The program of the final year

Your year of LLCER Contemporary English will be articulated in

three themes, which are themselves divided into areas of
study: Theme 1: "Making society"
Axis of study 1: Unity and plurality
Axis of study 2: Public freedoms and individual
freedoms Axis of study 3: Equality and inequalities
Theme 2: "Changing environments"
Axis of study 1: Border and space
Axis of study 2: From nature protection to ecological transition
Axis of study 3: Rethinking the city
Theme 3: "Relationship to the world"
Axis of study 1: Power and influence
Axis of study 2: Rivalries and interdependencies
Axis of study 3: Common heritage and diversity
This theme, "Making Society," explores the complexities of unity within the English-
speaking world by embracing its diversity in language, culture, social structures, and
public policies. It moves beyond examining English-speaking countries as a singular
entity and delves into how unity and plurality coexist within them, often in tension. Key
lines of study include "Unity and Plurality," "Public and Individual Freedoms," and
"Equality and Inequalities," which together reveal the multiplicity of experiences and the
range of social dynamics in these societies.

Axis of Study 1: Unity and Plurality

The English language often acts as a unifying factor, promoting social cohesion, yet it
can also be contested by movements asserting cultural or linguistic identities. Minority
languages and cultures in regions like Quebec, Nunavut in Canada, or Scotland in the UK
may resist the dominance of English, at times fueling separatist or autonomist tendencies.
Moreover, different English accents—whether regional (north vs. south), urban or rural,
or even social-class accents—serve as markers of identity and pride. These accents are
often seen as authentic, in contrast to standardized English, associated with elite status.

Plurality manifests not only in language but also across geographical, social, religious,
and cultural lines. There are significant differences between northern and southern
regions in the UK or the US, as well as between social classes and family structures.
Social issues like marriage equality, abortion, and surrogacy reveal a wide array of
perspectives and underscore the complex nature of personal choices in these societies.

In terms of cultural exchange, national identities have been enriched by interaction with
diverse communities, leading to revitalization in various sectors. However, this diversity
can also bring challenges in adapting and finding acceptance, particularly for people who
identify with multiple cultures. Religion, for instance, showcases a unique interplay of
beliefs across the English-speaking world. Unlike France’s secular model, the English-
speaking world often embraces tolerance over strict secularism, allowing for a visible
role of religion in public discourse. While secularization has advanced in some regions,
religion continues to influence social and political spheres.

Cultural and religious festivals, along with national events, serve as moments of
cohesion, providing shared experiences. Similarly, practices like sports, music, and even
national symbols reinforce belonging and identity. However, social stratification through
class or caste can present barriers, fostering identity distinctions that may generate
tensions or limit social mobility.

This study of "Making Society" thus highlights the English-speaking world’s diverse
landscape, where unity and plurality interplay, often shaping collective and individual
identities in complex, sometimes contradictory, ways.

Axis of Study 2: Public and Individual Freedoms

In contemporary liberal democracies, respecting fundamental rights is essential, including

freedoms of conscience, thought, expression, and association. Liberal movements, despite
their diversity, agree on the importance of individual freedom, which respects the private
sphere and takes precedence over communal life.

Broadly speaking, freedom is an inalienable individual right, but it also finds expression
collectively in the formation of nation-states. Historically, the integration of certain
populations within national territories has not always been respected, and the gathering of
diverse groups in federations (such as Australia, Canada, India, Malaysia, Nigeria,
Pakistan, South Africa) or unions (such as the United Kingdom) has not always been
voluntary. Indigenous communities, for example, were often marginalized or confined to
reserves, with their fundamental rights disregarded, and in some cases, territorial partition
was the outcome. Identity-driven claims sometimes lead to separatist movements within
federations (e.g., Quebec in Canada) or to the establishment of new institutions (such as
devolution in Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland), which may extend to demands for
self-determination referendums.

In recent times, equal rights recognition has become a priority, aiming to secure societal
inclusion and representation in power structures (as in South Africa and the United
States). The issue of indigenous rights has also come to the fore, with demands for
apologies or even reparations (in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand), sometimes within
reconciliation efforts (such as in South Africa), though political acceptance varies.

Additionally, debates arise over the rights of newcomers or, in politically shifting
contexts, long-established populations (in regions like East Africa, Hong Kong, and the
United Kingdom). Issues such as residency and voting rights prompt broader discussions
about citizenship. In a time when many countries seek greater citizen participation in
political life, questions of extending suffrage to younger people (as in Scotland) or
foreign nationals in general or presidential elections arise, as voting is often seen as a
pathway to inclusion.

From an economic perspective, individual freedom of enterprise is central to liberalism

and relies on risk-taking, innovation, and competition within a profit-oriented climate.
This fosters industrial and financial capitalism. However, a distinction exists between
American liberalism, which allows for state intervention (such as anti-trust laws), and
British liberalism, which champions market self-regulation and individual responsibility.

Respect for these rights and their underlying concepts faces challenges, including
ideological clashes between supporters and opponents (manifested in protests, lobbying,
alternative policies, and opposition tactics). Thus, the justice system plays a key role in
reminding citizens of their obligation to obey laws that are universally applicable (the
rule of law) and that define freedoms for all citizens.

Focus Area 3: Equality and Inequality

In English-speaking countries, major social, economic, environmental, and political

changes have led to a growing recognition of citizens’ rights in areas like employment,
healthcare, education, and housing. While people strive for a good quality of life with
equal opportunities, inequalities—often linked to geographic, social, ethnic, or religious
backgrounds—continue to pose obstacles. Governments work to promote social justice
and equal rights but face many challenges in addressing these disparities.

Some systems in education, politics, or the economy are seen as reinforcing inequality.
For example, the coexistence of private and public education systems can deepen divides,
as can unequal access to healthcare or certain jobs. The idea of the "American Dream"
and social mobility, often tied to the values of hard work and self-reliance, highlights the
difference between "equality" and "equality of opportunity," a concept central to some
political ideologies.

Efforts to address inequality include legislation on wages, taxes, and employment,

alongside support programs like scholarships and apprenticeships. In addition to
government actions, charities play a significant role in English-speaking societies by
addressing poverty, running food banks and shelters, and highlighting inequalities in
reports that inform policy discussions.

Many inequalities stem from factors like institutional discrimination (racism, sexism,
etc.), economic conditions (low wages, job insecurity), or personal hardships (illness,
unemployment). These issues can lead to a cycle of poverty affecting health and life
expectancy, which underscores the importance of proactive support systems, fair wages,
and assistance programs.

Examples of Study Topics

 Educational Inequalities: Differences in opportunities across private and public
schools, the dominance of elite universities like the Ivy League (US) and Russell
Group (UK).
 Employment Inequalities: Unemployment rates by social class, gender, or
ethnicity; wage gaps; representation of minorities in leadership.
 Economic and Social Policies: Approaches like progressive taxation, incentives
for hiring and regional business development, and health systems like Medicaid,
Medicare, and Obamacare in the US.
 Philanthropy and Charities: The role of nonprofits in reducing inequality, such
as food banks and shelters.
 Anti-Discrimination Policies: Affirmative action in the US, positive
discrimination in the UK, and laws promoting diversity through quotas and
gender parity.
 Theme 2: "Changing Environments"
 In an era shaped by globalization, climate change, and energy transition, the
English-speaking world presents a striking variety of regions—spanning
Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United States, the Caribbean, India, English-
speaking Africa, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the Pacific Islands. These
diverse areas, each with unique demographic, economic, and political influence or
resources, play essential roles on the global stage, acting as testing grounds,
drivers of change, or sources of resistance. Internal contradictions, such as
California’s environmental goals contrasting with the U.S. federal withdrawal
from the Paris Agreement in 2017, reveal the complexity of these dynamics.
 The majority of people in the English-speaking world live in urban areas, facing
challenges of overpopulation, resource access, and inequality. Major cities are
confronted with issues like housing, transportation, and waste management, as
well as social divides such as segregation and gentrification. The way cities are
organized and inhabited differs by region and development level—from North
American megacities to industrial towns in northern England, to African and
Indian metropolises, and Australian and South African mining communities.
Innovative responses, such as green technology, alternative housing,
countercultural movements, and local activism, are emerging in these cities.
 Alongside cities, vast, sparsely populated areas hold significant natural spaces that
shape national identities and foster biodiversity. These protected areas, from
American national parks to the Australian Outback, not only support wildlife but
also connect deeply with indigenous traditions. For indigenous peoples, like
Native Americans, preserving these lands carries historical and cultural
importance, as seen in ongoing protests to protect their territories.
 This diverse range of environments allows us to see how societies confront
modern challenges through adaptation, innovation, and the integration of long-
standing practices. Indigenous knowledge, sustainable agriculture, and park
management traditions coexist with attitudes that prioritize economic growth over
environmental protection, leading to varied perspectives—from green policies and
ecological activism to skepticism about climate action and economic arguments
for resource exploitation.
  Axis of Study 1: Frontier and Space
 Ideas of borders, colonization, and empire continue to resonate in places like the
United Kingdom, the United States, South Africa, and Australia, fueling debates
around openness and restriction (free trade vs. protectionism, immigration
policies). As populations grow and resources strain, these societies face questions
about mobility, resource management, and balancing tourism with environmental
protection. Amid these concerns, space exploration and the idea of Mars
colonization as the "Last Frontier" capture imaginations as a potential solution for
humanity’s future.
 Analyzing these issues from political, economic, and social perspectives can
deepen understanding and drive rich debates on how societies navigate changing
environments.
 Focus Area 2: From Nature Protection to Ecological Transition
 The English-speaking world has a long-standing tradition of respecting and
protecting nature, a concept that has evolved over centuries. A historical view
helps clarify the roots of today's environmental policies and attitudes.
 Indigenous cultures, like the Aboriginal concept of Dreamtime—which reflects a
spiritual bond between humans, animals, plants, and the Earth—and Native.
American beliefs in the Great Spirit (Wakan Tanka for the Sioux), show the early
inhabitants' commitment to safeguarding and venerating nature.
 In the late 19th century, the environmental movement began, blending natural
sciences, social thought, and the spirit of the time to form what would eventually
influence today's "sustainable development." This movement was deeply rooted in
philosophy, religion, ethics, and ideology. Two main approaches emerged:
"preservationism," led by figures like John Muir, who emphasized a spiritual and
romantic view of nature, and "conservationism," represented by Gifford Pinchot,
who advocated for the economic use of natural resources. Influenced by Pinchot,
President Theodore Roosevelt established the United States Forest Service and
created five national parks and numerous national monuments.
 Modern nature protection policies also draw on the counterculture movements of
the 1960s and 1970s, including ecological movements, the hippie and New Age
movements, and radical ecology. Local initiatives now often provide alternative
solutions that sometimes challenge state and economic interests (as seen in the
U.S., India, and Nigeria). From these movements, concepts like environmental
policy, radical ecology, sustainable development, and eco-feminism arose, along
with a renewed appreciation for agrarian values and rural life. Today, indigenous
communities—whose ecological knowledge is increasingly valued (e.g., in
Alaska, Australia, Canada, Hawaii, and New Zealand)—also face new challenges
from climate change, economic pressures, and inequality.
 Finally, the global approach to nature protection requires examining public and
private policies across countries, along with the actions of governments, NGOs,
and citizens working towards planetary transition. The representations of climate
change in English-language media and cinema also shape public understanding
and responses to environmental issues.

Axis of Study 3: Rethinking the City

The majority of people in the English-speaking world live in urban areas, with cities
making up about 90% of the population in Australia, more than 80% in the United States,
the United Kingdom, and Canada, and around 50% in Nigeria. While countries like
Kenya, India, and Tanzania still have rural majorities, this trend is rapidly changing.
Some of the least urbanized countries, such as India and Nigeria, are home to cities with
populations exceeding 10 million, like Delhi, Mumbai, Lagos, and Kolkata. Attempting
to define a single, unified model of the city in the English-speaking world is unrealistic
due to the immense diversity of urban forms, shaped by each nation’s unique history,
despite the influence of colonization and globalization on urban planning, architecture,
and city life (such as city centers, business districts, suburbs, and the rise of social
segregation and informal settlements like slums and townships in South Africa).

Beyond sheer population, cities wield significant political, economic, and cultural power,
enabling them to influence larger regions—a phenomenon known as metropolization.
The English-speaking world is home to several "global cities," including London, New
York, and Chicago, but also Sydney, Mumbai, Toronto, Los Angeles, San Francisco,
Dublin, and Melbourne. These cities shape their identities through the concentration of
power, wealth, and cultural influence. Their competitiveness depends on their ability to
maintain economic dynamism and a high quality of life.

The development of cities varies greatly: from Las Vegas, an extravagant city in a desert
grappling with water scarcity, to Brisbane, which has ambitious environmental goals, to
Vancouver, touted as the greenest city in North America. Cities like Mumbai, Nairobi,
and Lagos face challenges like rapid growth, poor urban planning, and poverty, which
worsen their infrastructure problems. Nevertheless, all cities contend with common issues
such as pollution, resource access, waste management, and the unequal distribution of
wealth. To tackle these problems, cities must adapt through visionary urban planning,
collaboration with architects and urban planners (such as those from the Chicago School
of design), and citizen engagement. They must also address challenges like gentrification,
urban fragmentation, and the pressures of mass tourism. Urban regeneration efforts focus
on improving transportation, housing, and access to services. Additionally, the integration
of minorities and the increasing role of women in public urban spaces have become
critical areas of study, with the arts—such as architecture, photography, and urban art—
playing a central role in shaping the future of cities.

Theme 3: "Relationship to the World"

The concept of an "English-speaking world" stems from a historical phase in England’s

history, and more broadly the British Isles, during the formation of its empire. Whether
through settlement (e.g., Australia) or domination (e.g., India), the legacy of empire still
shapes the boundaries of this group today, though the limits shift depending on the
criteria used—language, settlement, institutions, culture, religion, and so on. For clarity,
this theme defines the "English-speaking world" as comprising the United States, the
United Kingdom, the Commonwealth countries, and Ireland.
This group is vast, diverse, and geographically dispersed. Furthermore, the intensification
of globalization has led to increased exchanges—of people, goods, services, and cultural
influences. The expanding influence of international connections means that the study of
English-speaking societies must be viewed in the context of the global world they are part
of, requiring an analysis of the evolving and complex nature of these relationships.
Understanding the place of the English-speaking world in international relations involves
considering three key factors: the distinct characteristics of each member of the group,
the dynamics between them, and their interactions with non-English-speaking nations.
Each of these elements plays a role in shaping the contemporary world (as seen, for
example, in Ireland’s economic transformation after joining the European Union) and
also influences how it perceives the world (as illustrated by the differing views on
globalization between India and the United States). These complexities show that the
relationship between English-speaking territories and the world is dynamic, not static.

Within the English-speaking world, the United States and the United Kingdom hold
special positions in international relations. Both have been world powers, wielding
significant influence. While they continue to be major international players, they must
now reassess their role in a rapidly changing global order. Their influence stems from
both hard power (direct force or coercion) and soft power (the ability to shape global
norms through cultural, diplomatic, and ideological influence).

This theme explores how historical legacies, geographic realities, shifting worldviews,
and changing values shape the global presence of English-speaking nations. We approach
this through three axes: first, examining the vectors of power and influence; second,
analyzing the complexity of power, dispelling the notion of undivided or balanced power;
and third, recognizing the diversity within the English-speaking world, which functions
more as a network of interconnections rather than a homogeneous entity with a unified
voice.

Axis of Study 2: Rivalries and Interdependencies

This axis of study encourages a nuanced examination of how the countries of the English-
speaking world interact within the broader community of states, shaped by a complex
interplay of shifting power dynamics among various actors.

No international actor holds or enjoys absolute power; even though relations of influence
may be unequal or asymmetrical, they are always reciprocal. Therefore, influencing also
means being influenced, whether in diplomacy, military power, economics, or cultural
expansion. These reciprocal influences can manifest as both rivalries and
interdependencies, which are not mutually exclusive.

Furthermore, the concepts of rivalry and interdependence do not solely describe the
relationships between international actors; they also reflect the positioning of each actor
within a fluctuating balance. For instance, political shifts such as an election upset may
either limit or enhance a leader's capacity to act. This shifting balance directly affects
how a country can position itself and exert influence in the world. Therefore, it is crucial
to also consider the negotiations that take place within each actor's internal structure.
These negotiations may involve political movements, institutional frameworks (like the
checks and balances or federal system in the United States), regional interests (such as
the economic influence of California within the U.S.), economic forces (such as pressure
groups), think tanks, or citizens’ movements (which can include protests or boycotts).

Axis of Study 3: Common Heritage and Diversity

The English-speaking world is diverse, not only because the countries that make it up
differ from one another, but also because each is internally varied in geography,
population, public life organization, religion, and culture. Historically, the English-
speaking world was one of the first to address the challenge of unity within diversity.
During British colonial expansion, the Crown and Parliament organized this diversity,
often relying on force when necessary. Today, unity is more often seen as a symbolic or
intangible concept, while diversity remains a defining feature that continues to present
significant challenges, particularly in maintaining balance in relationships that are still
influenced by the legacy of colonialism or empire—sometimes more in representations
and rhetoric than in actions.

It is crucial to examine, on one hand, the shared heritage of the English-speaking world
and its interaction with diversity, and on the other hand, the unique identities of the
individual societies within it. Often, this common heritage has been adapted to local
contexts (e.g., American baseball and British cricket), with some of these adaptations, in
turn, influencing the former colonizing power. Thus, common heritage and diversity are
connected through processes of acculturation and appropriation, involving multiple and
often intersecting cultural influences.