CHAPTER-VIII

HYDRAULIC TURBINE

8.1 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION:

Hydraulic (water) turbines are machines that convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. This conversion is
possible in a complex harnessing called hydro power plant (HPP). Usually, the mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy, in the same harnessing, using electrical machines called electrical generators. The most usual
generators are synchronous generators, which are called hydro generators due to the fact that these are driven by
hydraulic turbines.

The power capacity of a hydropower plant is primarily the function of two variables: (1) flow rate expressed in cubic
meters per second (m3/s), and (2) the hydraulic head, which is the elevation difference the water falls in passing
through the plant.

Figure 8.1

VIII - 1
8.2. TYPES OF TURBINE:-

The oldest form of “water turbine” is the water-wheel. The natural head difference in water level of a stream is utilized
to drive it. In its conventional form the water-wheel is made of wood and is provided with buckets or vanes round the
periphery. The water thrusts against these, causing the wheel to rotate. Traditional water wheels have been used for
centuries, but these large and slow-moving wheels are not suitable for generating electricity. Water turbines used for
electricity generation are made from metals, rotate at higher speeds, and are much easier to build and install. Over
the years, many turbine designs have been developed to work best in different situations.

Water turbines may be classified in different ways. One way of classification is according to the method of functioning
(impulse or reaction turbine). Water turbines may operate as primemover, as pump or as a combination of both. These
may be of the single regulated or double regulated type. Turbines may also be classified according to their specific
speed. Another way is according to the design (head and quantity of water available).

8.2.1 Pelton Turbine

In the impulse type of hydraulic turbine, the runner converts the kinetic energy in one or more jets of high-velocity
water into torque in the turbine shaft. The runner consists of a definite number of buckets, each of double-bowl
construction, located on the rim of a central disc.

The velocity of the water of the jet which enters each bucket is reduced nearly to zero in the bucket during operation
of turbine. The kinetic energy in that portion is thereby converted into a force acting on the moving bucket, and
producing a torque on the turbine shaft. The force of the jet is applied only during the time that the water is in the
bucket. The impulse of a force is defined as the product of the force and the time during which it acts.

Pelton turbines are made either with vertical or with horizontal shafts. The vertical-shaft turbine usually has only one
runner and up to six jets. Most horizontal-shaft units have one or two jets per runner and one or two runners per
turbine. Horizontal turbines usually cover those combinations of power and head for which vertical turbines are not
economical.

Photograph of Pelton runner and jet nozzle cross section is shown in Fig. 8.2 and Fig. 8.3.

Fig. 8.2

VIII - 2
Fig.8.3

VIII - 3
A typical section through Pelton turbine is given in fig. 8.4.

Fig. 8.4

(1) : Control frame work (2) : Distributor (3) : Brake jet nozzle
(4) : Turbine Chamber (5) : Nozzle body (6) : Turbine Shaft
(7) : Guide Bearing (8) : Runner Bucket (9) : Foundation Concrete Wall

8.2.2 Francis Turbine

In 1849, James B. Francis, an American engineer, set out to improve upon the design of the few hydraulic turbines
operating at that time in France and the United States. Most of the earlier turbines were so constructed that the water
entered their runners at the centre and flowed radially outward.

The turbine that Francis built following his investigations allowed the water to enter the runner from the outside and to
flow inward through the radial blades. The Francis design was subsequently improved by changing the shape of the
runner blades so that the water was turned from a radial to an axial path within the runner, rather than outside it. During
all the changes made of this type of turbine, it was the name of Francis that became, and remained, associated with
it.

Reaction turbines are driven by a combination of velocity and the pressure of the water; the Francis turbine is in this
class. The water passages between the runner buckets are simultaneously and continuously filled with water. As the
water flows through the runner, its velocity is changed both in magnitude and direction, which produces a force on the
runner blades.

Important developments in Francis turbines followed the introduction of thrust bearings capable of carrying very
heavy loads. Up to that time, hydraulic turbines of any size had to have horizontal shafts with journal bearings and
double runners to counteract each others hydraulic thrust. The large, high-powered, vertical turbines that followed the
advent of the new thrust bearing were made possible by its ability to carry the tremendous load of the generator rotor,

VIII - 4
shaft, turbine runner and hydraulic thrust.

The distinguishing feature of a Francis runner are:

- A crown at the top,
- Curved blades (usually from eleven to twenty-one in number) attached to it and, at the bottom, a surrounding
band connecting the lower ends of the blades. The proportions of the runner vary with the head, power, and
speed, for which it is designed.

Francis turbine runners are usually one-piece steel casting, although in certain cases runners are constructed by
welding cast steel or plate steel blades to the crown and band. Very large runners may be made in sections, to
conform to shipping restrictions or because of their weight.

A photograph of Francis runner is shown in Fig. 8.5 and cross section with part detail of Francis turbine is shown in
Fig. 8.6 and Table 8.1.

Fig. 8.5

Table 8.1

Part list of Francis Turbine as shown in Fig. 8.6 (Next page)

1 Turbine lower part arrangement 15 Head cover fix/runner rotating labyrinth

arrangement
2 Upper part arrangement 16 Runner/Turbine shaft coupling arrangement

3 Turbine pit & upper part arrangement 17 Turbine guide bearing arrangement

4 Turbine Distributor arrangement 18 Shaft seal arrangement

9 Spiral casing arrangement 20 Turbine foundation

11 Draft tube manhole arrangement 21 Connection for an eventual tail water depression system

12 Fix labyrinth arrangement 22 Balancing pipe

13 Servomotor arrangement 29 Over speed detector

14 Servomotor anchoring arrangement

VIII - 5
Fig. 8.6

VIII - 6
8.2.3 Kaplan Turbine

Fig 8.7

The Kaplan turbine is generally the most suitable type for low-head and medium-head installations where large
variations of flow and head are encountered.

The distinguishing feature of the Kaplan turbine is the automatic adjustment of the angle or pitch of the runner blades
as water flow or power output varies.

The blades, projecting from and supported in the hub of the runner, move simultaneously during a change of load. The
runner blades are rotated on their trunnions by levers, links and crosshead, or by some other suitable mechanical
linkage, operated by the vertical motion of a servomotor piston rod.

The blades adopt automatically the most efficient position for the power output of the turbine. Also, the angle of the
blades may be adjusted automatically for head variations by adjusting the cams which determine the relative movement

VIII - 7
of, and the relationship between, the wicket gates of the turbine and the blades of the runner.

Besides the features already mentioned, a Kaplan turbine is equipped with an oil head and with vertical, rotating oil
pipes housed within the shaft of the generator and turbine. The oil head conveys the oil from the stationary governor
oil pipes to the rotating pipes which lead to the runner blade servomotor.

Where turbines are required to operate at part-load efficiency generally, Kaplan turbines are installed. This requirement
is most often encountered in run-of-river plants with limited storage facilities. The Kaplan turbine also allows the
runner blades to be opened to a greater angle during periods of high flow and low head, giving higher power outputs
during those periods than could be had from a fixed blade turbine of the same size and rated output.

A photograph of Kaplan Runner is shown in Fig. 8.8 and cross section with part details of Kaplan Turbine is shown in
Fig. 8.9 and Table 8.2.

Fig. 8.8

Table 8.2

Part list of Kaplan Turbine drawing

1a Runner cone 10 Turbine guide bearing

1e Runner hub 11 Guide vane servomotor
1f Runner blades 12 Servomotor connecting rod
3 Top & bottom plates 13 Guide vane regulating ring
4 Spiral case 14 Guide vane link
5 Stay vane 15 Guide vane arm
6 Guide vane 16 Shaft seal
7 Draft tube 17 Head cover
8 Discharge ring 18 Runner blade servomotor
9 Turbine shaft

VIII - 8
VERTICAL KAPLAN TURBINE

Fig. 8.9

VIII - 9
8.2.4 Bulb Turbine

These types of turbines are similar to Kaplan Turbines, except their shaft position which is not vertical, but either
horizontal or inclined. Also there is no spiral case, and the discharge tube is straight.

Fig. 8.10

Between Kaplan and Bulb turbine some differences are given below.

A Bulb turbine is suitable for lower heads (under 15 meters or 45 feet, down to 2 meters or 6 feet) than a Kaplan
turbine.

The maintenance for Kaplan unit is easier because there is more space around the turbine and the generator. The Bulb
unit is like a reversed U-boat (submarine), where everything is at lower limit.

At Bulb units, the generator is into the same case with the turbine, meaning that they are both under the water, with
a small access to the generator. At Kaplan units, around the generator is plenty of space, and the operator can
observe certain parts of the generator.

ARRANGEMENT OF A HYDRO UNIT

A vertical section through a hydro unit is shown on Fig.8.11.

From the upstream basin the water flows into the spiral casing (4). The water flows from the spiral casing through the
stay ring (6), the guide apparatus (2), the runner and the draft tube (13) into the tail water basin. The generator (7) is
arranged above the turbine, and in most cases above the highest level of the tail water. The axial thrust bearing (8) is
loaded with axial forces from all the rotating parts. In many cases this bearing is arranged upon the upper turbine
cover, which then have to carry all the axial forces.

VIII - 10
 Fig 8.11 Vertical section of a Kaplan turbine unit

8.3 MAIN COMPONENTS OF HYDRO TURBINE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A hydro turbine has the following main components:

-draft tube
-spiral casing and stay ring
-guide apparatus
-covers
-runner
-runner chamber
-runner blade servomotor
-regulating mechanism of the runner blades
-turbine shaft
-turbine bearing
-shaft sleeve and seal box

8.3.1 Draft tube :

The draft tube consists of a draft-tube-cone and a draft-tube-plate-lining through the bend. The water has a relatively
large velocity when it leaves the runner. This kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy in the draft tube. To obtain
this with a minimum of losses, the outlet velocity at the draft tube outlet has to be as minimum as possible.

The draft tube of a Kaplan and Francis turbine has a shape to provide smooth variation to increase the area of cross

VIII - 11
 Fig.8.12 Draft Tube

section so that water passing through it is capable of reducing its velocity slowly to have minimum hydraulic losses.

8.3.2 Spiral casing:

For smaller heads (less than 10 meter) and small dimensions of the machines, the turbines are placed into a concrete
pit. This is suitable only for low velocity of water in the range 0.8 to 1 m/sec.

Turbine, of larger size is placed into a spiral shaped pit. For heads 20 meter and above spirals are made of steel plate,
such spiral form a constructional part of the turbine. In this case, the spiral completely surrounds the guide wheel and

Fig. 8.13 Kaplan spiral casing of steel plates

VIII - 12
its function is to supply it with water uniformly along the circumference. In order to prevent excessive stress on the
spiral due to the water pressure which tends to open it up, it is strengthened around the inner opening by stay blades.

Large spirals, now a days, are made from steel plates of appropriate size. Due to transport limitation, different
sections of spiral casing are shipped from manufacturer’s work and assembled and welded at site and welded to stay
ring forming stay ring spiral assembly. During welding, care is taken to ensure dimensions as per drawing. Complete
welding seams are radiographed to avoid any defect in welding process.

Fig. 8.13 shows a spiral casing of Kaplan turbine under erection.

8.3.3 The guide apparatus system

Guide apparatus system consists of following components:-

Guide vane:

Guide vanes are arranged in a circle around the runner. Individual guide vane is having a bottom trunion and upper
trunion and shaft in between two trunions guide vane rather having aerodynamic profile is located. No. of guide vanes
in a typical turbine vary from 20 to 24.

Regulating ring:

Regulating ring is fabricated steel ring to which guide vanes are connected by lever & link assembly. Regulating is
further connected to servomotors by connecting rod. By action of servomotor, regulating ring turns the guide vanes in
unision for opening and closing.

Servomotors:
Servomotors are simple piston cylinder assembly which
operates by oil pressure and get command from governing
system for opening or closing the guide vanes for starting,
loading and closing the unit as per system requirement.

Guide vane lever, links, and bush housing:

Individual guide vane is having a bottom trunion and top

trunion and a shaft. Bottom trunion of guide vane is housed
in individual bottom bush which is located in bottom ring at
specified P.C.D.(Pitch Circle Diameter). Top shaft of
individual guide vane is having a bush housing fixed in top
cover. Bush housing is having adequate sealing
arrangement so that water does not come in the top cover.
Individual guide vane at top also have a guide vane
connected to it which in turn is connected to regulating
ring by means of suitable link which is also individually
adjustable.

8.3.4 Covers

The Kaplan turbines are usually provided with an inner cover

in addition to an upper and a lower cover. The inner cover
is bolted to the upper cover and forms a shield from upper
flow conducting surface and downwards to the runner.

Fig. 8.14 Stay ring under erection

VIII - 13
 Head cover Bottom ring

Fig. 8. 15

Furthermore, this serves as a support for the guide vane mechanism with the regulating ring, the turbine bearing and
the shaft seal box with standstill seal. The lower turbine cover is combined with the runner chamber by a flanged
connection.

8.3.5 Runner

The runner in a Kaplan turbine is a very challenging part to design. The details for adjusting the blades can be
designed in different ways. Increasing blade number for increasing head may create problems because of lack of
space and consequently high stresses. It is not however,
only the head that determines the number of blades. The
blade length and shape as well as the specific blade loading
and location in relation to the downstream water level, are
the factors, which are considered as a general guideline.
Four blades can be used up to heads of 25 - 30 meters,
five blades up to 40 meters, six blades up to 50 meters
and seven blades up to heads of 60 - 70 meters. Kaplan
turbines have also been designed with 8 blades for heads
even higher than 70 meters. This increases the hub
diameter and the shape of the hub becomes more
complicated, and the efficiency may suffer.

A small clearance gap is achieved between the adjustable

blade ends and the hub for all operating conditions. With
increasing head, the hub diameter is increasing from
approximately 40% to 65 - 70 % of the runner diameter.
The torque of the runner is transferred to the turbine shaft
through hub as blades are mounted on it. All the blades
are kept at equal angles, thereby equal spacing is created
between the blades which facilitate the balanced flow of
water through all the rotor spacing and thus each blade

Fig 8.16 Rotating parts of a Kaplan turbine

VIII - 14
generates equal torque giving a smooth rotational system.

Blade profile is checked in manufacturer’s work on special stand designed for the purpose. In manufacturer’s work
complete assembly of hub & blades is also statically balanced.

8.3.6 Runner chamber

The clearance gap between the outer blade ends and the chamber wall is essential to keep as small as possible for
all blade inclinations. Therefore, the runner chamber is made spherical below the rotation centre line of the blade
trunnions. Ideally the spherical shape should have been maintained above the blade rotation centre as well

However, on account of installation and dismantling aspects, this part is being made cylindrical as shown on fig. 8.17.
The gap between the runner blade ends and the runner chamber wall is approximately 0.1% of the runner diameter.

Fig. 8.17 Runner Chamber

The length of the runner chamber is indicated by H. At the lower end this chamber is welded to the draft tube via an
extruded steel profile. Cavitations, erosion on the runner chamber may occur during the running time of the turbine. To
reduce the magnitude of such erosion attacks and to ease the subsequent repair, the runner chamber is normally
made of cast or welded stainless chromium nickel steel with higher cavitation resistance than carbon steel. Existing
erosions may then be repaired by welding on site. The runner chamber is reinforced by external ribs. The runner
chamber is normally completely or partly embedded in concrete. The turbine shown on fig.18.17 has an access tunnel
around the complete circumference, providing access to the lower guide vane bearings. In combination with this
tunnel there is a manhole access to the runner chamber for inspection of the runner blades. In the lower part of the
runner chamber there is a tap for connection of a vacuum meter. In the lower part, holes are plugged by means of
removable stainless steel plugs.

VIII - 15
8.3.7 Runner blade servomotor

The servomotor for the rotary motion of the runner blades is either a construction part of the turbine shaft or located
inside the hub. There are however, good reasons for localizing the servomotor inside the hub. This servomotor may
consist of a moving cylinder and a fixed piston integrated with the hub. The conversion from axial piston movement to
rotating blade movement is carried out by a link and lever construction. The hub is completely filled with oil to provide
reliable lubrication of moving parts. The oil pressure inside the hub is kept higher than the outside water pressure to
prevent water penetration into the oil.

8.3.8 Regulating mechanism of the runner blades

An example of the regulating system of the runner blade slope is shown on Fig. 8.18. The slope of the runner blades
(1a) are adjusted by the rotary motion activated by the force from the piston (11a) through the rod (17). The cylindrical
extension of the upper end of the turbine shaft (9) serves as a servomotor cylinder (11) whereas the lower flange of
the generator shaft serves as cover. The rod (17) moves in the two bearings (20). The oil supply to the servomotor (11)
is entered at the upper end of the generator shaft (10). The oil is conveyed to the respective sides of the servomotor
through two coaxial pipes (22 and 23) inside the hollow generator shaft. The inner tube (22) conveys oil to and from the
lower side of the piston (11a), whereas the annular opening between the pipes (22) and (23) conveys oil to and from
the piston top side. The oil is supplied through the entrance arrangement (12) with the two chambers (12a) and (12b)
at the top of the unit.

The turbine governor operates directly on servomotor (25)

which executes the movement of the guide vanes (3) shown
in Fig. 8.18. There is definite relation ship between guide
vane opening and runner blade opening. This relationship

is called α- β characteristics i.e relationship between guide

vane angle (α ) and runner blade angle (β). Hence for any
movement of guide vane there should be corresponding
movement in runner blades. This is carried out by a rod
and lever transfer from the servomotor (25) to the cam (26)
which is turned according to the movement of the
servomotor piston (25). In this way the spool valve (27) is
moved out of the neutral position and the servomotor piston
(11a) is then put to movement by the oil pressure supply.
The spool valve (27) receives pressure oil either directly
from the oil pump or from the accumulator which is
energized by an oil pump.

8.3.9 Turbine shaft:

Turbine shaft is usually a forged carbon steel shaft having

two coupling flanges. Diameter of shaft is decided upon
rating of the machine for delivering turbine torque to
generator. On the bottom flange turbine runner is coupled
and coupling holes are generally reamed for accommodating
fitted bolts of turbine runner.

It also has a integrally forged journal for turbine guide

Fig 8.18. Regulating Mechanism bearing. Below turbine guide bearing journal there is provision

VIII - 16
for fixing replaceable stainless steel line for shaft sealing system.

Top flange of turbine shaft also has reamed holes for coupling with generator shaft.

Shaft has a through hole in centre usually of 100 to 150 mm dia. This hole is used for air admission while unit is under
operation and also facilitates assembly of components as sealing can be passed through it. During manufacturing non
destructive testing of shaft can be carried out through centre hole by various NDT techniques.

A typical turbine shaft is shown below in Figure 8.19.

Forged Shaft Fabricated Shaft

Fig. 8.19

8.3.10 Turbine/Guide Bearing:

Turbine Guide Bearing (TGB) is usually located above the turbine runner. There are three types of arrangement of
TGB.

(i) Pivoted type pads

(ii) Shell type bearing

(iii) Shell type with rotating sump.

(i) Pivoted type :

In this type of arrangement there is a bearing housing which is bolted to top cover and there is oil chamber/bath also
fixed on the top cover with an oil retaining sleeve. Usually there are 6 to 8 bearing pads depending upon the size of the
machine. In a typical arrangement bearing support ring is having threaded holes in the centre of support ring. The
threaded holes are same in number as number of pads. In certain cases instead of threaded hole in the support ring
body there can be separate nut fixed in position. Through these threaded holes a stud with rounded face passes
radially and in the back of pad there is a hardened plate which is in alignment with the stud described above. By
adjusting the studs, bearing pads can be moved closer to the journal surface and bearing gap can be adjusted. Typical
radial gap in TGB pads is of the order of 0.15 to 0.2 mm depending upon size of the journal.

Initially oil is filled in the bearing up to half the pad height and oil rotation due to centrifugal force and self pumping
action oil level rises and bearing lubrication is achieved. For extracting the heat generated, some cooling arrangement
is essential.

VIII - 17
There are many ways of cooling turbine guide bearing. Some of these arrangements are briefly described below:-

(a) Pad with water jacket:

In such arrangement pads are having pockets and opening at top cover water inlet and outlet. All pads are interconnected
by suitable piping. Water under suitable pressure is circulated in the piping and outlet is connected to the drain water.

(b) External water cooler installed in the bearing housing :

In such a case water cooler is installed in the bearing housing itself. Disadvantage is, bearing housing becomes
large.

(c) Oil is pumped through centrifugal action to a cooler located outside:

This type of bearing is in use at Tanakpur HEP. The cross section of pad is shown below in Fig. 8.20.

R 1070

PCR 1030
BABBIT
SURFACE
R 1000

250 CHD

PAD

76.617 CHD
103.614 CHD
267.5 CHD

Fig 8.20. Sketch showing pivot pad of guide bearing

(ii) Shell type :

In such type of bearing instead of pad there is one complete shell usually in two halves; these halves are joined to
form a bearing shell. In such a case inside bore of the bearing is machined with very fine tolerance, so as to achieve
required radial clearance between journal and bearing. Inside surface of the bearing Babbitt material is having suitable
pumping grooves for self pumping of oil during machine rotation. Cooling arrangement for this type of bearing can be
similar to the pivoted type bearing. Bearing shell is supported on the bearing housing in the top cover. It has a flange
at top and generally bolted and doweled with the top cover.

VIII - 18
(iii) Shell type with rotating sump:

In this type of arrangement, oil chamber is fixed on the shaft by providing a collar on it. Obviously the sump also
rotates while machine is rotating. In such type of arrangement, bearing is shell type as described above and cooling
arrangement is similar. This type is in use at Chamera-I power station. The cross section is shown in Fig. 8.21 and Fig.
8.22.

Fig. 8.21

VIII - 19
 Fig. 8.22

Part details of Shell type with rotating sump is shown in Table 8.3.

1. Guide bearing 8. Instrumentation

2. Bearing support 9. Stud
3. Sump tank cover 10. Nut
4. Sump tank 11. Lock washer
5. Seal felt retainer 12. Dowel pin
6. Bolt 13. Bolt
7. Lock washer 14. Dowel pin

Table 8.3

VIII - 20
8.3.11 Shaft sealing system

Service shaft seal:

The rotating part and the stationary part of the generating unit do have some clearances. Runner and shaft (both
moving parts) and the turbine cover (stationary part) also has clearance. The high pressure water comes from
penstock and falls on runner to cause rotation. Due to high pressure, water tends to move in all the directions where
opening (clearance) is found. The water also tends to enter in top cover from runner chamber through clearance
between top cover and turbine shaft. To prevent this water to come out from the top cover/neck, a sealing arrangement
is made between the runner and the turbine top cover. This is generally called shaft sealing arrangement. Because
this seal works during operation, the seal is also referred as service seal.

Maintenance seal:
In some of the shaft seal system, a seal, below the shaft seal is provided. This is effected when service-seal is
required to be opened for the maintenance/replacement. Therefore, this seal is called maintenance seal. The maintenance
seal can be engaged or disengaged during the non rotation of the shaft. By engaging the maintenance seal, the shaft
seal (also can be referred as service seal) can be dismantled /repaired under the pressurized water created by the tail
race water level.

The maintenance seal can be engaged by jacking the rotating parts-assembly of the generating set and keeps on
providing the sealing effect in the jacked position.

This type of maintenance seal is in use at Salal Power Station and shown in Fig.8.23.

2 NOS. MOULDD NYLON

REINFORCED RUBBER SEALS

SEAL SUPORTING RING

TURBINE TOP COVER

REVOLVING SLEEVE MAINTENANCE SEAL

SALAL HE PROJECT

Fig.8.23 Maintenance seal

VIII - 21
There are various types of shaft sealing arrangements:

01. Gland type arrangement:

For small machine with low head, simple gland packing is provided between the moving shaft surface and gland
housing provided/supported at the top cover neck. The simplest type of gland packing is made of asbestos rope or
ribbon of suitable cross section. Gland sealing is self lubricating in nature. The life of gland sealing is not very long.
Therefore, it requires frequent replacement.

02. Carbon segment type:

In this type of sealing arrangement, soft carbon sectors matching to the shaft circular profile are provided and housed
on the sealing supporting arrangement. The assembly is placed on the top cover. During the rotation of the shaft, the
soft-carbon-sector parts keep on touching the shaft with the help of the spring whose tension can be adjusted as per
the requirement. This way the pressurized water is stopped to come out from the top cover and the runner shaft
clearance. When the working pressure of the turbine is very high more than one such soft carbon sectors are used one
above another to achieve the sealing effect. Clean water is used as coolant for lubrication purposes.

This type of arrangement is shown in use at Chamera-I HEP and section of seal is as shown below in Fig. 8.24. It is
interesting to note here that replaceable liner is fixed on shaft and sealing arrangement is done at this point. In some
other arrangements replaceable liner is in space between bearing journal and flange.

Table 8.4

Item No Description Item No Description

3 Intermediate ring 14 ‘O’ ring

4 Upper chamber ring 16 ‘O’ ring

5 Cover ring 18 Inflatable seal assembly

6 Sealing ring L.H 20 Stud

7 Sealing ring R.H 21 Stud

8 Pressure ring 22 Hex. HD. Cap screw

9 Garter ring 23 Hex. Nut

11 Stop 24 Lock washer

12 Double stop 25 Lock washer

13 Lining 26 Cap screw

03. Rubber (Neoprene) sheet type:

In this kind of sealing arrangement a seal drum (rotating along with shaft) is mounted on the shaft. At the top cover
neck a supporting structure is provided where annular (the diameter of the inner annular rubber seal is less than the
diameter of the seal drums) rubber seal can be accommodated/fixed. The similar arrangement is again provided
above the previous rubberized seal which forms the integral part of the sealing arrangement. Between these two
rubber seals, the pressurized water (1 to 2 kg/cm2) as clean as possible is provided. At the working pressure, the
pressurized water starts flowing between the labyrinths provided at upper portion of the runner and at the top cover.
The water looses its pressure by the action of the labyrinth and a residual pressure of 0.5 to 1 kg/cm2 is supposed to

VIII - 22
act on the runner seal. Therefore, the pressure on out side of sealing annular rubber sheet is more in magnitude which
prevents leakage of water from inside turbine chamber system. Hence the sealing effect is achieved. The pure water
is taken from the filtration plant and this water acts as lubricant and the heat sink for the shaft sealing sheet when
rotation of the shaft takes place during operation.

The life of this sealing sheet depends upon the wear and tear as it keeps on pressing the rotating drum. Hence, during
the rainy season when some silt is present in the filtered water, the seal needs frequent replacement/repair.

Fig. 8.24

VIII - 23
This type of arrangement is in use at Salal power station and its cross section is shown in Fig. 8.25 and part details
in Table 8.5.

Table 8.5

Item No Description Item No Description Item No Description

1. Rubber sealing 8. Revolving sleeve 15 Bolt

2. Pressing ring 9. Rubber sealing 16 Nut
3. Pin 10. Nut 17 Stud
4. Nut 11 Bolt 18 Rubber cord
5. Supporting ring 12 Taper pin 19 Stud
6. Rubber sealing I I3 Stud 20 Rubber cord
7. Sealing support 14 Upper ring

Fig 8.25 Rubber sheet type

VIII - 24
04. Hydro Dynamic type:

In this type of sealing arrangement, water jets are directed to the clearance between shaft (moving) and turbine top
cover (stationary). The pressure of this water jets is so adjusted that it counters the water pressure coming out
through the clearances of shaft surface and the top cover neck. This type of shaft sealing arrangement does need a
high pressure water pump and homogeneous providing the jet-water around the place where sealing effect is required.
For high head turbine system this method is more suitable for shaft sealing arrangement. This type is in use at Loktak
Power Station. The cross section is shown in Fig. 8.26 and part details in Table 8.6 .

Fig. 8.26

VIII - 25
 Table 8.6

Item No Description Item No Description

1. Hose 11 Sealing cord
2. Pipe joint 12 Bolt
3. Ring (Lower) in 4 parts 13 Bolt
4. Ring (Upper) in 4 parts 14 Bolt
5. Cover in 2 parts 15 Screw
6. Nipple 16 Nut
7. Sealing ring 17 Nut
8. Adopter 18 Spring washer
9. Sealing ring 19 Spring washer
10. Sealing ring

8.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF A TURBINE

Before dealing with characteristics of a turbine we shall briefly deal with basic hydraulic gross head, net head,
hydraulic similarity, specific speed, etc. so that, we are better equipped to understand characteristics of a turbine.

Water Pressure:

Both pressure and flow are necessary to produce power. Pressure is generated by the weight of water due to difference
in elevation. If we consider 1m X1m X 1m cube of water then weight of water is 1000kg and it is exerting a pressure
1000kg on area 1m2, or in other words 1 meter column of water is exerting a pressure of 0.1 kg per centimeter square
so 10 meter column of water shall exert a pressure of 1kg per centimeter square.

Turbine output:

Out put of the turbine is given by the formula out put = η. Y. 9.81. Q. H. KW

Where η = Overall turbine efficiency

Y = Specific weight of water = 1000kg/m3

Q = Discharge passing through turbine

H = Net head available in the turbine

Substituting value of Y
Out put = η. 9.81. Q. H. MW

In the above formula H is net head available in the turbine and is different from gross head. Gross head is difference
between Head water (Reservoir Level) and Tail water level.

Net head:

It can be defined as the difference between the energy of the water flowing in the turbine system and the total energy
of the water discharging from it.

In an actual turbine, water at entry has certain pressure energy and kinetic energy; similarity at outlet also it has
certain pressure energy and velocity energy. Difference of these two converted into meter shall give net head.

Before installation of actual machine, these values are calculated from design calculation falling into account inlet

VIII - 26
velocity, outlet velocity losses in water conductor system.
After installation of machine, measurement of net head is essential for determining the turbine efficiency.
Net Head Hn = (Z1 + a1-Zw2) + 10x P1g/r+ (V12-V22)/2g

Where
Z1 = Elevation of spiral casing centre line (Meters)
a1 = Level difference between pressure gauge location and spiral casing centre line (Meters)
Zw2 = Tail race level (meters)
10x P1g/r = Pressure at spiral case centre line (Meter)
V1 = Velocity at spiral casing inlet m/sec
V2 = Velocity at spiral casing outlet m/sec
Thus by measuring discharge through flow meters V1 & V2 can be computed, P1 can be recorded by manometer and
by having these values, actual net head available in machine at different operating condition can be compiled.

8.4.1 Hydraulic similarity: - Turbines are geometrically similar when the ratio of their dimensions in all directions is
the same, when the corresponding characteristic angles are the same. Turbines which are geometrically similar also
have hydraulic similarity.

Where H = Head
Q = Discharge
n = speed
N = out put
D = Diameter

These relations can be studied in two groups.

1.In one and the same turbine, with a variation of the head H the flow velocities and hence the Q will vary. Since
the velocity of the water flow has changed, the turbine speed, too must change if the same inlet and outlet
conditions on the blades (the same angles) are to be maintained. Since H has changed and with it Q, there must
also be a change in N. The diameter D of the turbine remaining constant, we have given the relationship between
the values H, Q, n, N. The appropriate relation will, therefore be valid for two individual turbines of the same size
and shape, working under different heads.
2.For turbine of the same geometric shape and different diameters D, working under the same head H, we obtain
the relationship between, Q, n, and N, when H= constant.

A. Influence of Head Variation:-

i) Speed variation with head variation

It can be mathematically derived that with same turbine

n’ √ H’
=
n √H

where n’ = speed when Head is H’

n = Original speed, H = Original Head
If H’= 1 meter then

n
n1 = = Speed of Turbine under head of 1 meter.
√H

VIII - 27
ii) Flow rate variation with Head variation
As above it can be deduced that

Q’ √ H’
=
Q √H

If H’ = 1 meter then
Q
= Flow rate of turbine under head of 1 meter.Q1 =
√H
iii) Out put variation with head variation

For the same turbine it can be deduced that

N’ ( H’)3/2
=
N ( H) 3/2

If H’ = 1 m then
N
N1 =
√H³

B. Influence of size
It can be deduced that

D √N n’
= =
D’ √N’ n
8.4.2 Specific speed :
Geometrically similar turbines must have common characteristic.
Such a generally adopted characteristic is given by the so called specific speed, which we obtain i.e we reduce the
dimensions of the turbine in such a way so that its out put under the head of 1 m is 1 metric horse power.
The specific speed ns of any turbine, hence equals the speed of a geometrically similar turbine working under head of
1m, which has such dimensions that it delivers an out put 1metric Horse power. With out going in mathematical detail
it can be derived that

n √N n √N
ns = or
H √H1/2 H5/4
Specific speed is a measure of the speed of turbine under certain conditions (H, Q) and determines the design of the
turbine, and consequently its shape. Turbines are classified into certain types, accordingly to following table.

Table : 8.6

ns , Specific speed Turbine type

4 to 35 Pelton wheel with single jet

17 to 50 Pelton wheel with two jet
24 to 70 Pelton wheel with four jet
80 to 120 Francis Turbine, low speed
120 to 430 Francis Turbine, high speed
300 to 1000 Propeller or Kaplan turbine

VIII - 28
8.4.3 Model Test

In order to ensure that a turbine to be manufactured will be satisfactory as to maximum flow rate and efficiency,
turbine manufacturer pre-determines the properties of turbine by means of model test utilizing law of hydraulic similarity.

So, turbine manufacturer constructs a geometrically similar turbine of smaller dimensions (Diameter of runner 200 to
400 mm), a so called model, which is then tested in the testing station. In the testing station a pump transports the
water to a higher tank from where piping leads to model turbine. The test laboratory is equipped with instruments
which permit exact measurement of head, flow rate and speed of the turbine. It is also possible to exactly measure
the out put of turbine and hence efficiency in different operating regime, in the test lab.

Efficiency (%) .........Continous position limits

Turbine (MW) -----Wicked gate position (deg)
Weighted points

Fig. 8.27

The results of model test achieved may also be used for other turbines having same geometrical shape but different
diameter.

From the model test, following important characteristics curves of turbine can be obtained.
1. Constant head curve where head is constant and speed vs discharge is plotted.

VIII - 29
2. Constant speed curve where speed is constant and discharge vs power & efficiency are plotted.

3. Where efficiency is constant and speed vs discharge for different gate opening are plotted.

However, from practical point of view Hill chart (Fig. 8.27), which gives turbine out put, efficiency, flow rate, wicket
gate opening at different operating net head is very important chart which can be obtained from a model test. Similarly
same type of curves (Fig. 8.28) which gives relation between turbine out put and discharge & efficiency at different
net head is very important and can be obtained from model test.

TURBINE OUTPUT IN MW →

Fig. 8.28

VIII - 30
These curves for prototype turbine are even essential in tender bid for evaluation of turbine performance by purchaser
and later on at the site for evaluation of performance.

8.5 CHOICE, RATING AND SPECIFICATIONS OF TURBINES

Based upon the geology, topography of the proposed project site and the hydrology of the catchment area, the power
plant is further categorized in different kinds. These are given below:

8.5.1. Storage type:

“Storage type” power plants store the inflow available in the basin behind a dam, forming a reservoir. The water is
stored in the reservoir and is released/utilized through turbine-generators to produce electricity through out the year.
These types of plants are often used as peak load plant.

8.5.2. Run-of-river plant:

As the name implies, the project is planned as run of the river. Water is diverted from the river, routed through the
project and finally joins to the river at a lower level downstream. It takes advantage of the drop in elevation that occurs
over a distance in the river and doesn’t involve water storage. Because these plants generally do not hold water
behind storage reservoirs, extra inflow especially in monsoon season has got to be discharged in with out power
generation.

Conceptually these plants are very simple, but the power generation fluctuates with the river flow and the firm power
is considerably low, as it depends upon inflow.

8.5.3. Diurnal-scheme:
A hydro power scheme which has storage capacity in its live-reservoir for a day to a week is included in this category.
During the high inflow season in the river stream, the excessive inflow is stored in the reservoir and additional
generation during the peak generating time is done. In this type of scheme the live-reservoir is of smaller capacity as
compared to the storage type of scheme but, machines installed are of slightly higher capacity which is utilized for
supplying the peak requirement of the grid. It is also to note that, the total energy generated (on the year basis) is less
then the storage type of hydro-project-scheme. Another feature of the diurnal scheme is that during the lean water
season, the scheme works as a purely peaking power station. During high inflow season power station works as base
load station. During intermediate inflow period power station can work as partly base load and partly peak load
station.

Bairasiul power station, Chamera-I power station and Rangit power station of NHPC are the example of the diurnal
type of scheme.

8.5.4 Factors deciding rating of machines and installed capacity:-

Minimum flow available over a period:
The minimum discharge available over the period, based on the ten daily averages is studied. While deciding the
rating of the machine the minimum inflows available have the consideration.

Maximum flow available over a period:

The maximum discharge available over the period, based on the ten daily average is studied. While deciding the rating
of the machine the maximum inflow available also has the consideration.

8.5.5 Economics work out Rating:

In addition to total head available for a particular site, data of minimum flow, its period and maximum flow and its
period for past 25 to 100 years as available is useful in deciding power station rating and unit size. With basic data as
above, optimization studies are done with different unit size and power station rating to arrive at most economic and
optimal size for unit & power station.

VIII - 31
Other considerations for deciding size of individual unit are a) size of equipment b) transport limitations

8.5.6 Types of turbine:

Main deciding factor in selecting type of turbine is Head available.

Table below gives types of turbine for different Head range.

Head range Type of turbine

Above 400 M Pelton

30 to 400 M Francis

10 to 60 M Kaplan

In some cases where head is even smaller, Bulb turbines are also installed. In case where discharge & head is almost
constant and head is low, propeller type turbines which are having fixed blade similar to Kaplan machine are also
installed as cost of turbine is less.

Fig. 8.28 Illustrates turbine selection for different head and discharge.

Fig. 8.28 Head & discharge requirement for hydro turbines

In overlapping zone in mid head range, Kaplan vs Francis and high head range Francis vs Pelton selection needs
detailed analysis. Advantage with Kaplan machine is its flat efficiency curve for head variation but has complexity in
design. Variation runner blade angles need additional mechanism in the runner assembly.

VIII - 32
Similarly, Pelton machines are easy to handle from operation & maintenance point of view, but we loose draft head
which can be gainfully utilized in case of Francis machines.

8.6 COMPONENTS OF TURBINES AND THEIR DESIGN FEATURES

8.6.1. Pelton Turbine

Figure 8.29 shows general arrangement for six jet vertical Pelton wheel turbine :

Fig. 8.29

(1) Runner buckets, (2) Deflector Plate / Nozzle,

(3) Nozzle mouth (4) Nozzle body,
(5) Spear head, (6) Distributor outlet,
(7) Distributor inlet, (8) Connecting piece.
(9) Deflector link arms

Major component wise design features are discussed below:

01. Distributor:

Distributor is the part of the Pelton turbine to facilitate pressurized water flow from MIV (Main Inlet Valve) and to feed
to the nozzle-jet assembly, which in turn strikes the water jet to the runner buckets. In multi-jet turbine system,
distributor is surrounding the runner.

VIII - 33
The overall dimensions and shape of the distributor are determined on the basis of following considerations:

1. The water should enter in each nozzle-jet assembly at a uniform flow rate.

2. The flow in the distributor should satisfy the equal area of cross-section through each nozzle-pipe.

Therefore, the overall dimensions of the distributor depend on the discharge and head for which it is designed or
depends on the area of its inlet section and the pressure of the working fluid.

The cross-sectional area of the distributor reduces after the bifurcation to connect each jet-assembly-feeding-nozzle.
The area of cross-section of a distributor at various sections are designed in such a manner that, the reduction of the
area of cross-section is equivalent to the area of cross-section of the nozzle feeding cross-section.

Distributor of a Pelton turbine is the part in which the pressure energy is converted into a velocity head. In this
process-change, distributor ensures smooth hydraulic variation during the operation. Where ever the cross section
changes of the distributor are there, regular and continuos contour should be followed to minimize the losses in the
distributor.

The foundation of the Servomotors for each nozzles-assembly is provided on the body of the distributor and forms the
integral part of the structure of the distributor.

For small capacity, distributor is made by casting whereas of big capacity it is made in parts by fabricating the steel
plates. Appropriate safety margin of pressure is kept to bear the maximum water pressure which could be there during
the water hammering under the situation of worst circumstances.

Bigger size of distributor is generally made in parts to facilitate its transportation, handling and erection.

Figure 8.30 shows four jet distributor arrangements.

Fig. 8.30 Layout for typical four-nozzle spiral casing for Pelton turbine

VIII - 34
02 Jet Nozzle Assembly:

Jet Nozzle assembly has been shown in the figure 8.31.

Nozzle

Jet- deflector

Spearhead rod

Fig. 8.31 Nozzle-jet and deflector arrangement used in a Pelton turbine

It is placed between the distributor’s delivery-end and the runner.

Jet nozzle assembly consists of a spear which is operated by a servomotor which is fixed on distributor body. Full
forward movement of spear blocks the water jet and its backward movement allows the water jet from distributor to
impinge on the runner bucket. Shape of spear and jet opening is so regulated that in its movement zone it regulates
the water input to the runner.

In multi jet machines all the spears move in unison and controlled by Governing system.

Tip of the spear is generally a conical precisely machined section and is subjected to wear from water and silt. This
is a replaceable component generally threaded on the spear rod.

Similarly nozzle from where water jet emerges is also precisely machined component and subjected to wear from
water and silt. This component is also made easily replaceable.

In modern Pelton turbines, spear of cone and nozzle are made from wear resistant 13/4 stainless steel. Diameter jet
and profile of spear and nozzle mouth depends upon water head and discharge requirement.

03. Deflector:

As the name indicates purpose of deflector is to deflect water jet.

When turbine needs to be stopped, spear should move forward to close the water jet. However, timing of spear
servomotor is slow and for immediate closure of machine some fast acting mechanism is required which should
deflect the water jet from runner. This is accomplished by deflector which is positioned in between water jet and
runner.

Initially when starting, the turbine deflector moves away from path of the jet and allows the jet to impinge on runner.

VIII - 35
While shutting down the unit, spear servomotor allows movement of spear in forward direction to shut down the jet
with inbuilt timing of spear servomotor. However, deflector moves much faster and blocks the water jet.

In a multi jet machine there is an individual deflector for each jet and all the deflectors are connected by lever link
mechanism and are operated from a single servomotor placed in the above turbine casing. As in case of spear,
deflectors also operate in unision by action of single servomotor. Commands for deflector operation are received from
programmable governing system.

Deflector thickness and material depends upon the water head and jet diameter. It should be very robust construction
as it has to take force of water jet.

A typical arrangement of deflector nozzle and spear is shown in figure 8.32.

Fig. 8.32

04. Runner:

Buckets are mounted on the periphery of a disc and the disc is coupled with the turbine shaft-lower-flange. As the
center of the shaft and the center of the runner are arranged in line, the mechanical power generated by the runner is
fed to the shaft for further transmitting. The blade’s / bucket’s profile looks like two concave-surfaces placed together
side by side. At the joint of the concave-surfaces a projected ridge is formed and the outer end of the ridge is called
tip of the blade. During the operation, the water jet is divided into two parts as it strikes the tip and then ridge of the
blade. The bucket’s surface is called the guide-surface. The jet enters the guide-surface, imparts the mechanical
power to the runner and while leaving the surface its angle turned almost by 1650.

VIII - 36
Diameter of the runner depends upon R.P.M. of the machine, head and discharge.

Selection of runner of buckets is calculated on the basis that all water particles are forced to give off all their kinetic
energy to the runner wheel. In a wheel with a wider spacing of buckets, the energy of some water particles will not be
utilized, and, on the other hand, when the spacing is too narrow, the jet will be superfluously disturbed by the
interfering bucket.

Some impulse runners are made with individually bolted buckets and others are solid cast. Double-overhung installations
are made with a generator in the center and the runner positioned on the two overhanging ends of a single shaft in the
horizontal Pelton turbine of big capacity.

Fig.8.33 Runner made by single casting

Fig. 8.34 Sketch for water action on the Pelton wheel buckets

VIII - 37
The Pelton runner is generally made from single casting. The material of the runner used in modern design is 13/4
stainless steel having anti abrasion and anti pitting properties. While manufacturing, very thorough inspection of
bucket root is essential as this area faces maximum water impact. With advancement in manufacturing facilities now
a days, many manufacturers are offering Pelton runners in which buckets profiles are machined from a integral forged
disc.

05. Turbine Shaft:

Turbine shaft made of forged carbon steel of appropriate hollow section should be able to deliver turbine torque to
generator. Shaft is provided with two coupling flanges to couple runner at the lower flange and to couple generator-
shaft with the upper flange. The forged journals for turbine guide bearing are provided around the shaft near the lower
end. The outer diameter of the journal is decided to bring the required range of the surface velocity suitable to the
guide bearing system. Below turbine guide bearing journal, a sleeve is provided on the shaft and at the neck of the top
cover of the turbine-enclosure, grooved collar is provided. The arrangement stops splashing of water which intends to
come out form the neck of the top cover during operation of the turbine.

Through hole in center of the shaft is usually of 100 to 150 mm diameter. The hole is used for air admission while unit
is under operation and to facilitate assembly of shaft, other components and to conduct Non Destructive Testing on
the shaft during manufacturing. A typical turbine shaft has already been shown in figure 8.19.

06. Runner Casing:

Structures around the runner are called the runner casing.
The runner casing for a vertical Pelton type of the turbine is discussed here. The distributor structure is supported on
vertical concrete walls foundation. The shape of the vertical concrete walls foundation is round or hexagonal and
hollow at the center. Inspection path and maintenance approaches are also made through these foundation walls from
the turbine floor level. The inspection path and maintenance approaches remain closed during turbine operation. At
the foot-level of the concrete foundation, a passage is kept for water exit-flow leading to the tail race. The entry /
passage at the foot of the foundation also facilitates the erection of the shaft, runner and other turbine parts. Some
design provides the steel lining on the inner walls. At the top of the runner, casing (top cover) in sectors are provided.
At the neck of the top cover female-groove is provided to match (with certain clearance) the dimensions of the sleeve
provided on the shaft. The arrangement acts as a preventor of the water splashing beyond the top cover of the turbine.

Certain design provides inspection windows on the top cover with toughened bakelite sheet.

Fig. 8.35 Round and prismatic design of runner casing

VIII - 38
07. Turbine Guide Bearing:

Turbine Guide Bearing (TGB) is located near the runner. There are three types of arrangement of TGB. TGB with
Pivoted type pads arrangement, TGB with Shell type pads arrangement and TGB with Shell type rotating sump type
arrangement. Pivot type arrangement requires more bearing space; therefore, suitable for small and medium rating
machine. Whereas shell type pads arrangement requires less bearing space and is more suitable for bigger rating
machines. In nut shell where space is limited and the bearing heat generated is also small, shell type bearing
construction is selected. The pivot type construction is opted where space around bearing is more and the bearing
heat generated is also more.

One of the operating factors is, the heat generated in the bearing which is directly proportion to the throw of the journal
surface. At the TGB the chances of the throw are more (especially in suspension type of shaft rotation system).
Therefore, design of the cooling requirement of the TGB needs more care.

Heat generated by the bearing pads is taken away by the turbine oil bath surrounding the bearing pads. The oil bath
temperature as a result starts rising. To cool the oil, heat exchangers are either placed in the oil chamber or hot oil is
taken outside the oil chamber and cooled by heat exchanger installed out side the bearing assembly.

08. Hydraulic (Water) Jet Brake:

At the time of tripping, water jets supplying power to the runner are immediately deflected by deflector and stopped by
the Jet and Nozzle assemblies.

Due to moment of inertia, even after stopping the input, machine takes a long time to come to a safe speed when
brakes can be applied. This is because Pelton runner rotating in air after water is stopped and where there is very less
resistance. Hence for quickly reducing the speed to a safe level where generator brakes can be applied, a special
feature called braking-jet is used in most machines.

Braking-jet is a single water jet tapped from the distributor such that it strikes on the back of the bucket and thus
imparting retarding force.

Braking-jet is controlled by a suitable solenoid valve and gets command from programmable governor.

8.6.2. Francis Turbine :

Parts and sub assemblies of turbines may be divided into four groups, according to their task during turbine operation
and their positions in the overall layout. These are built in parts, operating mechanisms, equipment used for regulation,
and auxiliary turbine equipment.

The built in (concreted) parts of a vertical Francis turbine are scroll casing, speed ring, foundation ring, lining of draft
tube, turbine pit, and servomotor recesses.

The operating mechanisms of reaction and impulse turbines include runners, distributor parts with turbine cover
plates, distributor servomotor, turbine shafts, and guide bearings.

The equipment used for automatic regulation includes governor with regulation mechanism, pressure-oil installation,
and oil- and air-pipe systems.

The auxiliary turbine equipment includes vacuum relief valves, idling discharge outlets, and gate valves upstream of
turbines, as well as equipment and instruments for observing the state, operation, and automatic controls of generating
sets.

VIII - 39
01. Scroll casing:

The Overall dimensions and shape of the scroll casing are determined on the basis of following two considerations.

1. The water should enter the turbine at a uniform flow rate over the entire distributor circumference.

2. The flow in the scroll casing should satisfy the law of constant circulation, according to which the peripheral
velocity at any point, is constant.

The overall dimensions of the scroll casing depend on the area of its inlet section.

Scroll casing of medium and high head turbine are made of steel. These take up the water pressure and prevent
seepage of water into the concrete. The scroll casings are concreted in after positioning, so that these also form part
of the concrete structure of the power house.

The scroll casings of medium head turbines have circular sections; these are fabricated from sheet steel (Figure
8.36). The wall thickness of a welded scroll casing is determined by allowing only for the load due to the internal water
pressure. Sheets of different thickness are, therefore, used for the various sections. The sheets are thickest at the
inlet section; their thickness thereafter decreases as the cross section of the scroll casing becomes smaller. The
various parts of the scroll casing are made of steel sheet of standardized thicknesses according to the dimensions of
the casing and transportation requirements.

Fig. 8.36. Welded scroll casing

02. Speed Ring:

The turbine speed ring forms the immediate part of the water passage between the scroll casing and the distributor. It
transmits to the foundation the load due to the weight of stationary and rotating part of the generating set, the axial
hydraulic force exerted by the water on the runner and the weight of concrete block above the generating set. The
speed ring stay vane are streamlined in the flow direction.

VIII - 40
The speed rings used with steel scroll casings of large Francis turbines are cast and welded or fabricated (Figure
8.37). The upper and lower bands of such a speed ring have flanges on the outside, to which the scroll-casing lining
is secured (usually by welding). The speed rings of Francis turbines having runner diameters of less than 3.0 m are
sometimes cast integrally.

The stay vanes and the upper and lower bands of a cast and welded speed ring are cast separately and then welded
together to form a single structure. Fabricated speed rings are welded from parts consisting of plane, bent, and
stamped rolled sections. Speed rings of high head Francis turbines with steel scroll casings are integral with the latter,
forming their exits.

Fig 8.37.Speed ring used with steel scroll casing:

1) speed ring; 2) foundation ring; 3) lining of draft tube cone; 4) lining of turbine pit

The number and dimensions in plan of the stay vanes, as well as their configuration and disposition depends on the
geometry of the scroll casing, the flow past the stay vanes, and strength requirements.

03. Distributor/Guide apparatus system:

The distributor of a reaction turbine imparts to the water the required direction at the entry to the runner blades, and
regulates the discharge according to the load and the rotational speed of the generating set. When closed, the
distributor completely stops the admission of water into the runner and thus forms a shut-off gate ahead of the
turbine.

The turbine discharge and the runner blade inlet angle are varied by rotating the guide vanes. Shock less entry of the
water into the runner of a turbine at all operating conditions is ensured through simultaneous rotation of runner blades
and guide vanes.

The guide –vane positions during the regulation process are determined by the distributor opening ao , whose magnitude
represents the minimum distance between the trailing edge of one vane and the surface of the adjacent one as shown
in figure 8.38.

VIII - 41
 Figure 8.38. Profiles of guide vanes

a) Concave; b) symmetric; c) convex.

Profile and dimensions of the guide vanes are chosen in accordance with the overall dimensions and type of the scroll
casing, and the runner type. Above figure shows three very widely employed guide-vane profiles (convex, concave,
and symmetric).

Additional vorticity is imparted to the flow ahead of the runner when convex guide vanes are used. Such guide vanes
are fitted in turbines with open flumes.

However, concave guide vanes reduce the vorticity at the runner inlet. Such guide vanes are used in Francis turbines
with scroll casings.

Figure 8.39 shows the forces acting on a vane when the distributor is closed. The resultant P of the pressure forces
acts at a point located at a distance å (eccentricity), downstream of the axis of rotation of the guide vane. The
magnitude of the eccentricity is usually (0.03 to 0.05) L. The eccentricity is considered to be positive if the hydraulic
moment M tends to open the distributor. The distributor tends to spontaneous closing if the eccentricity is negative.

Figure 8.39. Forces acting on guide vane

Most widely used arrangement in conventional Francis/Kaplan turbine is cylindrical distributor with guide vanes
whose axes are parallel to one another and to the turbine axis, and which are located on a cylindrical surface.

VIII - 42
The supporting bushings of bearing and lower pivot are made of bronze or gun metal. The latter is a laminated wood
plastic made of birch plywood; it has good mechanical and antifriction properties, but tends to swell in water. Both
bronze and lignofol bushings should be lubricated with thick oil or grease.

Fig. 8.40 Rubber seal of distributor

a) Rubber Seal of Clearance between Vanes; b) Seal with Spring Strip

(1) Vane, (2) Seal (3) Spring Strip

The guide vanes are hollow steel castings integral with their pivots. Welded guide vanes have recently been introduced
in large hydraulic turbines. These guide vanes consist of forged pivots and vane bodies stamped from sheet metal.

Leakage through the closed distributor of a low-or medium-head turbine is prevented by means of rubber seals. Such
a seal consists of a groove planed into the front of the vane. The groove has a dovetail cross-section into which a
rubber cord is inserted (Figure 8.40). This rubber cord can be secured in addition by a spring strip. Such cords are
inserted to annular grooves machined into the lower distributor ring. The leading edge of each guide vane is forced
against the rubber cord in the neighboring vane when the distributor is closed; the chords in the upper and lower rings
seal the clearances at the vane end faces.

The guide vanes of high-head turbines are usually sealed by fitting them accurately against one another, so that there
is no clearance between them when the distributor is closed.

The total end clearance between the guide vane and the upper and lower distributor rings is 0.5 to 0.6 mm in medium-
size turbines and up to 1.5 or 2.0 mm in large ones. When adjusting the required clearances in a turbine having the
thrust bearing on the cover plate it should be remembered that operation of the generating set causes a certain
settlement of the upper distributor ring as a result of the load transmitted to it by the axial hydraulic force and the
weight of the rotating parts. This reduces the end clearances, so that guide vanes may jam if the gaps are too small.

Faultless and safe operation of the generating set require that leakage of water through the closed distributor should
not cause the rotating parts to move when no brake is applied, and that the hydraulic turbine can be stopped without
braking (by letting it coast to rest).

The distributor of a Francis turbine does not differ in design from that of a Kaplan turbine. The only difference is that
the upper distributor ring is integral with the turbine cover plate. Usually no provision is made in a Francis turbine for

VIII - 43
removing the guide vanes without lifting the turbine cover plate.

The design of the upper distributor ring and of the turbine cover plate depends on the dimensions, type, and general
layout of the turbine considered. Usually no provision is made in a Francis turbine for removing the guide vanes
without lifting the turbine cover plate.

The design of the upper distributor ring and the turbine cover plate of recent designs are usually fabricated from parts
having box sections. These components are made in several parts because of transportation requirements, and are
then bolted together.

The gate ring transmits the forces from the servomotors through a lever system simultaneously to all guide vanes.
One or two eyes are provided on top of the gate ring for the pins of cylindrical hinges connecting it to the servomotor
rods. Eyes for the link, hinges are provided at the bottom the gate ring. The gate ring is made in several parts if it
cannot be transported as a whole; these parts are then bolted together.

The hollow space in the gate-ring support is filled with oil or thick grease in order to reduce the force which the
servomotors have to exert in order to rotate the gate ring.

04. Guide vane servomotor:

The guide vanes are rotated by means of one or two servomotors. Actuation by a single servomotor imposes a non-
uniform load on the gate ring and is therefore employed only in small hydraulic turbines. Two servomotors (Figure
8.41) apply a couple to the gate ring, so that the load acting on it is more uniform and the force transmission is
simpler.

Fig. 8.41 Distributor servomotor

Actuation by two servomotors is used in modern medium-size and large hydraulic turbines. The servomotors are in
this case usually secured on flanges in recesses in the steel lining of the turbine pit. One of the servomotors is
equipped with a locking device so that the turbine can be blocked when the distributor is closed.

Figure 8.42 shows a piston-type servomotor mounted on a supporting plate outside the gate ring. Servomotor cylinder
(1) is closed by rear cover (2) and front cover (3). Piston (4) moves inside the cylinder. Guide-sleeve (5) passes
through the front cover and carries the piston at its end. The piston is connected to servomotor rod (7) by means of
piston pin (6). The servomotor rod forms the connection to the gate ring. Locking device (8) is mounted on the front
cylinder cover. Stuffing box (11) is mounted on the front cover in order to prevent leakage of oil along the guide sleeve.

VIII - 44
 Fig. 8.42 Cross section of piston type distributor servomotor

The servomotor is locked by stopper (9) which descends into the gap between the guide sleeve and the locking
device when the piston is in its extreme left position. The stopper is moved by auxiliary servomotor (10). The position
of the piston of the main servomotor is shown by indicator (12).

The servomotor has two flanges (13) to which the oil pipes are connected. Oil is delivered into the cylinder on either
side of the piston and thus moves the latter from one position to another. The oil is discharged from the cylinder
through ports into pipes (14) and from there into a tank where it is collected and returned to the oil installation. The
piston is braked at the end of its closing stroke. This prevents impact of the piston against the rear cylinder cover
when the distributor is closed suddenly. Braking is effected through the closing of a bypass by the piston before it
reaches its end position. The oil can then escape only through a throttling orifice of small diameter. This increases the
oil pressure on the left of the piston and stops its motion.

05. Runner:

The runner of a Francis turbine (Figure 8.43) consists of three main parts, namely hub (1), blades (2), and lower band
(3).

A feature of Francis runners is that the water enters radially but leaves in an axial direction. Another design feature is
the lower band which surrounds the outer blade edges.

High turbine efficiency is achieved through the intricate special shape of the blades. Their number depends on the
specific speed of the turbine; it varies between nine for low-head turbines (high specific speed) and 21 for high-head
turbines (low specific speed)

Fig. 8.43 Runner of Francis Turbine

VIII - 45
Design and production technology of the runner of a Francis turbine depends on the overall dimensions of the latter
and on the head which it is to utilize. Various runner designs are at present employed for these turbines. There are
runners with stamped bladed cast into the hub and the lower band, runners cast in one piece, welded runners with
profiled blades only, and composite cast and welded runners.

Runners of medium-head Francis turbines are usually steel castings or cast and welded. The runners of large turbines
may consist of two or more parts due to transportation requirements. These are assembled when being installed.

The runner of a high-head turbine (Figure 8.44) is mostly a steel casting. Welded runners have, however, been
introduced in recent designs. The surfaces of the runners of such turbines, which are usually installed on mountain
rivers, are not only subjected to the effects of cavitations but also to intensive abrasive wear. This necessitates
frequent repairs of the damaged surfaces or even replacement of the runners by new ones. Runners of high-head
turbines are, therefore, made of very hard carbon steel or of stainless steel. The design of such a turbine should also
permit the quick replacement of a worn runner without the need to dismantle the generating set.

Fig. 8.44 Cast and welded runner of Francis turbine

Among the most important and intricate parts of a runner of a high-head Francis turbine are the seals at the upper and
lower bands. The seals reduce leakage of water past the runner blades, which increases turbine efficiency and
reduces the axial force exerted by the water on the thrust bearing (due to the lower pressure acting on the runner-hub
surface).

Fig. 8.45 Cast runner of high head turbines

1) Runner; 2) Hub extension; 3) Upper seal; 4) Lower seal; 5) Radial seal; 6) Turbine shaft; 7)
Connecting bolt

VIII - 46
The design of the seals depends on the head. A medium-head seal consists of two rings with a gap 2 to 2.5 mm wide
between them (Figure 8.44). Radial and axial labyrinth or serrated seals (figure 8.45) with approximately 1.0 to 1.5 mm
wide gaps are used at high heads.

The size of the gap in the seal must be determined bearing in mind that a reduction of this value may lower the
volumetric losses but it also increases the losses due to friction.

06. Shaft :

The shafts of large vertical hydraulic turbines are usually tubular forging and flanges at ends.

The shaft is subjected mainly to torsional stress by the torque which it requires to transmit. However, maximum value
of torque with fully opened guide vane and blocked runner may attain approximately double the value which it normally
requires to transmit. In designing the shaft this is to be taken in consideration.

Usually shafts of hydraulic turbines always rotate at lower speed than the critical one, even in case of governor failure
(Runaway speed). In turbines with a higher operating speed, design of shaft is done in such a way that critical speed
is at least 20% higher than the runaway speed.

Large shafts are forgings with strength of 50 to 65 kg/mm2 at an elongation of 18% and with a yield point of at least
28 kg/mm2.

Smooth and reliable operation of a generating set largely depends on the quality of the connection between the shafts
and the neighboring parts, the coincidence of the centre lines of the shaft surfaces with the geometric shaft axis, the
clearances between shaft and bearings, the alignment of turbine shaft and generator rotor, and the deviations of the
shaft from a straight line at the flanged joints. Attention must be paid to these factors when shafts are being designed,
produced, and installed.

The connection between the turbine shaft and the runner and between the flanges of the turbine shaft and the
generator shaft is effected by accurately fitted bolts subjected to tension and shear. The central parts of the bolts are
accurately machined and ground; these central parts fit into the bolt holes with clearances not exceeding 0.02 to 0.04
mm. Reliability of the flanged joints is ensured only when the flanges of adjacent shafts are accurately centered by
spigot and recesses. The spigot is, therefore, machined with a tolerance corresponding to a push fit, allowance being
made for the actual diameter of the recess. The bolt holes in both mating flanges are finished jointly by reaming.

The convexity of the shaft flange surfaces in contact, which during installation is determined with the aid of a feeler
gauge and a straight edge, must not exceed 0.03 mm per 1000 mm of the flange diameter. Wobble of the flange end
faces must not exceed 0.02 mm at the circumference for shaft diameters of up to 1500 mm.

07. Bearing:

The bearing of vertical generating sets serve mainly as guides since these are ordinarily subjected only to loads
caused by the dynamic imbalance of the rotating parts and by asymmetric flow of the water through the turbine.
Journal bearings with lubrication by oil or water are usually employed in large hydraulic turbines.

Figure 8.46 shows a design of an oil lubricated bearing of a vertical hydraulic turbine. Bearing housing (2) is mounted
on the turbine cover plate. Split babbitted shells (3) are inserted into housing. Bearing cover (4) is located on top of the
housing; it has a gap seal for preventing upward leakage of oil along shaft (1). Oil is supplied to the bearing through
pipe (6). Oil thrower (5) is secured to the shaft beneath the bearing shells. It diverts used oil escaping from the bearing
into receptacle (7) and from there it is pumped into pipe (8). Penetration of water into the bearing from the interior of the
runner is prevented by seal (9) beneath the bearing.

VIII - 47
The babbitted shells are usually not longer than 0.8 to 1.0 times the shaft diameter. Data on the clearances between
shafts and bearing shells are presented in table 7 for turbines in operation.

Figure. 8.46 Oil-lubricated turbine bearing.

Table 8.7: Clearances in babbitted bearing shells of hydraulic turbines

Shaft Clearance, Shaft Clearance, Shaft Clearance,

diameter, mm diameter, mm Diameter, mm
mm mm mm

80-120 0.08-0.12 360-500 0.17-0.25 1000-1250 0.29-0.45

120-180 0.10-0.16 500-630 0.20-0.31 1250-1600 0.32-0.55
180-260 0.12-0.18 630-800 0.23-0.35 >1600 0.40-0.60
260-360 0.14-0.21 800-1000 0.26-0.41

Water-lubricated guide bearings with rubber shells are now widely used in the USSR for large hydraulic turbines.
Shells of laminated-wood plastic (Lignofol) are also used in small and medium-size turbines. Such bearings are

VIII - 48
simple in design and more convenient in service, since there is no need for intricate seals beneath the bearings. It is,
therefore, possible to locate the runner nearer to the bearing and increase the operating reliability of the turbine. There
is also no need for auxiliary equipment for bearing lubrication.

08. Draft tube:

The draft tube of a reaction turbine serves to discharge the water from the runner into the tailrace with the minimum
energy losses.

By using a draft tube it is possible to arrange the turbine runner above the tail water level without incurring a loss of
head, and to utilize a considerable part of the kinetic energy of the water leaving the runner. The draft tube is of
particular importance in a low-head hydraulic turbine where the water downstream of the runner still retains 40 to 50%
of its total energy.

A vacuum is created in a draft tube arranged beneath the runner. The total head acting on the runner blades thus is the
sum of the static head, equal to the difference between the headwater level and the elevation of the runner exit
section, and of the negative head (vacuum) beneath the runner.

The kinetic energy of the water leaving the runner is utilized to create a vacuum beneath the runner. The draft tube,
therefore, has the form of a conical divergent nozzle (diffuser). This design ensures that the flow velocity in the exit
section of the draft tube is considerably less than in the inlet section, so that the energy losses are reduced. However,
the magnitude of the draft head and the conicity of the draft tube are subjected to limitations imposed by the need to
prevent cavitation.

The optimum shape of the draft tube, which ensures minimum losses, is that of a straight cone. Such draft tubes,
however, can be used only with horizontal turbines and low power vertical turbines. The reason for this is that the
necessary length L=(4.5 to 5.9) D1 of a straight draft tube would require a very deep power house in the case of
medium size and large vertical turbines. Bent (elbow) draft tubes are, therefore, used for large vertical turbines.

Fig.8.47 Elbow draft tube of vertical turbine (schematic)

The elbow draft tube (Fig 8.47) consist of conical divergent flare (1), elbow (2), and horizontal flare (3). The overall
dimensions of an elbow draft tube depend on the height h and length L when the width of the generating set block is
given.

A sufficiently high efficiency can be ensured if the height of the elbow draft tube for a vertical hydraulic turbine is
chosen as follows. For Kaplan turbines: (1.9 to 2.3) D1 at heads of up to 30m, and not less than 2.3 D1 at head between

VIII - 49
30 and 80 m. For Francis turbines: (2.3 to 2.6) D1. The height of elbow draft tubes in underground HEPs should normally
be (4.0 to 5.0) D1.

The length L of the draft tube of a vertical turbine should be (4.0 to 5.0) D1.

The width of the draft tube at its exit section should be (2.5 to 2.6) D1 with Kaplan turbines and (2.7 to 3.0) D1 with
Francis turbines.

The upper edge of the exit section of the draft tube should be located not less than 0.5 m below the lowest operational
tail water level.

In earlier practice elbow draft tubes were made of concrete. But in recent designs draft tube with steel lining are in
use.

8.6.3 Kaplan Turbine:

Designs of components such as spiral casing, speed ring, guide apparatus system, bearing, shaft and draft tube are
similar to that in Francis turbine. Main design features of the following components which are different from Francis
turbine are described below:-.

01. Runner :

The runner of a Kaplan turbine (Fig. 8.48) differs from that of a Francis turbine in that the flow has an axial direction at
both blade inlet and exit. The runner also has no lower band; the number of blades is less and they can be rotated
about their axes. The runner consists of hub (1), blades (2) and hub extension (3).

Fig. 8.48 Runner of Kaplan turbine

The number of blades, and thus the diameter of the runner hub, increases with the head. Four blades are ordinarily
used at heads of up to 20 m, while eight blades are used at heads of between 40 and 80m. The hub diameter dhub
depends on the number of blades and varies between 0.3 D1 (for 4 blades) and 0.6D1 (for 8 blades).

The runner blades of Kaplan turbines are usually made from cavitation resistant stainless steel, the parts of the blade
actuating mechanisms are made of high strength steel.

VIII - 50
The turbine runner is connected to the turbine shaft via an intermediate part of the hub. This is the runner cover to
which the flange of the turbine shaft is connected. The duties of the runner cover are in some turbine designs
performed by the expanded bottom flange of the turbine shaft.

The blade-actuating mechanism consists of the servomotor (driving motor) and a lever system connecting the piston
rod or directly the servomotor piston with cranks arranged on the blade pivots. The servomotor piston moves up or
down under the action of the oil pressure and thus actuates the lever system by which the blades are turned.

Runners may be divided into two groups according to the manner in which the lever system is connected with the
piston, viz. those with crosshead and those without. The lever system of a runner with crosshead servomotor is
connected with the servomotor via a crosshead fixed to the piston rod. The lever system of a runner without crosshead
is directly connected to the servomotor piston.

Figure 8.49 & 8.50 shows a runner with crosshead, designed for a large Kaplan turbine. The runner has eight blades
(1). The outer surface of hub body (2) is machined spherical. This reduces the end clearances between the blades and
the hub body at the various blade-setting angles. Blade pivot (3) is carried in bronze bushings (4) and (5). Lever (6) is
mounted on the pivot inside the hub body, while the blade is secured to the outside of the pivot. Blade flange, pivot,
and lever are held together by bolts (7) and fixed relative to one another by cylindrical keys.

Figure 8.49 Runner with crosshead for Kaplan turbine

VIII - 51
 Figure 8.50 Section of runner with crosshead for Kaplan turbine

The centrifugal forces acting on the blades, which appear during rotation of the runner, are taken up by bronze rings
(8). The eccentrically arranged lever pins are connected with crosshead (11) via links (9) and eyes (10). The crosshead
is secured to piston rod (12). The piston rod is guided in bronze bushings (13), (14), and (15) respectively inserted into
internal bosses in the hub and in the shaft flange. The upper end of piston rod (12) is connected to rod (16) through
which oil flows to the runner servomotor. The servomotor cylinder is formed by the upper part of the hub. The runner
(cylinder) Cover is formed by flange (17) of the turbine shaft. Piston (18) moves inside the cylinder. The piston is
secured to piston rod (12) by split locking ring (19). Rotation of the crosshead when the links are inclined is prevented
by two sliding keys (20) in the hub body, which engage matching keyways in the crosshead.

Oil is supplied to the servomotor under pressure through rod (16) which consists of two concentric pipes. Delivery of
oil to the cylinder space above the piston causes the latter to move down. This motion is transmitted to the blades via
piston rod, crosshead and links, and causes the blades to move into the full load position. Delivery of oil to the
cylinder space beneath the piston causes the latter to move up, so that the blades move into the no load position. The
lower part of the hub is always filled with oil which leaks along the rod. Excess oil is forced into the hollow shaft
through central pipe (21). The hub body is closed from below by bottom (22) which prevents leakage of oil from the
hub. Leakage of oil along the blades and entry of water into the hub between the latter and the blade flanges is
prevented by seals (23). Hub extension (24) is secured to the hub bottom, it serves to direct the flow downstream of
the runner.

Figure 8.51 Detachable runner blade seal.

VIII - 52
The peripheral blade edges are machined so that the clearances between them and the throat ring do not exceed one
thousandth of the runner diameter.

The runner-blade seals of modern hydraulic turbines are mostly detachable so that they can be repaired without
removing the runner blades. An example of such a seal is shown in figure 8.51. The seal consists of blade ring (1)
bolted to blade flange (2). Springs (3) are located in cylindrical recesses in the blade ring. These springs rest against
clamping ring (4) secured to blade ring (1) with screws (5). The clamping ring can move vertically. Leakage of oil
through the clearance between the blade ring and the clamping ring is prevented by one piece rubber diaphragm (6)
forced by two split rings (7) and (8) against blade ring and clamping ring, respectively. All these parts move together
with the blade when it is rotated about its axis. Rubber sealing ring (11) is forced by supporting ring (10) against the
end gap in the opening of runner hub (9). Clamping ring (4) is pressed against the protruding part of sealing ring (11)
by the oil pressure inside the runner hub and by springs (3) which move together with the blade. The seal is closed by
cover (12). All parts of the seal can be dismantled, except the blade ring, the clamping ring, the rubber diaphragm, and
the sealing ring.

02. Runner chamber/ Throat ring:

The throat ring of a Kaplan turbine (Figure 8.52) is usually cylindrical above the runner-blade axes and spherical
beneath them. The overall height Hth of a standardized throat ring is (0.5 to 0.53) D1.

The throat ring usually consists of lower distributor ring (1) and several intermediate cylindrical sections (2) bolted
together. The throat ring is connected to speed ring (3) by its upper flange, while the lower flange rests on foundation
beam (4) and is connected with lining (5) of the draft-tube cone via joining section(6). The throat ring has ribs on the
out side in order to ensure better fixation in the concrete and greater rigidity. A removable non concreted segment is
usually provided in the central part of the throat ring opposite the runner blade axis. This makes it possible to remove
the runner blades for repairs or exchange.

Figure 8.52. Throat ring.

VIII - 53
The throat ring is subjected to variable forces during rotation of the runner, due to alternating pressure rises and drops.
This sometimes results in the throat ring becoming loosened. Such pressure fluctuations are particularly dangerous
in the case of turbine where, because of transportation requirements, the throat ring consists of several parts bolted
together along flanges in the horizontal and vertical planes. The bolts may become slack as a result of the alternating
loads, and the joints may open. Better fixation of the throat ring to the Concrete foundation is ensured by tie rods (7)
and braces (spacer jacks) (8).

03. Oil supply head

Oil is delivered under pressure to the runner servomotor of a Kaplan turbine by means of an oil supply head which is
usually located on the generator exciter. It surrounds the rotating tubular rod inside the shaft of the generating set.
Figure 8.53 shows the layout of the oil-supply system for the runner servomotor

Figure 8.53 Oil supply system for runner servomotor.

The oil supply head consists of conical casing (1) which is divided into several oil chambers. Rod guides (2) are
located inside the casing; crosspiece (3) is located above the rod end and connects the rod via a cable with the
governor-slide valve. The drive of the governor pilot generator is also arranged there. The rod consists of outer steel
pipe (4) and inner steel pipe (5) welded to flanges (6), Cylindrical guides (7) are welded to the outer pipe of the rod.
These guides slide in bronze bushings (8) arranged near the planes of the generating set shaft joints.

VIII - 54
Three separate oil spaces a, b, and c are formed when the rod is inserted into the shaft. Space ‘a’ between the shaft
and the outer pipe is not under pressure. It is connected with the discharge chamber of the oil supply head and serves
to collect the oil leaking from the runner hub. Space ‘b’ between the outer and inner pipes of the rod serves to supply
oil under pressure to the cylinder beneath the servomotor piston, while oil under pressure reaches the cylinder above
the piston through space ‘c’ formed by the inner pipe. Spaces a and b communicate on top with the respective
pressure chambers of the oil supply head.

Figure 8.54 shows the present standardized design of an oil supply head for a large hydraulic turbine with hydro
mechanical governor. The governor pilot generator is mounted on the oil supply head and is directly coupled with the
shaft of the generating set. This oil supply head consists of lower tank (1) communicating via an oil pipe with the
discharge reservoir of the pressure oil installation, and casing (2) with pipe connection (3) between the pressure oil
pipe and pressure chambers b and c. Pressure gage (4) is mounted on the pipe connection. The lower tank has a neck
surrounded by oil thrower (5). This forms a labyrinth seal preventing leakage of oil from the tank.

Figure 8.54 Standardized oil supply head with hydromechaflical turbine governor.

Rod end (6) is guided inside the casing by bushings (7), crosspiece (8) is secured to the rod end via two ball bearings.
The crosspiece moves together with the rod and actuates the governor slide valve. The drive is affected by cable
transmission (9). Transmission roller (10) is secured on an arm inside the casing of the supply head. The crosspiece
also carries a runner blade position indicator. Splined shaft (11) is inserted into the head of the crosspiece and carries
the rotor of the governor pilot generator driving the hydro mechanical governor. The rotating rod entrains the splined
shaft with the generator rotor, which thus reproduces all speed fluctuations of the turbine runner. The splined connection
permits free vertical movement of the rod end along the shaft during motion of the servomotor piston.

The bushings of the oil supply head not only guide the rod end, but also form seals and prevent excessive leakage of
oil from the pressure chambers into the discharge chamber. These bushings, therefore, should not have large clearances.

VIII - 55
Oil supply head, rod, and oil pipes form a closed circuit for the currents flowing through the bearings, which cause
corrosion of the metal. This circuit is broken by insulating gaskets at the outside connections of the oil supply head.

Hydraulic turbines with electro hydraulic governors energized from auxiliary generators mounted on the shafts of the
main generators have lately been equipped with oil supply heads of a new design (Figure 8.55). The operating principle
of such an oil supply head does not differ from that of a standardized one. The difference in the design is that the
rotating part of the oil supply head is on top secured to the generator shaft or to its extension; the stationary part of
the oil supply head is secured to the exciter or to some other part at the generator top. Such an oil supply head is
lower, since there is no drive for the governor pilot-generator rotor above it.

Figure 8.55 Oil supply head of hydraulic turbine with electro hydraulic governor:

(1) Base (2) Casing (3) Cover (4) Oil thrower

(5) Inner rod (6) Sleeve (7) Outer rod (8) Crosspiece

(9) Cable transmission (10) A r m (11) Insulating gasket (12) Insulating bushing.

Distributor

Figures 8.56 shows the cylindrical distributor of a large Kaplan turbine. Guide vanes (1) are arranged with their axes
on a circle of diameter Do directly downstream of the speed ring at the turbine inlet. The lower pivot of each guide vane
is located in bushing (2) inserted into lower distributor ring (3), while the upper pivot turns in bearing (4) having two
bushings (5) and (6), the bearing is mounted in upper distributor ring (7) whose outside flange rests on the upper flange
of the speed ring.

VIII - 56
 Fig 8.56. Distributor of Kaplan turbine

The inner flange of the upper distributor ring carries turbine cover plate (8). The top of the guide vane is connected with
gate ring (11) via a lever and link (10) which is adjusted during fitting. The gate ring rests on support (12) and is
connected with the distributor servomotors by rods (13). Displacements of the servomotor pistons causes rotation of
the gate ring, so that the guide vanes are actuated via the links and levers, thus opening or closing the distributor.

A braking element is provided in each guide-vane actuating mechanism in order to permit closing of the distributor
and shut-down of the turbine when a foreign object has become wedge between two vanes. The distributor can then be
closed, except for the duct in which the foreign object is wedged.

The braking element in most modern designs is shearing pin (19) inserted into lever (16) and lever bushing (9). The
lever is secured to the upper guide-vane pivot by dowel (17). Vane cover (18) is placed on top of the lever and fixed to
the upper guide-vane pivot by a screw. The guide vane is suspended from this screw and thus rests on the bearing end

VIII - 57
face via the lever bushing. This makes it possible to adjust the vane and equalize the clearances at top and bottom.

Leakage of water from the turbine past the guide-vane pivots is prevented by seals (14) which consist of rubber or
leather glands. Any water seeping through the upper-pivot gland is collected in an annular groove through the bearing
and discharged into the turbine cover plate through pipe (15).

8.7. CAVITATION IN HYDRAULIC TURBINES:

The surfaces of the water passages of hydraulic turbines very often undergo a peculiar kind of sponge-like destruction
during operation (Fig 8.57). This damage is caused by cavitation, which is a very complicated physical phenomenon
appearing in a rapidly flowing liquid.

Damage due to cavitation is especially severe at the backs of the runner blades and at the throat rings of axial
turbines, at the runners and foundation rings of Francis turbines, and at the buckets and nozzles of Pelton turbines.

Cavitation is accompanied by noise, shocks, and strong vibrations of the set. The efficiency decreases abruptly, as
do the discharge capacity and the power developed by the turbine.

One of the main causes of cavitation are considered to be sharp local pressure pulsations in the water. The continuity
of the flow breaks down at very high velocities. Voids or cavities are formed in the zone of maximum velocity; these
voids are filled with vapour of the liquid, whose pressure depends on the temperature of the surroundings. These voids
and cavities are entrained by the current to regions of higher pressure, where the vapour condenses in the voids and
the latter collapse. A surface adjacent to such collapsing voids (bubbles) is gradually destroyed. Physical phenomena
are observed during cavitation and these cause luminescence of the cavities; chemical reactions also commence
and cause oxidation (corrosion) of the metal.

One method of countering the destructive action of cavitation is to use cavitation-resistant materials for the parts of
the turbine water passages. At present only stainless steel containing chromium is used.

The most promising way of preventing such damage is to ensure cavitation-free turbine operation. Such conditions
can be created by matching the turbine type to the head, by correctly choosing the vertical position of the turbine in
relation to the tailrace, and through restrictions imposed on the operating conditions of the generating set.

Cavitation in reaction turbine can be prevented or reduced by arranging the runner above the tail water level or below
it at a vertical distance not exceeding the permissible value for cavitation-free turbine operation.

Figure 8.57 Runner-blade surfaces destroyed by cavitation

VIII - 58
A criterion of the suitability of a certain turbine for operation at a given head is the turbine cavitation coefficient ó T. It
depends on the form and dimensions of the water passages and on the turbine operating conditions. The turbine
cavitation coefficient is determined by means of test of model turbines. It is a uniquely defined magnitude for every
runner and is plotted on the universal turbine characterstic.

Figure 8.58(a)

Figure 8.58(b)

VIII - 59
 Figure 8.58(c) : Determination of draft head of turbines of different types

The cavitation coefficient ó T varies in practice between 0.4 and 2.0 for modern axial turbines and between 0.3 and
0.35 for modern Francis turbines.

For cavitation to be prevented it must be borne in mind during design of the hydropower plant that the turbine
coefficient must be slightly less than the cavitation coefficient of the power plant. This can be achieved by employing
turbines with a low ó T negative values or by increasing ópl. The latter procedure involves a reduction of the draft head
Hs. This, however, usually leads to a considerable increase of the turbine depth and thus to a greater volume of
construction work. One, therefore, mostly tries to use with a turbine with a low ó T negative value, i.e., with good
cavitation properties.

The draft head of a vertical propeller or Kaplan turbine is measured from the axes of rotation of the runner blades to
the tail water level Hs (Figure 8.58a). The corresponding magnitude of a Francis turbine is reckoned to be the vertical
distance between the plane of the lower speed ring and the tail water level (Figure 8.58b). The draft head of a
horizontal turbine (with scroll casing or of bulb type) is the distance between the highest point of the runner blades and
the tail water level (Figure 8.58c). The draft head is considered to be positive if the tail water level is located beneath
the above-mentioned reference elevations, while it is considered to be negative if the runner is located below the tail
water level.

8.8 GOVERNOR

8.8.1 Governing Principle

Introduction

Turbine governors are equipment for the control and adjustment of the turbine power output and evening out deviations
between power and the grid load as fast as possible.

The turbine governors have to comply with two major purposes:

1. To keep the rotational speed stable and constant of the turbine-generator unit at any grid load and prevailing
conditions in the water conduit.

2. At load rejections or emergency stops the turbine admission have to be closed down according to acceptable

VIII - 60
 limits of the rotational speed rise of the unit and the pressure rise in the water conduit.

To keep the rise of the rotational speed below a prescribed limit at load rejections, the admission closing rate must be
equal to or higher than a certain value. For the pressure rise in the water conduit the condition is opposite, e.g., the
closing rate of the admission must be equal to or lower than a certain value to keep the pressure rise as low as
prescribed.

For power plants where these two demands are not fulfilled by one single control, the governors are provided with dual
control functions, one for controlling the rotational speed rise and the other for controlling the pressure rise. This is
normal for governors of high head Pelton and Francis turbines.

For Pelton turbines the principle is:

To set the closing rate of the needle control of the nozzles to a value, this satisfies the prescribed pressure rise

To bend the jet flow temporarily away from the runner by a deflector so the speed rise does not exceed the
accepted level.

For Francis turbines the principle is:

To set the closing rate of the guide vane opening to a value, this satisfies the rotational speed rise limits

To divert as much of the discharge through a controlled by-pass valve that the pressure rise in the conduit is
kept below the prescribed level.

8.8.2 Feedback control system

The governor function for a turbine with water conduit is shown in the block diagram on Fig. 8.59.

The input reference signal is compared with the speed feedback signal. By a momentary change in the load, a
deviation between the generator power output and the load occurs. This deviation causes the unit inertia masses
either to accelerate or to decelerate. The output of this process is the speed, which again is compared with the
reference.

Fig.8.59 Block diagram of a turbine closed loop system

VIII - 61
 Fig. 8.60 A hydraulic governor with a direct acting pendulum

A simple but classic example of a turbine governor is shown schematically in fig. 8.60. This is a governor with a belt
driven centrifugal pendulum. For explaining the governor actions it is chosen to start at a moment of stable equilibrium
between power and load. In this condition the control valve is closed by the spool, which is in the neutral position.

When a decrease in the grid load occurs, the rotational speed starts increasing and the pendulum sleeve and the
connected end of the floating lever moves upwards. The lever moves the spool accordingly upward out of the neutral
position and opens the hydraulic conduits to the servomotor.

High-pressure oil flows to the piston topside. The piston moves downwards and reduces the gate opening and the
turbine power. At the moment when the power is equal to the load, the rotational speed culminates as indicated on Fig. 8.61.

Fig 8.61 Time response of power output and rotational speed after a load reduction step

VIII - 62
At this moment however, the spool valve is still open. The piston movement continues and the power output decreases
even more. Consequently the speed decreases and the pendulum sleeve and the spool are moving downwards again.

During this movement the spool valve passes the neutral position and opens then for high-pressure oil flow to the
opposite side of the piston. The piston movement is thereby returned and the power output increasing. Next time the
rotational speed culminates the power again is equal to the load and, therefore, a succeeding swing in the speed and
power output take place as previously described.

As fig. 8.61 indicates, the swings are strongly damped because of the feedback system. This feed-back is arranged
by a linkage connection between the servomotor rod and the end of the floating lever that is opposite to the sleeve as
shown on the fig. 8.60. When the piston moves in the closing direction, the floating lever moves the spool accordingly
in the same direction towards the neutral position. In this way a stable control process is obtained.

A governor of a type as shown in fig. 8.60 has a one-stage amplifier. Water turbine governors have normally several
stages of amplifiers. The governors in use are of various designs, e.g., as mechanical-hydraulic and electro-hydraulic
products.

8.8.2 Governor adjustment facilities

01. Proportional-integral-derivative functions (PID)

In governor systems as shown in Fig. 8.60 the rotational speed is dependent on the load for power/load equilibrium
conditions. That means higher rotational speed at zero loads than at maximum load and this dependency are linear.
This type of governor function is designated as proportional control and denoted by the label P.

For units delivering the power to a grid system the frequency has to be constant at any load. Governors for these
units, therefore, have adjustment means also for automatically recovering of the speed according to the grid frequency
during regulation processes. This type of governor function is designated as integral control and denoted by the label I.

Groups of governors are provided also with a derivative function in addition to the above functions. It may be utilised
for improvement of the phase angle of the frequency response for the governor system. This type of governor function
is designated as derivative control and denoted by the label D.

Mechanical hydraulic governors are provided with PI functions only while electro-hydraulic governors are designed
with PID functions. Governors with PID-functions have large ranges for adjustment of each of the PID function
parameters.

8.8.4 Permanent speed droop

A special and major property of a turbine governor is the permanent droop. It is defined as the percentage change in
the frequency for a 100 % change of the power output from the unit.

For example a unit with a set value of the permanent droop at 5 % will respond with 40 % power increase for a change
in frequency from 50 Hz to 49 Hz. The permanent droop is adjustable and in practice it is chosen in the range 0 - 6 %.

In connection with the permanent droop another notion also plays a certain role. That is the strength of regulation,
which is defined as

Strength of Regulation = - ∆P/ ∆F

Where ∆P is power change & ∆ F is frequency change as illustrated in Fig 8.62.

VIII - 63
 Fig.8.62 Permanent droop and strength of regulation

The load distribution between turbine-generator units connected to the same grid is dependent on the permanent
droop setting of these units. In Fig. 8.63 two units with different permanent droop are shown where the load distribution
for a given frequency change is indicated.

Fig.8.63 Load distribution for different permanent droop of two units connected to the same grid

8.8.5 Turbine governing requirements

01. Frequency and load regulation

The governor shall be able to maintain stability of the generating unit when running on an isolated grid. Generally the
units are designed for stable operation up to full load. In this mode of operation the governor shall keep the frequency
within certain limits of deviation.

Load regulation on a rigid system is the most common operation mode. Each unit has little influence on the grid
system frequency. The governor controls the load to the desired value. The variation of the load as function of the
change in frequency is dependent on the permanent droop setting.

A special mode of operation is the manual mode where the guide vane openings are controlled manually by means of
a mechanical hydraulic load limiter. In this mode only the load can be controlled.

02. Start and stop sequence control

During the period of start, the unit shall be run up to nominal speed as quickly and smoothly as possible. A start can
be carried out both manually and automatically. The admission must be opened only when permitted by all overriding
start conditions.

VIII - 64
In shut down mode, the admission shall be closed as quickly as possible but limited by the magnitude of the pressure
rise in the tunnel and pressure shaft system. Due to safety reasons, the shut down signal will be given simultaneously
to different stages in the governor, e.g. closing of the load limiter or the emergency operated shut down valve. The
shut down valve is also functioning if the ordinary voltage supply has failed. The stop command can be given both
manually and automatically.

03. Disconnection, load rejection

Disconnection means to open the generator main circuit switch. The generator is thereby separated from grid and the
turbine power output results in a speed rise of the unit. The function of the governor is then to shut down the turbine
not faster than the caused pressure rise is kept below the guaranteed level.

04. Load limiting

Load limiting must be possible according to external conditions. The load limiter device may be operated both manually
and automatically.

8.8.6 Regulation requirements of water power plants

In the preceding section, governing principle, feedback control systems, governor adjustment facilities and turbine
governing demands has been briefly described In a typical hydro electric installation, governing system should also
take care of speed rise, pressure rise and system stability. These parameters need to be guaranteed when designing
a governing system for which detailed study / parameters of water conductor system, generator mass inertia,etc,are
required.

01. Simplified analysis of pressure rise from water hammer

During shut down of the unit a fast closure of the guide vanes (or needles of Pelton turbines) is required to avoid high
speed rise. A fast closure however, causes a high pressure rise in the penstock and the speed rise has influence on
the flow through reaction turbines. For Pelton turbines the speed rise problem is normally solved by jet deflectors
which deflect the jets quickly away from the runner and thus allowing for a slow closure of the needles. The corresponding
solution of the speed rise problem of Francis turbines is to bypass the discharge through an energy dissipater with a
valve controlled by the governor (pressure relief valve).

Generally in all the governing systems there is provision for adjustment of closing time and opening time of guide
vanes ( needles of Pelton Turbine ) and by suitably adjusting closing time pressure rise and speed rise can be kept
with in permissible limit.

8.8.6 Types of governor :-

There are basically three type of governors for hydraulic machines which have evolved over a period of time.
1. Mechanical Governor
2. Electro Hydraulic Governor
3. Digital Governor

8.8.7 Mechanical Governor

Different manufacturers have used different mechanisms in a typical mechanical governor also called actuator. In
following section two typical actuator arrangements and its functioning are described.

01. Design A

A small-capacity combined actuator and main servomotor is shown in fig. 8.64 so that the complete process of
regulation can be followed.

VIII - 65
 Fig 8.64 Schematic arrangement of actuator , design A

The larger turbines, with which this type of actuator is used, incorporate a smaller servomotor which is connected
mechanically to another regulating valve placed above and controlling the movement of the guide-vane servomotor.

An electric motor is shown driving the pendulum, although a belt drive can be used. To the other end of the pendulum
the pilot-valve pin is so attached that it is free to rotate. During load changes the pull of the pendulum is balanced by
the pendulum spring and also by the damping spring. The damping piston also rotates, but at a much slower speed,
thus ensuring that friction does not diminish the sensitivity.

Movement of the pilot valve, corresponding to changes in the balance between pendulum and pendulum spring, is
transmitted by the oil and mechanical connections to the regulating valve. The pilot valve sleeve moves relative both
to the body and the pin: its position is determined by that of the regulating valve by means of the lever pivoted
between the two valves. This lever gives the basic return- motion to the actuator.

The regulating-valve piston, movement of which controls the flow of oil to the main servomotor, is combined with a
load limiting device and an adjustable stroke control to permit the opening and closing times of the main servomotor
to be set as required.

VIII - 66
A cam is provided on the piston rod of the main servomotor, and oscillation of the actuator shaft is thereby obtained.
The actuator shaft moves the damping cylinder and gives the return motion to the load-limiter valve pm and permanent
speed drop.

The pendulum spring is attached at one end to a ring which can pivot in a forked lever. Movement of either end of this
lever enables the tension of the pendulum spring to be varied. This alters the response of the actuator to changes in
frequency.

If an actuator is so adjusted that the turbine gives a speed drop, the frequency/load characteristic may be shown as
in Fig 8.64 For a normal value of permanent speed drop, say three per cent, a drop in frequency of three per cent will
cause the actuator to increase the guide-vane or spear opening so that the output is increased from no-load to- full-
load.

If the upper end of the lever, to which the fixed end of the pendulum is attached, is held in any given position, the
permanent speed drop is obtained through rotation of the actuator shaft which alters slightly the tension of the spring.
In the closed position of the main servomotor, the governor shaft is in its maximum counter-clockwise position The
spring is then under maximum tension and requires, say, a system frequency of 50 c./s. to keep the pilot-valve pin in
the central position. If the frequency drops, the pendulum will exert less pull on its spring and the pilot-valve pin will
move to the left. According to the value of permanent speed drop selected and the drop in frequency which occurs,
the actuator will cause the main servomotor to move towards the open position until balance is restored between the
pull of the pendulum and the tension exerted by the pendulum spring. Similarly a rise in frequency will cause a
reduction in the turbine output.

From fig 8.64 it will be seen that vertical displacement of the frequency/load characteristic will meet the requirement
of altered output without change of frequency. This vertical displacement is obtained by operation of the speeder gear,
either manually at the actuator or remotely by electric motor. Movement to the left of the upper end of the lever
carrying the fixed end of the pendulum spring will increase the spring tension, and the pilot-valve pin will move to the
left. The main servomotor will then open until balance is again restored. To reduce output the upper end of the lever is
moved to the right.

The movement of the upper end of the lever is controlled by hand or through a reversing split-field electric motor
driving a nut on a threaded rod. The lever slotted at its upper end is engaged by two pins on the traveling nut.

The damping mechanism, which acts directly on the pendulum movement, ensures that stable a periodic speed
regulation is obtained during frequency changes. By alteration of the effective speed range of the damping-spring
assembly to suit various ratios of water-column inertia to that of the associated rotating masses, stable governing
can be ensured even under adverse hydraulic conditions.

An understanding of the whole mechanism is facilitated by considering the parts which individual items fulfill during
a change of load. The immediate result of full-load rejection, due to opening of the circuit-breaker under fault conditions,
is an increase in speed. The pull of the pendulum overcomes the tension in both the pendulum and the transient
damping springs, and the pilot-valve pin moves to the right. Port C is uncovered and oil, under constant pressure on
the small side of the regulating-valve piston, forces oil on the large side through the pipe to the pilot valve, via ports
E, D, B, and C, to the sump. The regulating valve is of the differential type, which has a constant pressure on the
smaller side; the piston thus moves in either direction according to the oil pressure on the large side.

The movement of the regulating valve to the left uncovers port F, and the pressure on both sides of the main
servomotor piston becomes equal. Owing to the difference in area, the piston moves towards the closed position until
the turbine output is equal to the power required to drive the generator.

When output is increased by operation of the speeder gear or by drop in frequency, the movement of various valves
is reversed. But the maximum output (actually the maximum guide-vane opening) which can be obtained is restricted
by the load-limiter gear. This comprises a pin moving inside the bore of the regulating-valve piston and controlling the

VIII - 67
flow of oil through ports D and E. Assuming that a load increase is taking place, i.e. the actuator shaft is moving in the
clockwise direction, movement of the load-limiter lever is caused by the link between the eccentrically placed pin on
the actuator shaft and the top of the lever, causing the latter to pivot at its set position. The load-limiter pin thus moves
to the left, until port E is uncovered, permitting oil in the larger side of the regulating-valve piston to escape to the right
into the sump. Any further opening movement of the main servomotor is thus impossible. An increase in frequency or
reduction in load by the speeder gear is, however, not effected, and the main servomotor closes in the normal manner.

02. Design B

Fig 8.65 Schematic arrangement of design B actuator

The rotation of the turbine shaft is transmitted by a permanent- magnet generator and the synchronous motor (1) to
the pendulum casing (2) (alternatively by belt or direct drive). This contains the fly- balls (3) attached by guide springs
(4) inside the rotating casing (2).

The centrifugal forces to which (3) are subjected are opposed by the main spring (5) in such a way that with variations
in the speed of rotation of the casing (2) the flyballs (3) assume positions such as those indicated by the dotted lines.

VIII - 68
Oil under pressure is admitted at (6) and through diaphragm (7) reaches the relay chamber (8) and escapes through
the nozzles (9). The nozzles (9) are very close to the flyballs (3). The discharge of oil through them is controlled by the
closeness of the surface of the fly balls (3). With an increase in speed of rotation of the casing (2) the fly balls (3)
move away from the nozzles (9) and permit an increase in oil discharge which immediately causes a drop of pressure
in chamber (8). The pendulum spindle (10) moves to the left with the piston (11) because of the oil pressure in the
back chamber (12). The spindle (10) thus follows any variation in speed of rotation of the turbines, as indicated
diagrammatically by the scale (13) shown above it, graduated in r.p.m. The lever (14) pivoted at point (15) moves the
regulating valve (17) by the rod (16). Oil under pressure is admitted to or released from the servomotor cylinder
chambers (18) and (19) according to whether the speed increases or decreases. The servomotor piston rod (20)
operates the turbine gates.

The servomotor piston (21) is connected to the return-motion piston (22) which displaces oil in the cylinder (23) of the
dashpot (24). The piston of the dashpot (24) operates the lever (25) which displaces the pivot point (15) of the lever
(14) and returns the control valve (17) to the neutral position after each movement of the servomotor (21). The piston
of the dashpot (24) is placed between springs (26) which tend to bring it back to its middle position as oil escapes
through the control diaphragm (27), for in this way the displacement of piston (22) has only a temporary influence on
the return motion.

The roller (28) rests at the end of lever (25) against cam (29) which follows the movements of the servomotor piston
(21). In this way the pivot point (15) of lever (14) is displaced, causing a permanent change in speed. For simplicity,
the rod (16) is shown attached directly to the pilot-valve piston (17), whereas in actual construction a hydraulic relay
is interposed between the rod end (16) in contact with the lever (14) and the valve piston (17).

The rate of travel of the servomotor piston is controlled by:

(a) the adjustable stroke of pilot valve (17) limited at the stop (30) which determines the closing time,

(b) the adjustable area of holes (31) in the end of (17) which determines the opening time.

By means of the worm wheel (33) the reversible electric motor (32) rotates the mod (16) which engages in the valve
(17) by a screw thread. This gives a relative displacement of the end of the rod (16) in contact with lever (14) to the
pilot valve (17) and alters the setting of the steady speed at which the governor operates. This permits synchronizing
by remote control from the switchboard and loading the set to the required amount. The speeder gear is designed for
a standard range of speeds from —-5 to +5 per cent. This setting can also be done by hand.

The gear for permanent speed drop can be adjusted from zero to 4 per cent by rotation of hand wheel (34). This
causes the conical cam (29) to present the desired slope to the roller (28) on the lever (25).

The actuator is provided with hand controls for starting and stopping, which operate on the lever (14). Remote control
can also be arranged for automatic unattended stations. The servomotor is provided with hand gear, locking device,
and stroke limiter. The latter operates as load limiter, with maximum servomotor stroke fixed by the position of the
adjustable nut (35) on the servomotor piston rod.

The size of the return-motion cylinder and piston (22) is determined by the required amount of feed-back by the return
motion to ensure a periodic speed change with any variation of load. Factors which determine this feed-back are the
velocity and length of the water column in the pipeline compared with the head and the kinetic energy stored in the
rotating masses of the generating set.

8.8.9 Electro Hydraulic Governor

A typical Electro hydraulic governor Type G40 supplied by M/s BHEL in many of NHPC power Stations is described

VIII - 69
below:-

01 Principle of operation

“BHEL” make Electro-Hydraulic Governor Type G-40 is capable of accepting, in addition to speed, a variety of signals
and combine these to achieve the desired operation.

The governor is basically designed for speed control, however devices are provided to satisfy operation of hydro-set
under the following conditions:

Steady State

Small Transients

Large Transients

Blocked Gate

The governor type G-40 is of PID control type. The speed Measuring Unit and other electronic circuits together with
the transducer and Main Slide Valve controls the movement of the main servomotor. The feed back mechanism
makes it possible to obtain steady-state operation of the servomotor.

Temporary speed droop circuit, receiving an electrical input from the feedback potentiometer which is operated by the
main servomotor, sends a signal for controlling the movement of the system without any oscillation. The two governor
parameters – temporary speed droop percent and its decay time constant are set to allow stable operation of hydro
set. The stability of the governed hydro set is influenced by the penstock, generator inertia, turbine characteristics
and the grid.

Introduction of the feedback system in the form of temporary droop, influences the response of hydro set to frequency
or command signal. The response can be improved by the addition of Phase Advance Circuit ( D). This circuit adds
a rate of change of speed error in addition to the speed error. This anticipatory signal greatly improves the performance
of the hydro set.

Permanent speed droop circuit derives its input from the feedback potentiometer. Frequency versus gate servomotor
relationship can be altered by changing the permanent speed droop for the desired regulation.

Speed setting device is provided to allow synchronizing, manual load control and frequency control of the hydro set.
These circuits are suitably designed to accept signal from auto synchroniser also.

8.8.10 Governor parameters and their settings

01 Temporary droop setting

Temporary speed droop circuits have been provided in the Governor to allow stable operation of the hydro-set under
all conditions.

The magnitude of temporary speed droop percent (bt) and its decay time constant (Td) are dependent on the stability
Index (Ratio of water time constant (Tw) to machine time constant (Ta).

However, the optimum setting of bt and Td can be visualized from figure 8.66.The setting is generally desired to be in
the shaded zone. It is obvious that higher the stability Index, the higher are the settings required for bt and Td.
Increase in the settings of bt and Td results in sluggish response as basically the circuit is based on adding negative
signal which decays.

VIII - 70
 Fig 8.66 Limits of stability fro governor hydro set

A grid which is predominantly resistive has unstable influence on the governed hydro-set. Therefore, higher values of
bt and Td are required. On the contrary a grid which is predominantly inductive, helps the hydro-set to stabilise and
may require even lower settings of bt and Td.

The advantage of a predominantly inductive grid together with a grid whose stiffness (MW/HZ relationship) is high, is
analogous to increase in the value of Ta.

02 Permanent Speed Droop setting

Permanent Speed Droop (bp) is set to the desired value for regulation of a Hydro-set in a given system (Grid).
Generally the setting is between 3 to 5%.

A higher permanent droop is provided for base load operation as compared to the other generating sets in the grid.
This helps, at times, to carry out optimum utilisation of river flows and short duration storage. On the other hand a
lower droop is selected in case the Hydro-set has to carryout frequency control of the system.

03 Dead Band, Sensitivity, Damping Limits

Devices in the circuit like damping limit, dead band and sensitivity have been provided in the governor for specific
operation and response as explained below:

Dead Band

A potentiometer has been provided for frequency dead band setting at around 50 Hz operation. Utilisation of this
feature ensures, that the governor will not make any gate change for frequencies within the dead band. Dead band can
be set to zero to allow the governor to regulate the hydro-set even for small frequency changes. The operation

VIII - 71
depends also on the dead bands of the Main Slide Valve & Control valve. Frequency Dead Band can be set between
0 and ± 0.5 Hz.

Sensitivity

The electrical signal fed to the transducers can be varied by sensitivity setting from 5 mA/Hz to 20 mA/Hz. This
setting is dependent upon the closing and opening times, mechanical amplification of the Hydraulic Amplifier output
and the desired response. This should be set along with sensitivity of electro- Hydraulic transducer to obtain stable
operation of hydro-set.

Damping Limits

The influence of temporary speed droop is to stabilise the governed hydro-set by utilising a negative signal in relation
to the command signal (system frequency and speed setting). However, temporary speed droop is a hindrance for
large changes of load. Therefore, damping limit circuits have been added to limit the temporary droop signal being fed
to the summing point of control amplifier. Opening and closing damping limits (both adjustable) can be set to suit the
requirements. These settings must be checked in relation to the opening and closing times and the temporary droop
settings, otherwise damping limit may not be of much help.

8.8.11 Stability of Governor

A simplified graphical representation of stability of a governed hydro-set is shown in the figure 8.66. This figure shows
the limits of stability. The influence of permanent speed droop, Grid and Turbine characteristics have been neglected.
Generally point A defines the thumb rule method of calculating the values of bt and Td. However, the shaded zone
has been shown and the temporary droop may be set within this zone.

The limit of stability curve L shifts towards M or N depending upon the turbine characteristics and grid. Oscillations
(magnitude v/s time) have been shown at various points of operation. Point “X” outside the limit of stability is unstable
and is of divergent nature. Point “Y” outside the stability curve is oscillating sinusoidally (mathematically just stable).
Point “Z” within the stable zone shows quick stabilizing of any oscillation. Point C is critically damped i.e. although the
oscillation dies down, it still takes long time to achieve steady state operation. Thus optimum setting is necessary for
achieving the desired response.

8.8.12 Electronic Cubicle

The governor is basically speed sensing type, sensitive to speed deviation from a set value of speed. Temporary
droop stabilizing technique has been employed.

The speed signal is derived from a permanent magnet generator directly coupled to the turbine-generator shaft.
Frequency of the PMG output is directly proportional to the rotational speed of the turbine-generator set. The PMG
frequency representing the machine speed is measured in a speed measuring unit which is so designed that at the
nominal speed its output is zero and varies by ± O.8V/Hz depending on whether the speed is above or below nominal.

The SMU (Speed Measuring Unit) output is fed to a control amplifier which comprises a phase advance amplifier (for
derivative control) and a multi-input summing amplifier. The phase advance amplifier has a resistive-capacitive feed-
back and its gain varies with the rate of change of input signal. Thus it provides speed error signal and its rate of
change for faster governor action. In the summing amplifier the modified speed error signal is summed up with speed
setting signal, permanent droop signal and temporary droop signal. The signal levels and input resistors are so co-
ordinated that under the steady state, output of the summing amplifier is zero volt.

The droop signals are derived by comparing the gate setting command signal with the gate feed-back signal. The
resultant signal directly applied to the summing amplifier through a potentiometer is called permanent droop signal,
whereas differentiation of the resultant signal with a variable time constant RC network provides the temporary droop
signal. The temporary droop signal also known as damping signal transiently opposes the gate movement and thus it

VIII - 72
provides main stabilisation to the speed control loop, which is otherwise highly unstable because of large inertia of
the hydraulic system. Both time constant and percentage of the temporary droop signal are adjustable.

The summing amplifier output is amplified in a Booster Amplifier and then applied to an electro-magnetic transducer
(EMT) located in the hydro-mechanical cabinet. It is the linking device between electrical and hydro-mechanical
sections. The EMT, actuating on the hydraulic amplifier converts the electrical signal into the proportional mechanical
movement of the pilot rod. The movement is then imparted to a lever drive of the main slide valve feeding oil to either
chambers of the gate apparatus servomotor, which in turn controls the main servo-motors controlling the gate position.

Under steady state conditions, the electronic cabinet provides balance current of 0 milliamp to the EMT. In the event
of frequency rising or a lower command, it provides proportional negative current for closing of the gate and in the
event of frequency falling or a raise command it provides proportional positive current for opening of the gate. Once
the gate acquires new steady position the output current resets to 0 milliamp (balance current) under action of the
permanent droop signal. Under the dynamic conditions, output current can vary in the range of - 100 to + 100
millamps.

The relay control circuit enables the turbine to be started, synchronised, loaded, unloaded and stopped.

8.8.13 Regulating Rack

This rack contains circuits related with speed sensing, closed loop control, stabilisation and amplification of final
speed control signal to a level compatible to the electro transducer. These are:

a. Speed measuring unit

b. Control Amplifier

c. Droop unit

d. Booster amplifier

e. Zero speed detector

f. Reed relay module

In addition the rack has the following adjustments:

1. Gate feedback signal range

2. Speed trim

3. Closing damping limit

4. Opening damping limit

5. No load gate limit

6. Dead band

7. Dither current

8. Phase advance gain

9. Permanent droop

10. Off line damping time constant

11. Off line damping percentage

12. On line damping time constant

13. On line damping percentage

VIII - 73
A. Speed Measuring Unit

The speed measuring unit produces the d.c. control signal such that it is zero at nominal speed and varies by ± 0.8V/
Hz to a maximum of ± 13V/Hz depending on whether the machine speed is higher or lower than the nominal.

B. Control Amplifier

In control amplifier, speed signal (SMU’s output) is modified as accelerometric signal (signal + its rate of change) and
compared with command and feedback signals to produce a resultant corrective signal.

Functionally control amplifier can be divided into four parts:

1. Phase advance amplifier
2. Dead band unit
3. Summing amplifier
4. Inverter.

01. Phase Advance Amplifier

In the phase advance amplifier the speed signal is modified as accelerometric signal (signal + its rate of change) for
improving the governor response and stability of the speed control loop.

02. Dead Band Unit

The dead band unit prevents governor action over a small selected band of speed. In a measuring system, such as
the turbine speed measurement in the governor, there is bound to be a certain level of noise/pick up superimposed on
the legitimate signal. This noise may be caused by mains hum pick up, switching spikes, non uniformity of cycles
from the PMG (Permanent Magnet Generator), etc. It is desirable that the governor only respond to the legitimate
signal changes and not to the noise signals. A dead band amplifier included in the signal path achieves this if the dead
band width can be set wide enough to exclude the noise without putting an unacceptable offset error into the system.

For inputs within the selected dead-band, the amplifier produces a linear output signal, and for inputs beyond the
selected dead band the amplifier output remains clamped at a constant value. The dead band signal and speed error
signals are both applied to a summing amplifier where the former cancels out the latter. This means that the machine
will maintain constant power for system frequency variation of (fn ± DB) Hz, where fn is the nominal frequency and
DB the selected dead band.

03 Summing Amplifier

The summing amplifier mixes up modified speed error signal received from the phase advance amplifier at pin b8 with
the following signals to produce the final speed control signal applied to the output amplifier.

1. Speed setting signal

2. Permanent droop signal

3. Temporary droop (damping) signal

4. Speed trim signal at pin

5. No load gate limit signal at pin

6. Dead band signal

04. Inverter

Unity gain inverting amplifier has been provided for signal inversion.

VIII - 74
C. Droop Unit

The droop unit in conjunction with the external potentiometers provides permanent & temporary droop (damping)
signals to the summing (control) amplifier for the purpose of speed regulation & stabilisation of the turbine. The unit
also contains no load gate limit amplifier which opposes opening of the gate beyond the set reference.

D. Booster Amplifier

Booster amplifier boosts the input control signal to a level sufficient to operate the Electro Maqnatic Transducer
located in the hydro-mechanical cabinet.

E. Zero Speed Detector

Function of this circuit is to automatically disengage the generator brakes when the machine comes to almost dead
halt. This prevents creeping of the machine and also eliminates manual intervention for removal of the brakes.

The circuit design is such that as long as frequency of the input speed signal (derived from the PMG) is more than 0.1
Hz (i.e. 0.2% speed) the relay connected remains energized and it drops out with time delay, for frequency equal to or
less than 0.1 Hz.

F. Reed Relay Module

Reed relay module is fitted with miniature reed relays. The normal coil voltage of all the reed relays is 15 V DC & relay
operating current is about 15 mA. The module is employed for the purpose of switching control signals.

8.8.14 Power Supply Rack

The power supply rack contains the regulating circuits which provide +15V and -15V stablised voltages for operation
of the various electronic circuits in the EHG. Input AC supply to the rack is derived from the PMG through a transformer.
Both the supplies are capable of delivering 1 amp DC current with regulation better than 1% and output ripple less
than 10mV peak to peak. The output remains stable at ±15V for -30% to +100% voltage variation on input side. The
supplies are protected against short circuit and over voltage on output side.

The contents of the rack are :-

a. Power supply rectifier card

b. Power supply card ( for positive & negative supplies)

c. Power supply over voltage protection card

d. Power transistor card

e. Filtering capacitor

f. Power supply voltmeter

g. Power supply selector switch measurement

h. Fuses

8.8.15 Gate limit adjustment according to head

Gate limit adjustment according to head feature prevents the machine operation at non-rated (over-rated) duties
whenever high head causes the machine power to exceed the permissible value.

VIII - 75
8.8.16 Motor operated potentiometer

In order to facilitate smooth synchronizing and faster loading/unloading of the machine, separate motor operated
potentiometers have been used. The motor drive makes the governor suitable for remote operation control and auto
synchronization. The potentiometer used for synchronization is called Speed Setting potentiometer and the one used
for loading is called Gate setting potentiometer.

Both the potentiometers are double ganged. One of the pots provides the command signal and the other facilitates
display of the command signal. Ohmic value of the potentiometer is same and these are mounted inside dust proof
enclosures.

8.8.17 Relay control circuit

The relay circuit is intended for switching on the governor circuits during changing governor operating conditions, viz
starting, synchronizing, loading, unloading, load rejection stopping, etc. Shutdown of the turbine is performed by
means of gate limiter ‘OLG’ through relays.

When starting the turbine with auto operation of the gate limiter, the relay section raises the gate limiter OLG to
starting opening position. The opening for starting can be varied by turning a cam in the track of micro switch in the
hydro mechanical cabinet.

Micro switch contact which actuates relay, closes when the gate limiter begins to move in the direction of opening.
Signal for opening is passed to the coil of Electro Magnetic Transducer which results in the gate servomotor displacement
to the position adjusted by the gate limiter. After the speed reaches 80% of its rated value, the governor changes over
to automatic control.

Synchronization of the generating set is carried out with the help of speed setting potentiometer, the electric motor of
the latter being controlled by means of control switches. After synchronization, the unit control is automatically
transferred to Gate setting potentiometer which changes the load. Motor is now operated by the switches.

In case of load throw consequent to the generator breaker tripping, relay gets deenergized. This relay lowers the gate
setting to the minimum position.

8.8.18 HYDRO MECHANICAL CABINET

Components

a) Electromagnetic transducer with hydraulic amplifier

b) Main slide valve

C) Gate limiter

d) Feed-back mechanism

e) Double oil filter

f) Over speed protection device

g) Control and measuring instruments.

h) Gate limiter according to head.

i) Auto manual changeover solenoid valve for Electro-Hydraulic Transducer.

j) Emergency solenoid valve.

k) Rotary Cam Limit Switch Assembly (Master Controller).

The above listed mechanism and devices are mounted on the bed covered with light metal casing. The following
instruments/devices are provided on the front panel of hydro mechanical cabinet.
VIII - 76
a) Electro tachometer
b) Gate opening and limiter position indicator
c) Balance Indicator
d) Oil Pressure Gauge
e) Speed setting Indicator
f) Output setting Indicator
q) Speed/output raise/lower switch
h) Handwheel for manual control of gate limiter

The hydro mechanical scheme of a G 40 Francis governor is shown in figure 8.67 and 8.68.

Opening Closing Drain

Pressure oil from PP set

Closing

Gate servo motor

Out side Governor Cabinet

Figure 8.67

VIII - 77
The list of components as shown in figure 8.67 are

ITEM DESCRIPTION ITEM DESCRIPTION

01 Sector 02 Weight in two halves
03 Pulley block 04 Main feed back potentiometer
05 Electro tachometer 07 Balance indicator
08 Electric motor for gate limiter 09 Gate limiter
10 Hand wheel 11 G. V. limit and position indicator
12 Limit switch 13 G.V. position and limit transmitter synchros
14 Starting opening micro switch 15 Feed back pot according to head
16 Hand wheel for gear adjustment according to head 17 Motor for limiter according to head
18 Cam for limiter according to head 20 Friction clutch
21 Stem 22 Lever
23 Lever 24 Lever
25 Screw 28 Thrust rod
29 Starting opening cam 30 Cam
31 Rod 32 Feed back shaft
33 Adjusting nut 34 Holder
35 Switch for over speed protection 36 Support
37 Nut for limiting stroke of m s v closing 38 Nut for limiting stroke of m s v opening
39 Auxiliary servomotor 40 Main slide valve spool
41 Main slide valve body 42 Limiter lever
43 Bolt 44 Throttle
45 Lever 46 Pilot slide valve body
47 Pilot slide valve needle 48 Adjusting nut
49 Eccentric cam 50 Filtering element
51 Double oil filter 52 Knob
53 Change over handle for filter 54 Throttle with in built filter
55 Knob for adjusting transducer sensitivity 56 Support
57 Lever 58 Piston
59 Throttle 60 Pressure gauge
61 Piston with needle 62 Hydraulic amplifier nozzle baffle type
63 Rotatry cam limit switch assy. 64 Nozzle
65 Baffle 66 Emergency solonid valve
67 Permanent magnet 68 Coil
69 Pressure switch 70 Spring
71 Electro magnetic tranducer 72 Nut screw
73 Screw 75 Valve
76 Upper chamber of piston 58 77 Lower chamber of piston 58
78 Needle 82 Spring
83 Coincidence limit switch 130 Speed setting indicator
131 Output setting indicator 134 Sead indicator
135 Bush 136 Solonide valve auto/manual changeover

VIII - 78
Figure 8.68 Control cabinet of governor

VIII - 79
 The list of component is shown below:

ITEM DESCRIPTION ITEM DESCRIPTION

1 Foundation Frame 14 Main slide valve

2 Oil Filter 15 Installation of over speed protection device
3 Lever Transmission 16 Gate limiter motor
4 Hydraulic Amplifier 17 Motor for limiter according to head
5 Contact Device 18 Pilot valve
6 Electro Magnetic Transducer 19 Time adjustment nuts
7 Terminal Block 20 G.V servo lock position indicating lamps
8 Casing 21 Feedback potentiometer
9 Gate opening and limiter indicator 22 Lifting hooks
10 Reduction gear for limiter 23 Switch camassy
11 Bed 24 Emergency closing valve
12 Lever transmission for limiter according to head 25 Pr. Switch
13 Feed back shaft 26 Auto manual solenoid

The description of main components of Hydro-Mechanical Cabinet are :

01 Electro-Hydraulic Transducer

(Refer Figure 8.69 & 8.70)

The Eiectro-Hydraulic Transducer consists of Electro Magnetic Transducer (EMT) and Hydraulic Amplifier (HA). These
assemblies are the linking devices between the Electronic system and Mechanical- Hydraulic System of the Governor.
EMT converts electrical signal of ± 50 mA into a mechanical movement of ± 2 mm. A Flapper, which is a part of the
moving coil assembly of the EMT, is located between the two nozzles. Pressure oil continuously impinges on the
flapper in the form of a jet. The total gap between the nozzle and the flapper is approx. 0.35 mm. (The exact gap
between the nozzles is 1.8 mm with flapper thickness of 1.45 mm approx). The purpose of the Hydraulic Amplifier is
to add force to the mechanical movement of the system of EMT so that control of Rod and control valve is possible.
This amplification is, therefore, necessary as the force developed by the coil and therefore, flapper, is not enough.

Throttle washers control the pressure in the two chambers formed between piston and needle . These chambers are
under the control of the two nozzles. Variation of pressure in one chamber will create unbalance thereby forcing, the
needle to displace itself. Needle in turn controls the movement of the piston by controlling the pressure in upper
chamber formed between the Body and the piston. Thus the combination of Needle and piston together with the
nozzles makes the moving devices of the Hydraulic Amplifier operate quickly under any condition of flapper movement,
be it slow, fast or oscillatory. Thus sensitive and fast response is achieved by ensuring the correct sizing of the
throttle plates, nozzle sizing, gap between nozzle and flapper and optimum running clearances.

Hydraulic Amplifier operates at oil pressure of 18 Kg/cm2 to 20 Kg/cm2. This pressure is controlled by the Pressure
Reducer (Throttle) located between the Duplex Filter and Hydraulic Amplifier.

In case of manual control of the unit, the piston is raised to its top most position under the action of oil pressure in the
bottom chamber, thus giving an opening signal to the pilot control valve and the opening of the main servomotor is
controlled by the gate unit mechanism.

A lever is attached to the thrust rod using a pin . The thrust rod is rigidly attached to a piston.

VIII - 80
02 Sensitivity Adjustment of Transducer

Sensitivity of Electro-Hydraulic transducer can be varied by moving fulcrum of lever (Stroke amplification) with the
help of hand screw , which should be locked after commissioning. Sensitivity of the transducer should be adjusted to
get the stable operation of Hydro-set. The stroke amplification of rod is approximately 2 to 5 times.

Fig 8.69

VIII - 81
List of components shown below:

Item No. Description Item No. Description Item No. Description

01 Nut 22 - 43 Sealing

02 Spring washer 23 - 44 Sealing

03 Sealing 24 - 45 Pipe

04 Frame 25 - 46 Ring

05 Auto/manual solenoid valve 26 - 47 Pin

06 Perspex 27 - 48 Nut

07 Bolt 28 - 49 Special Screw

08 Taper pin 29 - 50 Screw

09 Fork 30 - 51 Bolt

10 Bracket 31 Bolt 52 Name plate

11 Cylindrical pin 32 Nozzle 53 Nut

12 Stud 33 Head piece 54 Stud

13 Nut 34 Bolt 55 Sub plate

14 Screw 35 Grub screw 56 Washer

15 Membrane 36 Bolt 57 Conical setting pin

16 Thrust rod 37 Cover 58 Lever

17 Bolt 38 Throttle washer 59 Ring

18 Base 39 Plug 60 Split cotter pin

19 Needle 40 Body 61 Knife edge

20 Piston 41 Packing

21 Grub Screw 42 Washer

VIII - 82
Fig 8.70

VIII - 83
List of components shown below :

Item No. Description Item No. Description

1 Body 16 Nut

2 Screw 17 Flange

3 Spring washer 18 Special screw

4 Core 19 Lower spring

5 Magnet 20 Spindle

6 Coil 21 Strip

7 Screw 22 Washer

8 Spring washer 23 Washer

9 Cover 24 Screw

10 Bush 25 Nut

11 Spring Washer 26 Laminated sheet

12 Special Bush 27 Dowel

13 Spindle 28 Frame

14 Brace 29 Washer

15 Upper Spring 30 Strip

03. Main Slide Valve

Main Slide Valve of size 100 m has been provided to regulate oil flow to the Main Servomotors and allow steady state
operation. All the devices are located in the main slide valve body casting. Oil pressure is connected through pipes to
this body and flanged connections are available for the opening and closing chambers of the servomotor and drain
(connected in-turn back to the sump tank of the oil pressure system). Oil pressure is also connected to the pilot
(Control) Valve.

The mechanical signal from the hydraulic transducer moves the floating lever which in turn operates the Pilot valve
needle. For opening sequence this pilot valve needle moves up and drains the oil pressure from the auxiliary servomotor
there by the main slide valve spool moves upwards due to differential area (the net force acting upwards). For closing
sequence the needle valve is forced down by the floating lever allowing oil pressure to the auxiliary servomotor. The
slide valve spool is forced down.

Movement of slide valve Spool uncovers the slots in the sleeve thereby allowing oil pressure in the opening or closing
chambers of the servomotors, as the case may be. The magnitude of slide valve movement is controlled by the
floating lever which acts as feedback for re-setting of the pilot valve needle. For steady operation, the floating lever is

VIII - 84
in horizontal position with no signal from the Hydraulic Amplifier. The sizing of the slots in slide valve sleeve, overlaps,
etc. are designed to suit individual requirements.

The Pilot valve needle, its sleeve are designed for upward force due to oil pressure; as such it is not rigidly connected
to the lever.

Operation of main slide valve

Overlaps on the Pilot valve and Main slide valve ensure steady state operation. Small signals within this overlap
(dead band) do not result in any movement of servomotors. An a.c ripple (Dither) is super-imposed on the d.c. signal
to Electro- magnetic transducer which results in constant small oscillations of Hydraulic Amplifier and Pilot slide
valve. This is essential to prevent hydraulic lock of the sliding needles. These oscillations may be around ± 0.05 mm
to ± 0.10 mm (approximately) and should be limited within the overlaps.

Time Adjusting nuts have been provided for controlling the opening and closing times of the servomotors and are
locked in position after they have been correctly set.

8.8.18 Digital Governor

Introduction

A controller based on digital technique is for example a programmable High Speed Controller. It is designed to be used
normally for all kinds and sizes of water turbines. It is completely autonomous, and is designed with a high inherent
flexibility to enable individual requirements to the greatest possible extent.

A digital governor generally contains the following main parts:

power supply
frequency measurement
controller, inclusive sequence control and monitoring
servo interface including proportional valve
automatic turbine admission control
runner blade control
options as minimum-water-level control of the reservoir, etc.
The measurement of frequency (speed) is done by two sensors reading a segment disc which is attached to the
turbine shaft. The measured signals are transformed to a digital code by the frequency measurement circuit. A linear
relation exists between the measurement value and the cycle time of the unit frequency.

Alternatively, the frequency measurement can also be taken from a permanent magnet alternator. Except for the
measurement signal there is no difference compared with the analogous controller.

A digital governor unlike electro hydraulic governor is based on a processor system. The controller hardware is
generally built of standard components while the control functions are realised in a specific program.

The controller program includes the following functions:

controller algorithm
sequence control for start, stop, interlocking, etc.
monitoring, process and self monitoring

Figure 8.71 shows the block diagram for a typical controller of a Francis turbine. The same block diagram will also be
the basic part of a controller for a Pelton and Kaplan/bulb turbine.

VIII - 85
 Figure 8.71

The controller has a PID function. Each parameter can be set within a wide range. Adjustment of one parameter
makes no influence on the others.
The servo interface is the joint between the electronic part and the hydraulic part of the governor. It is a part of the
electro hydraulic position control of the actuator. The loop is closed in the processor.
One or several position control loops are provided depending on the version. Each loop contains a servo interface with
a servo amplifier and a transducer for the actuator position measurement.
Typical governing system of modern hydro units differ from manufacturer to manufacturer and some special features
are now a days available which vastly improve governor reliability and performance.
As discussed before, G40 Electro hydraulic Governor uses EMT and Slide valves for the conversion of electrical
signal into mechanical hydraulic command. Whereas in our Uri Power Station, this action is accomplished by proportional
valve. The brief description of Proportional valve is dealt below:-

Proportional valve
The electric signal from the electronic circuit can also be converted into mechanical one by means of improved
design consisting of Proportional Valve. Proportional valve is installed in the pressurized oil line and is operated by a
solenoid energized by the electrical signal from governor electronic cubical.
The proportional valve has three positions with infinite proportional action. The valve is operated from the electronic
governor output signal via a pilot pressure amplifier. Depending upon the electrical signal, proportional valve connects
the pressure line to opening or closing line making the guide vanes open or close.
A linear variable differential transducer is fitted to the valve main spool to monitor the position of guide vane position.
The guide vane position is converted into electrical voltage of +10 Volt to – 10 Volt depending upon whether it is fully
open or close. This electrical voltage acts as feedback signal.
The valve consists of following components :
Housing (1) with main spool (2)
Integrated electronics with inductive transducer (3) of main stage
Pilot control valve (4) with spool sleeve unit (5), inductive transducer (6) and pressure return for neutral setting
of main spool (2)

VIII - 86
 Fig 8.72 Proportional Valve Construction

One or several position control loops are provided depending on the version. Each loop contains a servo interface with
a servo amplifier and a transducer for the actuator position measurement.

References.

1. http://www.tev.ntnu.no/vk/publikasjoner

2. Hydro Power Engineering – C.C Warnick

3. www. Vannkraftlaboratoriet - Publikasjoner.htm

4. Hydro Power – Prof Dr Ing Joachim Raabe

5. USACE – Engineering Manuals

6. USBR Flip Manuals

7. Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machine – Dr R K Bansal

8. BHEL Manual for Governor G40 type.

VIII - 87