Module – 3
Search in Complex environment
•Adversarial search - Games, Optimal
decisions in games, The Minimax algorithm,
Alpha-Beta pruning. Constraint Satisfaction
Problems – Defining CSP, Constraint
Propagation- inference in CSPs,
Backtracking search for CSPs, Structure of
CSP problems.
ADVERSARIAL SEARCH
• In which we examine the problems that arise when we try to
plan ahead in a world In which we examine the problems that
arise when we try to plan ahead in a world In which we
examine the problems that arise when we try to plan ahead in
a world
ADVERSARIAL SEARCH
• Search in competitive environments
• Where agent’s goals are in conflict
• Games are good example of adversarial Search
• States are easy to represent(unlike many other real world
problems)
• Agents are restricted to a small number of actions
• Outcomes of agent action defined by precise rule
• Usually hard too solve
Example
8 PUZZLE CHESS TIC TAC GAME
How to define a problem formally?
• Consider a game with two players MAX and MIN
• Max moves first(places x) followed by MIN
• A game can be formally defined as a search problem with the
following elements
• So - The initial state
• Player(s)-Defines which player has a move in a state(s)
• Actions(s)-returns the set of legal moves in a state
• Results(s,a)-The transition model which defines the result of a move
• Terminal-Test(s)-True when game is over, false otherwise
• Utility(s,p)-utility function (also called an objective function or payoff
function)
• defines the final numeric value for a game that ends in terminal state s for a
player p.
• chess, Tic tac toe the outcome is a win, loss, or draw, with values +1, 0, or -1
GAME TREE
Initial state, Actions function, and result Function defines
Game tree.
A game tree is a tree where nodes of the tree are the game
states and Edges of the tree are the moves by players.
SEARCH TREE
search tree is a tree that is superimposed on the full game
tree, and examines enough nodes to allow a player to
determine what move to make.
Game tree for Tic-tac-toe
• MAX has 9 possible moves.
• Play alternates between MAX’s placing an X and MIN’s
placing an O.
• The number on each leaf node indicates the utility value of
the terminal state from the point of view of MAX;
• high values are assumed to be good for MAX and bad for MIN
• Number of nodes are in this game tree?
9+(8*9)+7*(8*9)+……………….
• For tic-tac-toe the game tree is relatively small—fewer than 9! = 362,
880 terminal nodes.
• But for chess there are over 1040 nodes, so the game tree is best
thought of as a theoretical construct that we cannot realize in the
physical world.
• But regardless of the size of the game tree, it is MAX’s job to search
for a good move.
• search tree for a tree that is superimposed on the full game tree, and
examines enough nodes to allow a player to determine what move to
make.
Optimal decisions in games?
• A Normal search problem:
• The optimal solution is a sequence of actions leading to a goal
state
• An adversarial search problems:
• MIN(P2) interferes the sequence of actions
• Strategy for MAX:
• Specify moves in the initial state
• Observes every possible response by MIN
• Specify moves
• The optimal strategy can be determined from the minimax
value of each node
How to calculate utility of non terminal nodes
How to calculate minimax value?
Consider a “reduced” tic tac toe game
• The possible moves for MAX at the root node are labeled a1, a2, and a3.
• The possible replies to a1 for MIN are b1, b2,b3, and so on.
Optimal strategy can be determined using minimax value of
each node, MINIMAX(n).
• MINIMAX(n) for the user for MAX is the utility of being in the corresponding state
• So, MAX will always prefer to move to a state of maximum value
• The minimax value of a terminal state is just its utility.
• MAX prefers to move to a state of maximum value, whereas MIN prefers a state of
minimum value
How to calculate minimax value?
Utility function vs minimax function
Working of Min Max Algorithm
Steps involved in solving two player game
• This limitation of the minimax algorithm can be improved from alpha-beta pruning .
Minimax Algorithm
p
ALPHA BETA PRUNING ALGORITHM
ALPHA BETA PRUNING ALGORITHM
Working –ALPHA BETA PRUNING ALGORITHM
CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION PROBLEM
