ANALYSIS 1

Midterm Review

Lecturer: Assoc. Prof. Nguyen Minh Quan

Teaching Assistant: Phan Thi Khanh Nguyen

1 Preliminaries
Proof Methods
• Induction
Suppose that P(n) be a statement about n

(i) With n = 1, P(1) is true

(ii) Assume that P(k) is true for every natural number k

(iii) Prove P(k+1) is also true for every natural number k

Conclusion: By the induction, P(n) is true for all n = 1,2,...

Example: Prove that

(n + 1)n
1 + 2 + ... + n =
2

Solution
Suppose that P(n):
(n + 1)n
1 + 2 + ... + n =
2

holds for all n ∈ N

• With n = 1, we have: P(1):

(1 + 1)1
1= (T rue)
2

• Assume that P(k) is true for some k ∈ N:

(k + 1)k
1 + 2 + ... + k =
2

• Then we have P(k+1):

(k + 1)k (k + 1)(k + 2)
1 + 2 + ... + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1) =
2 2

which means that P(k+1) is true for some k ∈ N

By the Induction, for all n ∈ N

(n + 1)n
1 + 2 + ... + n =
2

1
1 Preliminaries

IMPLICATION P ⇒ Q
Example: Prove that for all integers n, if n2 is even, then n is even

• Direct proof: P ⇒ Q
Solution
By the assumption, we have n2 is even for all n ∈ N. It gives:

n2 = n.n = n1 .n2

for all n1 , n2 ∈ N, n1 = n2
(2 cases: both even or both odd)
* Case 1: Both n1 and n2 are even, we have for all k ∈ N:

n1 = n2 = 2k

So:
n1 .n2 = (2k)(2k) = 4k 2

is an even number for all k ∈ N.

* Case 2: Both n1 and n2 are odd, we have for all h ∈ N:

n1 = n2 = 2h + 1

So:
n1 .n2 = (2h + 1)(2h + 1) = 4h2 + 4h + 1

is an odd number for all h ∈ N. (not satisfying)

Therefore, n is even for every n in N

• Contraposition: ∼ Q ⇒ ∼ P
Solution
Suppose that n is odd: n = 2k + 1, k ∈ N
We have:
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + 2) + 1

is an odd number, for all k ∈ N

By contraposition, if n2 is even, so is n

• Contradiction: P ∧ (∼ Q) or (∼ P ) ∧ Q
* Stages:
(i) We assume for a contradiction that P is false and Q is true (or vice versa).
(ii) Deduce something known to be false (a logical contradiction).
Conclusion: This is a contradiction. Therefore, P must be true.

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2 Suprema and Infima

Solution
Suppose there exists an integer number n such that n2 is even and n is odd, so if we have:

n = 2k + 1, k ∈ N

then
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + 2) + 1

is an odd number (this is a contradiction)

Therefore, if n2 is even, so is n for all n ∈ N
√
Example 2: Show that 2 is irrational
Solution
√
We assume for a contradiction that 2 is rational
It means that, for all p, q ∈ N,
√ p
2=
q

It follows that
2q 2 = p2

Hence, p2 is even, so is p. Thus, p = 2k for some k ∈ N.

It implies q 2 = 2k 2 or k 2 = 12 q 2
It is impossible because k is a natural number, k 2 must be a natural number.
√
Therefore, 2 is irrational

2 Suprema and Infima

2.1 Supremum (Proof )

An upper bound β of a nonempty set S ⊂ R is the supremum of S if and only if for every ϵ > 0 there exists
an x ∈ S such that x > β − ϵ.

(∀x ∈ S)(x ≤ β)

β = Sup S ⇔
(∀ϵ > 0)(∃x ∈ S)(x > β − ϵ)


2.2 Infimum (Proof )

A lower bound α of a nonempty set S ⊂ R is the infimum of S if and only if for every ϵ > 0 there exists an
x ∈ S such that x < α + ϵ. 
(∀x ∈ S)(x ≥ α)

α = Inf S ⇔
(∀ϵ > 0)(∃x ∈ S)(x < α + ϵ)


3
2 Suprema and Infima

Example 1:  
1
S= n ∈ N, N = 1, 2, ..., n, ...
n

1. Show that S is bounded

2. Find Sup S and Inf S

Solution

1. Show that S is bounded

1 1
Since n ∈ [1, ∞), n ∈ (0, 1]. It means for every n ∈ N: 0 < n ≤ 1.
So P is bounded.

2. Find Sup S and Inf S

• From 1, we have 1
n ≤ 1 for all n ∈ N
So β = 1 is an upper bound of P
1 1 1
For given ϵ > 0, choosing n0 ∈ N such that n0 < ϵ. Assume that there is n1 =1− n0 , then

1 1
=1− >1−ϵ
n1 n0

Thus Sup S = 1

• From 1, we have x > 0 for all n ∈ N

So α = 0 is a lower bound of S
For given ϵ > 0, choosing n′0 ∈ N such that 1
n′0 < ϵ. Assume that there is 1
n′1 =0+ 1
n′0 , then

1 1
=0+ ′ <0+ϵ
n′1 n0

Thus Inf S = 0

Example 2:  
2021 2022
S= − m, n ∈ N
n m

1. Show that S is bounded

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3 Sequences of Real numbers

2. Find Sup S and Inf S

Solution
 
n ∈ [1, ∞)
  2021 ∈ (0, 2021]

n
Since: then
m ∈ [1, ∞)
  2022 ∈ (0, 2022]

m

1. Show that S is bounded

2021 2022
Let x ∈ S, x = n − m

Clearly, we have:
2021 2022 2022
x= n − m ≤ 2021 − m < 2021 − 0 = 2021
and
2021 2022 2022
x= n − m >0− m ≥ 0 − 2022 = −2022
For any m, n ∈ N, we have:
2021 2022
−2022 < x = n − m < 2021.
Thus S is bounded

2. Find Sup S and Inf S

• From 1, we have x < 2021 for all m, n ∈ N

So β = 2021 is an upper bound of S
2022
For given ϵ > 0, choosing m0 , n0 ∈ N such that n0 = 1 and m0 <ϵ
2021 2022 2022
We have x0 = n0 − m0 = 2021 − m0 > 2021 − ϵ
Thus Sup S = 2021

• From 1, we have x > −2022 for all m, n ∈ N

So α = −2022 is a lower bound of S
2021
For given ϵ > 0, choosing m1 , n1 ∈ N such that m1 = 1 and n1 <ϵ
2021 2022 2021
We have x1 = n1 − m1 = n0 − 2022 < −2022 + ϵ
Thus Inf S = −2022

3 Sequences of Real numbers

3.1 Sequences

A sequence of real numbers is a function from N to R. Notation: (xn ), (xn )n

3.2 Limit of sequence

A sequence (xn )n is said to converge to x ∈ R if for every ϵ > 0 there exists a natural number n0 (ϵ) such
that
|xn − x| < ϵ, n ∈ N, n ≥ n0 .

If a sequence has a limit, we say that the sequence is convergent; if it has no limit, the sequence is divergent.
Notation: limn→∞ xn = x

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3 Sequences of Real numbers

Theorem

• A convergent sequence is bounded.

• Suppose sn , tn are complex sequences, and limn→∞ sn = s, limn→∞ tn = t. Then

1. limn→∞ sn + limn→∞ tn = s + t

2. limn→∞ csn = cs, limn→∞ (c + sn ) = c + s for any number c

3. limn→∞ sn tn = st
1 1
4. limn→∞ sn = s if sn ̸= 0 for every n ∈ N, and s ̸= 0

• Sandwich Theorem (Squeeze Theorem): Suppose that (xn )n , (yn )n , and(zn )n are sequences of real
numbers such that
zn ≤ xn ≤ yn , n ∈ N

and that limn→∞ zn = limn→∞ yn . Then (xn )n is convergent and

lim zn = lim xn = lim yn

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

• Some important limits

1
1. If p > 0, then limn→∞ np =0
√
2. If p > 0, then limn→∞ n p=1
√
3. limn→∞ n n = 1
nα
4. If p > 0, and α ∈ R then limn→∞ (1+p)n =0

5. if |x| < 1, then limn→∞ xn = 1

3.3 Monotone Sequences

Let (xn )n be a sequence of real numbers.

1. (xn )n is increasing if xn+1 ≥ xn ∀n ∈ N

2. (xn )n is decreasing if xn+1 ≤ xn ∀n ∈ N

Monotone Convergence Theorem

1. If (xn )n is increasing and bounded above then (xn ) is convergent and we have

lim xn = sup{xn : n ∈ N}
n→∞

2. (xn )n is decreasing and bounded below then (xn ) is convergent and we have

lim xn = inf {xn : n ∈ N}

n→∞

xn +1
Example: A sequence (xn )n is defined by x1 = 1, xn+1 = 3

6
4 Function

1. Prove that xn > 12 , n ∈ N

2. Show that the sequence is convergent

3. Find limn→∞ xn

Solution

1. Show that xn > 12 , n ∈ N

1
Suppose that xn > 2 for all n ∈ N

• With n = 1, we have x1 = 1 > 1/2

• Assume that xk > 1/2 is true for some k ∈ N

• Then we have xk+1 = xk +1

3 = 13 (xk + 1) > 13 ( 12 + 1) = 31 ( 32 ) = 1
2

1
By the Induction, xn > 2 for all n ∈ N

2. Show that the sequence is convergent

1
Since xn > 2 for all n ∈ N, (xn ) is bounded below
Moreover, we have
xn + 1 1 2xn 1 2 1
xn+1 − xn = − xn = − < − ( )=0
3 3 3 3 3 2
1
So (xn ) is bounded below by 2 and decreasing
Hence (xn ) is convergent

3. Find limn→∞ xn
Since (xn ) is convergent, by the Monotone Convergence Theorem, limn→∞ xn exists.
Let l = limn→∞ xn , l ∈ R
xn +1 l+1 1
Taking lim on the both sides of xn+1 = 3 for all n ∈ N, we have l = 3 or 2l = 1 or l = 2
1
Thus limn→∞ xn = 2

4 Function

4.1 Limits and Continuity

• f is continuous at a, then:

1. f(a) is defined, that is, a ∈ Df

2. limx→a f (x) exists

3. limx→a+ f (x) = limx→a− f (x) = limx→a f (x) = f (a)

• f is continuous at a, then limx→a |f (x)| = |f (a)| (the implication)

7
4 Function

Example: Let

x2 +3x+2
 if x < −1
 x+1



f (x) = x + a if − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1



sin(πa) + (b2 − 2b)x + 4 if x > 1


Find a,b ∈ R such that f is continuous everywhere

Solution
By the definition of f, we have:

x2 +3x+2
• f (x) = x+1 for x ∈ (−∞, −1)

• f (x) = x + a for x ∈ [−1, 1]

• f (x) = sin(πa) + (b2 − 2b)x + 4 for x ∈ (1, +∞)

Thus, f is continuous on (−∞, −1), [−1, 1], and (1, +∞). Hence, f is continuous everywhere if and only if f is
left-continuous
 at -1, and f is right-continuous at 1.
limx→−1− f (x) = f (−1)

That is
lim
x→1+ f (x) = f (1)

 
limx→−1− x2 +3x+2 = 1
 limx→1+ sin(πa) + (b2 − 2b)x + 4 = b2 − 2b + 4

x+1
Or and
f (−1) = −1 + a
 f (1) = 1 + a


−1 + a = 1

It gives
1 + a = b2 − 2b + 4


a = 2

So we get
b = 1


Therefore, when a = 2, b = 1, f is continuous everywhere

The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)

A function f that is continuous on a closed interval [a,b] takes on every value between f(a) and f(b). A point c
where f (c) = 0 is called a zero or root of f.
⇒ If f is continuous on [a,b] and f (a)f (b) < 0 then f has a zero in (a,b).

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4 Function

Example 1 (basic): Show that the equation

e−2021x + 2020 = x2020 + 2020cos(x)

has at least one positive root.

Solution
∗ Note: Depend on the requirement (one, positive root) to choose optimal interval ⇒ choose D = [0, +∞)
Consider the function:

f (x) = e−2021x + 2020 − x2020 − 2020 cos(x) ∀x ∈ [0, +∞)

We have
f (0) = e0 + 2020 − 02020 − 2020 cos(0) = 1 > 0
f (2) = e−4042 + 2020 − 22020 − 2020 cos(2) < 0 + 2020 − 22020 − 2020 = −22020 < 0
Thus f (0)f (2) < 0. By the IVT, f (c) = 0 for some c ∈ (0, 2) ⊂ (0, +∞)
So c is the positive root of the given equation and satisfies the problem.

1 1
Example 2 (advanced): Let g(x) = x + x5 −1 , x ∈ (1, +∞). Prove that for a given m ∈ (0, +∞) there exists
c ∈ (1, +∞) such that g(c) = m
Solution

9
4 Function

* Let m ∈ (0, +∞) be given

We show that there exists c ∈ (1, +∞) right that g(c) = m
1 1
Or x + x5 −1 = m for some c ∈ (1, +∞)
1 1
* It means that the equation x + x5 −1 = m (1) has at least one root on (1, +∞)
Note that (1) is equivalent to mx(x − 1) = x5 − 1 + x (2) for every x ̸= 1
5

or mx(x5 − 1) − x5 + 1 − x = 0
* Consider the function f (x) = mx(x5 − 1) − x5 + 1 − x (3), x ∈ [1, +∞)
Clearly f is continuous on [1, +∞)
On the other hand, we have
f (1) = −1 < 0
limx→∞ f (x) = limx→∞ mx(x5 − 1) − x5 + 1 − x = +∞ > 0
So, by the IVT, there is c ∈ (1, +∞) met that f (c) = 0
Hence c is a root of (1) (Since c is a root of (3), c ∈ (1, +∞), c ̸= 1)

The max-min Theorem

Suppose the function f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b]. Then there are x1 , x2 ∈ [a, b] such that

f (x1 ) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (x2 ) ∀x ∈ [a, b]

Thus f (x1 ) = min f (x) and f (x2 ) = max f (x) ∀x ∈ [a, b]

Example 1: Find maximum and minimum value of g(x) = cos(x) + sin(x), x ∈ [−π, π]
Solution

• For any x ∈ [−π, π], we have:

√ √ !
√ 2 2
g(x) = 2 cos(x) + sin(x)
2 2

10
4 Function

!
√
   
π π
g(x) = 2 sin cos(x) + cos sin(x)
4 4

√
 
π
g(x) = 2sin +x
4
 
• In addition, −1 ≤ sin 4 + x ≤ 1 for all x ∈ [−π, π]
π

√ √ √
 
π
It gives: − 2 ≤ g(x) = 2sin 4 + x ≤ 2
√ √
Thus, min g(x) = g(π) = − 2 and max g(x) = g(0) = 2 for all x ∈ [−π, π]

Example 2: Let f is continuous on (1, +∞) and

lim f (x) = 100, lim f (x) = 102, f (2) = 103, f (3) = 99

x→1+ x→+∞

Show that there exists a, b ∈ (1, +∞) such that f (a) = min f (x) and f (b) = max f (x) ∀x ∈ (1, +∞)

Solution

• We have 99 < limx→1+ f (x) = 100 < 103

Thus, there is δ > 1 such that, for all x ∈ (1, δ)

99 < f (x) < 103

• Similarly, since 99 < limx→+∞ f (x) = 102 < 103. We can find N > 1 which is large enough such that
99 < f (x) < 103 for all x > N

Since f(x) is continuous on (δ, N ), there exists a, b ∈ [δ, N ] such that f (a) = min f (x) and f (b) = max f (x) for
all x ∈ [δ, N ] 
f (a) ≤ f (x)

It means that, for all x ∈ [δ, N ]
f (b) ≥ f (x)


f (a) ≤ 99 ≤ f (x), x ∈ (1, δ]

Since
f (a) ≤ 99 ≤ f (x), x ∈ [N, +∞)


11
4 Function

then f (a) ≤ 99 ∀x ∈ (1, +∞) and hence f (a) = min f (x) for all x ∈ (1, +∞)

f (b) ≥ 103 ≥ f (x), x ∈ (1, δ]

Similarly, because
f (b) ≥ 103 ≥ f (x), x ∈ [N, +∞)


then f (b) ≥ 103 ∀x ∈ (1, +∞) and hence f (b) = max f (x) for all x ∈ (1, +∞)

PRACTICE ALL SECTIONS IN THE MAIN SLIDES

12
5 Midterm sample

5 Midterm sample
Question 1: Let ( )
1
S := − (−1)n n ∈ N
n

where N := 1, 2, 3, ... is the set of all natural numbers.

(i) Show that S is bounded.
(ii) Find the sup S and inf S.
Question 2: Prove the statement: For all integers a, b, and c if

a2 + b2 = c2 ,

then a or b is even.
Question 3: A sequence (xn ) is defined by

xn
x1 = 8, xn+1 = + 2, n ∈ N
2

Show that:
(i) the sequence is bounded below by 4.
(ii) the sequence is convergent and find its limit.
Question 4: Let



 2023x + a if x < −1;


f (x) := x2 +1
 x+2 if − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1;

  
cos π x +(b2 − 2b)x +
 5
if x > 1,
2 3

Find a, b ∈ R such that f is continuous everywhere

Question 5: Show that
x−1 3−x
2
=
x +2 x+1

has at least one positive root.

Question 6: Find all continuous function f on [0, ∞) such that f (x) = f (x2 ) for any x ∈ [0, ∞)

13