) not both zero are said to be relatively prime if
gcd( f ( x), g ( x)) 1 .
A nonconstant polynomial p(x) is irreducible iff it has only two monic divisors 1 and a 1 p( x)
where, a is leading coefficient of p(x) .
Eisenstein's irreducibility criterion: Let f ( x) a0 a1 x ... an x n Z [ x] . If there is a prime
integer p such that p | ai for all i n , p | a n and p 2 | a n , then f (x) is irreducible over Q .
13.9 GLOSSARY
GCD: Greatest common divisor
EIC: Eisenstein's irreducibility criterion
Eisenstein's irreducibility criterion: Let f ( x) a0 a1 x ... an x n Z [ x] . If there is a prime
integer p such that p | ai for all i n , p | a n and p 2 | a n , then f (x) is irreducible over Q .
13.10 REFERENCES
Joseph A Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa, 1999.
N. Herstein,(1975), Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 208
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri (2021 ), A Course in Abstract Algebra (5th Edition), Vikas
Publication House.
Vasishtha, A. R., & Vasishtha, A. K. (2006). Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra). Krishna
Prakashan Media.
RamjiLal, Algebra 1: Groups, Rings, Fields and Arithmetic, Springer, 2017.
13.11 SUGGESTED READING
P.B. Bhattacharya, S.K. Jain, S.R. Nagpaul: Basic Abstract Algebra, Cambridge Press, 1994.
David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote: Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), Wiley, 2011.
Michael Artin: Algebra (2nd edition), Pearson, 2014.
13.12 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Long Answer Type Question:
1. State and prove the Eisenstein’s criteria for irreduciblity over Q .
2. If F be a field and p( x) F[ x] . Then prove that p(x) is irreducible iff for any
f ( x), g ( x) F[ x], p( x) | f ( x) g ( x) implies either p( x) | f ( x) or p( x) | g ( x) .
3. Prove that, if K be a subfield of F and f ( x), g ( x) F[ x] . Then f ( x), g ( x) are relative prime
in K[x] iff so in F[x] .
4. If F be a field and p ( x) F [ x ] . Then prove that p(x) is irreducible iff
f ( x), g ( x) F[ x], p( x) | f ( x) g ( x) implies that either p( x) | f ( x) or p( x) | g ( x)
5. Prove that each non constant polynomial f ( x) F[ x] can be expressed uniquely as a product
of a nonzero constant and monic irreducible polynomials in F[x] up to the order of the
irreducible factors.
6. Prove that every ideal in F[x] is principal ideal, where F is field.
Short Answer Type Question:
7. Show that the polynomial f ( x) x 5 15x 4 10x 2 5 is irreducible over Q .
8. Prove that p -th cyclotomic polynomial p ( x) 1 x ... x p 1 is irreducible over Q .
9. Prove that two polynomials f ( x), g ( x) F[ x] are relatively prime if and only if
1 f ( x)u( x) g ( x)v( x) for some u( x), v( x) F[ x] .
10. Find the gcd of the polynomials f ( x) 2( x 1)( x 2) and g ( x) 2( x 2)( x 3) .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 209
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
11. If D is an integral domain and f ( x) 0 is a polynomial in D[x] of degree n , then prove that
f (x) has at most n roots in D counted according to multiplicity.
12. Prove that in a commutative ring R with unity, D f ( x) R[ x] and a R then x a | f ( x) iff
a is root of f (x) .
Fill in the blanks:
13. If F is a field then every ideal in F[x] is …………………….
14. A non constant polynomial p(x) is irreducible iff it has only two monic divisors a 1 p( x) and
…….
15. Two polynomials f ( x), g ( x) are said to be relative prime if gcd( f ( x), g ( x)) ………………
13.13 ANSWERS
Answer of self cheque question:
1. Yes 2. Yes
Answer of terminal question:
9. ( x 2) 13. Principal ideal 14. 1 15. 1
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 210
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Unit-14: FIELD EXTENSION, GALOIS GROUPS
AND GALOIS EXTENSION
CONTENT:
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 Extension of fields
14.4 Minimal polynomial
14.5 Galois group
14.6 Summary
14.7 Glossary
14.8 References
14.9 Suggested Readings
14.10 Terminal Questions
14.11 Answers
14.1 INTRODUCTION
A field extension in mathematics, specifically algebra, is a pair of fields K L where the
operations of K are L operations confined to K. In this instance, K is a subfield of L and L is an
extension field of K. For instance, under the conventional definitions of addition and multiplication,
the real numbers are a subfield of the complex numbers, which are an extension field of the real
numbers.
The Galois group of a certain kind of field extension is a particular group connected to the field
extension in mathematics's branch of abstract algebra known as Galois theory. Galois theory is the
study of field extensions and how they relate to the polynomials that give birth to them via Galois
groups. It is named after Évariste Galois who made the initial discovery of field extensions.
In algebraic number theory, the study of polynomial roots via Galois theory, and algebraic
geometry, field extensions play a key role.
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 211
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
14.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to
Memorized about the extension of fields.
Analyze about the minimal polynomial in terms of field extension.
Analyze about the Galois group of polynomial over a field F .
14.3 EXTENSION OF FIELDS
As we know that complex numbers are generally ordered pair of real numbers i.e., C R R , and so,
in its strict sense R
C . Still R is considered as a subfield of C . We can identifying each real
number a with the complex number (a,0) .
So, what is the justification in doing this?
In the sense of isomorphism. Let we define a mapping f : R C , for all a R s.t.,
f (a) (a,0)
Then f is a monomorphism and R f ( R) {(a,0) | a R} which is a subfield of C .
Definition: Let F and K be two fields. F is called an extension or a field extension of K if there is a
monomorphism
f :K F
It is denoted by F / K
Since, K is a field and we also know that a field has no ideal other than {0} and F itself, every
homomorphism f : K F is either a zero homomorphism or a one-to-one homomorphism. Thus F is
a field extension of K iff there is a nonzero homomorphism f : K F .
Example 1: The mapping f : R C defined by for all a R,
f (a) (a, 0)
is a monomorphism. Thus C is a field extension of R .
Similarly, R is a field extension of Q . There are more several field extensions of Q . Now we give
some examples.
Example 2: Consider p( x) x 2 1 on R . Since p(x) is irreducible over R , F R[ x] / x 2 1 is a
field. Also we have F { f ( x) x 2 1 | f ( x) R[ x]} . Since R is a field, by the division algorithm
f ( x) ( x 2 1)q( x) (a bx), where a, b R . Then f ( x) (a bx) ( x 2 1)q( x) x 2 1 implies
that f ( x) x 2 1 a bx x 2 1 . Thus
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 212
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
F {a bx x 2 1 | a, b R}
Define a mapping f : R F by: for all a R ,
f (a) a x 2 1
Then f is a homomorphism. Now for a, b R ,
f (a) f (b) a x 2 1 b x 2 1
a b x 2 1
a b ( x 2 1)q( x)
for some q( x) R[ x] . If a b 0 then a b R
deg(a b) 0 , and q(x) is nonzero.
Then deg(( x 2 1)q( x)) deg( x 2 1) deg q( x) 2 leads to a contradiction. Thus a b and so f is a
monomorphism. Hence F is an extension of R .
Also note that : F C defined by:
(a bx x 2 1 ) a ib
for every a bx x 2 1 F is an isomorphism. Thus F C .
Example 3: Let F Q[ x] / x 2 2 . Since x 2 2 is irreducible over Q , F is a field. Also, by the
Division Algorithm on Q[x] , we have
F {a bx x 2 2 | a, b Q}
Define a mapping f : Q Q[ x] / x 2 2 by a Q
f (a) a x 2 2
Then f is a homomorphism. Since Q is a field, so f is either a zero homomorphism or a
monomorphism. Now f (1) 1 x 2 2 0 implies that f is a nonzero homomorphism. Thus f is a
monomorphism. Hence F is an extension of Q .
Also note that : F Q( 2 ) defined by
(a bx x 2 2 ) a b 2
for every a bx x 2 2 F is an isomorphism. Thus F Q ( 2 ) .
Example 4: Give examples of two fields which are not an extension of a field.
1. Q has no proper subfield.
Let K be a subfield of Q . Then 1 K , and so 1 K . This shows that for all nonzero a Z ,
a 1 1 ... 1(a times), if a 0
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 213
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
(1) (1) ... (1)(a times), if a 0
and hence a K . Thus Z K which shows that Q Q(Z ) K .
2. Z p has no proper subfield
If K Z p is a subfield of Z p , then [1] K
[a] [1] [1] ... [1] (a times) K
for every [a ] Z p . Thus K Z p
Definition: A field K is called a prime field if it has no proper subfield.
In other words, such domains cannot be thought of as extensions of other disciplines. Q and Z p are
prime fields for any prime integer p . We will now demonstrate that any prime field is isomorphic to
any of these fields.
Theorem 1: Every field F is either an extension of Q or an extension of Z p , for some prime p .
Proof: Define a mapping f : Z F
s.t., f (n) n1, n Z
Then f is a homomorphism. Now either char F 0 or char F p for some prime integer p .
Assume that charF p . Then, p1 0
p ker f
ker f
Hence, ker f mZ for some m 0
Again Im f being a subring of F with the same unity, char Im f char F p . Then
Im f Z / ker f Z m shows that m char Im f p . Thus Im f Z p , and hence F has a subfield
which is isomorphic to Z p .
Now assume that char F 0 . In this case, ker f {0} , and so f is one-to-one. Now we shall
show that this f induces an one-to-one homomorphism
:Q F
a a
s.t., f (a) f (b) 1 , where Q [Since f is 1-1, f (b) 0 b 0 ]
b b
a c a c
Let , Q . Then ad bc f (ad ) f (bc) f (a) f (d ) f (b) f (c) f (a) f (b) 1
b d b d
a c
f (c) f (d ) 1
b d
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 214
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
is one-one and as well as defined.
a c ad bc
Now 1 1
f (ad bc) f (bd ) ( f (a) f (d ) f (b) f (c)) f (b) f (d )
1
b d bd
a c a c ac
f (a) f (b) 1 f (c) f (d ) 1 and f (ac) f (bd )
1
b d b d bd
a c
f (a) f (c) f (b) 1 f (d ) 1 f (a) f (b) 1 f (d ) 1 f (a) f (b) 1 f (c) f (d ) 1 .
b d
Thus F has a subfield which is isomorphic to Q .
Corollary 1: Let F be a prime field.
1. If char F 0 , then F Q .
2. If char F p , then F Z p .
Let F / K be a field extension. Then there is a monomorphism : K F , and so K is isomorphic to
(K ) , a subfield of F . Also, if K is a subfield of F , then the inclusion mapping f : K F is a
monomorphism. Hence F is an extension of K . Thus it is of no harm to identify K and its isomorphic
image (K ) is an extension F .
Let F / K be a field extension. As we know that arbitrary intersection of subfields of F is a subfield of
F , given any c1 , c2 ,..., cn F there is the smallest subfield that contains K {c1 , c2 ,..., cn } . This is
called the subfield of F generated by c1 , c2 ,..., cn over K and is denoted by K (c1 , c2 ,..., cn ) . For
c F , K (c) is of our special interest.
Definition: A field extension F / K is called a simple extension if there is c F such that F K (c) .
Now let us look after the explicit form of the elements of K (c) . Now c, c 2 ,... K (c)
K (c) contains the elements of the form k 0 k1c ... k n c n . Thus for any f ( x) K[ x],
f (c) K (c), i.e., K[c] { f (c) | f ( x) K[ x]} K (c) . Since K[c] is an integral domain, the field of
quotients Q( K[c]) of K[c] exists, and if follows from the fact K[c] is the smallest subfield that
contains K {c1 , c2 ,..., cn } that K[c] Q( K[c]) . Thus we have:
K (c) f (c) g (c) 1 | f ( x), g ( x) K[ x], g (c) 0
f ( 2)
Example 5: Consider Q( 2 ) f ( x), g ( x) Q[ x], g ( 2 ) 0 . Let
g( 2)
f ( x) a0 a1 x ... an x n Q[ x] . Then
f ( 2 ) a0 a1 2 5a2 2a3 2 ... an ( 2 ) n
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 215
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
(a0 2a2 ...) (a1 2a3 ...) 2
a b 2 ,where a, b Q
Prove that if Q( 2 ) , then
f ( 2)
g( 2)
ab 2
cd 2
r s 2 for some r , s Q
Also r s 2 Q( 2 ) r , s Q . Thus we have Q ( 2 ) {a b 2 | a, b Q} .
We demonstrate in the example below how extensions produced by many parts might be
straightforward extensions.
Example 6: Let us consider the extension Q( 3, 5 ) of Q . Then 3, 5 Q( 3, 5 )
5 3 Q( 3, 5 ) . Since Q ( 5 3 ) is the smallest field which contains Q and 5 3,
which follows that Q( 5 3 ) Q ( 3, 5 ) .
Again, 5 3 Q( 5 3 )
1 1
Q( 5 3 ) i.e., ( 5 3 ) Q( 5 3 )
5 3 2
3
1
2
1
( 5 3 ) ( 5 3 ) Q 5 3 and
2
5
1
2
1
( 5 3) ( 5 3) Q 5 3
2
Q( 3, 5 ) Q( 5 3 ) .
Thus Q( 3, 5 ) Q( 5 3 )
Recall that C is a vector space over R of dimension 2 and {1, i} is a basis of C over R . Also Q ( 2 )
is a vector space over Q and {1, 2} is a basis.
Let F / K be a field extension. Then the multiplication in F induces an external composition
K F F . Then for all c K and , F , we have
(i) (c d ) c d , (right distributivity law of multiplication over addition in F )
(ii) (cd ) c(d ) , (associativity of multiplication in F )
(iii) c( ) c c , (left distributivity law of multiplication over addition in F )
(iv) 1. ,
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 216
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
which shows that F is a vector space over K .
Definition: Let F / K be a field extension. Then the dimension of F as a vector space over K is called
the degree of the extension of F / K .
It is denoted by [ F : K ] .
Thus [C : R] = 2 and [Q( 2 ) : Q] 2
Example 7: Now we prove that [ F : K ] 1 iff K F .
If F K , then dim F 1 as a vector space over K . Hence [ F : K ] 1 .
Conversely, let [ F : K ] 1 . Consider c F and c 0 . Then {c} is linearly independent and so a basis
of F over K . Then there is k K such that 1 kc . This implies that k 0 and c k 1 K . Thus
F K and hence F K
Definition: A field extension F / K is called finite if [ F : K ] is so, otherwise F / K is called an infinite
extension.
If [ F : K ] 2 , then F is called a quadratic extension of K .
Example 8: 1. Q ( 2 ) / Q, C / R, Q (3 2 ) / Q are finite extension of fields.
2. R / Q is an infinite extension.
3. Q( 2 ) / Q, C / R are quadratic extension.
4. Q(3 2 ) / Q is not a quadratic extension.
Following results are very important to find the degree of field extension and also known as tower rule.
Theorem 2: Let F / L and L / K be two finite extensions of fields. Then F / K is also a finite
extension and [ F : K ] [ F : L][L : K ]
Moreover, if {u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u m } is a basis of F / L and {v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn } is a basis of L / K , then
B {ui v j | 1 i m, 1 j n} is a basis of F / K .
Proof: Suppose that [ F : L] m = m and [ L : K ] n . Consider bases {u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u m } of F over L
and
{v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn } of L over K . Then for any a F , there are l1 , l2 , u3 ,..., ln L such that
a l1u1 l2u2 l3u3 ... lmum .
Since for each li L there are ki1 , ki 2 ,..., kin K such that
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 217
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
li ki1v1 ki 2v2 ... kin vn
F
u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u m u1v1 , u1v2 ,..., u1vn ,
L u 2 v1 , u 2 v2 ,..., u 2 vn ,
.
.
.
K u m v1 , u m v2 ,..., u m vn
v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn
Thus,
a k11u1v1 k12u1v2 ... k1nu1vn
k21u2v1 k22u2v2 ... k2nu2 vn
.
.
.
km1umv1 km2umv2 ... kmnumvn .
which shows that B {ui v j | 1 i m,1 j n} generates F as a vector space over K . This is left for
learners to checking that B ui v j | 1 i m, 1 j n is linearly independent. Thus
B ui v j | 1 i m,1 j n is a basis of F over K .
Note: Let F / K be a field extension of finite degree and L is an intermediate field. Then aforesaid
theorem implies that L / K is finite extension and [ F : K ] [ F : L][L : K ]
[L : K ] | [F : K ]
Corollary 2: If F / K is a finite field extension and L is an intermediate field, then [ L : K ] | [ F : K ] .
There are several uses for the tower rule. We demonstrate its application to determine the degree of an
extension in the further books. Let's now think about the case below.
Example 9: Let L and M be two intermediate fields of a field extension F / K . If [ L : K ] is prime,
then either L M K or L M
Denote N L M . Then K N L
N is an intermediate field of L / K , and
hence [ L : K ] [ L : N ][ N : K ] . Since [ L : K ] is prime, [ L : N ] 1 = 1 or [ N : K ] 1 . Then N L or
N K , i.e., L M or L M K .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 218
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
14.4 MINIMAL POLYNOMIAL
In this unit we defined degree [ F : K ] of a field extension F / K to be the dimension of F as a vector
space over K . Though we have results ensuring existence of basis of every vector space, but there is
no for finding a basis in general. In this unit we set the theory a step forward to find [ F : K ] . The
degree of a simple extension K (c) / K is finite if and only if c is a root of some nonconstant
polynomial f (x) over K . Here we discuss how to find a basis and dimension of such simple
extensions K (c) / K .
Definition: Let F / K be a field extension. Then c F is called an algebraic element over K , if there
is a non constant polynomial f ( x) K[ x] s.t. f (c) 0 , i.e. if there exists k0 , k1 ,..., kn K not all
k i 0 s.t.,
k 0 k1c ... k n c n 0
Otherwise c is called a transcendental element over K .
Example 10: 1, 2 , 3 5 , i etc are algebraic over Q and e, , e e are transcendental over Q .
Definition: A complex number is called an algebraic number if is an algebraic element over Q
that is, if there is a non constant polynomial f (x) with rational coefficients such that
f ( ) 0
Otherwise C is called a transcendental number.
Let F be an algebraic element over K . Now we show that uniqueness can be imposed to the
polynomials f ( x) K[ x] such that f ( ) 0 up to some restrictions.
Theorem 3: Let F / K be a field extension and F be algebraic over K . Then there is a unique
monic polynomial m( x) K[ x] of least degree such that m( ) 0
Proof: Since is algebraic over K , there is a nonconstant polynomial f ( x) K[ x] such that f ( ) 0 .
P { f ( x) K[ x] | f ( x) is nonconstant and f ( ) 0} is nonempty and hence
N {deg f ( x) | f ( x) P} is a nonempty subset of N . By the well-ordering principle of natural
numbers, N has the least element, say n and correspondingly a polynomial
k 0 x n k1 x n1 ... k n1 x k n K [ x] of degree n in P . Then k0 0 and hence m( x) k 01 f ( x)
becomes a monic polynomial of the least degree n such that m( ) 0 .
Suppose p(x) is a monic polynomial of degree n and p( ) 0 . Since K is a field, there
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 219
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
are q( x), r ( x) K[ x] such that p( x) m( x)q( x) r ( x) where r ( x) 0 or deg r ( x) deg m( x) . If
deg r ( x) deg m( x) , then r (x) becomes a non constant polynomial such that
r ( ) r ( ) m( )q( ) 0 , which contradicts the choice of m(x) as a polynomial of least degree
such that m( ) 0. Thus r ( x) 0 and we have p( x) m( x)q( x) which implies that deg q( x) 0 , i.e.
q( x) k K . Since both p(x) and m(x) are monic, p( x) km( x) implies that k 1 and thus the
uniqueness of m(x) is established.
Definition: Let F / K be a field extension and F algebraic over K . Then the unique monic
polynomial m( x) K[ x] of least degree such that m( ) 0 is called the minimal polynomial of
over K .
If n deg m( x) , then is called algebraic of degree n over K .
Example 11: Consider the extension R / Q . Then x 2 3 is the minimal polynomial of 3 R over
Q . Thus 3 is algebraic of degree 2 over Q .
Example 12: Let F / K be a field extension and c be algebraic over K of degree 5. We show that
K (c) K (c 2 ) .
Let m( x) x 5 k 4 x 4 k 3 x 3 k 2 x 2 k1 x k 0 be the minimal polynomial of c over K . Then c can not
be a root of any polynomial of degree less than 5, and so c 4 k3c 2 k1 0 . Then
c 5 k 4 c 4 k3c 3 k 2 c 2 k1c k0 0
k0 k 2c 2 k4c 4
c K (c 2 ) , and hence K (c) K (c 2 )
k1 k3c 2 c 4
Although the aforementioned evidence for the existence and uniqueness of the minimum polynomial
m(x) is inherent, it does not offer any guidance on how to go about locating the minimal polynomial.
We now present evidence that irreducibility may serve as an effective comparable criteria for our
practical goal.
Let's start by demonstrating the lemma that follows, which follows directly from the minimum
polynomial's leastness in degree such that m( ) 0
Lemma 1: Let F / K be a field extension F and algebraic over K . Then for every
f ( x) K[ x], f ( ) 0 m( x) | f ( x)
Proof: By the Division Algorithm, there are q( x), r ( x) K[ x] such that f ( x) m( x)q( x) r ( x)
where r ( x) 0 or deg r ( x) deg m( x) . If deg r ( x) deg m( x) , then r (x) becomes a non constant
polynomial such that r ( ) p( ) m( )q( ) 0 , which contradicts the choice of m(x) as a
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 220
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
polynomial of least degree such that m( ) 0 . Thus r ( x) 0 and we have
f ( x) m( x)q( x) m( x) | f ( x) .
If f (x) is a nonconstant polynomial such that f ( ) 0 , then the above lemma shows that some
factor of f (x) is the minimal polynomial of . Thus if we have some irreducible polynomial p(x)
such
that p( ) 0 , then this must be the monic polynomial up to a unit multiple, that is m( x) up( x) .
Since K[x] is a UFD, there are irreducible polynomials p1 ( x), p2 ( x),..., pm ( x) K[ x] s.t.
f ( x) p1 ( x), p2 ( x),..., pm ( x). Then f ( ) 0
p1 ( ) p2 ( )... pm ( ) 0 and hence pi ( ) 0 for some i. Thus we have an irreducible polynomial
pi (x) having a root . Now we show that irreducibility is enough to characterize minimal
polynomials.
Theorem 4: Let F / K be a field extension and F algebraic over K . Then m( x) K[ x] is the
minimal polynomial of over K iff it is a monic irreducible polynomial such that m( ) 0 .
Proof: First, let us assume that m( x) K[ x] is the minimal polynomial of over K . Suppose
m( x) u( x)v( x), u( x), v( x) K[ x] . Then m( ) 0
either u( ) 0 or v( ) 0 . If u( ) 0 , then deg u( x) can never be less than deg m( x) and hence
deg u( x) deg m( x) .
deg v( x) 0 and hence v(x) is a unit. Similarly v( ) 0
u(x) is a unit. Thus m(x) is irreducible.
Conversely, consider a monic and irreducible polynomial p( x) K[ x] such that p( ) 0 . Then
p( x) m( x)q( x) . Then the irreducibility of p(x) implies that either m(x) is a unit or q(x) is a unit.
Since m(x) is non constant, it is not a unit. Thus q(x) is a unit. Since both p(x) and m(x) are monic
we have q( x) 1. Thus p( x) m( x) .
Corollary 3: Let F / K be a field extension and F . Then is algebraic over K if and only
if K[ ] K ( ) . Moreover in this case, K[ ] K ( ) K[ x] / m( x) .
Proof: First assume that is algebraic over K . Define : K[ x] K[ ] by for every f ( x) K[ x] ,
( f ( x)) f ( )
Then is an onto homomorphism. Now,
ker { f ( x) K[ x] | f ( ) 0}
{ f ( x) K[ x] | m( x) | f ( x)}
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 221
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
m(x)
Now, by first isomorphism theorem, that K[ x] / m( x) K[ ]. Since m(x) is irreducible, it follows
that K[ x] / m( x) is a field forcing K[ ] to be a field. Hence K[ ] K ( ) .
Conversely, suppose that K[ ] K ( ) . That 0 is algebraic follows directly. Let 0 .
Since K ( ) is a field, 1 K ( ) K [ ] and hence 1 k 0 k1 ... k n n for some k i K ,
where, ki , i 0, 1, 2, ..., n not all k i are zero. Then k n n1 k n1 n ... k 0 1 0 which shows that
is algebraic over K .
In the following we show that K (c) is an infinite extension of K for every transcendental element c .
Corollary 4: Let F / K be a field extension and c F . Then c is transcendental over K if and
only if K [c] K (c) . In this case, K[c] K[ x] and K (c) K ( x) .
Proof: First part of this result follows from the above corollary, since K[c] K (c) . For the second
part, consider the onto homomorphism : K[ x] K[c] for every f ( x) K[ x] ,
( f ( x)) f (c)
Since c is transcendental over K , there is no nonzero polynomial f ( x) K[ x] such that f (c) 0
Thus ker {0} showing that is one-to-one. Thus K[ x] K[c]
Since K (x) and K (c) are the quotient fields of K[x] and K[c] respectively, : K[ x] K[c] induces
f ( x)
an isomorphism ': K ( x) K (c) defined by, for every K ( x)
g ( x)
f ( x ) f (c )
' . Therefore K (c) K ( x) .
g ( x ) g (c )
If m(x) is a polynomial of degree n , then by division algorithm for polynomial over the field defined
that K[ x] / m( x) is a n dimension vector space over the field K having basis
1 m( x) , x m( x) ,..., x n1
m( x) .
If m(x) is irreducible over K , then
F K[ x] / m( x) is a field and c x m( x) F is a root of m(x) . Thus, by the Corollary 3, we
have the results.
Theorem 5: Let F / K be a field extension, c F be algebraic over K and m(x) be the minimal
polynomial of c over K . If deg m( x) n , then {1, c, c 2 ,..., c n1} is a basis of K (c) over K . Thus
[ K (c) : K ] deg m( x) .
Proof: Let K (c) . Since c is algebraic over K , K (c) K[c] .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 222
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Which shows that f (c) for some f ( x) K[ x] . By division algorithm q( x), r ( x) K[ x] , s.t.
f ( x) m( x)q( x) r ( x)
where r ( x) 0 or deg r ( x) deg m( x) . In other case we will assume that
r ( x) r0 r1 x ... rn1 x n1 , where ri K . Then m(c) 0
f (c) r (c) r0 r1c ... rn1c n1
Thus, {1, c, c 2 ,..., c n1} generates K (c) over K . By the definition of linearly independent if there are
k 0 k1c ... k n1c n1 0
Then p ( x) k 0 k1 x ... k n1 x n1 K [ x] will be non zero polynomial s.t. its degree will be less
deg m( x)
s.t. p(c) 0 which is the contradict that m(x) is minimal polynomial of c over K . Thus
{1, c, c 2 ,..., c n1} is a basis of K (c) over the field K .
Example 13: Let us consider the extension Q (3 2 ) over Q . The minimal polynomial of 3
2 over Q is
given by m( x) x 3 2 . So [Q (3 2 ) : Q ] 3 and {1, 3 2 , (3 2 ) 2 } is a basis of Q (3 2 ) over Q . Thus
Q(3 2 ) a b 21 / 3 c 2 2 / 3 | a, b, c Q
Example 14: Consider Q( 2 , 3 ) as Q ( 3 )( 2 ) . Since x 2 2 is irreducible over Q ( 3 ) , the
minimal polynomial 2 over Q ( 3 ) is x 2 2 . Then [Q( 3 )( 2 ) : Q( 3 )] 2 and {1, 2} is basis of
Q ( 3 )( 2 ) over Q ( 3 ) . Also [Q( 2 , 3 ) : Q] [Q( 2 , 3 ) : Q( 3 )][Q( 3 ) : Q] 4
{1, 2}
{1, 2} {1, 3}
L
{1, 2 , 3, 6}
{1, 3}
Since {1, 2} is basis of Q( 3 )( 2 ) over Q ( 3 ) and {1, 3} is a basis of Q ( 3 ) over Q, it follows
that {1, 2 , 3 , 6} is a basis of Q( 2 , 3 ) over Q . Thus
Q ( 2 , 3 ) a b 2 c 3 d 6 | a , b, c , d Q .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 223
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
14.5 GALOIS GROUP
In this section we will discuss important definition of Galois group of polynomial over a field
Splitting Field: If f ( x) F[ x] , a finite extension E of F is said to be a splitting field over F for f (x)
if over E (i.e., in E[x]) , but not over any proper subfield of E , f (x) can be factored as a product of
linear (first degree) factors.
The field F is called the base field or the initial field.
Theorem 6: There exist a splitting field for every f ( x) F[ x] .
Proof: Let n degree polynomial f ( x) F[ x] . Initially, we will prove that finite extension E of
F of degree at most n! in which f (x) has n roots.
Let f ( x) a0 x n a1 x n1 ... an , a0 0.
Let 1 ,..., n be n root in E of f (x) . Then f (x) can be factored as
f ( x) a0 ( x 1 )( x 2 )...( x n )
As a product of first degree factors, f (x) divides up fully across E in this manner. Thus, we can
show that there is a finite extension of F called E that decomposes f (x) into a linear product. As a
result, there is a finite extension of F of minimum degree that shares this feature. Because no suitable
subfield of this minimal extension can divide f (x) as a product of linear factors, this minimal
extension will operate as a splitting field for f (x) .
Another way
An extension E of a field F is said to be a splitting field of f ( x) F[ x] , if f ( x) E[ x] is expressible
as
f ( x) a0 ( x 1 )( x 2 )...( x n ) , where a0 F , 1 , 2 ,..., n E and E F (1 , 2 ,..., n ) .
Note. Uniqueness of splitting field: This is to note that a polynomial's splitting field is distinct from
isomorphism. Let E1 and E2 be two splitting field of f ( x) F[ x] s.t.
f ( x) a( x 1 )( x 2 )...( x n ) over E1
and f ( x) a( x 1 )( x 2 )...( x n ) over E2
Here, fields F (1 , 2 ,..., n ) and F ( 1 , 2 ,..., n ) are isomorphic by an isomorphism leaving every
element of F fixed.
Normal extension: A finite extension K of a field F is name as a normal extension of F if the fixed
field of G( K , F ) is F .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 224
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
By the definition it is obvious that if any element of K which is not in F , then we must have some
automorphism in G( K , F ) s.t., (a) a
Definition (Galois group): Let f (x) be polynomial in F[x] and let K be its splitting field over F.
The Galois group of f (x) is the group G( K , F ) of all those automorphisms of K which leave every
element of F is fixed.
Note: If K is an extension of a field F , then an automorphism of K which leaves every element of
F fixed is also called an F automorphism of K . If K is a normal extension of a field F of
characteristic 0, then K is the splitting field of some polynomial f (x) in F[x] . The group G( K , F ) of
F automorphism of K is also called the Galois group of K over F .
Theorem 7: The Galois group of a polynomial is isomorphic to a group of permutations of its roots.
Proof: Let the polynomial f (x) over the field F and K be the splitting field of f (x) over F . Then K
is normal extension of F . Thus the Galois group G( K , F ) of f (x) is of finite order n i.e., [ K , F ] n .
Let n distinct element of G( K , F ) are 1 , 2 ,..., n . Let us suppose that in K , f (x) has m distinct
roots. It can be possible that f (x) has multiple roots. Assume that S {1 , 2 ,..., m } be the collection
of m distinct root of f (x) in K . Let P be the collection of all those permutation on S such that
which are not in F i.e., P contain those element of S in which element of F is fixed (if any exist). If
p1 , p2 are two element of P then p1 p2 should also in P because p1 p2 will also leave each element of
F fixed. So we can say that P is closed w.r.to product of two permutation. Thus P is subgroup of
group of all permutation on S . Now we have to prove that group G( K , F ) is isomorphic to group P .
Let the permutation G( K , F ) and * be the restriction of to S . As we know that if M is the
extension of F and if f ( x) F[ x] and if is an automorphism of M s.t. it leaving each element of
F fixed then must take a root of f (x) lying in M into a root of f (x) in M . Using this theorem we
can say that if a is any root of f (x) in K , then (a) is also a root of f (x) in K .
Therefore a S (a) * (a) S
* is function from S to S .
Further * is one-one because is one-one. As we know that S is finite set then,
* is one-one * is also a onto function.
* is also a permutation on S .
Since leaves each element of F fixed, in similar way * will also leave each element of F fixed.
* P .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 225
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Let us consider : G( K , F ) P
s.t. ( ) * G( K , F )
is one-one: Let us consider 1 , 2 G( K , F ) . Then
( 1 ) ( 2 )
1 2
* *
1 (a ) 2 (a ) a S
* *
1 (a) 2 (a) a S
Now K F (a1 , a2 ,..., am ) . Each element of K may therefore be obtained by performing a limited
number of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division operations on the components of F and
on (a1 , a2 ,..., am ) , but 1 and 2 are automorphisms of K . Each one maps every element of S the
same way while leaving every element of F fixed.
is onto: Let b P then b is a permutation on S while keeping fixed the S elements that are in F .
Now consider there is an automorphism of K that maps each element of S in the same way as b
maps it while leaving every element of F fixed. The automorphism of K will be fully determined
since each element of K may be obtained by performing a limited number of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division operations on the elements F and (a1 , a2 ,..., am ) .
preserve the composition: Let 1 , 2 G( K , F ) be arbitrary. Then
( 1 2 ) ( 1 2 )* , the restriction of 1 2 to S . Since a S , we have
( 1 2 )* (a) ( 1 2 )(a)
1[ 2 (a)]
1[ 2 (a )]
*
1 [ 2 (a )] ( 1 2 )(a )
* * * *
( 1 2 )* 1 2
* *
( 1 2 ) 1 2 ( 1 ) ( 2 )
* *
Thus is an isomorphic mapping. Hence G( K , F ) P .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 226
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
Now we will discuss about fundamental theorem of Galois group.
Theorem 8: Let K be the normal extension in a field F with characteristic 0. Prove that there exist a
one to one correspondence between set of subgroups of G( K , F ) and set of subfield of K . Further,
show that if M is any subfield of K which contains F , then
(i) [ K : M ] O(G( K , M )) , and [M : F ] index of G( K , M ) in G( K , F )
(ii) M is normal extension in F iff G( K , M ) is normal subgroup of G( K , F )
(iii) If M is a normal extension of F , then G(M , F ) is isomorphic to G( K , F ) / G( K , M )
Proof: For any subfield M of K which contains F , consider G( K , M ) be the group of all
automorphism of K which leave each element of M fixed. We have
G( K , M ) leaves each element of M fixed
leaves each element of F fixed
Since F M
G( K , F )
Thus G( K , M ) G( K , F )
G( K , M ) is subgroup of G( K , F )
So, for any subfield T of K who contains F we will found a subgroup G( K , M ) of G( K , F ) . Now
define a mapping between set of subfields of K which contains F into set of subgroup of G( K , F )
s.t.,
(M ) G( K , M ) for each subfield M of K which contains F .
is on-to: Let K H {x K : ( x) x H } denote the fixed field of H , where H is any
subgroup of G( K , F ) . Then K H is a subfield of K . Also
H G( K , F ) . Since H is subset of G( K , F ) .
( a) a a F .
Thus if H , then (a) a a F . Therefore F K H and so K H is a subfield of K containing
F . Since we have ( K H ) G( K , K H ) [By definition]
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 227
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
[By the Theorem: If K is the finite extension of a field F with characteristic 0 and H is subgroup of
G( K , F ) . Let K H be the fixed field of H . Then (i) [ K : K H ] O( H ) (ii) H G( K , K H ) ]
By using this theorem we can say that,
(K H ) H .
is onto.
is one-one: As we know that K is the normal extension with characteristic 0 of a field F .
K is the splitting field for some polynomial f ( x) F[ x] . If M is any subfield of K containing F
then K will also the splitting field of f (x) regarded as a polynomial over M . Then by using the
theorem ( K is the normal extension with characteristic zero of a field F iff K is the splitting field of
some polynomial over F ) K is normal extension of M . Thus according to the definition of normal
extension the fixed field of G( K , M ) is M .
K G ( K ,M ) M
Let us consider two subfield of K are M 1 , M 2 which contain F .
Then consider, (M1 ) (M 2 )
G( K , M 1 ) G( K , M 2 ) [By definition]
The fixed field of G( K , M1 ) The fixed field of G( K , M 2 )
K G ( K , M1 ) K G ( K , M 2 )
M1 M 2
is one-one.
Thus we can say that gives the one to one correspondence. Now we have only to prove that (i), (ii)
and (iii).
(i) If M is any subfield containing F , then as in previous part we have prove that K is normal
extension of M . Therefore we have O(G( K , M )) [ K : M ] . Since K is normal extension of F ,
therefore
O(G( K , F )) [ K : F ]
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 228
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
[ K : M ][M : F ]
O(G( K , M ))[M : F ]
O(G ( K , F ))
[M : F ] index of G ( K , M ) in G ( K , F ).
O(G ( K , M ))
(ii) Let M is subfield of K containing F . Then M is normal extension of F
(M ) M G( K , F )
i.e., (m) M m M and G( K , F )
i.e., [ (m)] (m) m M , G( K , F ) and G( K , M )
[Note that G( K , M ) (m) m m M ]
i.e., 1[ [ (m)]] 1[ (m)] m M , G( K , F ) and G( K , M )
i.e., ( 1 )(m) m m M , G( K , F ) and G( K , M )
i.e., 1 G( K , M ) G( K , F ) and G( K , M )
[Note that 1 G( K , M ) ( 1 )(m) mm M ]
i.e., iff G( K , M ) is normal subgroup of G( K , F ) (By definition of normal subgroup)
(iii) If M is normal extension of F , then for any G( K , F ) , we have
(M ) M
(t ) M m M
Therefore induces an automorphism * of M , defined as
* (m) m m M
Since leaves each element of F fixed, therefore * also leaves each element of F fixed.
* G ( M , F ) . If 1 , 2 G( K , F ) then m M , we have
( 1 2 )* (m) ( 1 2 )m
1[( 2 m)] 1[( 2 m)] 1 [( 2 m)]
* * *
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 229
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
( 1 2 )(m)
* *
( 1 2 )* 1 2
* *
So we conclude that the mapping : G( K , F ) G(M , F ) defined as ( ) * G( K , F ) is a
homomorphism. The ker nel of this homomorphism consists all such element in G( K , F ) s.t.
( ) * is the identity of the group G(M , F ) and the identity of the group G(M , F ) is identity map
on M . Therefore,
ker nel( ) { G( K , F ) | m * (m) (m) m M }
But (m) m m M G( K , M ) . Therefore kernel of is exactly G( K , M ) . Now using
fundamental theorem on homomorphism of groups, image of G( K , F ) in G(M , F ) under the mapping
is isomorphic to the quotient group G( K , F ) / G( K , M ) .
O(G ( K , F ))
Now, O(G ( K , F ) / G ( K , M ))
O(G ( K , M ))
index of G( K , M ) in G( K , F )
[M : F ] [By part (i) of theorem]
O(G(M , F )) [ T is normal over F ]
Thus image of G( K , F ) in G[M , F ] is isomorphic to a group of order O(G(M , F )) . Since image of
G( K , F ) in G[M , F ] is a subgroup of G[M , F ] , therefore it is all of G[M , F ] . Hence
G( K , F ) / G( K , M ) G(M , F ) .
Check your progress
Problem 1: Check that B ui v j | 1 i m, 1 j n is linearly independent?
Problem 2: Check that Q and Z p has proper subfield or not?
14.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learned about the important concept of extension of field, minimal polynomial
over a field of extension field and important group name as Galois group of a polynomial over a field.
The overall summarization of this units are as follows:
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 230
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
R is a field extension of Q .
Q, Z p has no proper subfield.
Each field F is either an extension of Q or an extension of Z p .
If F is prime field and if char(F) = 0 then F Q and if char(F) = p then F Z p .
R / Q is an infinite extension.
C / R finite extension of field and quadratic extension.
For every f ( x) F[ x] there exist a splitting field.
The Galois group of a polynomial is isomorphic to a group of permutations of its roots.
14.7 GLOSSARY
F / K : F is called field extension of K
[ F : K ] : Denote degree of the extension of F / K ’or’ the dimension of F as a vector space
over K
G( K , F ) : Called the Galois group of all those automorphisms of K which leave every element
of F is fixed.
14.8 REFERENCES
Joseph A Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa, 1999.
N. Herstein,(1975), Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri (2021 ), A Course in Abstract Algebra (5th Edition), Vikas
Publication House.
Vasishtha, A. R., & Vasishtha, A. K. (2006). Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra). Krishna
Prakashan Media.
RamjiLal, Algebra 1: Groups, Rings, Fields and Arithmetic, Springer, 2017.
14.9 SUGGESTED READING
P.B. Bhattacharya, S.K. Jain, S.R. Nagpaul: Basic Abstract Algebra, Cambridge Press, 1994.
David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote: Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), Wiley, 2011.
Michael Artin: Algebra (2nd edition), Pearson, 2014.
14.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Long Answer Type Question:
1. Prove that every field F is either an extension of Q or an extension of Z p , for some prime p .
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 231
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
2. Let F / K be a field extension and F be algebraic over K . Then prove that there is a unique
monic polynomial m( x) K[ x] of least degree such that m( ) 0 .
3. If F / K be a field extension F and algebraic over K . Then prove that for every
f ( x) K[ x], f ( ) 0 m( x) | f ( x)
4. Let F / K be a field extension and F algebraic over K . Then prove that m( x) K[ x] is the
minimal polynomial of over K iff it is a monic irreducible polynomial such that m( ) 0 .
5. If F / K be a field extension, c F be algebraic over K and m(x) be the minimal polynomial
of c over K . If deg m( x) n , then prove that {1, c, c 2 ,..., c n1} is a basis of K (c) over K . Thus
[ K (c) : K ] deg m( x) .
6. Prove that the Galois group of a polynomial is isomorphic to a group of permutations of its
roots.
7. State and prove the fundamental theorem of Galois group.
Short Answer Type Question:
8. Let F / K be a field extension and F . Then prove that is algebraic over K if and only
if K[ ] K ( ) . Moreover in this case, K[ ] K ( ) K[ x] / m( x) .
9. Prove that for every f ( x) F[ x] there exist a splitting field.
10. Prove that [ F : K ] 1 iff K F .
11. Prove that if L and M be two intermediate fields of a field extension F / K . If [ L : K ] is prime,
then either L M K or L M
12. If F / K be a field extension and c be algebraic over K of degree 5. Then prove that
K (c) K (c 2 ) .
13. Define the following.
(i) Field extension
(ii) Normal extension
(iii) Galois group
Fill in the blanks:
14. Q has ………….. proper subfield
15. Z p has ………..……… proper subfield
16. A field K is called a prime field if it has no proper …….………..
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 232
ADVANCED ABSTRACT ALGEBRA MAT501
14.11 ANSWERS
Answer of self cheque question:
1. Yes 2. Yes
Answer of terminal question:
14. No 15. No 16. Subfield
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Page 233
Teen Pani Bypass Road, Transport Nagar
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani, Nainital-263139
Phone No. 05946-261122, 261123
Toll free No. 18001804025
Fax No. 05946-264232,
E-mail:[email protected]
Website: https://www.uou.ac.in/
You might also like
- N S Gopalakrishnan: Fal New Age International PublishersNo ratings yetN S Gopalakrishnan: Fal New Age International Publishers324 pages
- Concepts in Abstract Algebra 1st Edition Charles Lanski Download PDFNo ratings yetConcepts in Abstract Algebra 1st Edition Charles Lanski Download PDF56 pages
- An Introduction To Abstract Algebra Volume 2 1, Digital Reissue of 1969 Edition Edition F.M. Hall PDF Download100% (1)An Introduction To Abstract Algebra Volume 2 1, Digital Reissue of 1969 Edition Edition F.M. Hall PDF Download52 pages
- An Introduction To Abstract Algebra Volume 2 1, Digital Reissue of 1969 Edition Edition F.M. Hall Full Access100% (2)An Introduction To Abstract Algebra Volume 2 1, Digital Reissue of 1969 Edition Edition F.M. Hall Full Access143 pages
- UG - B.Sc. - Mathematics - 113 51 - Modern Algebra - BSC MATHS - 5665100% (2)UG - B.Sc. - Mathematics - 113 51 - Modern Algebra - BSC MATHS - 5665424 pages
- Helmut Hasse - Higher Algebra (2 Volumes) (1954, F. Ungar Pub. Co) PDFNo ratings yetHelmut Hasse - Higher Algebra (2 Volumes) (1954, F. Ungar Pub. Co) PDF336 pages
- Algebra 2 Linear Algebra Galois Theory Representation Theory Group Extensions and Schur Multiplier 1st Edition Ramji Lal PDF DownloadNo ratings yetAlgebra 2 Linear Algebra Galois Theory Representation Theory Group Extensions and Schur Multiplier 1st Edition Ramji Lal PDF Download167 pages
- Algebra Abstract and Concrete 2.5 Edition Frederick M. Goodman PDF DownloadNo ratings yetAlgebra Abstract and Concrete 2.5 Edition Frederick M. Goodman PDF Download38 pages
- (Ebook) A Course in Abstract Algebra by Jackson N ISBN 9783193193285, 3193193283 PDF Available100% (3)(Ebook) A Course in Abstract Algebra by Jackson N ISBN 9783193193285, 3193193283 PDF Available112 pages
- Basic Algebra 1st Edition Anthony W. Knapp Instant DownloadNo ratings yetBasic Algebra 1st Edition Anthony W. Knapp Instant Download53 pages
- Abstract Algebra With Applications 1st Edition Audrey Terras Fast DownloadNo ratings yetAbstract Algebra With Applications 1st Edition Audrey Terras Fast Download118 pages
- Abstract Algebra Applications To Galois Theory, Algebraic Geometry, Representation Theory and Cryptography (Celine Carstensen-Opitz, Benjamin Fine Etc.)No ratings yetAbstract Algebra Applications To Galois Theory, Algebraic Geometry, Representation Theory and Cryptography (Celine Carstensen-Opitz, Benjamin Fine Etc.)424 pages
- Basic Abstract Algebra P.B. Bhattacharya SampleNo ratings yetBasic Abstract Algebra P.B. Bhattacharya Sample152 pages
- Algebra Abstract and Concrete 2.5 Edition Frederick M. Goodman Online PDF100% (1)Algebra Abstract and Concrete 2.5 Edition Frederick M. Goodman Online PDF76 pages
- Abstract Algebra With Applications 1st Edition Audrey Terras Download100% (1)Abstract Algebra With Applications 1st Edition Audrey Terras Download134 pages
- Abstract Algebra - An Introduction With Applications (2ed.) by Derek J. S. Robinson 2015No ratings yetAbstract Algebra - An Introduction With Applications (2ed.) by Derek J. S. Robinson 2015347 pages
- Bachelors With Mathematics As Major 5 Semester MMT522J1: Mathematics/Applied Mathematics: Algebra-I Theory: 45 Hours & Tutorial: 15 HoursNo ratings yetBachelors With Mathematics As Major 5 Semester MMT522J1: Mathematics/Applied Mathematics: Algebra-I Theory: 45 Hours & Tutorial: 15 Hours1 page
- Abstract Algebra Applications To Galois Theory Algebraic Geometry Representation Theory and Cryptography Second Edition Celine Carstensen-Opitz100% (2)Abstract Algebra Applications To Galois Theory Algebraic Geometry Representation Theory and Cryptography Second Edition Celine Carstensen-Opitz55 pages
- Fundamentals of Abstract Algebra Malik Mordeson Sen McGraw Hill 1997 PDFNo ratings yetFundamentals of Abstract Algebra Malik Mordeson Sen McGraw Hill 1997 PDF657 pages
- Fundamentals of Abstract Algebra - Malik, Mordeson, Sen (McGraw-Hill, 1997)90% (10)Fundamentals of Abstract Algebra - Malik, Mordeson, Sen (McGraw-Hill, 1997)657 pages
- Contemporary Abstract Algebra 10th Edition Joseph A. Gallian Ready To ReadNo ratings yetContemporary Abstract Algebra 10th Edition Joseph A. Gallian Ready To Read122 pages
- Abstract Algebra-Applications To Galois Theory Algebraic Geometry & Cryptography-Carstensen Fine & Rosenberger100% (6)Abstract Algebra-Applications To Galois Theory Algebraic Geometry & Cryptography-Carstensen Fine & Rosenberger379 pages
- Problems in Abstract Algebra 1st Edition Adrian R. Wadsworth Download Full Chapters0% (1)Problems in Abstract Algebra 1st Edition Adrian R. Wadsworth Download Full Chapters131 pages
- A University Algebra. An Introduction To Classic and Modern Algebra - 2nd Ed - LittlewoodNo ratings yetA University Algebra. An Introduction To Classic and Modern Algebra - 2nd Ed - Littlewood351 pages
- 4 - 03-02-2021 - 11-50-12 - Abstract Algebra - Paper Code - 20MAT21C1No ratings yet4 - 03-02-2021 - 11-50-12 - Abstract Algebra - Paper Code - 20MAT21C1142 pages
- MATH365 Updated Syllabus Spring 2024-2025No ratings yetMATH365 Updated Syllabus Spring 2024-20254 pages
- A First Graduate Course in Abstract Algebra: W. J. Wickless0% (1)A First Graduate Course in Abstract Algebra: W. J. Wickless5 pages
- Essential Student Algebra Volume Three Abstract Algebra 1 Ed. Edition T. S. BlythNo ratings yetEssential Student Algebra Volume Three Abstract Algebra 1 Ed. Edition T. S. Blyth67 pages
- Introduction To Abstract Algebra - Math 113 - Paulin PDFNo ratings yetIntroduction To Abstract Algebra - Math 113 - Paulin PDF78 pages
- Basic Algebra 1st Edition Anthony W. Knapp PDF Download100% (1)Basic Algebra 1st Edition Anthony W. Knapp PDF Download42 pages
- Discovering Abstract Algebra 1st Edition John K. Osoinach (JR.) Full Digital ChaptersNo ratings yetDiscovering Abstract Algebra 1st Edition John K. Osoinach (JR.) Full Digital Chapters96 pages
- Algebra From The Viewpoint of Galois Theory - BoschNo ratings yetAlgebra From The Viewpoint of Galois Theory - Bosch369 pages
- Contemporary Abstract Algebra 9th Edition Joseph A. Gallian Instant DownloadNo ratings yetContemporary Abstract Algebra 9th Edition Joseph A. Gallian Instant Download112 pages
- PG M.sc. Mathematics 311 11 Algebra - I Binder100% (1)PG M.sc. Mathematics 311 11 Algebra - I Binder272 pages
- Galois Theory 2nd Edition David A. Cox Download100% (1)Galois Theory 2nd Edition David A. Cox Download47 pages
- MTTS 2004, May 17 - June 12, 2004 Level I - Group Theory B.Sury I.S.I., BangaloreNo ratings yetMTTS 2004, May 17 - June 12, 2004 Level I - Group Theory B.Sury I.S.I., Bangalore45 pages
- (Ebook) Permutation Group Algorithms by Ákos Seress ISBN 9780511066474, 9780521661034, 0511066473, 052166103X PDF Download100% (1)(Ebook) Permutation Group Algorithms by Ákos Seress ISBN 9780511066474, 9780521661034, 0511066473, 052166103X PDF Download51 pages
- M.Sc. Part II (Sem - IV) Distance Mode PDFNo ratings yetM.Sc. Part II (Sem - IV) Distance Mode PDF12 pages
- Algebraic Groups The Theory of Group Schemes of Finite Type Over A Field 1 5th October 2021 Corrected Edition J.S. Milne Instant DownloadNo ratings yetAlgebraic Groups The Theory of Group Schemes of Finite Type Over A Field 1 5th October 2021 Corrected Edition J.S. Milne Instant Download52 pages
- Some Subgroup Theorems For Free N-Groups ( ) : Gilbert BaumslagNo ratings yetSome Subgroup Theorems For Free N-Groups ( ) : Gilbert Baumslag10 pages
- Galois Theory: Tom Leinster, University of EdinburghNo ratings yetGalois Theory: Tom Leinster, University of Edinburgh139 pages
- Handbook of Computational GR Theory 1st Edition Derek F. HoltNo ratings yetHandbook of Computational GR Theory 1st Edition Derek F. Holt81 pages