STUDY MATERIAL UNIT –II IC ENGINES

ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SYLLABUS: Internal Combustion Engines: Construction and working of IC engines, 2 stroke Petrol
and 4 stroke Petrol and Diesel engine. Simple problems on Power and Efficiency calculations.
Comparison between IC Engines and Electric Vehicles.

Engine / Heat Engine: A heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into
thermal energy and uses this energy to produce mechanical work. Heat Engines is the engine that
converts thermal energy into mechanical energy or work as output. In the fuels, energy is stored in
chemical form and gets liberated upon combustion. Engine utilizes this heat energy and generates
mechanical work as output.
There are two types of engines: External Combustion Engine and Internal Combustion Engine; based
on condition of combustion. If the combustion of fuel takes place at atmospheric conditions (in open, not
in controlled condition), the engines are known as External Combustion Engine and when combustion of
fuel takes place inside the cylinder (at controlled condition, temperature and pressure – not atmospheric),
the engines are termed as Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines).
IC Engines are of Rotary / Reciprocating type. Reciprocating IC Engines may be of 2-stroke / 4-stroke
Engines (on the basis of strokes required to complete the cycle of operation) and of Spark Ignition (SI)
Engines or Compression Ignition (CI) Engines (on the basis of initialization of combustion).
External combustion engine: In this engine, the products of combustion of air and fuel transfer heat to
a second fluid which is the working fluid of the cycle.
Examples: In the steam engine or a steam turbine plant, the heat of combustion is employed to
generate steam which is used in a piston engine (reciprocating type engine) or a turbine (rotary type
engine) for useful work. In a closed cycle gas turbine, the heat of combustion in an external furnace is
transferred to gas, usually air which the working fluid of the cycle.
Internal combustion engine: In this engine, the combustion of air and fuels take place inside the
cylinder and are used as the direct motive force. It can be classified into the following types:
1. According to the basic engine design
(a) Reciprocating engine (Use of cylinder piston arrangement),
(b) Rotary engine (Use of turbine)
2. According to the type of fuel used
(a) Petrol engine,
(b) Diesel engine,
(c) Gas engine (CNG, LPG),
(d) Alcohol engine (ethanol, methanol etc)
3. According to the number of strokes per cycle-
(a) Four stroke and
(b) Two stroke engine
4. According to the method of igniting the fuel
(a) Spark ignition engine,
(b) Compression ignition engine and
5. According to the working cycle
(a) Otto cycle (constant volume cycle) engine,
 (b) Diesel cycle (constant pressure cycle) engine,
(c) Dual combustion cycle (semi diesel cycle) engine.
6. According to the fuel supply and mixture preparation-
(a) Carbureted type (fuel supplied through the carburetor),
(b) Injection type (fuel injected into the cylinder just before ignition).
7. According to the number of cylinder-
(a) Single cylinder and
(b) Multi-cylinder engine
8. Method of cooling-
Water cooled or
Air cooled
9. Speed of the engine-
Slow speed,
Medium speed and
High speed engine
10. Cylinder arrangement-
Vertical, horizontal, inline, V-type, Radial
11. Valve or port design and location- Overhead (I head), side valve (L head); in two stroke engines:
cross scavenging, loop scavenging, uniflow scavenging.
12. Method governing- Hit and miss governed engines, quantitatively governed engines and qualitatively
governed engine
13. Application- Automotive engines for land transport, marine engines for propulsion of ships, aircraft
engines for aircraft propulsion, industrial engines, prime movers for electrical generators.
Comparison between external combustion engine and internal combustion engine:
External combustion engine Internal combustion engine
1 Combustion of air-fuel is outside the Combustion of air-fuel is inside the engine
engine cylinder cylinder
2 The engines are running smoothly and Very noisy operated engine
silently due to outside combustion
3 Higher ratio of weight and bulk to output It is light and compact due to lower ratio of
due to presence of auxiliary apparatus like weight and bulk to output.
boiler and condenser. Hence it is heavy
and cumbersome.
4 Working pressure and temperature Working pressure and temperature inside the
inside the engine cylinder is low; hence engine cylinder is very much high; hence
ordinary alloys are used for the special alloys are used
manufacture of engine cylinder and its
parts.
5 It can use cheaper fuels including solid High grade fuels are used with proper
fuels filtration
6 Lower efficiency about 15-20% Higher efficiency about 35-40%
7 Higher requirement of water for dissipation Lesser requirement of water
of energy through cooling system
Main components of reciprocating IC engines:
1. Cylinder: It is the main part of the engine inside which piston reciprocates to and fro. It should
have high strength to withstand high pressure above 50 bar and temperature above 20000C. The
ordinary engine is made of cast iron and heavy duty engines are made of steel alloys or
aluminum alloys. In the multi-cylinder engine, the cylinders are cast in one block known as
cylinder block.
2. Cylinder head: The top end of the cylinder is covered by cylinder head over which inlet and
exhaust valve, spark plug or injectors are mounted. A copper or asbestos gasket is provided
between the engine cylinder and cylinder head to make an air tight joint.

Figure shows the different components of IC engine.

3. Piston: Transmit the force exerted by the burning of charge to the connecting rod. Usually
made of aluminum alloy, which has good heat conducting property and greater strength at higher
temperature.
4. Piston rings: These are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the outer surface of
the piston and made of steel alloys which retain elastic properties even at high temperature.
2 types of rings- compression and oil rings. Compression ring is upper ring of the piston which
provides air tight seal to prevent leakage of the burnt gases into the lower portion. Oil ring is
lower ring which provides effective seal to prevent leakage of the oil into the engine cylinder.
5. Connecting rod: It converts reciprocating motion of the piston into circular motion of the
crank shaft, in the working stroke. The smaller end of the connecting rod is connected with the
piston by gudgeon pin and bigger end of the connecting rod is connected with the crank with
crank pin. The special steel alloys or aluminum alloys are used for the manufacture of connecting
rod.
6. Crankshaft: It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion with the
help of connecting rod. The special steel alloys are used for the manufacturing of the crankshaft.
It consists of eccentric portion called crank
7. Crank case: It houses cylinder and crankshaft of the IC engine and also serves as sump for the
lubricating oil.
8. Flywheel: It is big wheel mounted on the crankshaft, whose function is to maintain its speed
constant. It is done by storing excess energy during the power stroke, which is returned during
other stroke
9. Cooling fins or Water jackets: It is used for cooling purposes.
10. Cam and Camshaft: It is provided to operate the opening and closing of the Inlet and Exhaust
valve and also operate the fuel injection pump in the Diesel engine.
11. Inlet valve/port: This valve controlled the admission of charge or air inside the engine cylinder.
12. Exhaust valve/port: This valve controls the removal of burnt gas after combustion.
13. Intake manifold: This is a passage that carries the fresh charge or air.
14. Exhaust manifold: This a passage through which the exhaust gas goes out of the engine
cylinder.
15. Spark plug: It is used in a Petrol engine or SI engine to ignite the fuel.
16. Fuel injector: It is used in a Diesel engine or CI engine to sprayed the fuel inside the engine
cylinder.
17. Carburetor: It is used in a Petrol engine to mix the air-fuel properly.

Figure shows the different components of IC engine.

 Terminology used in IC engine
Bore: Nominal inner diameter of cylinder is called bore. It is represented by ‘d’ in mm.
Piston Area: The cross-sectional area of piston or cylinder bore is called Piston Area. It is represented
by ‘A’ in mm2.
Stroke: The nominal distance by which the piston moves between two successive reversals of its
direction of motion is known as Stroke or Stroke Length. It is represented by ‘L’ in mm. It is the
distance between dead centers, i.e. between Top Dead Centre (TDC) and Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) in
case of vertical engine or between the Inner Dead Centre (IDC) and Outer Dead Centre (ODC), in case
of horizontal engine. In one stroke, piston moves from one dead centre to another and crank rotates by
1800 (half rotation).
Dead Centre: The extreme position on either side of piston movement, beyond which reversal of
direction of motion takes place, is termed as dead centre. It is the point at which velocity of piston is
zero. These are Top Dead Centre (TDC) and Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) in case of vertical engine or
Inner Dead Centre (IDC) and Outer Dead Centre (ODC) in case of horizontal engine.
Displacement Volume / Swept Volume: The volume swept by the piston in cylinder during its suction
stroke or movement from TDC to BDC is called Swept Volume (Vs).
It is Vs = A x L = (π/4) d2 L mm3 (or in cubic cm; cc; 1000 cc = 1 Liter)
Clearance Volume: The volume of combustion chamber is called clearance volume. The volume of
entrapped charge (or air) in combustion chamber, when the piston is at TDC (or IDC), is termed as
Clearance Volume (Vc).
Total Cylinder Volume: It is the sum of swept volume and clearance volume (VT).
VT = Vs + Vc
Compression Ratio: It is the ratio of total cylinder volume when the piston is at BDC (or ODC) to the
volume when the piston is at TDC (or at IDC). It is represented by ‘r’.
CR = r = VT / Vc = (Vc + Vs) / Vc = V1 / V2
Cut-off Ratio: It is the ratio of volume at which fuel injection is stopped to the volume at which fuel
injection is started.
ρ = V3 / V2
A/F ratio (Air-fuel ratio): It is the ratio of the mass of air to the mass of fuel present in the air-fuel
mixture
Four stroke petrol engine: Definition, Working, Cycle, Applications
Most of the vehicles that rush on the road are powered by four-stroke IC engines. Based on the working
cycle these are further classified as petrol engines and diesel engines. We notice four stroke petrol
engines in light or medium-duty vehicles like motorcycles, cars, ATVs, etc.

What are four stroke petrol engines?

The four stroke petrol engine is an IC engine that works on petrol cycle/Otto cycle and completes a
single power cycle using four strokes of the piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft.
The term “four-stroke” indicates the engine in which a single working cycle is completed using four
strokes of the piston (suction, compression, expansion, exhaust) while “Petrol” indicates the engine that
works on a petrol cycle (Otto cycle).
As these engines use spark plugs for the combustion of the air-fuel mixture, these are also referred to as
4-stroke spark ignition (SI) engines. It runs on the fuels like gasoline, CNG, methanol, LNG, etc.
These engines are generally lighter and smaller in size than the four-stroke diesel engines as it uses a
lower compression ratio (8 to 12) in comparison with 4 stroke diesel engines (14 to 24). Thus these
engines are used to run low to medium-duty automobiles.

Four stroke petrol engine working cycle:

The four stroke petrol engine works on the principle of the otto cycle. The cycle was invented by the
German engineer Nicolaus Otto and mainly consists of two adiabatic and two isochoric processes.
It comprises the following processes:
a) Process (0-1):- During this process, the piston sucks (pulls) the air-fuel mixture inside the cylinder at
constant pressure P1.
b) Process (1-2):- It is an adiabatic compression process in which the piston compresses the air-fuel
mixture inside the cylinder from pressure P1 to P2.
c) Process (2-3):- It is a constant volume heat addition process. In this process, a spark plug produces a
spark, to ignite the fresh charge (Air + Fuel) which causes the pressure inside the combustion chamber to
raise from P2 toP3.
d) Process (3-4):- It is an adiabatic expansion in which the high-pressure gases expand inside the
cylinder from P3 to P4.
e) Process (4-1):- It is a constant volume heat rejection, during which the heat is rejected outside of the
cylinder.
f) Process (1-0):- It is a constant pressure process in which burn gases are released from the cylinder
into the exhaust Pipe.

Parts:These engines basically consist of the following parts:

1) Inlet Valve: Inlet valve connects the cylinder to the intake manifold and its opening is controlled with
the help of the intake valve. During the open period of the intake valve, a fresh charge from the intake
manifold enters the engine cylinder.
2) Exhaust Valve: Exhaust Valve connects the cylinder to the exhaust manifold and its opening is
controlled with the help of the exhaust valve. Burn gases from Cylinder are released into the exhaust
pipe through the exhaust valve
3) Spark Plug: Spark Plug is connected to the cylinder head. The spark plug produces a spark in the
cylinder which helps to initiate the burning of fuel.
4) Cylinder: The cylinder guides the movement of the piston and also helps to form the enclosed cavity
for the combustion of the air-fuel mixture. It is connected between the cylinder head and the crank case.
The size of the cylinders used in automobiles varies as per power requirements.
The capacity of the engine is specified by the volume inside the cylinder when the piston is at the
bottom dead center.
5) Cylinder head: The cylinder head helps to form the upper enclosure of the combustion chamber. The
inlet and exhaust ports are constructed on the cylinder head and it also has a provision for mounting the
valves, spark plug, and valve actuating mechanism.
6) Piston: Piston reciprocates inside the cylinder to continuously change the volume enclosed in
cylinder which helps to perform the operations like suction, compression, expansion, and exhaust.
7) Connecting Rod: Connecting Rod connects the piston to the crank. One end of the connecting rod is
connected to the piston while another end of the connecting rod is connected to the crank.
8) Crank and crankshaft: The big end of the connecting rod is connected to the crank. The crank and
crankshaft along with the connecting rod convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary
motion
Construction of four stroke petrol engine:

The 4 stroke petrol engine consists of stationary as well as moving components.

The stationary components of the petrol engine are the cylinder, cylinder head, crankcase, and intake and
exhaust manifold, spark plug, etc.
The moving components of the petrol engine are piston, connecting rod, crank and crankshaft, intake
and exhaust valves, etc.
The cylinder head is mounted over the cylinder block and the piston is placed inside the cylinder to form
a cylinder cavity or combustion chamber.
The piston easily reciprocates inside a cylinder and it is connected to the crankshaft with the help of
connecting rod. This helps to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion of the
crankshaft and vice versa.
The inlet and exhaust valves are mounted into the cylinder head. The inlet valve actuates to control the
entry of fresh charge from the intake manifold into the engine cylinder and the exhaust valve actuates to
control the removal of exhaust gases from a cylinder to the exhaust manifold.
What are Four Strokes in Four Stroke Petrol Engine?

Suction Stroke: Suction stroke (suction valve open, exhaust valve closed)-charge consisting of fresh air
mixed with the fuel is drawn into the cylinder due to the vacuum pressure created by the movement of
the piston from TDC to BDC
During this stroke, as the piston moves from TDC to BDC, a partial vacuum is created inside a cylinder
that helps to suck (pull) the air-fuel mixture from the intake manifold into the cylinder.
Compression Stroke: During the compression stroke, the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture to high
pressure. For this purpose, the piston moves from the BDC toward TDC. During a compression stroke,
both valves (Inlet and Exhaust) remain in a closed condition. At the end of the compression stroke, the
spark plug produces the spark to ignite the air-fuel mixture.
Power Stroke / Expansion Stroke: Expansion stroke (both valves closed)-high pressure of the burnt
gases force the piston towards BDC and hence power is obtained at the crankshaft
In this stroke, the high-pressure combustion products push the piston downward (toward BDC) to get
expand. Hence, the piston gets power due to the expansion of combustion products. During the power,
stroke piston moves from the TDC toward BDC. At the end of the power stroke, the exhaust port
becomes open.
Exhaust Stroke: Exhaust stroke (exhaust valve open, suction valve closed) burned gases expel out due
to the movement of piston from BDC to TDC. The exhaust valve becomes closed when the exhaust
stroke is completed.
Working of four stroke petrol engine:
At the start of the combustion cycle, when the piston is at TDC, the intake valve becomes open and the
exhaust valve remains in closed condition.
The first stroke is the suction stroke during which the piston moves from TDC to BDC. As the intake
valve is in an open situation, the piston pulls the fresh charge from the intake manifold, thus the cylinder
gets filled with the fresh charge. At the end of the suction stroke, when the piston reaches BDC, the
intake valve becomes closed.
Now the piston moves from the BDC to TDC to compress the fresh charge trapped inside the cylinder.
During this stroke, both the intake and exhaust valve remains in closed situation.
At the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug produces the spark to ignite the compressed air-fuel
mixture. The combustion of the compressed charge results in the generation of high-pressure combustion
products inside the combustion chamber.
These high-pressure combustion products push the piston from TDC to BDC. The movement of the
piston due to the expansion of the combustion products is known as expansion stroke or power stroke.
At the end of this power stroke (at BDC), the exhaust valve becomes open.
Now in the next stroke, the exhaust gases are expelled outside of the cylinder through the exhaust port
due to the upward motion of the piston from BDC to TDC. At the end of this stroke, after reaching the
piston to TDC, the exhaust valve gets closed.
After Exhaust valve closes, the intake valve again becomes open and the fresh Air-fuel mixture again
enters the cylinder Therefore cycle continues.
As the piston is connected to the crankshaft with the help of connecting rod, the reciprocating motion of
the piston gets converted into the rotary motion of the crankshaft.
Advantages of four stroke petrol engine: The four stroke petrol engine has the following advantages:
1. The 4-stroke petrol engines work at high speed and low torque.
2. The 4-stroke petrol engines work at a comparatively lower compression ratio.
3. It does not require a high-pressure fuel injection system and fuel injectors.
1. The engines are light in weight.
2. The working of 4 stroke petrol engine is less noisy.
3. Because of the spark plug, cold starting is easier in 4-stroke petrol engines.
4. The initial cost of 4 stroke petrol engine is less.
5. It has a lower maintenance cost.
6. The engine creates fewer vibrations.
Disadvantages of four stroke petrol engine: The four stroke petrol engine has the following
disadvantages:
1. It requires an external device like a carburetor for the mixing of air and fuel.
2. The fuel used by the four stroke petrol engine is highly volatile.
3. The spark ignition system is required to ignite the compressed mixture.
4. The cost of fuel used in four stroke petrol engine is comparatively high.
5. It creates less torque than diesel engines.
6. The 4 stroke petrol engine has lower thermal efficiency.
7. It is not suitable for heavy load application due to the less torque generation.
8. This engine consumes more fuel for a unit amount of power generation, thus, it has lower
specific fuel consumption.
Applications of four stroke petrol engine: The four stroke petrol engine has applications in the
following vehicles:
1. Auto-rickshaw
2. Scooter
3. Motorcycle
4. ATVs
5. Petrol Cars
6. Generators
7. Light-duty transport vehicles
Four stroke diesel engine: Definition, Diagram, Principle, Working, Applications
• Four stroke diesel engine is also known as the compressed ignition (CI) engine since in this
kind of engine the combustion occurs due to the compressing a air more than fuel self-ignition
temperature.
• The compression ratio of this engine is higher as compared to SI engine and it not uses the spark
plug.
• This engine works on the thermodynamic diesel cycle.
• In this type of engine the diesel is used as the fuel.
• The four strokes in this engine are suction, compression, power as well as exhaust.
Four stroke diesel engine diagram:

Four stroke diesel engine working principle: The four stroke diesel engine works on the Diesel cycle.
The four processes in the Diesel engine are as follows:-
• Process 1-2: Isentropic compression
• Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat addition
• Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion
• Process 4-1: Constant volume heat rejection
Working of Four stroke diesel engines: When the piston moves from TDC to BDC, the piston creates
a vacuum inside the cylinder. Hence due to the pressure difference between intake manifold and
cylinder, air enters into the cylinder. During this suction stroke, the inlet valve is open and at the end of
the suction stroke inlet valve closes.
After suction stroke is done, the piston starts to move from BDC to TDC. During this movement, the
piston compresses the air to high pressure inside the cylinder. During Compression, both valves (Inlet &
Exhaust) are closed. After the compression of air, the fuel injector sprays the fuel inside the cylinder,
hence fuel gets ignited (catch fire).
Combustion starts, high-pressure gases expand (spread) inside the cylinder and push the piston
downwards (towards BDC).During expansion, both valves (Inlet & Exhaust) are closed.Due to
expansion stroke; power is obtained from the engine. Hence expansion stroke is also called a Power
Stroke.
After expansion stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC. During this movement of the piston (BDC
to TDC), the Burnt exhaust gases from the exhaust valve of cylinder are released through the engine
exhaust pipe in the environment.
During this exhaust stroke, only the exhaust valve is open and at the end of this stroke, exhaust valve
closes and the inlet valve opens to suck (pull) fresh air. Hence in this way cycle continues and power
obtains from the engine.
Four stroke diesel engine advantages: The four stroke diesel engine has the following advantages:
1. Higher torque generation: Due to the higher compression ratio, the diesel engine can generate
higher torque.
2. High power generation: The higher torque leads to the high power generation.
3. No need of carburetor for mixing of air and fuel.
4. Lower fuel cost in comparison with gasoline or petrol engine.
5. The spark plug is not necessary for ignition.
6. Higher thermal efficiency in comparison with petrol engines.
7. Suitable for heavy load applications.
8. It generates higher torque at lower speed.
9. Less fuel consumption.
Disadvantages: The four stroke diesel engine has the following disadvantages:
1. It requires high pressure fuel injection system.
2. The engine works at higher compression ratio.
3. The maintenance cost is higher in comparison with gasoline engines.
4. Most of the diesel engines are noisy in operation.
5. The diesel engines are bulky than petrol engines.
6. During winter season, it becomes difficult to start the engine.
7. It creates more vibrations.
8. The heater is necessary during cold season to start engine.
Applications: Four-stroke engines are the most common internal combustion engine design for
motorized land transport, being used in automobiles, trucks, diesel trains, light aircraft and motorcycles.
It also has various types of applications like: Small pumping sets, In the automobile industry, Air
compressor, Drilling jigs, Boats and Ships, Bulldozers, Tanks and Diesel-electric locomotives ETC.
 2 stroke engine: Definition, Parts, Working, Diagram, Types
There are numerous different criteria to classify IC engines. Depending on how many strokes they
accomplish in a single combustion cycle they are classified as two-stroke and four-stroke engines. In this
article, we will go over two-stroke engines in detail,
What are 2 stroke engines? Two-stroke engines are IC engines in which a single combustion cycle
completes within two strokes of the piston (One upward and one downward stroke) or within one
complete revolution of the crankshaft. The first 2 stroke engine was developed by the German
inventor Karl Benz in 1879.
This engine produces power stroke during each revolution of the crankshaft (during each downward
stroke), thus it provides high power to weight ratio than a four-stroke engine.
In a two-stroke engine, the crankcase also takes part in an engine cycle. The fresh charge carburetor first
enters the crankcase and then it is transferred to the combustion chamber.
The two stroke engine uses piston-controlled ports instead of valves which makes its construction less
complex than the 4 stroke engine.
This engine uses the ‘total loss lubrication’ method to lubricate the engine components in which the oil
is previously added to the fuel. Thus the oil directly enters the engine along with the fuel.
Construction of 2-stroke engine:

The two-stroke engine generally consists of the following parts:

1] Cylinder: Basically, an engine cylinder guides the movement of the piston and it also helps to form
the combustion chamber along with the cylinder head and piston.Other than these primary functions, the
cylinder used in two stroke engine also helps to exchange the gases in the combustion chamber.
It means that this cylinder has ports (inlet port, exhaust port, transfer port) to enter the fresh charge,
expel the exhaust, and to transfer the fresh charge respectively.
2] Piston: The piston transfers the expanding force of gases to the mechanical rotation of the crankshaft
through a connecting rod. The piston helps to convert the thermal energy of combustion products into
mechanical work. In addition to this, in the two-stroke engine, the piston helps to cover and uncover
the opening of ports.
Because there is no oil reservoir in the crankcase, the piston never has an oil control ring while it only
has compression rings.
3] Crankcase: A crankcase is an enclosure made over the crankshaft that supports the crankshaft and
protects it from dirt and shocks.
In a two stroke engine, the crankcase performs a vital role to suck and transfer the fresh charge. For this
purpose, an inlet port and transfer ports are connected to the crankcase. A fresh charge/air enters the
crankcase through the inlet port and then it is transferred to the combustion chamber through the transfer
port. The upward stroke of the piston creates a partial vacuum inside the crankcase to suck the fresh
charge and the downward stroke forces the charge to move into the transfer port.
4] Cylinder head: Because of the absence of valves and camshaft, the cylinder head of a two stroke
engine has a simple construction. It forms the upper portion of the combustion chamber, as well as it
also has provision to fit the spark plug or the fuel injector.
5] Connecting rod: The connecting rod along with the crankshaft helps to convert the reciprocating
motion of the piston into the rotary motion of the crankshaft.
The small end of the connecting rod is connected to the piston with the help of a gudgeon pin and the big
end is connected to the crankshaft.
6] Ports: The two-stroke engine has the following ports
(a) Inlet port/valve: The two stroke engine has a piston-controlled intake port or intake valve to suck
the fresh charge into the crankcase.
The intake port is present on the cylinder wall at the lower side of the piston and its opening is controlled
by the piston. If the engine is using an intake valve then it is present on the surface of the crankcase.
(b) Exhaust port/valve: The exhaust port is the opening made on the cylinder surface that is connected
to the exhaust manifold. The exhaust port is present above the transfer port, thus during downward
stroke, it opens before the opening of the transfer port, and during upward stroke, it closes after the
closing of the transfer port.
In the case of a uni-flow scavenging system, the 2-stroke engine has an exhaust valve (instead of the
exhaust port) which is fitted at the top of the cylinder head.
(c) Transfer port: The transfer port helps to transfer the fresh charge from the crankcase to the engine
cylinder.
7] Spark Plug/ Fuel injector:- A spark plug is necessary in two-stroke SI engines to ignite the air-fuel
mixture while the fuel injector is necessary in the case of the two-stroke CI engines for injecting fuel
into the compressed air.
8] Crankshaft – It converts the reciprocating motion to rotational motion.
9] Flywheel – It is a mechanical device that is used to store energy
Working of Two Stroke Engine:
The whole cycle of the 2 stroke engine completes within two strokes of the piston. i.e. upward stroke
and downward stroke. In this engine, the crankcase also takes part in an engine cycle, and it helps to
suck and compress the fresh charge required for the next consecutive combustion cycle happening in the
combustion chamber.
Thus due to these simultaneous processes happening in the crankcase and combustion chamber, it may
be difficult to understand the working on the basis of the strokes.
Thus for easy understanding let’s see the working of the two-stroke engine based on ‘How working fluid
for single combustion cycle travels in the engine’.
1] Suction: It is carried out in the crankcase during the upward stroke of the piston. Due to the upward
movement of the piston, a partial vacuum is created in the crankcase and as the piston uncovers the inlet
port, the fresh charge/air enters the crankcase.
2] Crankcase compression and transfer: During the downward stroke, as the intake port becomes
closed, the charge in the crankcase starts to get compressed by the downward movement of the piston.
But it only starts after the piston covers the transfer port and inlet port and ends when the piston
uncovers the transfer port.
As the transfer port becomes open, the charge inside the crankcase is pushed into the cylinder through
the transfer port because of the downward movement of the piston.
3] Compression: During the upward stroke, when the piston covers the transfer port and exhaust port,
the charge into the cylinder gets compressed by the piston.
4] Combustion and expansion: When the piston reaches TDC, the spark plug/ fuel injector helps to
ignite the mixture to start the combustion. The pressure developed by the combustion products pushes
the piston in a downward direction.
5] Exhaust (and transfer): The process of expansion ends when the piston uncovers the exhaust port
during the downward stroke and the exhaust gases start to flow outside through the exhaust port.
Just after the opening of the exhaust port, the piston also uncovers the transfer port which helps for the
better scavenging of the engine cylinder.
Here the one cycle of the two-stroke engine completes. In this manner, the two-stroke engine repeats
the same sequence of processes to continuously generate mechanical work.
Based on the different criteria, the 2 stroke engine can be classified as follows:
Based on the type of fuel used:
1) Two-stroke petrol engine: These are SI engines that run on gasoline and it has a spark plug at the
cylinder head.
2) Two-stroke diesel engine: These are CI engines that use diesel as fuel and it has a fuel injector at
the top of the cylinder head for fuel injection.
What are TWO Strokes in TWO Stroke Petrol Engine?

Down Stroke: The piston moves from TDC (Top-Dead-Center) to BDC (Bottom-Dead-Center) letting
the fresh air enter the combustion chamber. The fresh air-fuel mixture gets into the combustion chamber
through the crankcase. In this stroke, the crankshaft makes the rotation of 1800.

Up Stroke: The piston is pushed from BDC to TDC. As a result, the fuel-air mixture gets compressed
and the spark plug ignites the mixture. The mixture expands and the piston is pushed down. The inlet
port is open during the upstroke. While the inlet port is opened, the mixture gets sucked inside the
crankcase. When the mixture is pushed up into the combustion chamber during the previous upstroke, a
partial vacuum is created as no mixture is left behind in the crankcase. This mixture is ready to go into
the combustion chamber during down stroke but remains in the crankcase until the piston goes up to
TDC. In this stroke, the crankshaft makes the rotation of 1800.
From the 2nd downstroke onwards the exhaust gases get expelled out from one side while a fresh mixture
enters into the combustion chamber simultaneously due to a partial vacuum created in the combustion
chamber after the removal of exhaust gases. This is the beauty of the engine. Both things happen at the
same time which makes it a 2-stroke engine.
The exhaust gases are expelled from the 2nd downstroke onwards from one side while simultaneously a
fresh mixture of air and fuel is injected into the combustion chamber due to the partial vacuum created in
the combustion chamber after the removal of exhaust gases.
Advantages of two stroke engine: Following are some of the advantages of a 2 stroke engine:
1. High power output as it produces a power stroke during each crankshaft revolution.
2. It provides quick acceleration because of a higher power.
3. It has a higher power-to-weight ratio.
4. Easy construction due to the absence of a complex valve actuating system.
5. Maintainance is easier due to the absence of a lubricating system, and valve mechanism.
6. Lighter in weight in comparison with 4- stroke for same power output.
7. Lower maintenance cost.
8. Lower setup cost.
9. It uses a lighter flywheel as the distribution of turning moment is more uniform due to the fewer
idle strokes.
10. It occupies less floor area.
11. The 2-stroke engine can work in any position (As the lubricant receiver is absent).
Disadvantages: Following are some of the disadvantages or limitations of a two stroke engine:
1. It has less life in comparison with a 4-stroke engine.
2. Higher wear rate due to the lack of a dedicated lubricating system.
3. It uses more lubricating oil as the oil is mixed with the fuel.
4. Poor scavenging as fresh charge also gets lost through the exhaust port.
5. Less fuel efficiency and overall efficiency.
6. The operation is noisier and creates more vibrations.
7. Higher fuel consumption.
8. The exhaust contains a higher extent of pollutants due to improper combustion.
Applications of Two-Stroke Engine
• Two-stroke engines are preferred when mechanical simplicity, lightweight, and high power-to-
weight ratio are design priorities.
• They are lubricated by the traditional method of mixing oil into the fuel; they can be worked
within any orientation as they do not have a reservoir dependent on gravity. This makes them
desirable for their use in handheld tools such as chainsaws.
 • Two-stroke engines are found in small scales propulsion applications such as motorcycles,
Mopeds, and dirt bikes.
• Because of the requirement for a higher power-to-weight ratio, the two stroke engine is used in
the following applications:-
Chain saw, Leaf blowers, Dirt bikes, Beach ATVs, Jet skies, Small AC generators, Water pump
Mopeds, Minibikes etc
Comparison of Spark Ignition (S.I.) and Compression Ignition (C.I.) Engines
The most prominent difference between Spark Ignition (SI) and Compression Ignition (CI) engines is the type of
fuel used in each. In SI engines petrol or gasoline is used as fuel, hence these engines are also called petrol
engines. In CI engines diesel is used as fuel, hence they are also called diesel engines. Here are some other major
differences between the SI and CI engines is given in Table
SL
Features S.I. Engines (Petrol Engines) C.I. Engines (Diesel Engines)
NO
Diesel cycle for slow speed
Thermodynamic
1 Otto cycle engines. Dual cycle for high
Cycle
speed engines.
2 Fuel used Petrol (Gasoline) Diesel
3 Air fuel (A/F) ratio 10:1 to 20:1 18:1 to 100:1
Up to12 to 24; Average value 15
4 Compression Ratio Up to 11; Average value 7 to 9.
to 18
5 Combustion Spark Ignition Compression Ignition
6 Fuel Supply By Carburetor (Low Cost) By injection (High Cost)
Ignition takes place owing to
Compressed charged is ignited by high compression (Temp. of air
7 Method of Ignition
Spark after compression becomes more
than self ignition temp. of diesel)
Charge that enters into Mixture of air and petrol in vapour
8 Only air
cylinder form (in proper ratio)
9 Heat Addition At Constant Volume At Constant Pressure
10 Weight of Engine Less More
11 Cost of running High Low
12 Maintenance cost Minor maintenance Major over all require
Less suitable, fuel loss in
scavenging. But small two stroke
No fuel loss in scavenging. More
13 Two stroke operation engines are used in mopeds,
suitable.
scooters and motor cycles due to
their simplicity and low cost.
14 High powers No Yes
15 Starting. Easy, low cranking effort Difficult, high cranking effort
High due to heavy weight and
16 Initial capital Cost Low study construction; costly
construction 1.25-1.5 times.
Buses, trucks, locomotives,
Mopeds, Scooters, motorcycles,
17 Applications tractors, earth moving machinery
Simple engine passenger cars
and stationary generating plants.
Comparison between 2-Stroke and 4-Stroke Engines:
The two-stroke engine was developed to obtain a greater output from the same size of the engine. The
engine mechanism also eliminates the valve arrangement making it mechanically simpler. Almost all
two-stroke engines have no conventional valves but only ports (some have an exhaust valve). This
simplicity of the two-stroke engine makes it cheaper to produce and easy to maintain.

Theoretically a two-stroke engine develops twice the power of a comparable four stroke engine because
of one power stroke every revolution (compared to one power stroke every two revolutions of a four-
stroke engine). This makes the two-stroke engine more compact than a comparable four-stroke engine.
In actual practice power output is not exactly doubled but increased by only about 30% because of (i)
Reduced effective expansion stroke and (ii) Increased heating caused by increased number of power
strokes that limits the maximum speed.

The other advantages of the two-stroke engines are more uniform torque on crankshaft and
comparatively less exhaust gas dilution. However, when applied to the spark-ignition engine the two
stroke cycle has certain disadvantages which have restricted its application to only small engines suitable
for motor cycles, scooters, lawn mowers, outboard engines etc. In the SI engine, the incoming charge
consists of fuel and air. During scavenging, as both inlet and exhaust ports are open simultaneously for
some time, there is a possibility that some of the fresh charge containing fuel escapes with the exhaust.
This results in high fuel consumption and lower thermal efficiency.

The other drawback of two- stroke engine is the lack of flexibility, viz., the capacity to operate with the
same efficiency at all speeds. At part throttle operating condition, the amount of fresh mixture entering
the cylinder is not enough to clear all the exhaust gases and a part of it remains in the cylinder to
contaminate the charge. This results in irregular operation of the engine. The two stroke diesel engine
does not suffer from these defects. There is no loss of fuel with exhaust gases as the intake charge in
diesel engine is only air. The two-stroke diesel engine is used quite widely. Many of the high output
diesel engines work on this cycle. A disadvantage common to all two-stroke engines, gasoline as well
as diesel, is the greater cooling and lubricating oil requirements due to one power stroke in each
revolution of the crankshaft. Consumption of lubricating oil is high in two-stroke engines due to
higher temperature. A detailed comparison of two-stroke and four-stroke engines is given in the Table
below.
Comparison of two-stroke and four-stroke engines
SN Features Four Stroke Cycle Engines Two Stroke Cycle Engine
The cycle is completed in four
The cycle is completed in two strokes
strokes of the piston or in two
of the piston or in one revolution of
Completion of revolutions of the crank shaft.
1 the crank shaft. Thus power stroke is
cycle. Thus one power stroke is
obtained in each revolutions of the
obtained in every two
crank shaft.
revolutions of the crank shaft
Because of the turning
Flywheel required movement is not so uniform and More uniform turning movements and
2
heavier or lighter hence heavier flywheel is hence lighter flywheel is needed.
needed.
Again because of one power Because of one power stroke for one
stroke for two revolutions, revolution. power produced for same
Power produced for power produced for same size of size of engine is more (Theoretically
3
same size of engine engine is small or for the same twice, actually about 1.3 times) or for
power the engine is heavy and the same power the engine is light and
bulky. compact.
Because of one power stroke in Because of one power stroke in one
Cooling and
two revolutions lesser cooling revolutions greater cooling and
4 lubrication
and lubrication requirements. lubrication requirement. Large rate of
requirements
Lesser rate of wear and tear. wear and tear.
Two stroke engines have no valves but
Valve and valve The four stroke engine contains only ports (some two stroke engines
5
mechanism valve and valve mechanism. are fitted with conventional exhaust
valves)
Because of heavy weight and
Because of light weight and simplicity
complication of valve
6 Initial cost due to absence of valves mechanism,
mechanism, the initial cost is
cheaper in initial cost.
higher.
Thermal efficiency higher, part Thermal efficiency lower, part load
Thermal and part
7 load efficiency better than two efficiency lesser than four stroke
load efficiency
stroke cycle engine. cylinder engine.
Volumetric Volumetric efficiency more due Volumetric efficiency less due to
8
efficiency. to more time of induction lesser time for induction
Used where (a) low cost, and (b)
compactness and light weight
important Two stroke (air cooled)
Used where efficiency is petrol engines used in very small sizes
important; in cars, buses, trucks, only, lawn movers, scooters, motor
9 Applications.
tractors, industrial engines, cycles (lubrication oil mixed with
aeroplane, power generators etc petrol). Two stroke diesel engines
used in very large sizes more than 60
cm bore, for ship propulsion because
of low weight and compactness.
 What Is Meant By Scavenging? – Importance & Problems
Scavenging is the process that occurs in IC engine during the overlapping of ports/valves (Opens at the
same time) in which burnt gases are released out of the cylinder with the entering of fresh charge inside
the engine at the same time.
Scavenging is a type of gas exchange process in which combustion product of fuel removed by blowing
fresh air into the cylinder. The scavenging takes place during overlapping of valves or ports (when both
inlet valve and exhaust valve or both transfer port and exhaust port open at the same time). This process
is necessary for smooth running of the both four-stroke and two-stroke engine. However, it is harder to
achieve complete scavenging of the two-stroke engine.
An efficient scavenging is important to ensure sufficient air supply to the combustion. The more
effective scavenging system, the better fuel combustion and output. If the port is not open for enough
time, scavenge is incomplete, and the following stroke begins with a mix of burnt gas (exhaust) and
fresh charge leading poor performance of the engine.

Problems with scavenging of the engine: In ideal scavenging the air pushing out burnt gases without
mix with them and heat transfer between them. Such system, in practice, not possible. The common
problem with scavenging is 'short-circuiting loss' and mixing. Short circuiting loss is the expelling of
some fresh air directly to exhaust; mixing happens when a small amount of exhaust gets trapped
and mixes with the fresh charge. There is always a heat transfer between high-temperature burnt gases
and low-temperature fresh charge.
The scavenging is a significant process in the IC engine working due to the following reasons:
1] The scavenging helps in removing all previous combustion gases from the engine since if these are
mixed with a fresh charge, these will badly affect the engine.
2] The bad scavenging causes the burn gases will be mixed with the fresh charge results in improper
combustion in engines.
3] The proper engine scavenging increases the power as well as the efficiency of the engine.
4] The proper scavenging reduces the fuel consumption and loss of fresh air by the engine.
5] If scavenging does not carry out properly then it increases the average temperature inside the cylinder.
The good scavenging process is significant for the engine’s proper fuel combustion and better power
output. The four stroke engines have enough valve overlap time for the scavenging while in the two-
stroke engines, where one cycle is completed in two strokes of piston hence it doesn’t have enough time
for scavenging. Therefore 3 types of scavenging methods are used in two-stroke engines.

1. Cross flow Scavenging

2. Reverse or Loop Scavenging
3. Uniflow Scavenging

Cross flow scavenging: The cross-flow type scavenging has an inlet port and the exhaust port that are
located on the opposite sides to each other. The deflector piston (hump-shaped piston head) is used in
this type of scavenging. When the charge enters into the engine from the intake port, due to the hump
shape of a piston, this incoming charge moves upwards and pushes the upper burnt gases to the
downside and then these gases goes outwards through the exhaust port. Therefore, the hump on the
piston assists in the engine’s scavenging operation. This method of scavenging performs well during the
low speed of the engine while bad scavenging obtains at the high speed of the engine or at full throttle
time. The piston head is designed to have a hump shape called deflector. The fresh air enters in the
engine cylinder is deflected to the upward by a deflector and pushing exhaust gas down the other side.
Before loop scavenging invented, almost all two-stroke engines use this method
Advantages and disadvantages of Cross flow scavenging
Advantages: Low manufacturing cost.
Good scavenging at low speed and part throttle.
Low engine volume for the multi cylinder arrangement.
Disadvantages: Heavy piston with very high heat absorption.
High tendency to knock.
Poor scavenging at high speed and full throttle.
Compulsory water cooling, difficulty in cooling piston crown.
Loop scavenging: In this scavenging method, the intake port and exhaust ports are located at the same
side in the engine. In this method, the size of the intake port is a large size to enter a large volume of
charge inside the cylinder, and the size of the exhaust port is small (increases velocity) to flow out burnt
gases quickly.
When the fresh charge enters from the intake port, the fresh charge has a swirling motion (as like a loop)
hence this fresh charge moves upwards and pushes back the burnt gases. Hence in such a way, these
burnt gases flows out of the cylinder.
This method of scavenging performs well during the high speed of the engine or at full throttle time
while bad scavenging obtains at the low speed of the engine.
The gases are encouraged to move loops. This type of scavenging used carefully designed transfer port
(inlet) to loop fresh air rise towards the cylinder head on one side and pushes the burnt gas down to the
exhaust port installed just above the inlet. It has a flat or slightly domed piston crown. This is the most
used type of scavenging system.
Advantages and disadvantages of Loop scavenging
Advantages: Low maintenance.
The low surface area to the volume of the cylinder (hence the heat loss reduced).
Good scavenging at full throttle.
Water cooling system not necessary.
Disadvantages: Poor scavenging at part throttle operation.
Scavenging time is short.
Uniflow scavenging: Uniflow scavenging so called because both fresh charge and exhaust gas move in
a same upward direction. In this scavenging method, the one or two intake ports are located at the sides
of the cylinder and the exhaust port is located at the cylinder head.
In this method, fresh air enters from the lower side of the cylinder, and it pushes out exhaust through the
exit valve situated at the top of the cylinder. This method is used in large two-stroke diesel engines.
When the charge enters from both side intake ports, the charge flows upwards and after the combustion,
the burnt gases go out of the cylinder from the exhaust valve which is located at the top of the cylinder.
Less air loss occurs and has lower fuel consumption hence gives better engine efficiency as compared to
other methods.
Good scavenging obtains during the low speed and the high speed using the uniflow scavenging method.
The uniflow scavenging commonly is used in large-sized two strokes engines such as in two-stroke IC
engines of big marine ships.

Advantages and disadvantages of uniflow scavenging

Advantages:
1. Extended time for valve operation.
2. The possibility of mixing is reduced due to uniflow.
3. Increase power output.
4. Most efficient of all three methods.
5. Good scavenging at all speed ranges and throttle position.
6. Low fuel consumption compared to other scavenging types.
Disadvantages:
1. Elaborate and costly construction.
2. Difficulty in cooling the piston.
 Introduction of electric vehicle (EV)
Electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles: Introduction: Technological advancements have brought a
revolution in different fields. The automotive sector is no exception to it. The latest in this trend is the
introduction of Electric vehicle that doesn’t require any fuel to run but use rechargeable batteries. It is a
very new concept in the automobile industry. This advanced model of vehicle has been projected as a
cost-effective solution of transportation that also contributes towards a safe and healthy environment by
avoiding harmful emissions.
In the current situation of rising fuel prices and environmental pollution, one of the best available
alternatives for the conventional fuel-driven car is the electric vehicle. Although a lot of people have
some apprehension about the mainstream uses of electric vehicles, awareness is growing about how
electric vehicles can provide more economically efficient transport and help to reduce greenhouse
gasses. Another important aspect of electric vehicles is that it helps in reducing the use of non-renewable
energy resources like petrol, diesel, and natural gas which are scarce and need to be preserved.

Electric Vehicle Promotion in India: Electric Vehicles in India are still relatively new. They account
for just 1 % of the total vehicle density. India unveiled the ‘National Electric Mobility Mission Plan
(NEMMP) 2020’ in 2013 to address the issues of national energy security, vehicular pollution, and
growth of domestic manufacturing capabilities.
• While you might see a lot of e-rickshaws zipping across the narrow lanes of Karol Bagh in Delhi, a
major shift has yet to arrive towards Electric Vehicles. Only a handful of electric cars are available in the
market, and the small-vehicle market is still dominated by conventional vehicles.
• “We are going to introduce electric vehicles in a very big way. We are going to make electric vehicles
self-sufficient like UJALA. The idea is that by 2030, not a single petrol or diesel car should be sold in
the country,” Power Minister PiyushGoyal said while addressing the CII Annual Session, 2017.

Reasons for EV development

As modern culture and technology continue to develop, the growing presence of global warming and
irreversible climate change draws increasing amounts of concern from the world's population. It has only
been recently, when modern society has actually taken notice of these changes and decided that
something needs to change if the global warming process is to be stopped.
Countries around the world are working to drastically reduce CO2 emissions as well as other harmful
environmental pollutants. Amongst the most notable producers of these pollutants are automobiles,
which are almost exclusively powered by internal combustion engines and spew out unhealthy
emissions.
According to various reports, cars and trucks are responsible for almost 25% of CO 2 emission and other
major transportation methods account for another 12%. With immense quantities of cars on the road
today, pure combustion engines are quickly becoming a target of global warming blame. One potential
alternative to the world's dependence on standard combustion engine vehicles are hybrid cars. Cost-
effectiveness is also an important factor contributing to the development of an environment friendly
transportation sector.

What is an Electric Vehicle: An electric vehicle is a vehicle that is either partially or fully powered by
electricity. Electric vehicles have fewer moving parts and are easy to maintain. They are also very
environmentally friendly as they use no fossil fuels like petrol or diesel or even gasoline.
Electric vehicles have an electric motor instead of a combustion engine and use a rechargeable battery
pack to power the electric motor. The rechargeable batteries installed inside the car need to be
recharged from time to time. These batteries are not only used to power the car but also provide power
for the functioning of lights and wipers. The greatest advantage of this type of vehicle is that it doesn’t
emit any exhaust that pollutes the air. It does not contain any typical liquid fuel components like
conventional fuel-driven vehicles so maintenance is easier and cost-effective. Some manufacturers have
come up with hybrid models of cars that can use both electric power and gas. This concept is relatively
new so people have less knowledge and awareness about it. As more and more people start using electric
vehicles they will experience the benefits and demand for electric cars is expected to increase in the
coming days.
Comparison of Engine Vehicles Vs. Electric Vehicles

IC Engine (ICE) Vehicles Electric Vehicles (EV)

• Power train: IC engine • Power train: Motor (+ Engine)

• High specific energy of fuel • Low specific energy of battery
• Power density: High • Power density: Low
• Emits greenhouse gases • No tailpipe emissions
• Travels > 300 miles / fill • Travels < 100 miles / charge
• Short refilling time (< 5 min.) • Long charging time (0.5-8 hr.)
• Fuel tank takes less space • Battery takes large space
• Fuel weight is very less • Batteries are very heavy
• Higher maintenance costs • Lesser maintenance costs
• Braking energy not recovered • Can recover braking energy
• Running cost: high • Running cost: low
• Engine efficiency: ~ 30% • Motor efficiency: ~ 80%
• Needs complex gear system • Needs only one gear
• Noisy operation • Quiet operation
• Ample refilling infrastructure • Lacks charging infrastructure
• Need to pick up some speed to deliver • Produce maximum torque instantly after starting of
maximum torque motor
• Uses only hydrocarbons • Uses electricity from many resources

Why EV?
1. Pollution: • Transportation accounts for one third of all energy usage. • Use of 10% of ZEV cuts 1
million tons/year of air pollutants • With 100% EV - CO2 emission would be cut by half
2. Capital Cost and Maintenance Cost: • EV has a more capital cost • But life cycle cost of EV is lesser
than ICEVElectric Vehicles
3. Availability of Fuel Fast depletion of fossil fuel and dependence on Middle East countries for fuel.
4. Well to Wheel Efficiency The EV is found to have a better WTW (well to wheel) efficiency than
ICEV
Advantages of Electric Vehicle
• Environment-friendly: Electric vehicles do not use fuels for combustion and hence there is no
emission or exhaust of gasses. Vehicles using fossil fuels are large contributors to harmful gas
buildup in the environment so the use of an electric car can help contribute to a cleaner atmosphere.
• Renewable energy source: Electric vehicles run on electricity that is renewable whereas
conventional cars work on the burning of fossil fuels that exhaust the fossil-fuel reserves on earth.
• Cost-effective: Electricity is much cheaper than fuels like petrol and diesel which suffer a frequent
price hike. The recharging of batteries is cost-effective if solar power is used at home.
• Low maintenance: Electric vehicles have fewer moving parts so wear and tear is less as compared
to conventional auto parts. Repair work is also simple and less expensive relative to combustion
engines.
• Less noise and smoother motion: Electric vehicles give a much smoother driving experience. The
absence of rapidly moving parts makes them much quiet with low sound generation.
• Government support: Governments in various countries have offered tax credits as an incentive to
encourage people to use electric vehicles as a go-green initiative.
Disadvantages of Electric Vehicle
• High initial cost: Electric vehicles are still very expensive and many consumers consider them not
as affordable as conventional vehicles.
• Charging station limitations: People who need to drive long distances are worried about getting
suitable charging stations midway which is not available everywhere.
• Recharging takes time: Unlike conventional cars that require a few minutes for refilling fuel,
recharging of the electric vehicle takes much more time which is generally a few hours.
• Limited choices: Presently there aren’t too many electric models of cars available to choose from
when it comes to the looks, designs, or customized versions.
• Less driving range: The driving range of the electric vehicles is found to be less as compared to
conventional vehicles. Electric vehicles can be suitable for day-to-day travel but can be problematic
for a long-distance journey.
Comparison Table for Advantages and Disadvantages of Electric Vehicle
Advantages Disadvantages
Electric vehicles are powered by batteries so Electric vehicles involve a high initial cost for
they are emissions-free which helps to buying and many consumers aren’t able to afford it
maintain the pollution level at control in the in their budgets so they are not ready to switch
environment. from traditional vehicles to Electric vehicles.
Electric vehicles run on renewable energy, There aren’t too many models of electric cars
so they help to preserve non-renewable available to the public, so there is very limited
energy resources that are getting exhausted choice for customers in terms of designs, looks, or
rapidly due to extensive use. customized versions
Electric vehicles have fewer moving parts so People who drive long distances are worried about
they don’t wear out as fast as conventional being stranded somewhere while driving Electric
auto parts. Repair work on EVs is also less vehicles because there are fewer charging stations
expensive than traditional vehicles. available.
Driving an electric vehicle is much smoother Recharging of an electric vehicle takes a
due to the absence of rapidly moving pistons considerable time which is around four to six
and it generates less sound. hours.
Governments around the world have offered The electric vehicle has less mileage as compared
tax credits as an incentive to encourage to fuel-driven cars and is considered suitable only
people to buy electric cars. for short distances.
 Engine Performance Parameters
The engine performance is indicated by the term efficiency, η. Important engine efficiencies and other
related engine performance parameters are discussed below.
Measurement of indicated power and break power
Indicated Power: The power produced inside the engine cylinder by burning of fuel is known as
Indicated power (I.P.) of engine. It is calculated by finding the actual mean effective pressure.
The mean effective pressure represents the constant pressure if it is acted over the full length of the
stroke.

Where,
a = Area of the actual indicator diagram, cm2
l = Base width of the indicator diagram, cm
s = Spring value used in the indicator, N/m2 /cm
Indicated Power (for single cylinder)
Force on the Piston = Pm. A (N)
Work done per stroke= Force x Stroke Length =Pm. A L (N-m)
Work done per minute= Pm. A L N (N-m/min)
IP = (n Pm L A N)/60000 = kW
Where n= No of Cylinders
Pm =Mean Effective Pressure N/m2
L= Length of the stroke
N= RPM of the crank shaft
N= N/2 for 4 stroke
N=N for 2 stroke
Brake power: It is the power available at engine crank shaft for doing useful work. It is also known
as engine output power. It is measured by dynamometer
Brake Power= B.P=n (2 π N T)/60000=kW
BP =(n Pmb L A N)/60000 = kW
Effective radius of brake drum R= (D+d) /2
d = diameter of the rope
Net Load W= (w-s)
w = dead weight at the end of the rope
s = spring balance reading
Work done per revolution = torque x angle turned per revolution= T. 2π
Work done per minute = T. 2π N (N-m/min)
Work done per second = (T. 2π N) / 60 (N-m/sec= Watt)
Brake Power= B.P=n (2 π N T)/60000 (kW)
Mechanical Efficiency: Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power (delivered power)
to the indicated power (power provided to the piston). Its value varies from 75 to 90 % for different
types of engines.

Friction Power: Indicated Power - Break Power

Thermal Efficiency: Thermal Efficiency of an engine is the indicator of conversion of heat supplied
into work energy. It is based either on indicated power or brake power
Indicated Thermal Efficiency: Indicated thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the indicated
power, ip, to the input fuel energy in appropriate units.

CV= Calorific Value of the fuel (kJ/kg)

Brake Thermal Efficiency: Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of power available at crank shaft, bp,
to the input fuel energy in appropriate units
From the expression for ɳith and ɳbth as given above, we can write
ɳbth/ ɳith =BP/IP= ɳm
ɳbth =ɳm x ɳith
Its value varies from 25 to 30 % for spark ignition and 30 to 40 % for compression ignition engines.
Volumetric Efficiency: Volumetric efficiency indicates the breathing ability of the engine. It is to be
noted that the utilization of the air is that determines the power output of the engine. Intake system must
be designed in such a way that the engine must be able to take in as much air as possible.
Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual volume flow rate of air into the intake system to
the rate at which the volume is displaced by the system

Its value varies from 70 to 80 %

Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio: Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio is the ratio of thermal
efficiency of an actual cycle to that of the ideal cycle. The efficiency ratio is a very useful criterion
which indicates the degree of development of the engine. Its value varies from 60 to 80 %

Air Standard Efficiency: It is the efficiency of the thermodynamic cycle of the engine

Where γ = Ratio of specific heat for air 1.4

Cut-off Ratio: It is the ratio of volume at which fuel injection is stopped to the volume at which fuel
injection is started.
rc = ρ = V3 / V2
Specific fuel consumption: Specific fuel consumption (SFC) is defined as the amount of fuel
consumed by an engine for one unit of power production. SFC is used to express the fuel efficiency of
an I.C. engine.
Air Standard Cycles: In most of the power developing systems, such as petrol engine, diesel engine
and gas turbine, the common working fluid used is air. These devices take in either a mixture of fuel and
air as in petrol engine or air and fuel separately and mix them in the combustion chamber as in diesel
engine
− The mass of fuel used compared with the mass of air is rather small. Therefore the properties of
mixture can be approximated to the properties of air.
− Exact condition existing within the actual engine cylinder is very difficult to determine, but by making
certain simplifying assumptions, it is possible to approximate these conditions more or less closely. The
approximate engine cycles thus analyzed are known as theoretical cycles.
− The simplest theoretical cycle is called the air-cycle approximation. The air-cycle approximation used
for calculating conditions in internal combustion engine is called the air-standard cycle.
Comparison between Otto and Diesel Cycle
Otto Cycle Diesel Cycle
Petrol engine works on Otto cycle Diesel engine works on Diesel cycle
During suction stroke, air petrol mixture is During suction stroke, only air is sucked into
sucked into the cylinder. the cylinder.
Heat is added at constant volume. Heat is added at constant pressure.
Efficiency is higher, for the same Efficiency is low, for the same compression
compression ratio ratio
Compression ratio has to be kept below 12
No limitation
due to knocking
Thermal efficiency is higher due to higher
Thermal efficiency is lower due to lower CR.
CR.
Numericals: 1

2. Following observations were recorded during a test on a single cylinder 4- stroke oil engine
Bore =300mm; Stroke = 450mm; Speed =300rpm; imep = 6bar; Net brake load = 1.5 kN; Brake drum
diameter = 1.8m; Brake rope diameter = 2 cm. Calculate:
(i) Indicated Power (ii) Brake Power (iii) Mechanical Efficiency
3. A four cylinder two stroke cycle petrol engine develops 30 KW at 2500rpm. The mean effective
pressure on each piston is 8 bars and mechanical efficiency is 80%. Calculate the diameter and stroke of
each cylinder with stroke bore ratio 1.5. Also calculate the fuel consumption of the engine, if brake
thermal efficiency is 28%. The calorific value of fuel is 43900 kJ/ kg
4. A 4-cylinder petrol engine works on a mean effective pressure of 5 bar and engine
speed of 1250 r.p.m. Find the indicated power developed by the engine if the bore is 100
mm, and stroke 150 mm. (1 bar =105 Pascal’s or N/m2)
[Ans. 6.11 kW]

5. The following observations were recorded during a trial of a four stroke engine with
rope brake dynamometer: Engine speed = 650 r.p.m., diameter of brake drum = 600 mm,
diameter of rope = 50 mm, dead load on the brake drum = 32 kg, spring balance reading
= 4.75 kg. Calculate the brake power [Ans. 5.9 kW]