GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Chapter 8
Properties of Solutions
 The Solution
 Dissolution of solid in liquids
 Dissolution of liquids in liquids
 Dissolution of gases in liquids
 Effect of temperature on solubility
 Effect of pressure on solubility
 Concentration
 Boiling point elevation
 Freezing Point depression
 Osmotic Pressure
 The Solution
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of solute (present in
smallest amount) and solvent (present in largest amount).
 Solute may be gas, liquid, or solids.
 Solvent is the substances used to dissolve the solute.
 AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
The solvent is generally in excess.
 Example:
The solution NaCl(aq) is sodium chloride NaCl(s)
dissolved in water H2O(l).
The solute is NaCl(s) and the solvent is H2O(l).
 Saturated solution
 Saturated means that the maximum amount is
dissolved in the solution, under normal conditions.
Dissolve: solute + solvent  solution
In a saturated solution, the solvent contains the
maximum amount of solute.
 Example: At 90oC, 40 g of NaCl(s) in 100g H2O(l)
represent a saturated solution.
 Unsaturated solution
In an unsaturated solution, the solvent contains less
than the maximum amount of solute.
Example:
 At 90oC, 30 g of NaCl(s) in 100g H2O(l) represent an
unsaturated solution.
 If adding 10 g of NaCl(s) into that solution, the saturated
solution will be form.
 Supersaturated solution

 In a supersaturated solution, the solvent contains

more than the maximum amount of solute.
 A supersaturated solution is very unstable and the
amount in excess can precipitate or crystallize.
 Crystallization: solution  solute + solvent
Example:

At 90oC, 50 g of NaCl(s) in 100g H2O(l) represent a

supersaturated solution. Eventually, 10 g of NaCl(s)
will precipitate.
 Solubility
 Solubility: amount of solute required to form a
saturated solution.
 The solubility of a solute in a given amount of solvent
is dependent on:
 The temperature,

 The pressure,
 And the chemical natures of the solute and solvent.
Effect of Temperature on Solubility
 In general, as the temperature of a solution
increases the solubility increases.
 Example: Increasing the solution temperature
allows more sugar to go into solution.
 Therefore, it is an endothermic process (heat is on
the reactant side).
 Effect of Temperature on Solubility
 Solid in liquid:
 Endothermic dissolving: Solubility increases with
increasing temperature.
 Exothermic dissolving: solubility decreases with
increasing temperature.
 Many ionic solids dissolve by endothermic processes.
 As temperature increases, solubility of solids
generally increases.
 For example, KCl dissolves endothermically.
 Sometimes, solubility decreases as temperature
increases (e.g. Ce2(SO4)3, Cerous Sulfate).
Effect of Temperature on Solubility
 Effect of Temperature on Solubility
 Liquid in liquid:
 For partially dissolving liquids like dimethyl
ether(CH3-O-CH3 ) in water (H2O), solubilty
increases with increasing temperature.
 For a completely dissolving liquids like ethyl alcohol
(C2H5OH) in water( H2O), solubility decreases with
increasing temperature.
 Effect of Temperature on Solubility
 Gas in liquid:
 Solubility of a gas in a liquid almost always decreases
with increasing temperature.
 The reason: Increased temperature causes an increase
in kinetic energy. The higher kinetic energy causes
more motion in molecules which break
intermolecular bonds and escape from solution.
 Effect of Gas Pressure on Solubility
 Liquids and solids exhibit practically no change of solubility
with changes in pressure.
 The solubility of a gas increases as the pressure increases.
 If the pressure is increased, the gas molecules are
"forced" into the solution.
 The number of gas molecules dissolved in solution has
increased.
 Effect of Gas Pressure on Solubility

Henry's Law: The solubility of a

gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the pressure of that
gas above the surface of the
solution.
Example:

Carbon dioxide, CO2(g) in

carbonated drinks is dissolved in
the solvent by increasing the
pressure and also decreasing the
temperature.
Effect of Gas Pressure on Solubility
 All carbonated beverages are bottled under pressure to
increase the carbon dioxide dissolved in solution.
 When the bottle is opened, the pressure above the
solution decreases. As a result, the solution effervesces
and some of the carbon dioxide bubbles off.
 Quiz: Champagne continues to ferment in the bottle.
The fermentation produces CO2. Why is the cork wired
on a bottle of champagne?
 Answer: As more CO2 is formed , the pressure of the
gas increase.The wire is to prevent the cork from
blowing off.
 The rate of solution
 The rate of solution is a measure of how fast a substance
dissolves. Some of the factors determining the rate of
solution are:
 Size of the particles: When a solute dissolves, the action
takes place only at the surface of each particle. When the
total surface area of the solute particles is increased, the
solute dissolves more rapidly.
  Breaking a solute into smaller pieces increases its
surface area and hence its rate of solution.
 Stirring: With liquid and solid solutes, stirring brings fresh
portions of the solvent in contact with the solute, thereby
increasing the rate of solution.
 The rate of dissolving
 Amount of solute already dissolved:
 When there is little solute already in solution,
dissolving takes place relatively rapidly.
 As the solution approaches the point where no
solute can be dissolved, dissolving takes
place more slowly.
 Temperature: For solid, liquid and gaseous
solutes, changing the temperature not only
changes the amount of solute that will dissolve
but also changes the rate at which the solute will
dissolve.
 Chemical natures of the solute and
solvent
 A polar solute will dissolve in a polar solvent but
not in a nonpolar solvent. The adage "like dissolves
like" is very useful.
Polar solute/polar solvent: ethanol, salt, sugar
in water.
Nonpolar solute/nonpolar solvent: Iodine in
carbontetrachloride, gasoline or benzene.
Example:
 Alcohol dissolves in water.
 Water does not dissolve in oil.
 Concentration
 Mass Percentage
 ppm
 ppb
 Mole Fraction
 Molarity
 and Molality
 Ways of Expressing Concentration

mass of component in solution

mass % of component   100
total mass of solution

mass of component in solution

ppm of component   106
total mass of solution
• Parts per million (ppm) can be expressed as 1 mg of
solute per kilogram of solution.
– If the density of the solution is 1g/mL, then 1 ppm = 1 mg
solute per liter of solution.
 Concentration
mass of component in solution
ppb of component   109
total mass of solution

• Parts per billion (ppb) are 1 g of solute per kilogram

of solution.
 Concentration
moles of component in solution
Mole fraction of component 
total moles of solution

moles solute
Molarity 
liters of solution

moles solute
Molality, m 
kg of solvent
Practice Problems
Practice Problems
Practice Problems
 Practice Problems
1) A solution containing equal masses of glycerol,
C3H8O3, and water has a density of 1.10g/mL. Calculate
the: (a) Molarity, (b) Mole Fraction of glycerol, (c)
Molality of the solution.

2) Calculate the percent by mass of CaCl2 in a solution

containing 5.2g CaCl2 in 450g of water.

3) Calculate the ppm, by mass, of CaCl2 in a solution

containing 0.149 moles of CaCl2 in 443g of water.
 Practice Problems
1) Calculate the molarity when 0.020 moles of
glycerol, C3H8O3, is dissolved in 50 g of water at
room temperature. Water has a density of
1.00g/mL.
 Practice Problem
1)A 0.500 L hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution,
which has a density of 1.10 g/mL, contains 36%
HCl by mass. Calculate the mole fraction of HCl.

2) A solution containing equal masses of NaCl and

water has a density of 1.10g/mL. Calculate the
molality of the solution.

3) Calculate the ppm, by mass, of CaCl2 in a

solution containing 0.149 moles of CaCl2 in 443g
of water.
 Solubility of a Gas
Pressure Effects:
• Henry’s Law:
S g  kPg
• Where:
Sg is the solubility of a gas,
k is a constant,
and Pg is the partial pressure of a gas.
Raoult’s Law

Psolvent  Χ solvent PO
solvent
Raoult’s Law
Raoult’s Law
 Boiling-Point Elevation
 At the normal boiling point of pure liquid, the vapor
pressure the solution will be < 1atm. Therefore, a higher
temperature, Tb, is required to attain a vapor pressure
of 1 atm for the solution.
 Molal boiling-point-elevation constant, Kb, expresses
how much Tb changes with molality, m:

Tb  Kb m
 Kb is dependent only on the solvent used in the making
of the solution.
Boiling-Point Elevation
 Freezing Point Depression
 The freezing point is the temperature at which the first
crystal forms.
 The change in freezing point can be defined by:

T f  K f  m
 Kf is the molal freezing-point-depression constant.
 Kf is dependent only on the solvent used in the making of
the solution.
Freezing Point Depression
 Osmosis

 Osmosis: the movement of a solvent from low solute

concentration to high solute concentration.
 Semipermeable membrane: permits passage of some
components of a solution. Example: cell membranes
 There is movement in both directions across a
semipermeable membrane.
 As solvent moves across the membrane, the fluid levels
becomes uneven.
Osmosis
 Osmotic Pressure
 Osmotic pressure, , is the pressure required to stop osmosis:
V  nRT
 n
    RT
V 
 MRT
 Isotonic solutions: two solutions with the same  separated by a
semipermeable membrane.
 Hypotonic solutions: a solution of lower  with respects to the
more concentrated solution.
 The osmotic process is spontaneous.
Osmotic Pressure
 THE pH AND pOH SCALES
 The pH and pOH scales provide a convenient way
to express the acidity and basicity of dilute aqueous
solutions. The pH and pOH of a solution are
defined as
THE pH AND pOH SCALES