DISCLAIMER

This module is intended for STUDENTS OF TARLAC STATE

UNIVERSITY ONLY to address the flexible learning scheme for A.Y.
2020-2021 as implemented by the Commission on Higher Education
brought by the COVID– 19 pandemic. The textbooks, articles, websites,
and video links used in compiling this module are properly cited. No
reproduction of any part of this module may be used, sold, or distributed
for commercial purposes or be changed or included in any other
business, work or publication, whether in print or electronic unless prior
permission has been granted. Parts of the module were lifted or adapted
from different sources, then were compiled. All credits and rights are
reserved to the authors or owners. No copyright infringement intended.
This is for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY.
 Republic of the Philippines
Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
Main Campus Tarlac City
Tel. No. (045) 493-0182; Fax. No. (045) 982-0110

Social Science 1D –

Contemporary World TSU VMGO

VISION Tarlac State University is envisioned to be a premier

university in Asia and the Pacific.

MISSION Tarlac State University commits to promote and sustain

the offering of quality and programs in higher and
advanced education ensuring equitable access to
education for people empowerment, professional
development, and global competitiveness.

Towards this end, TSU shall:

1. Provide high quality instruction through

qualified, competent, and adequately trained
faculty members and support staff.
2. Be a premier research institution by enhancing
research undertaking in the fields of technology
and sciences and strengthening collaborating
with local and international institution.
3. Be a champion in community development by
strengthening partnership with public and
private organization & individuals

CORE VALUES E - xcellence

Q - uality
U - nity
I - ntegrity
T - rust in God, Transparency and True Commitment
Y - earning for Global Competitiveness
PREPARED BY THE FOLLOWING FACULTY MEMBERS:

DR. MARIA ELENA D. DAVID Ed.D.

Professor VI

[email protected]
Dr. Maria Elena Dela Cruz-David,
Ed.D. is a graduate of BA Social
Sciences from the University of the
Philippines, a holder of Master’s
Degree in Public Administration and
Doctorate degree in Educational
Management.
She served as consultant and Team leader for various government projects
such as the verification of the ancestral domain claim of the Aetas in
Bamban and Moriones, Tarlac; Monitoring and Evaluation Project of the
Business Permits & Licensing System (BPLS) and Local Economic
Development and Competitiveness Index for Cities and Municipalities in the
Philippines of the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI). Consequently,
she had presented and published results of some of the studies she
conducted in various conferences and research journals here and abroad.
Currently she is a faculty member of the College of Arts and Social
Sciences of Tarlac State University.
 Assistant Professor LOUELLA PEDROCHE-CAPITULO
[email protected] / [email protected]
https://www.facebook.com/ louella.pedrochecapitulo

Asst. Prof. Louella P. Capitulo has been with Tarlac

State University for 30 years (1993-present), teaching
Social Sciences subjects at the TSU Laboratory School,
TSU-CoED (now CTE) and TSU-CASS. She has also
worked for several years with TSU-GAD (Gender and
Development) office. Prior to her work in Tarlac, she spent
eight years (1985-1993) as a College Instructor at Central
Luzon State University, which accorded her master’s
scholarship (under Fulbright-FAPE) at the Ateneo de
Manila University where she earned her MA Socio-Anthro.
She earned her bachelor’s degree (BA Social Sciences) at the University of the
Philippines. She is currently faculty member of CASS General Education Department
Faculty.

RUBY ROSE P. VINLUAN

Lecturer
mailto:[email protected] [email protected]

Ruby Rose P. Vinluan is a graduate of Bachelor of

Arts in Social Sciences Major in Economics and
Minor in Political Science at University of the
Philippines Baguio in 2015. Currently, she is taking
up Juris Doctor at Tarlac State University. She is
also a Lecturer of General Education Department
(Social Science), College of Arts and Social
Sciences of the same institution since 2015. She has
been teaching different social science subjects such
as Readings in Philippine History, Philippine
Constitution, Life and Works of Rizal, Economics
and Taxation, Humanities, Sociology, Contemporary World, Socio-Anthropology,
Ethics, and Gender and Society.
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
This three-unit course deals with the study of the Contemporary
World. It focuses on the interdisciplinary analysis of the various aspects of
Globalization in order to help students situate themselves in the global
world as Global Citizens imbued with Ethical Responsibility.

This course traverses the significant topics on Globalization

covering, Global economy, Global governance, Global development and
Sustainable Development Goals and the emergence of global cities with
the end in view of providing a multi-dimensional analysis of the various
problems that globalization might bring.

COURSE OUTLINE:
Course Content/Subject Matter for Group Present/Discuss
*** Introduction to Globalization – Historical &
Theoretical Approaches – Module Chapters 1-2
1. Theoretical Approaches – Unit 1 Chapter 3
2. The Global Economic Structure – Module Unit 2
3. Global Governance, Civil Societies and NGOs – Module
Chapters 5-6
4. Global Development and Divide – Module Chapter 7
5. Global Media Cultures (Westernization and
Americanization) – Module Chapter 8
MIDTERM WEEK

6. Global Religions – Module Chapter 9

7. Demography and Migration – Module Chapters 10-11
8. Urbanization and Global Cities – Module Chapter 12
Gender and Sex Discrimination
9. Social Issues and problems of urbanization in a Global
World (Global Health Issues, Climate Change & Peace
& Terrorism, etc.) – Module Chapter 13

FINALS WEEK
 RATIONALE
Contemporary World is a 3-unit subject which falls within the Social
Sciences domain. This subject focuses on the interdisciplinary analysis of
the various aspects of Globalization in order to help students situate
themselves in the global world as Global Citizens imbued with Ethical
Responsibility and their social, economic, and political impacts.
In line with the flexible learning for the academic year 2020-2021,
this module provides a wide discussion and developmental activities of the
subject that would give students new knowledge and help them to think
critically especially in the social, economic, and political context. The
discussion was made easier to comprehend by giving illustrations and
examples for them to have a better understanding of the different concepts
of globalization. The activities given also improve the comprehension and
analytical skills of the students.

INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

The students are required to study and understand the module to
be able to answer the different assessment tasks provided for each
chapter. Video links for subtopics are also provided in this module.
To the Subject Instructor, he/she is required to give a time frame for
the students to accomplish the prescribed tasks. Check the OBTL syllabus
for guidance.

IMPORTANT NOTICE:
Parts of the module were lifted or adapted from the book – Introduction
to Contemporary World by Felix De Ocampo, Bernardo Ramos, Rex
Llonora, Agnes Macaraeg and Maria Elena David. All credits and rights
are reserved to the authors. No copyright infringement intended. This is
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY.
 UNIT 1
CHAPTER 1

THE CONCEPT OF GLOBALIZATION:

IS GLOBALIZATION A PHENOMENON?

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Understand the meaning of globalization.
2. Define Globalization as a theory and phenomenon.
3. Discuss the characteristics and qualities of Globalization as
a phenomenon.
4. Analyze the different interpretations and concepts globalization.

1.1 Definition of Globalization

In the area of academe, there is no single definition of globalization.
There are various competing interpretations that emerged vying for
dominance and universal recognition. The inception of the term
globalization brought much attention to the public especially among
intellectuals who have interest to delve to the contending forces of this
notion. But what is this term globalization? Is this a phenomenon? Is
globalization a global trend?
Globalization refers to a multidimensional set of social processes
that create, multiply, stretch, and intensify worldwide social
interdependencies and exchanges while at the same fostering in people a
growing awareness of deepening connections between the local and the
distant (McGrew, 2003).
For Justine Rosenberg’s definition of globalization, he argues that
globalization as a phenomenon gave rise to the interconnectedness of
human society that replaced the sovereign state system with multilateral
system of global governance. His definition centers on the process,
condition, time, and age of this condition.
From the lens of George Ritzer (2008), he described this
phenomenon as the spread of worldwide practices, relations,
consciousness, and organization of social life. The interconnectedness of
social segments from macro institutions to the smallest sectors of the world
have coincided the fabrics of globalization.
Globalization, as a theory lies in the works of many 19th and 20th
century scholars and intellectuals like Karl Marx, MacKinder, and

7
Robertson who began to introduce the term “globality”. However, it was in
the 1960’s and 1970’s when this term gained worldwide attention.
Globalization -- simply put -- is a social process of reshaping and
remaking the world order. Operations of social institutions transcend across
territories and boundaries with the goal of expanding its reach – economic,
political, and technological fibers. Understanding the term globalization,
requires a critical examination of its origin, development, and usage as part
of our understanding of social change within the spectrum of contemporary
world. Thus, the deployment of new ideas in trans-planetary setting and the
structural emergence of nation- state project moved communities to be
included in a trans-state and transnational domain.

Figure 1.1 Forces and Drivers of Globalization

Economics
Technology Politics

GLOBALIZATION
Individuals
and Culture
Institutions Environment

1.2 Qualities and Characteristics of Globalization (Held &

McGrew, 2002)
1. Creation and Multiplication of social networks and cultural
activities which break the traditional norms and practices in the
political, economic, and cultural realms of most communities.
2. Expansion and Stretching of social operations and connections
which is seen in the financial markets and trading operations around
the globe. (Examples: World Trade Organization, ASEAN
Economic Community, World Economic Forum and European
Union)

8
 3. Intensification and Acceleration of human activities which
describes the process of world and individual connection works.
Consumer markets and consumerism continue to rule in this
postmodern era where the farthest have the access to reach the
central portion of global events.
4. Consciousness and Awareness. People, as the primary actors of
globalization are the front liners as reflected in their experiences.
The human consciousness is critical on how they impact the growing
outcomes and markets of globalization.

1.3 Is Globalization the same as Westernization?

NO. The concept of Westernization is deeply rooted in the Western
World where often associated with the Western culture and values (Sairin,
2011). This concept is famously used in referring the western value system
and it influences countries outside its territory and sovereignty. The
political, economic, and technological prowess of United States and
European countries are best described in the idea of Westernization

9
10
 CHAPTER 2

THE PRACTICE OF GLOBALIZATION

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Identify the waves of Globalization and its historical backdrop.
2. Discuss the developments of Globalization from its earliest period
up to the present.
3. Be familiar with the historical origin and developments of
Globalization.
4. Appreciate how the process of Globalization is affecting countries
and institutions around the world.

The take-off of globalization has made borders and state business

systems decline. The advances in technology, transportation, finance, and
communications resulted to the increase of uniform, standard, and
homogenous practices of nations. The world is totally an integrated
environment composed of different forms of interrelated drivers of changes
and social developments.

However, globalization as a new social formation, adds color to the

endless debates and criticisms of the current mode of state interactions.
There are identified losers and winners, some will be pushed as part of the
growth while other might be pulled due to the absence of core ingredients
of the transformation process. The question here, how did globalization
started? How did affect the interrelation of different nations across the
globe.

This chapter presents important topics on the historical

development of globalization as well as dimensions of this
phenomenon. It will also explain how competition works at a global
scale by using the ideas of world orders.

3.1 Globalization in Historical Perspectives

There are key events and developments in the history of

globalization from the time it was initially observed and describe as a
phenomenon up to the current era of advancement and modernization. The
useful checklist training the phases of globalization was drawn by Holton
(1998), Sholte (2001), and Lawson (2012). The following chain of events is
not of definite, but it provides a clearer view on the cycle of globalization.

11
 Table 3.1 Timeline of Events

First Phase Second Phase Third Phase

(Mid 18th Century – (1920s – 1960s) (1960s – Present)

1870s)

Development of Establishment of Establishment of global

international networks League of Nations communication

Beginning of Global effect of Cold Increasing power and

international fairs War influence of international
financial institutions

International relations Rise of Third World Rapid rise of US and

through treaties and Countries in expansion of western
agreements in Europe international arena investments and
multinational firms

Establishment of Increased attention to End of Cold War

International Committee humanitarian works and
of the Red Cross in development aid
1863

Significant development Introduction of global Increase in social

in communication and icons and American movement and global civil
transportation consumerism society

Development of Introduction of World

international Wide Web and
competitions continuous influence of
telecommunications

First World War Rise of global attention to

environmental concern
and snit-globalization
campaign

12
3.2 Phases of Globalization

For a better grasp on the historical developments of globalization,

Thomas Friedman described the phases of globalization into three periods.

Table 3.2 Thomas Friedman’s Phases of Globalization

Globalization 1.0 Globalization 2.0 Globalization 3.0

(1492 – 1800) (1800 – 1950) (1950 – 2000)

Period of Mercantilism End of World War II Period of Technology

and Internet

Age of Industrialization Age of Pax Britannica Age of Information

(rise of British Economy)

Inventions: Formation of Market Intensification of trade

• Steam engine Integration and worldwide and
• Printing press Institutionalizations of development of
• Railway system major economic Multinational
activities in global corporations
market

Development of Social New players and

Systems and Institutions: prominent economic
• Government actors:
• Education • China
• Exchange of • ASEAN
goods within the • European Union
region • Japan
• South Korea

13
 3.3 Three Dimensions of Globalization

Anthony Giddens described the globalization as intensification of

worldwide social relations. The global economic activity is the most obvious
face of this phenomenon where economic activities have immense effect to
other global operations such as governments, education, and technology

Table 3.3 Gidden’s Three Dimensions of Globalization

World Capitalist • Primary force of globalization.

Economy • Capitalist states are the main engines of global
production and distribution of goods and services.
• Capitalists engage in transnational operation
maintaining pool of resources such as labor and
capital.
• Multinational corporations are very powerful in
controlling domestic and foreign market.

Nation-state • Sovereignty of states has been emphasized as a

System primary part of independence and autonomy.
• The concept of sovereignty in a globalized world is
understood as the best form of asserting the
existence and operation of a state in order to be
recognized.
• It has been used as a major political unit in
international relations.
• Nation-states have the right to make their own
collective objectives.

World Military • Strengthening military power is the priority of the first

world countries as well as the developing and third
world countries.
• Budget allotted by governments to defense and
military surged hundred folds with the aim of
delivering world-class defense operation and
services to its people.
• US maintains the rank as the world’s most powerful
military in terms of military spending (SIPRI, 2017).

14
3.4 Three Worlds and World Order

The concept of First World, Second World, and Third World was a
construct of the Cold War era. There were number of interpretations on the
origin of Cold War. First, the conflict was cause by aggressive behavior and
domestic policies of Soviet Union prompting other countries especially the
US to react. Second, the cold war was a result of the US economic system
of expansionist-capitalism. Third, the war was a consequence of security
response from the two countries on the power vacuum and threat of central
Europe.

Table 3.4 Three Worlds

First World Second World Third World

During Cold War Unites States Soviet Union Neutral and non-
United Kingdom China aligned Countries
Japan Estonia
Western Lithuania
European Half of Germany
Countries Vietnam
North Korea
Cuba
Description Powerful The idea of world Countries are
economies having order is described as less
stable associated with developed and
governments, role of political developing
robust financial and military economy or
markets, and power during global south.
advanced and Cold War.

15
modern The communist Most of the
infrastructures, countries of the countries have
low poverty, and Second World experience
high standard of are found to be colonialism from
living trapped between Western World.
poverty and
prosperity.

16
 CHAPTER 3
THEORETICAL APPROACHES

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Discuss the definition of three leading theories explaining
Globalization.
2. Familiarize the known leading theorists and standpoint on
Globalization.
3. Discuss the origin of the three theories and its relevance to the study
of Globalization.
4. Apply the three theories on the current political, economic, and
technological situations of the world.

We see globalization in the field of international relations through

number of perspectives and explanations. Examining the causes of events
and analyzing the levels of events require sufficient facts to better explain
the narratives of the situation. In our understanding on the lens and
interpretations, it would be more interesting if we are going to look into the
three prominent theories. The three sociological perspectives that will best
explain globalization are realism, liberalism, and idealism.

2.1 Realism
The realist perspective explaining globalization focuses on the
shifting distribution of power among states (Walt, 1998 and Synder, 2004).
They explained that the core idea of dominating the world is through the
employment of power. This force comes from different angles, depending
on the power availability of a nation. However, realists warn that countries
may suffer, and struggle to maintain its power it will be overreached and
used wrongly.
Realists argue that countries open their economies to the world
because of two contending reasons:
1. Financial returns of expanding markets offer new economic
opportunities to the capitalist (origin country). (Examples:
McDonald’s, Chevron, Ford, Coca-Cola, Citibank, Microsoft, and
H&M)
2. The continued centrality of political power and military strength are
obvious forces of interdependence and realistic behavior of the
more and most powerful countries.

17
 Realists see economic alliance and corporation as medium of
flourishing activities under favorable security conditions. Economies tend to
forge partnership if they see advantages from other countries. In some
cases, political-military alliances are sometimes used especially within the
bipolar world where economic power is utilized to strengthen military
capability.
2.2 Liberalism
Liberalism is a perspective in international relations where actors
and institutions emphasize relationships, and negotiations. Liberalists
observe the importance of interaction and communication and focus on
solving problems and conflicts affecting them. This idea is very evident in
countries where democratic governance and institutions play major roles in
maintaining national cohesiveness in managing domestic and international
affairs.

Example:
When Chinese government asserted its rights over the contested West
Philippine Sea, Realist China has shown its military strength to its neighbors
through giving signal of its advantageous capability. On the other hand, Liberalist
Philippines utilized soft approaches through protesting in the International Criminal
Court the act of China pertaining to its aggressiveness over the West Philippine
Sea.

Liberalists believe in the avoidance of international conflict and

problems, and negotiations and dialogues are potential mechanisms in
confronting issues among parties.

Three Factors that describe the Transformation of Political-Economic

Structure and Development of Global Interconnectedness:
1. Spread of Democracy and Institutions
Democracy as a frontline of liberalism has been utilized as
a sociopolitical apparatus in challenging political actors who act
beyond their power and control. The strong participatory presence
of citizens in key issues affecting the interest and welfare of the
public could be used as a reference in balancing the interest of
stakeholders.
Liberalists see that democracies are venues of not using
threat to intimidate and harm other nations. Many liberals believe in
the vital function played by the rule of law as safeguard of self-
respect and social stability.

18
 2. Global Economic Ties
Liberalists see economic ties and cooperation such as
market integration and economic alliances as fitting fixtures of
globalization. The core belief of liberalism is that economic alliance
and integrating the domestic economy into a regional or economic
bloc will deliver prosperity and security. Opening of markets to other
countries is described as an act of country’s commitment to global
consciousness and moral understanding of multistate interests.
(Examples: European Union’s Eurozone and Association of
Southeast Asian Nations Economic Community (AEC)).
3. International Organizations
Liberals believe that the formation of leading regional and
international organizations like global commerce and governance
are main instruments in the maintenance of peace and solidarity.
(Examples: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO))

2.3 Idealism
Idealists and constructivist hold the notion that values, and norms
play pivotal roles in sustaining and reforming the process and works of
individuals, group, and nations. This theory emphasizes on the functions of
ideologies, frameworks, systems, and identities in understanding
globalization and international order. Its core beliefs centers on the
centrality of ideas, beliefs, emotions, and collective values that shape the
political and economic landscapes of the world.
Alexander Wendt and John Gerard Ruggie are the two most
prominent founders of this school of thought. Idealism presents the
changing norms and evolutions of individuals, groups, and states with the
goal of influencing the dynamics and pattern of social structure.
Furthermore, they value the importance of “appropriateness” and
“transparency” in reshaping and framing rules affecting the general welfare
of its members, may it be individual or collective. Idealists emphasizes
appropriate policies and decisions during the state of conflict as it advances
the moral aspects and ethical dynamics of actions.

Role of Ideas and Technology in Globalization

Ideas are non-material entities of culture; it embodies one’s
perception of his social world or environment. It defines how values, norms,
and beliefs are used by governments and institutions in the holding and
exercise of power (Nau, 2008).

19
 When ideas are used well based on their intended application,
development takes place. It could be utilized for the linking and transfer of
knowledge in a transnational community of nations, scientific, and social
innovation, and increase in the understanding of people in their day-to-day
life. Ideas are necessary in this particular scene because the definitions
and concepts constructed are used in interpreting how people act and
behave.
Three Important Technological Trends that made Significant Changes
in the Interaction of Nations and People:
1. Knowledge and technology are significant determinants of
wealth and power. The success of an economy of a country
requires pool of resources like ideas and technology. The
technological advancement of a nation is an identity of its economic
power.

2. The fast pace of technological change. From industrialization to

modernization, technology has taken a significant role in business,
government, and individuals. The countless forms of technological
breakthrough change the cycle of the 21 st century. The advent of
fourth industrial evolution, the global community is expected to
embrace multiple technical changes and technological
developments.

3. Dispersed knowledge and technology. The increasing trends in

communication revolution make it more possible to move data and
ideas from people to people and country to country at faster and
more convenient way.

Innovation as a product of technological advancement have

rendered national borders irrelevant in international system. Discoveries
and changes in science and technology make markets around the world a
borderless contact, making the global economic structure more intertwined.
Because of global reach, economies find this trend as a ground of tough
competition, with rivals’ states and institutions who have vast resources of
wealth and power. In addition, resource- poor countries are prone to the
damage of these changes. Technology in this day of postmodernity can be
used to project global power at the same time intimidates countries that are
technologically behind. For example, African States and countries from part
of the global south have the difficulty to rise and compete with resource-
rich countries.

2.4 Institutions and Globalization

Institutions consist norms, set of activities, and regulate structures

that provide meaning and stability to the social behavior of a group (Peter,
2012). Norms like the rules, guidelines, programs, and the types of

20
 activities constitute the operation of an institution. They are understood as
structures that are parts of a society.

Meyer and Rowan (1977) describe the formation of institution as a

symbolic manifestation on the needs of society. The actions and behavior
of the group members can change and alter the movement of community
and its people.

A different view explained by Giddens (1979), states that institutions

will not be recognized as institutions if they do not shape the behavior of
individuals. As a set of systems and norms, institutions convey individuals
on how to behave and conform to the practices of the group as a way of
accepting the legitimacy of the norms and values of the organization.

Global governance is directed by two important institutions: political and economic

institutions. The operation of the political and economic life of globalization depends on
how plans are implemented and how accountable theses institutions are in their actions.
Liberalists emphasize the importance of institutions in international order and stability.
Domestic and international institutions have various roles in maintaining growth and

International institutions are classified intergovernmental organizations

that are formed by national governments. These are international formal
organizations that set rules and with the purpose of regulating the flow of
communication and movement of resources. Governments engaged in
internationalizing their organizations because of retaining and asserting control
over global activities and networks brought by global changes and transformations.

Example:

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) performs globally and countries

around the world depend on the common rules set by the body. Like IMF, World
Trade Organization (WTO) is an international institution that plays key role in the
management of global trade. Its member-economies are bound to adhere and
behave in accordance to its guidelines in the conduct of international trade.

REFERENCE:
De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E. (2018).
Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.

21
development in both political and economic realms.

Video Link:

A History of Globalization (https://youtu.be/RieHPO4JeaU)

REFERENCE:

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E. (2018).
Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.

22
 UNIT 2

GLOBAL

ECONOMY

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Define international trade and identify the reason why countries
engage in international trade.
2. Examine the various theories and perspective explaining the practice
of international trade.
3. Evaluate the roles and functions of different international economic
organizations.
4. Discuss the factor leading the formation of economic integration and
cooperation.

The global economy is highly interdependent. Global exchanges of

commodities create an opportunity to more sustainable and equipped
economy while pose a risk to the emerging and less performing country.
Top gainers and developed economies in the world are those that have the
sufficiency of resources to compete with other most powerful economies.
They somehow control and dictate the movement of global demand,
investments, and flow of technologies worldwide. If such trend and
condition will continue to happen and exist, who shall be blamed by this
threatening effect of globalization? Where will less developed and merging
economies be under the stewardship of the biggest economies in the world?

This chapter discusses the relevance of the economic system in

globalization. It deals on issues concerning the function of international
trade, its benefits, and damages. This also explains the importance of
domestic and foreign policies in international trade and promotion of global
economy. The chapter will conclude by explaining the roles of international
economic organizations in globalization.

23
4.1 Economic Systems

The global economy of most countries is classified into three

categories: market, command, and mixed economies. In countries where
democracy prevails, its economic system is usually under freedom, choice,
and decisions of its citizens. While countries that are under the control of a
single political party and authority, its system could be under the practice
of command economy.
Table 4. 1 Three Economic Systems

MARKET • Decision making of private individuals Hongkong

ECONOMY • Economy under the will and interest of
the individuals. New
• Economic freedom to purchase and sell Zealand
products, services, and properties.
• This condition is not planned by a single Australia
person or group that has the ability to
manipulate or direct the economy solely. Switzerland
• It promotes competition among business
and firms.

COMMAND • A central economic planning body North Korea

ECONOMY handles the entire decision making.
• The quality and quantity of goods and Cuba
services produced is based on the
decision of the government. Russia
• Production quantity is dictated,
consumer behavior is directed, and China
market operation is controlled by a
single authority.
• Its objective is to mobilize resources for
the common good of the public and for
the interest of the nation.
• Private individuals have no say in the
economic operation.

MIXED • Market-driven economies Philippines

ECONOMY • Combination of market and command
economies. United
• Some sectors are under the directions of States
the private individuals while other
aspects of the economy are left within United
the guidance of the government. Kingdom
• State can take over the ownership and
operation of a private company for the France
purpose of maintaining the interest of
the nation.

24
4.2 International Trade

Is the process and the system when goods, commodities, services

cross national economy, and boundaries in exchange for money or goods
of another country (Balaam and Veseth, 2008). Global trade has grown
dramatically since the post-cold war era because of increasing demand
of goods and services and countries. This global norm reflects growing
practice of internationalizing and globalizing local products and services.

Trade Theories

1. Descriptive Theory – it deals with the natural order and the

movement of trade. It describes the pattern of trade under the idea
of laissez faire, a French term which means “leave alone”. It refers
to the notion that individuals are best economic agents to solve the
problems through invisible hand rather than government policies. It
also addresses the questions which product to trade, how much
product to offer and produce, and which country to trade in the
absence of government restrictions.

2. Prescriptive Theory – it prescribes whether government, an

important economic institution, should interfere and restrict with the
movement of goods and services. This theory views government to
have participation in deciding which countries to alter the amount,
composition, and direction of goods.

Three Perspectives on International Trade

1. Economic Liberals
David Ricardo’s influential work, Law of Comparative
Advantage explains that free trade efficiency is attainable if two
countries can produce more goods and trade products separately.
The advantage of this theory in international trade is deriving
principle of specialization and division of labor of Adam Smith (Nau,
2009). Countries have different resources and talents; they are
better in performing in that economic activity than other economic
activities.

Economic liberals explain the importance of free trade and

the role of individual’s preference in choosing economic activity. It
includes making decision, and choices on comparing the costs of
products to be produced and traded, the availability of the product,
and the efficiency of producing and buying products.

25
 2. Mercantilists
Mercantilism is an economic theory that emerged from
about 1500- 1800. This period was the emerging eras of nation-
states and the formation of more central governments. This system
flourished due to the following reasons:
a. Higher export than import. Governments imposed
restrictions and policies requiring economy and its
market to produce higher export that products and
services purchased outside the country or import.
Countries used this mechanism to support their trade
objectives and strengthen their colonial rule and
possessions.
b. Export less high valued product and import less high
valued product. It prevented and monopolized the
production and manufacturing operation of the
colonies.
c. Benefits of colonial powers. Mercantilism is adopted
to increase and sustain the colonial power and its
authority to direct and control the economic activity
of the colony.

3. Structuralists
The Modern World System (MWS) theory developed by
Immanuel Wallerstein, explain the contact of economies between
core, semi- peripheral, and peripheral countries in the world. The
core states have the absolute advantage over the other through
unequal exchange and extraction of raw materials from the
periphery and semi-periphery. This system as part on the structure
of the global capitalism, involves exploitation, and transformation in
some ways.

Why Countries Engage in International Trade?

➢ Use of Excess Capacity in Demand. The inadequate domestic demand

pushes business organization to expand their market base outside the
national territory. This is usually done by the firms and companies that
have the resources and capital to operate in transnational market. Giant
brands like Nestle, Pepsi, McDonald’s, Toyota, and Starbucks are
known for expanding their operations outside their home country.
➢ Cost Reduction and Increase of Profit. A market leader for a particular
good or service may garner a lower production cost by increasing its
market in global rather than domestic. This enables a firm to increase
its profit while reducing its operating costs.
➢ Cheaper Supplies. a country imports goods from other countries
because of inexpensive raw materials and supplies used for production.
The availability of buying cheaper materials from other countries lowers
the costs in production which might result an increase in the profit of

26
 businesses.
➢ Addiction to Product Line. Economies usually aim for a variety of
products and services available in market. It offers consumer to choose
and by products that are competitive prices, degree of importance, and
will offer higher satisfaction.
➢ Reduction of Risk. Importing products is seen as an alternative to
countries that are vulnerable to supply shortage. These countries that
have high volume of imported goods are economies that confront the
demand and supply condition of the local market.
➢ Foreign Policy Tool. The membership of a country to regional market
integration and economic relationships is part of its foreign policy.
Enhancing the economic and political affiliation of a country is very
important in sustaining its international status in a global market.

4.3 Transnational Corporations

The role of Multinational Corporation (MNCs) in the 21 st is distinct

and interesting to investigate. The movement of ideas, capital, investment,
technology, and people are affected by the operations of MCNs. As the
global economy is becoming complex and competitive, MCNs continue to
offer innovations and new product and services. For several years, the term
MCNs was used to refer to a firm operating in different countries around the
world. Because of the magnitude of global production and networks, the
term transnational corporation (TNC) became the more acceptable name.
This refers to business organizations and firms that compete in regional or
global markets. It operates in countries and makes investments in
research, technology, facilities, distribution, and production.

TNC can control and monopolize the global market especially if it has
huge pool of resources making it one of the most powerful economic actors
in the world. The number of TNCs from north and west has business
operations in the south where cheap labor and raw material are available.
TNCs are very powerful economic institutions because of their global
influence in investment and network distribution. Sometimes, TNC is being
compared to states in terms of value and power.

4.4 International Economic Institutions and Market Integration

The formation of economic integration is designed to address and

enhance the level of competitiveness of member economies in trade. Free
trade is the primary consideration of regional economic integrations. Free
Trade Area (FTA) is a trading bloc which involves the reduction of internal
tariffs to zero of member economies while retaining different external tariffs.
This policy aims to promote free flow of goods and services as well as to
increase the volume of trade within the region.

27
 However, there are criticisms on FTAs like the unfair trade practice.
Unfair Trade is the conduct of trade by a business fir or government that
violates and breaks the international trade agreements that are unjustifiable
and discriminatory. Examples of common trade practices are issues
relating to price, labor, wages, health, and environmental concerns that
failed to meet the regulatory standards of the body.

There are number of regional economic blocs around the world

based on the size and area. For the western part of the globe, European
Union and North America Trade Agreement while in Asian and Pacific,
Association of Southeast Asian Nations Economic Community and Asia
Pacific Economic Cooperation are leading market integrations in the
region.

There are also major economic institutions who are major players
in the operation and management of global trade, investment, and finance.
Currently, the international economy has World Trade Organization, World
Bank, International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, and the
newly formed Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank

1. World Trade Organization (WTO)

In 1995, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
of the American government was replaced and succeeded by WTO
with 151 members as of 2008 and accounts for 90% of the world’s
trade. It is based in Geneva, Switzerland and leads by a director
general selected by consensus among its members.

Primarily, WTO has the following main functions:

a. Implementation of the latest GATT agreements
b. A venue for trade negotiations
c. A dispute settlement body responsible for resolving
trade problems.
d. Review and assess national and international trade
laws and policies.
e. Assist members and developing economies by
providing technical assistance and training
programs.

2. World Bank
Officially called the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development (IBRD), or World Bank is an international agency
with 189 member-countries operating in 130 countries worldwide.
Formed by Bretton Woods agreement in 1944 to finance the
reconstruction of war-torn countries brought by the devastation of
World War II.

28
 World Bank is composed of four associated agencies:

a. International Development Association (IDA). This

agency focuses on poor and third world economies
in the world by providing financial assistance and
load program.
b. International Finance Corporation (IFC).
c. Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA).
d. International Settlement Centre of Investment
Disputes (ISCID).

3. International Monetary Fund (IMF)

IMF was created as the flagship institution of Bretton Woods
agreement with 189-member countries. IMF is responsible in
supervising exchange rate system, providing loan programs to
economies experiencing balancing payments adjustments, and
review domestic economic policies. Its mandated to ensure the
stability of the international monetary system including exchange
rates and international payments. IMF is keen in monitoring foreign
monetary transactions as it has a direct effect on country’s financial
climate. It reflects on the amount owed by the country from another
country as well as indicates the economic operation like what it
produces, consumes, and buys with its money.

4. European Union
European Union (EU) is a political economic regional
organization of 28 member-economies in Europe. Founded in 1985,
European Economic Country (EEC) was formed by six countries:
Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, and Netherlands.
Since then, other European countries joined the regional bloc
making it as Europe’s most influential and powerful body.
EU is guided by its core values, considered as integral part
in the way of life of its citizens. It believes on the following value
orientation: (1) Human dignity, (2) freedom, (3) democracy, (4)
equality, (5) rule of law, and
(6) human rights.

5. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

The Association of Southeast Asian Nation (ASEAN) was
founded on August 1967 in Bangkok Thailand with Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand as its founding
fathers. Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Myanmar, and Cambodia
joined the organization making up today the 10 member-countries.
The ASEAN Political-Security Community, ASEAN Economic
Community, and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community are the three
main pillars of ASEAN.

29
 As stated in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in
South East Asia (TAC) of 2976. The ASEAN Community
functions under its six fundamental principles (ASEAN.org).
a. Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty,
equality, territorial integrity, and national identity of
all nations;
b. The right of every State to lead its national
existence free from external interference,
subversion or coercion;
c. Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another;
d. Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful
manner;
e. Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and
f. Effective cooperation among themselves
Video Link:
Better understanding of global trade flows (https://youtu.be/RZKX-0SK41U)

COVID-19: What will happen to global economy? | The Economist

(https://youtu.be/pnKsrKuUfBc)

REFERENCE:

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E. (2018).
Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.

30
 CHAPTER 5

GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Define international trade and identify the reason why countries
engage in international trade.
2. Examine the various theories and perspective explaining the practice
of international trade.
3. Evaluate the roles and functions of different international economic
organizations.
4. Discuss the factor leading the formation of economic integration and
cooperation.

llenges like civil wars, hunger and poverty, sexual abuse, climate
change, and poor infrastructures are most common problems where
collective efforts are needed. Governments usually respond based on the
need and the urgency of the problem affecting their sovereignty and
interests. It is problematic in some respects when institutions and bodies
do not agree and show commitments to theses global problems. These
institutions at the international level are filled with complexities and
difficulties in analyzing their specific power and jurisdiction over a problem.
Their contacts and linkages are very political and are backed by interests
of their nations and citizens.
Political globalization refers to intensification and increasing
level of interrelations among nations in the world. These structural
processes raise the issue of state sovereignty, the growing implications of
intergovernmental organizations, and the prospects of regional and
international governance. (Steger, 2003). These features of globalization
confront to the framework of the nation-state with the emergence of new
conceptual views and grounds.
This chapter presents the political dimension of globalization as a
primary component in studying contemporary world. This includes
examining the nature if global governance and how these nations and
states work in globally competitive environment. It will answer questions on
who are responsible to issues at the international level? Are national
governments responsible and accountable to the problems arising at a
global scale? Is there such thing as global governance and governments?

31
5.1 Global Governments and Governance
The term global government is a response on the actions of
various stakeholders on finding out pressing global problems like climate
change and issues on peace and security. The world has no global
government and global authority. There are political and economic bodies
operating worldwide but no single organization possesses a global
authority in enforcing and compelling others to follow.
What the world has is the idea of global governance. This term
refers to domestic institutions and governments on how large-scale
problems and public policy issues are being solved at a global level. It
involves a range of actors including states, national and regional bodies
that have the willingness and commitment to confront a specific problem
(WHO, 2015). It involves management, authority, cooperation, and
mechanisms that are aimed to attain certain goals. This international
process is bounded by consensus and agreements where members are
expected to perform based on the guidelines and policies.
The downside of global governance is establishing its sovereignty
and accountability to all decision framed and actions implemented. States
may not conform and deviate from the norms set by international
institutions like UN and WTO especially if it will compromise its economic
and political interest. The idea of establishing collectivist approaches in
international arena remains a challenge to organizations that have the
power and resources. All have well-orchestrated governance practices, but
the concept of “governments” remains very elusive.
Three Existing Gaps and Issues in Global Governance
1. Jurisdiction Gap
The lack of global governance in taking actions to problems
affecting key sectors arises from the absence of authority. This
involves the need to create power and jurisdiction to governments
and international organizations that have the commitment in
confronting issues like unemployment, human rights, peace, and
crimes.

2. Incentive Gap
Global governance is formed with the participation of countries that
have the interest to deal problem affecting their sovereignty. It is an
issue between the rich and poor countries of the world because of
uneven distribution of authority and control over decisions and
policies.

3. Participation Gap
Member-states sometimes disagree on issues that are harmful to
their interests. They do not involve in decisions that are crucial to
the economic and political welfare of their sovereignty.

32
5.2 Political Systems
The kind of political system used by a country has implications to
the success of its economy and the overall governance. Political System
means the system, or the form of practice employed by the state.
Udayanskar (2012) identified two dimensions of political system. First, a
country emphasizes the importance of individualism as opposed to
collectivism. Second, a system in which a country is either democratic or
totalitarian in its form of government.
Table 5.1 Individualism vs Collectivism

INDIVIUALISM • it is a political system that values the significance

of individuals over collective goals.
• freedom of the people is the primary
consideration.
• government values choices and preferences of its
people at a very personal level.
• it is built in two elements: individual freedom and
expression are important in the sense that
individuals just like state have sovereignty; and
the pursuit of economic interest among
individuals.

COLLECTIVISM • is a philosophy that stresses the importance of

the collective goals over individual freedom and
interests.
• the state, as the primary economic manager
views collective action as the best strategy in
establishing the welfare and interest of the nation.
• According Plato, social stratification must be built
in order for the society and the entire economy
and the government be managed properly and
orderly.

33
 Table 5.2 Democracy vs Totalitarianism

DEMOCRACY • Democratic institutions and governance focus on

the role individuals in political decision making.
• the practice of direct participation in modern
societies involves representation, where
individuals periodically elect someone who has
the ability to represent them in the government.
• in a representative democracy, competitive
elections occur where candidates freely compete
for votes through conduct of fair and honest
election.
• elected officials are accountable for their actions
in the government and operation of the state.
• constitutional laws are provided to safeguard the
welfare and interest of the people.

TOTALITARIANISM • is built on the idea that society and citizens have

no right and freedom of expression.
• totalitarian countries do not recognize the
conduct of fair and honest election, the presence
of media, and civil liberties.
• decision making of the states is exclusive only on
a single political party if not a ruler who has full
control in the political, economic, and social
affairs if its government.

34
5.3 Political Layers and Geopolitics
States in contemporary world are hungry for power. Power is the
ultimate goal to contain and control other states and nations that do not
enjoy much power are considered as powerless states in international
arena. Realists define power as capabilities of a country o state like
population of its people, resources, territory, economic, and military
strengths (Chomsky, 2006; Nau, 2008).In a typical discourse, power is
described as the ability of a person, group, or institution to affect the
behavior of others against their will.
In international relations, geopolitics is defined as a focus and
concentration of a country's location, environment, and geography as the
basis of its national interests (Nau, 2008). United States and China have
ideal geography because of its vast land and territory, Israel on the other
hand, has struggles when it comes to defending the territory because it is
surrounded by Islam majority countries. India enjoys its huge territory but
have some challenges when it comes to territorial security and military
relationships with neighboring countries Pakistan and China.
Unilateralism
The economic growth experienced by China and other emerging
economies in the world are dependent on the American market. On the
political angle, American military power is considered as the most highly
valued military force in the world with billions of dollars annually spent by
the government. Its military presence in some countries in Asia and Pacific,
Middle East and Africa, Europe and South America is a remarkable
manifestation of its control in global defense operation. However, the global
stability of power enjoyed by the Americans can only be sustained if it will
employ the liberal values of freedom, democracy, and human rights
(Balaam, and Veseth, 2008).
Multilateralism
The idea of multilateralism includes three powers in international
system.
1. Bipolar - it happens if there are only two great powers
dominating the distribution of power. The Cold War era is fitting
example of bipolarity, the global power was highly contested
between US and USSR.
2. Tri-polar or tri-polarity - exists if there are only three states
dominating the distribution if global order. United States, Japan, and
Europe were considered as potential powers during the Second
World War. They controlled some areas under the respective
military instruments and interests. In the area global economic
power, Japan, China, and United States are the most favored

35
 nations identified by scholars as the three leading economic giants
of modern time.
3. Multipolar or multi-polarity - is situation when more states are
involved in the distribution of global power. This geological condition
is described as an alignment if the powerful and emerging powers in
the world. The current situation of the globe could be described as
Multipolar because of state actors joining the prestige of
superpowers. Europe, China, Japan, Russia, United States, and
major alliances are key players in the distribution of power.

Isolationism
Isolationists believe that major powers and states exclude the use of force
and military in the international system. War and attacking other nations are
unethically acceptable in the international political economy. It is already
enshrined in the international law. Realist-isolationist stresses that United
States must disengage itself using military force over other military
interests.

5.4 Global Political Institutions United Nations

The United Nations or UN is an international organization

established in 1945 with the League of Nations as its original body.
Currently, the organization has 193-memberr states performing various
capacities and divisions. As the world's most powerful binding political
organization, UN can act on the issues confronting humanity in the 21st
century such as peace and security, climate change, sustainable
development, human rights, disarmament, terrorism, humanitarian and
health emergencies, gender equality, governance, food production, and
more. UN operates worldwide in providing aids and support services to
global problems in countries where it is needed.

Organs of United Nations

1. General Assembly- this is UNs main deliberative and decision-
making body represented by all its 193 members. The assembly
holds general debate from September - December in its
headquarters in New York. Two thirds of vote are required to
decide range of issues like peace and security, budget, and
admission if new members to the organization.
2. Security Council - it is responsible in the maintenance of peace
and security. it has the power to impose sanctions or punish
members or other bodies for the purpose of restoring
international peace and security.
3. Economic and Social Council - commonly called as ECOSOC.
its main function is to coordinate, review, and recommend
policies relating to economic, social and environmental issues. It
serves as the main agency of UN in monitoring and evaluating

36
 key results in sustainable development.
4. International Court of Justice - ICJ is the principal body or court
of UN. Its role includes setting legal disputes among concerned
states and provides opinions on legal matters. This is the only UN
organ that operates outside United States with headquarters in
the Peace Palace, Netherlands.
5. The Secretariat - it is headed by the UN Secretary - General
who sits as its Chief Administrative Officer at the appointment of
the secretary general is done through the recommendation of the
Security Council for a five-year term. this organ is responsible for
the day-to-day work and operation of the UN including its
peacekeeping mission and thousands of international staff
stationed in different countries.
6. Trusteeship Council

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NATO was formed initially as a political association, and not a
military alliance. Realists argue that during its proposal in 1949, the idea of
collective security arrangement was the main feature of NATO. Its purpose
was not directed against the threat of Soviet Union but to strengthen
political commitment of governments in Western Europe. However,
liberalists point out the belief that NATO was established to back up and
save the economic and political problems of Europe from the damages of
war. The economic alliances of Europe's powerful countries transformed
the region as a major hub in industrialization. Its development transformed
NATO as a conventional military alliance and protected Europe from the
threat of Soviet Union.

Video Link:
What is global governance? (https://youtu.be/tNOweWgv5kQ)
The United Nations explained (https://youtu.be/vWFiUX1wz9Q)

37
REFERENCE:
De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E. (2018).
Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.

38
 CHAPTER 6
GLOBAL CIVIL SOCIETY AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATION

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Define civil society and non-governmental organizations.
2. Examine the role of civil society organizations in globalization.
3. Discuss the various global civil society organizations and their
interests.

Civil society and non-governmental organizations or NGOs are the

third sector of the society aside from the government and business. The UN
recognizes the important role of partnering with civil society groups and
NGOs in advancing the welfare of its stakeholders. the participatory
mechanisms of NGOs and civil society group like the Occupy Movement
provide avenue for all parties to relook actions and norms that are
considered potentially beneficial and potentially risky to all.
6.1 Global Civil Society (GCS)
The formation of UN was pivotal in the recognition of civil society
organizations and NGOs. This era was marked by participation of NGOs in
the decision making of the body. They did not only help the role of UN in
strengthening relationship with private sectors, but these civic
organizations were active also influencing UN in adopting its ECOSOC.
NGOs have strong influences and role in globalization. Their
operations are very evident across disciplines and industries such as
commerce and trade, media and press, human rights, environmental
groups, migration and labor. These groups and social interests are
described as civil society, an activity for groups and individuals that is
relatively independent and not within the scope if governmental
interference. GCS is a global and international network of NGOs with the
purpose of influencing governments and organizations in various issues
and concerns. It is usually identified as organized attempts to create and
resists change.
This particular form if involvement from the private sector and NGOs
in the political and economic realm is seen as armory in the promotion of
transparency and accountability. Lobbying in governments, participating in
public protest, and maintaining information campaign are some known
styles of articulating their interests and expressing their stand on a
particular issue.

39
Characteristics of NGOs
1. An NGO must be entirely independent from the control of any
government. It should have its own authority and jurisdiction over
its operation and decisions. They design their own programs and
activities and maintain their networks without interference from the
government.
2. NGOs are not considered as political party. They have
participation in political issues like human rights and environmental
pollution but they are not classified as an organization that is part of
the bureaucratic operation of the state.
3. NGOs perform their tasks not because of generating income or
profit. They are described as non-profit and not-for-profit
organization or entity. The existence and operating costs of NGOs
rely on the members' contribution and practice of sponsorship from
the private sector and entities that have interest in their causes.
Roles of Civil Society Organizations
The World Economic Forum (WFC) outlined the following roles of
NGOs and CSOs:
1. Watchdog. CSOs monitor the behavior of institutions in the
promotion of transparency and accountability.
2. Advocate. They initiate programs that could raise public
awareness of issues and challenges and advocating for change.
3. Service Provider. These organizations are active in delivering
services to meet societal needs including food and security, health
and education as well as preparedness and disaster management.
4. Expert. They bring unique knowledge and experience to evaluate
policy and strategy, and identify solutions.
5. Capacity Builder. Civil society provides services providing
relevant training, education and capacity building to communities.
6. Incubator. CSOs act as an armory in developing solutions that
requires long playback period.
7. Representative. They give power in emphasizing rights of the
marginalized and voices of under - represented.
8. Citizenship Champion. CSOs are known in encouraging citizen
engagement and championing the rights of the minority.
9. Solidarity Supporter. They promote the ethical, just, and
humane practices as part of promoting universal values geared
towards sustainability and balanced life of the many.
10. Definer of Standards. CSOs create and frame norms that shape
and make activities of the people and societies.

40
 6.2 Transnational Nongovernmental Organizations (TNGOs)
TNGOs are international not-for-profit organizations that are
independent and are not controlled by governments. TNGOs operate as an
extension of the private life of the state transcending from domestic to
international affairs. TNGOs are seen very active in the domestic affairs in
countries under democracy. Democratic states do not only recognize the
operation of NGOs but promote as well its involvement in the acceleration
and delivery of its services.
Economic Nongovernmental Organizations
Multinational Corporations (MNCs) and Transnational Corporations
(TNCs) are modern versions if global commercial enterprises. MNCs are
companies that have global approach to markets and production. Giant
firms owned by the world's biggest corporations have the advantage in
terms of technology, production, logistics, and sustaining the market.
These firms have penetrated the market earning billions of dollars for its
sales. Capitalist countries have often the most number of NGOs that are
very keen on the actions and decisions of the private sector specifically
capitalists and the central or national government as the main economic
manager.

Example:
Powerful organizations and firms like Google, Toyota, ExxonMobil, Walmart,
and Samsung continuously generating profit at a large scale.

Environmental Nongovernmental Organizations

Environmental NGOs are considered as vanguard against the abuses of
capitalists and organizations that negatively affect the environment. NGOs
usually lobby to influence decision makers, international organizations and
governments. They undertake serious actions like research fundraising,
publicity and challenging policies and legislatures that are detrimental to
the ecology and environment.

41
Example:
Greenpeace and World Wildlife Fund (WWF) are two most prominent
environmental NGOs. Activities and engagements of these organizations are
described as assertive and influential. They operate in almost all countries
especially those that have environmental concerns. Greenpeace is known for
its fearless stand and expression on the neglect of the institutions in damaging
oceans, shipments of toxic products, and forest degradation in areas like Brazil.
WWF on one hand is the world's largest multinational conservation
organization.

42
 Law and Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations
The adoption of UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 which
centers on the promotion of political participation and freedom, entitlements
and access to adequate food, shelter, clothing, and health care provided a
more pronounced obligation of the state to its citizens. This adoption was
followed by the resurgence of other bodies and conventions such as
women's and children's rights, discrimination and abuse. Under the UNs
management, the organization has the right to act issues concerning
human rights violation.

Example:
Amnesty International (AI) is one of the world's most famous and active human
rights NGOs operating in different countries worldwide. AI maintains its global
prestige and integrity of not accepting money and donations from governments
and political organizations/parties. It is known in focusing advocacies and causes
on judicial and justice system reform, abolition of death penalty, protecting the
rights of migrants and refugees as well as protection to human rights defenders,
and promoting the rights of marginalized communities and indigenous peoples.

Video Link:

Strengthening the capacity of Philippine Civil Societies

(https://youtu.be/xj2HYFoLi90)

REFERENCE:

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E. (2018).
Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.

43
 CHAPTER 7
GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT AND DIVIDE

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Define development and identify its four paradigms.
2. Examine the agenda of sustainable development goals, its
implementation and criticisms.
3. Analyze the issues and challenges if global south and how it relates to
globalization.

Opening the local market to other economies is aimed to enhance

the competitiveness of the domestic market, thus, generating new avenues
for development. Stable economies are often the beneficiaries if
globalization. These economies are more active and have the higher
capability to compete head-to- head with developing and develop
countries. The underlying problem with globalization as far as development
is concerned is its uneven impact to all players. Developed and middle-
income economies have the highest global share in terms of wealth brought
by globalization.
This chapter presents issues and challenges of global
development, problems faced by developing, and poor economies as well
as countries within global south.
7.1 Development
The term development us described as a process, system,
procedure. It is a state or condition of changing and enhancing something.
Oxford defines development as "a process and an event constituting a new
stage in a changing situation.” This process requires a number of factors
and consideration in developing a part of its system or constituent elements.
Development is a complex and multidimensional concept occurring in an
uncertain condition.
Bellù (2011) stresses that the development of the other parts of the
system could be detrimental to the development of the other thus creating
structural and systemic conflicts. Critics of global development assert that
countries do not equally get the gains of globalization. Countries that lack
resources and infrastructures are at the bottom part of the phenomenon
where the benefits are unequally distributed worldwide. Disparity is very
evident between rich and poor countries. CSOs describe this situation as
maldevelopment, a condition where developing and less developed
countries suffer on the downside effects of development and changes.

44
 Four Dimensions of Development
The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the UN has
enumerated the four dimensions and prevailing paradigms of
development.
Table 7.1 Four Dimensions of Development
Economic Human Sustainable Territori
Development Developm Development al
ent Developm
ent
It is focused on UN's Three It is the "development It focuses on
the qualitative Dimension that meets the needs of the
aspect of change s of Human the present without interrelationship
that sometimes Developme compromising the ability s of human
people failed to nt: of future generations to activities
determine like the meet their own needs." between rural
increased quality • Long (Bruntland Commission) and urban
of life, social and areas (Bellù,
improvements and healthy 2011)
innovations. life
• Knowledge Social activities
of man part of
• Decent
territorial
standar
development
d of include
living production,
distribution, and
Indicators:
consumption of
• Life goods and
expecta services, the
ncy at balance and
quality features
birth
of its norms and
• Expect
practices that
ed and support the
mean operation of
years man's social
of affairs.
schooli
ng
• Gross
National
Income
(GNI)

45
Sen (1999) Human Development is a need Territorial
defined it as "the Development and it must be development is
expansion of Index (HDI) was observed and practiced composed of
capacities that created to based on the necessity clusters that
contribute to the emphasize that of man and his linked activities
advancement of economic growth environment. and structures.
society through should be used as
the realization if criterion in However, development Critical to this
individuals', firms', assessing the efforts and practices development is
and communities' development of a must be in accordance how clusters
potential" particular country with the harmony of and agencies
but the nature without respond to the
development of compromising the challenges of
ecological condition and resource
the people and
future generation scarcity which
their capabilities.
are then
interlinked to
problems like
food
security, space
availability, and
overcrowding

Economic The report was a Six different definitions The

development as a response to the of sustainable development
transformation growing disparity development (Streeten, process if this
requires altering
between the poor 1991and Goutlet 2000) dimension
some fundamental
and rich where 1. The maintenance operates on
economic structures,
increasing the poverty has and replacement of both national
occupational become a major capital assets. and
capacities of the challenge to 2. Maintaining the transnational
population, governments as environmental scope.
empowering the part of its national conditions for the
mobility of key policy making. benefit of the all.
economic agents. 3. Resiliency or the
ability to adjust and
cope with the changes
and crises.
4. The avoidance of
internal and external
debts in the future.
5. Fiscal and
political
sustainability.
6. The ability to
hand over the
programs and
projects to the
decision and
control of the
citizens
.

46
7.2 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
SDGs was established as part on the success of the Millennium
Development Goals of 2015. In the next 15 years, member-countries of UN,
rich and p3, developed or developing are expected to mobilize all efforts to
end the global problem of poverty, solve inequality, and address impacts if
climate change.
Parties involved in the global war on poverty believe that a more
active participation and higher level of commitments are necessary to
materialize SDGs by 2030. This global partnership among states is not
binding however, national governments have the ownership and authority
to make and implement national policies that are in line with the objectives
of SDGs. These policies are of high quality and have accessibility to public
and other concerned bodies as a mechanism in delivering and relevant
works and outputs.
17 Sustainable Development Goals
GOAL 1: No Poverty. End poverty in all its forms everywhere.

GOAL 2: Zero Hunger. End hunger, achieve food security, and improved
nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.

GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being. Ensure healthy lives and promote
well- being for all at all ages.

GOAL 4: Quality Education. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality

education

GOAL 5: Gender Equality. Achieve gender equality and empower all

women.

GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation. Ensure availability and sustainable

management of water and sanitation for all.

GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy. Ensure access to affordable,

reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all.

GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth. Promote sustained,

inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment
and decent work for all.

GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure. Build resilient

infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and

foster innovation.

GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality. Reduce inequality within and among

47
countries.

GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities. Make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.

GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production. Ensure

sustainable consumption and production patterns.

GOAL 13: Climate Action. Take urgent action to combat climate change
and its impacts.

GOAL 14: Life Below Water. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans,
seas, and marine resources for sustainable development.

GOAL 15: Life on Land. Protect, restore, and promote, sustainable use of
terrestrial ecosystems, sustainable manage forests, combat desertification,
and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.

GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions. Promote peaceful and
inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice
for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.

GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal. Strengthen the means of

implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development.

How will the Sustainable Development Goals be implemented?

The Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third International
Conference on Financing for Development came up with the following
actions on the implementation of SDGs:
A. The success of policies and programs of SDGs rely on the actions and
willingness of members-parties and states in aligning their plans with the
kind of global commitments. Plans initiated and implemented within the
national level are gauge in how governments respond to the demands of
SDGs.
B. Resource mobilization and financing strategies are fundamental
requirements in materializing nationally-framed and locally-led sustainable
development goals.
C. The expected contribution of government, private sector, civil society
groups, and other stakeholders of the SDGs. The roles of NGOs and CSOs
are potentially advantageous in the attainment of SDGs. These private
entities and organizations perform tasks where governments fail to act and
deliver.
D. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development requires partnership
between the efforts of global community and national government. Global

48
governance is the main driver of achieving SDGs with the cooperation of
national governments who have commitments and responsibilities this
agenda.

7.3 Global South

In academic setting, the term global south is widely used in social
sciences like sociology, political science, and economics. It is major subject
of discourses especially topics concerning globalization, global divide, and
uneven development across the globe.
South has a geographical connotation described as largely
equivalent, but not identical with Third World (Pagel, Ranke, et al 2014).
However, the term south does not refer to countries outside United States
and Europe, Australia and New Zealand do not belong the "South". It also
refers to countries that are excluded if not deprived from socioeconomic
prominence like Africa, Middle East, South America, South Asia and
countries within Pacific. The inequalities and global divide between rich and
poor countries part of globalization and territorializing is also a part on the
reality of global south (Lopez, 2007).
The idea of global south is a contemporary issue in
socioeconomic and political divide. Countries like United States, Canada,
outmost and western part of Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand
are giant economies parts of the global north. These countries are
described as highly industrialized, developed, and most advanced
economies in the world. It rests on the fact that the entire world's industrially
developed countries lie to the north of its developing countries.
Countries which belong to the global south possess various
political and economic descriptions and experiences. In Africa, debts, poor
infrastructure, education, employment, health care, and peace and security
are key impediments. The region's problem on poverty is the fundamental
challenge of governments and institutions providing key to these countries.
Asian countries are fond to be a combination of emerging and
developing economies with the exception of Singapore. Domestic and
regional problems like unstable governments, rule of law ad environmental
pollution are continuously at the frontline of concerns in the region. Central
Asia on the other hand consists of countries that have experienced
transitioning governments. There are former territories of the Soviet Union
and stabilizing the economy brought by the damage of the former
communist Soviet regime is still evident. Political and economic reforms are
insufficient to address the fabric of communism during the Cold War era.
West Asian region has its unique social struggle. The region is
confined in a costly conflict involving territorial insecurity, peace and order,
and competing extreme ideological clashes. Thought the region is an oil-
rich country but regional issue are barriers in the development process of

49
West Asia.
Natural disaster and the absence of sufficient investment as
major source of the economy, make countries in the Pacific Islands a
victims of slow growth. Its economies are dependent with the influx of
business and commercial activities of nearby countries in the Pacific as well
as countries in Oceania, Asia, and America.
Countries belonging to Latin America are trapped in turbulent
economic environment. Regional matters like unstable democratic
governance and fiscal problems are known challenging facing countries of
the region. Latin and Caribbean countries are described as countries that
have experienced "lost development" because of missed economic
opportunities especially in the 60s and 70s.
Causes of Global Divide
The following are some of the main factors of causing global divide
between the north and south.
1. Globalization in the 1990
The economic intensification observed in the 90s fueled
countries to establish boundaries. Poor countries that can not cope
with the demands of the rich and developed countries suffer most
of the potential damage of globalization. Countries of the global
south especially under unstable governments and weak economics
failed to produce outputs as a response to the internationalization
system of economy and government. There were countries that
disappear from the pipelines of the global competition. Some
countries mostly third world shifted its interest through relying to a
more powerful economy.
2. Uneven Immigration
The pattern of migration in the last three decades saw an
unprecedented rise of migrant workers and citizens seeking
greener opportunities in other countries. People from Asia targeted
Western Europe and America as ideal point of employment.
Developed countries that are on the height of technological
development, advancement, and high quality of social services
became the man venues accepting migrants. This trend continues
to happen in the current times where in most countries of the global
south found this opportunity as an alternative to the absence of jobs
available in the local economy.

3. The hegemonic nature if international economic relations

The global problem of poverty and inequality are outcomes
of the evil practices of western countries. These problems are

50
 associated with the abuse of capitalists who control most of the
world's wealth. International institutions that have the power and
resources are very silent and unresponsive in these problems
experiencing countries in the global south. Countries in the global
south are trapped in the hands of developed countries where rising
financial obligations like loam programs are continuously punishing
economies of the south.

Video Link:
What is North – South Divide? (https://youtu.be/2WQrY4xMfks)

REFERENCE:
De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E.
(2018).
Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.

51
 CHAPTER 8
GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURES

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. explain different forms and Theories of international communication
2. describe the interrelation and distinctions between Global Culture,
Westernization and Americanization.
3. explain how the process of acculturation or assimilation have shaped the
present global cultural identities..

8.1 Global Ideas and Communication

Public sphere (German word: “Öffentlichkeit”) is a social life where

individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and
through that discussion influence political action. It was originally coined by
German Philosopher Jurgen Habermas who defined "the public sphere as a virtual
or imaginary community which does not necessarily exist in any identifiable space".
The public sphere can be seen as "a theater in modern societies in which political
participation is enacted through the medium of talk" and "a realm of social life in
which public opinion can be formed." The ideology of the public sphere theory is
that the government's laws and policies should be steered by the public sphere
and that the only legitimate governments are those that listen to the public sphere.

Habermas also defined public sphere as a “society engaged in critical

public debate." The conditions of the public sphere are according to Habermas:
the formation of public opinion, all citizens have access, conference in unrestricted
fashion (based on the freedom of assembly, the freedom of association, the
freedom of expression and publication of opinions) about matters of general
interest, which implies freedom from economic and political control, and the debate
over the general rules government relations.

On the other hand, propaganda is information that is not objective and used
primarily to influence and further and agenda, often by presenting facts selectively
to encourage particular synthesis or perception or using loaded language to
produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is
presented. A wide range of materials and media are used for conveying
propaganda messages, which changed as new technologies were invented

52
including paintings, cartoons, posters, pamphlets, film, radio shows, TV shows, and
websites.

The propaganda model is a theory advanced by Edward S. Herman and

Noam Chomsky which argues systemic biases in the mass media and seeks to
explain them in terms of structural economic causes. Although the model was
based mainly in the characterization of United State media, Chomsky and Herman
believe the theory is equally applicable to any country that shares the basic
economic structure and organizing the model postulates as the cause of media
bias.

Another theory concerning propaganda is the Epistemic Merit Model

conceived by Sheryl Tuttle Ross. Ross argues that one must consider a threefold
communication, the Sender-Message-Receiver model, which includes the
message sender or the persuader (who made the message out of his personal
intention), a channel (where the persuader will send the message) through the
receiver (which is the target for such persuasion). She also added that there are
four conditions for a message to be considered propaganda. Propaganda involves
the intention to persuade. Also, propaganda is sent on behalf of a socio-political
institution, organization, or cause. Next, the recipient of propaganda is a socially
significant group of people. Finally, propaganda is a epistemic struggle to
challenge others thoughts.

8.2 Normative Theories of Communication

8.2.1 Authoritarian Theory

This originated from the philosophy of Plato in Ancient Greece adapted by

European Monarchs in the medieval period exercising full control over the press.

Authoritarian Media Theory basically suppresses press freedom as not to

encourage the people to think and act negatively of the government. All forms of
media or communication are regulated by a governing elite group that regulates
the communication process between the media and the audience. Although this
media theory could help resolve issues since it is the state or the government that
“dictates” what to be done which may guide the press and the people to support
and cooperate. In this theory, the audience usually couls establish propaganda
thru the one and unified thinking since it is only the government voice that is being
heard alone.

53
 Theory Strength Weaknesses Opportunities Threats

Authoritarian All forms of In a one-way In an Media

communication communication authoritarian only
comes from the process, there model, there serves the
governing elite, is no feedback would be interests
a monarch or a mechanism, so stability, of the
dictator and in the governing peace and ruling elite
this vertical and elite does not security in and
downward flow know how the the enhances
of people think, environment the power
communication, feel, and media is of a
there will be behave toward controlled to monarch
more effective the ruling protect and or dictator,
decision- power. prevent the which
making, people from could lead
efficiency will any threats. to
be increased discontent
and discipline or even a
will be bloody
maintained. and
violent
revolution.

8.2.2 Soviet Communist Model

This model began in the late 19th century and was used by the former
Soviet Union, now modern Russia, after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution when the
car was overthrown. The ruling power or the government continued to control the
press but instead of working for the personal interests of rulers, it serves the
interests of the working class but under the guidance of the party in power. There
is no democracy and freedom as there is still censorship and the press supports
the government.

In the modern world, Cuba remained under this model where media is
state-controlled and owned.

The Soviet – Communist Media Theory controls the media which is similar
to the Authoritarian Media Theory but promotes equality. It is the interests of the
people that are given attention and focus but also gives consideration to the
authority of the government. In this theory, the government may somehow control

54
the communication process but does not totally suppress press freedom. The
state simply filters the news and information disseminated to complement the
interest of the audience.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

Soviet The model The media The media serves This

Communist is a two-way works under the people without model
Media process the leadership, any authoritative puts an
encouraging promoting blockades, using end to
the public to national information to private
provide interests rather develop people's ownership
feedback, than personal skills and fulfill of media
which would agendas. their basic needs. and
create journalists
interests support
towards the
media. leadership
rather
serves as
a
watchdog.

8.2.3 Libertarian Theory

The concept of this model started in the new world, in the United States,
when Englishmen escaped from the tyranny of the monarchy to establish a free
world and liberal thinking. This model is opposed to both Authoritarian and Soviet-
communist theories and promotes freedom and democracy. The press or media is
given liberty or freedom to create public awareness. Any negative news and
information are considered opportunity to guide the people to know the good But,
the press, unrestrained, exceeded their limits by ignoring decency and privacy and
exaggerating its information. Yellow journalism flourished due to competition in
private owned media.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

Libertarian Press is There is no It promotes Too much
given the freedom of democracy and leniency
liberty or information provides checks may harm
freedom to and freedom of and balances to the
reveal the the press government, relationship
truth - because the preventing between the
media is government corruption. media and

55
 empowere protects its the
d to interest and government
present the filters negative - members
truth be it ill information of the
or good.. that maybe a society will
threat to the be caught
state. between its
loyalty to the
government
or getting
influenced
by the
press/media
.

8.2.4 Social Responsibility Theory

SRT gives media the right to be owned and operated by a private entity. It is not
governed by a media censorship because the press is guided by a set of ethics.
Sensationalized news and information can be questioned even if there is media
freedom.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

Social Yellow Ethics are The voiceless and There are

Responsibility journalism or always vague, marginalized times when
sensationalism ambiguous, people are able to the press
decreases as and differ from raise their voices severely
media can be case to case so due to pluralism damaged
questioned by there are no and diversification the
the law and standards in on news and reputation of
public as well information and people involved in some
as self- communication. it. politicians
regulation is through
exercised by irresponsible
the press reporting,
leading to
major
conflicts of
society.

56
8.2.5 Democratic Participant Theory

DPT exercises press freedom and lets the target audience participate or
gets involved in news and information by expressing their own personal
viewpoints.
THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
Democratic The model is Communication Criticisms may be Allowing the
Participant completely reach is limited accepted by the audience
non-political because it is government as widely to
and does only wanting long as these participate
not bolster local non- presented with media
political institutionalized objectively activities and
control and media provide through the use of consider
encourages the information correct forms of alternative
national relevant to media without the when
development small groups of purpose dissatisfied
and population. encouraging the empowers
supporting audience to stand the audience
9local against the state. to be choosy
culture. and
inconsiderate.

8.2.6 Development Communication Media Theory

The main idea behind this model is media will play a role for development
of people in a nation or to help the target population. It focuses on issues
disseminated by the media considered as a guide in the development if a country
wherein the target audience participates and gets involved.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

Development Helps in The socially The concept of Encourages
Communication development of engineered participation in the audience
Media local and messages were this model to be too
international disseminated encourages social dependent
projects - which
for a change, uplifting with media
helps in the
growth and
propaganda to the quality of life and the
progress of a control culture of people not only government
country most of the poor economically but since this
especially the countries. also socially, theory
small group of culturally, and promotes
people who are politically. and
unaware of the supports
use of media. development
projects.

57
8.2.7 Agenda-setting Media Theory
This model gave rise to the power of global and international news agencies
to set their own agenda, apart from rulers, ruling powers, and governments. The
press makes sure that significant events reach the knowledge of the people

THEOR STRENGTH WEAKNESSE OPPORTUNITIE THREATS

Y S S

Agenda- Agenda Media has the Creates impact An agenda

setting setting is the tendency not to over public may spark
Media ability of present/publish thinking on the
media to a news or certain political, beginning
determine information if it social, or of a
salience of does not have economic propagand
issues with any notable agenda. a through
news, significance or the concept
through not salient to of framing.
cognitive them - when
process media sees no
called value in the
"accessibility" news.
, which is the
process of
retrieving an
issue in the
memory.

8.2.8 Gate Keeping Media Theory

This theory shows the power and influence of traditional and mainstream
media in everyday lives of people. Media selects and decides which
information is important and relevant for the people.

THEOR STRENGTH WEAKNESSE OPPORTUNITIE THREATS

Y S S

8. Gate Gatekeeping There is a Unfiltered news Filtered

Keeping sets the probability or or information news or
Media standard for tendency that can help the informatio
newsworthiness even factual public to see the n dies not
. information will real situation as help the
not be to train them to audience
published if the be in flexible to see the
news on-hand responding and real
is not adjusting to scenario,

58
 favorable to possible crisis. It therefore,
the can help the it does not
government or audience to support
members of appreciate and/or flexibility
elite groups. constructively of the
criticize the state. people in
coping
with
probable
crisis. It
only
makes
them
dependent
on
positive
situations
only.

8.3 Global Culture, Westernization and Americanization

Modernization -- which is normally related to the words change,

progress, and development -- refers to process of adapting something to the
present needs or habits. In a way, one who opts to modernization is one that
is practical and flexible. Westernization, on the other hand, refers to the
process whereby societies adopt or imbibe the Western culture in areas such
a industry, law, politics, economics, and other fields. Americanization pertains
to the action of making a person or thing American in character or nationality.

In the study by Chi-Yue and his co-authors (2011) they carried out two
cross-regional studies to examine lay people's perception of globalization and
its related concepts, as well as lay people's appraisal of the social impacts of
globalization. In their words : "The issues that are commonly perceived to be
strongly associated with globalization fall into one of the five categories: (1)
global consumer brands; (2) information technology that promote global
connectivity; (3) geographic mobility (passport, air travel, immigration); (4)
global calamities; and (5) international trade and regulatory bodies. Lay
perceivers in international trade and technology. Lay understandings of
globalization also encompass awareness of the positive consequences (e.g.,
increase geographical mobility) of globalization as well as its negative
consequences (e.g., global calamities). Indeed, international trade versus
technology, and globalization of consumption versus its global consequences

59
seem to be the dimension is that organize lay people's categorization of
globalization related issues.

Others accept with open arms the advent of the globalization of the
production as well as the distribution of goods and services for the benefits
that they derive from this. One of which is the access to products which are
made available to them. On the other hand, others are affected by this
especially the producers.

8.4 Enculturation, Acculturation and Assimilation in Globalization

Enculturation refers to the process of learning our own (native) culture,

whereas, acculturation is the process of learning and adopting host cultural
norms, values and beliefs. Learning native cultural norms and values of a
particular society are essential for an individual, to function in a society.

Enculturation is anthropological term used for socialization, both terms

refer to, the process of learning through social interaction. However, the term
enculturation is only confined to culture. Whereas socialization refer to each
and every social interaction of an individual with other people of a society.

Since conception, baby starts interacting with his family members

most of all with mother. Parents teach their children how to eat, drink, walk,
play, and behave in different situations. However, parents teach all those
things according to their own culture. For instance, Middle Eastern families
eat food with their bare hands whereas, American families use fork and knife
to eat food. So, children born and raised in Middle Eastern families are
enculturate to eat food with bare hands. Whereas American children are
enculturated to eat food with fork and knife. Culture can be transmitted from
one generation to another. During the process of cultural transmission,
learning a culture by a new generation is called enculturation.

On the other hand, adopting foreign culture or other cultural norms and
values is known as acculturation. In this new technological era people can
interact with other people living thousands mile away from them. Due to social
interaction through technology and with mass media people learn new values.
And if people adopt those learned values of other culture and modify their own
culture, it will come under the category of acculturation. Mostly, group of
people acculturate because they are influenced by the dominant culture in a
given society. For instance, A Pakistani boy SHAHID immigrates to America,
during his first year, he wears, kurta shalwar; which is his native cultural
costume but after a year, he starts wearing, t-shirts jeans, suits and tuxedos,
so SHAHID acculturated; for the reason that, he adopted foreign culture .

When two different cultures becomes similar then we can say that
assimilation occurs. Assimilation is the process in which native culture go
through complete change and adopt all the elements of host culture. In other
words, if one can differentiate between the host culture and native culture after

60
 going through a change, then the process is known as acculturation.
Whereas, if one cannot differentiate between the host culture and native
culture after going through a change, the phenomenon will be called
Assimilation. In assimilation process the minority culture get completely
absorbed into dominant majority culture. (www.sociologylearners.com )

Video Link:
The Media Industry and Globalization
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=amzcVwKE3Oc

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E.
(2018). Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.

61
 CHAPTER 9
GLOBAL RELIGIONS

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. know the major religions of the world and their tenets
2. understand Globalization and Religious Pluralism

3. analyze religious conflict and violence

9.1 Definition of Religion

What is religion? Pioneer sociologist Émile Durkheim described it

with the ethereal statement that it consists of “things that surpass the limits
of our knowledge” (1915). He went on to elaborate: Religion is “a unified
system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say set
apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral
community, called a church, all those who adhere to them” (1915). Some
people associate religion with places of worship (a synagogue or church),
others with a practice (confession or meditation), and still others with a
concept that guides their daily lives (like dharma or sin). All of these people
can agree that religion is a system of beliefs, values, and practices
concerning what a person holds sacred or considers to be spiritually
significant. (https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology)

9.2 Major Religions

9.2.1 Christianity

Christian Philosophy began as a Jewish Sect in Jerusalem

proclaiming Jesus of Nazareth as the Messiah. After Constantine came into
power, he established Christianity as a quasi- official state religion of the
Roman Empire in Ad 324.

Despite the many different divisions and sects of Christianity, most

seem to agree, with some variations on the following: God is the creator of
all things; Jesus is the Messiah, Christ, son of God; human being is a sinner
who requires redemption; the Holy Trinity includes God the Father, God the
Son and the Holy Spirit; Christ came down to Earth to redeem mankind,
the soul is immortal.

62
 9.2.2 Hinduism

It is the major religion in India. Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion,

according to many scholars, with roots and customs dating back more than
4,000 years. Today, with about 900 million followers, Hinduism is the third-
largest religion behind Christianity and Islam. The oldest religion in the world,
Hinduism originated in the Indus River Valley about 4,500 years ago in what
is now modern-day northwest India and Pakistan. It arose
contemporaneously with ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures. With
roughly one billion followers, Hinduism is the third-largest of the world’s
religions. Hindus believe in a divine power that can manifest as different
entities. Three main incarnations—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—are
sometimes compared to the manifestations of the divine in the Christian
Trinity.

Multiple sacred texts, collectively called the Vedas, contain hymns

and rituals from ancient India and are mostly written in Sanskrit. Hindus
generally believe in a set of principles called dharma, which refer to one’s
duty in the world that corresponds with “right” actions. Hindus also believe in
karma, or the notion that spiritual ramifications of one’s actions are balanced
cyclically in this life or a future life (reincarnation).
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com )

9.2.3 Buddhism

Buddhism is a faith that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (“the

Buddha”) more than 2,500 years ago in India. With about 470 million
followers, scholars consider Buddhism one of the major world religions. Its
practice has historically been most prominent in East and Southeast Asia,
but its influence is growing in the West. Many Buddhist ideas and
philosophies overlap with those of other faiths.
• Followers of Buddhism don’t acknowledge a supreme god or deity.
They instead focus on achieving enlightenment—a state of inner
peace and wisdom. When followers reach this spiritual echelon,
they’re said to have experienced Nirvana.
• The religion’s founder, Buddha, is considered an extraordinary
man, but not a god. The word Buddha means “enlightened.”
• The path to enlightenment is attained by utilizing morality,
meditation and wisdom. Buddhists often meditate because they
believe it helps awaken truth.

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 • Buddhists embrace the concepts of karma (the law of cause and
effect) and reincarnation (the continuous cycle of rebirth).
• Followers of Buddhism can worship in temples or in their own
homes.
• Buddhist monks, or bhikkhus, follow a strict code of conduct, which
includes celibacy. (www.history.com)

9.2.4 Islam

Muslims believe there is the one almighty God, named Allah, who
is infinitely superior to and transcendent from humankind. Allah is viewed
as the creator of the universe and the source of all good and all evil.
Everything that happens is Allah's will. He is a powerful and strict judge,
who will be merciful toward followers depending on the sufficiency of their
life's good works and religious devotion. A follower's relationship with Allah
is as a servant to Allah.
Though a Muslim honors several prophets, Muhammad is
considered the last prophet and his words and lifestyle are that person's
authority. To be a Muslim, one must follow five religious duties: 1. Repeat
a creed about Allah and Muhammad; 2. Recite certain prayers in Arabic
five times a day; 3. Give to the needy; 4. One month each year, fast from
food, drink, sex and smoking from sunrise to sunset; 5. Pilgrimage once in
one's lifetime to worship at a shrine in Mecca. At death -- based on one's
faithfulness to these duties -- a Muslim hopes to enter Paradise. If not, they
will be eternally punished in hell.

For many people, Islam matches their expectations about religion

and deity. Islam teaches that there is one supreme deity, who is worshiped
through good deeds and disciplined religious rituals. After death a person
is rewarded or punished according to their religious devotion. Muslims
believe that giving up one’s life for Allah is a sure way of entering Paradise.
(https://www.everystudent.com)

9.2.5 Confucianism

Confucianism was the official religion of China from 200 B.C.E. until
it was officially abolished when communist leadership discouraged religious
practice in 1949. The religion was developed by Kung Fu-Tzu (Confucius),
who lived in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E. An extraordinary teacher, his
lessons—which were about self-discipline, respect for authority and
tradition, and jen (the kind treatment of every person)—were collected in a
book called the Analects.

Some religious scholars consider Confucianism more of a social

system than a religion because it focuses on sharing wisdom about moral
practices but doesn’t involve any type of specific worship; nor does it have
formal objects. In fact, its teachings were developed in context of problems

64
 of social anarchy and a near-complete deterioration of social cohesion.
Dissatisfied with the social solutions put forth, Kung Fu-Tzu developed his
own model of religious morality to help guide society (Smith 1991).

9.2.6 Taoism

In Taoism, the purpose of life is inner peace and harmony. Tao is

usually translated as “way” or “path.” The founder of the religion is generally
recognized to be a man named Laozi, who lived sometime in the sixth
century B.C.E. in China. Taoist beliefs emphasize the virtues of
compassion and moderation.
The central concept of Tao can be understood to describe a spiritual
reality, the order of the universe, or the way of modern life in harmony with
the former two. The ying-yang symbol and the concept of polar forces are
central Taoist ideas (Smith 1991). Some scholars have compared this
Chinese tradition to its Confucian counterpart by saying that “whereas
Confucianism is concerned with day-to-day rules of conduct, Taoism is
concerned with a more spiritual level of being” (Feng and English 1972).

9.3 Globalization and Religious Pluralism

Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions “with

overlapping but distinctive ethics and interests” interact with one another.
Essentially, the world’s leading religious traditions teach values such as human
dignity, equality, freedom, peace, and solidarity. More specifically, religions
maintain the Golden Rule: “what you do not wish done to yourself, do not do to
others.” Therefore, through such religious values, globalization engenders
greater religious tolerance in such areas as politics, economics, and society.

In political areas, globalization has built global political forums that

integrate cultural, ethnic, and religious differences—ideologies that were once
perceived as dividing the world—through a large number of international
organizations such as the United Nations (UN) and the World Health
Organization (WHO), as well regional organizations like the European Union
(EU), the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), or the African Union
(AU). When discussing issues such as international peace and security, health
issues, poverty, and environment, these organizations generally share many of
the same basic commitments as religious traditions—mainly peace, human
dignity, and human equality, as well as conflict resolution in which they actively
engage in negotiation, mediation, and diplomacy (Golebiewski,2014)

65
9.4 Religions, conflict and Violence

Religious violence is a term that covers phenomena where religion is either the
subject or the object of violent behavior.[1] Religious violence is violence that is
motivated by, or in reaction to, religious precepts, texts, or the doctrines of a target
or an attacker. It includes violence against religious institutions, people, objects, or
events. Religious violence does not exclusively refer to acts which are committed
by religious groups, instead, includes acts which are committed against religious
groups.

"Violence" is a very broad concept that is difficult to define since it is used on

both human and non-human objects.[2] Furthermore, the term can denote a wide
variety of experiences such as blood shedding, physical harm, forcing against
personal freedom, passionate conduct or language, or emotions such as fury and
passion.

Although not necessarily so, there are some aspects of religion that make it
susceptible to being a latent source of conflict. All religions have their accepted
dogma, or articles of belief, that followers must accept without question. This can
lead to inflexibility and intolerance in the face of other beliefs. After all, if it is the
word of God, how can one compromise it? At the same time, scripture and dogma
are often vague and open to interpretation. Therefore, conflict can arise over
whose interpretation is the correct one, a conflict that ultimately cannot be solved
because there is no arbiter. The winner generally is the interpretation that attracts
the most followers. However, those followers must also be motivated to action.
Although, almost invariably, most of any faith hold moderate views, they are often
more complacent, whereas extremists are motivated to bring their interpretation of
God's will to fruition.

Religious extremists can contribute to conflict escalation. They see radical

measures as necessary to fulfilling God's wishes. Fundamentalists of any religion
tend to take a Manichean view of the world. If the world is a struggle between good
and evil, it is hard to justify compromising with the devil. Any sign of moderation
can be decried as selling out, more importantly, of abandoning God's will.
(https://www.beyondintractability.org)

Video Link:
5 Most Powerful Religions In The World
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mayXM4wSJhM

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 CHAPTER 10
DEMOGRAPHY AND POPULATION

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Understand the basic concepts and measures of demography.
2. Trace the source and historical growth of the population
3. Critically evaluate the validity of different population theories.
4. Draw a conclusion regarding the underlying relationship between
population growth, food security and development.

October 31, 2011 was considered as the day of the 7 billionth baby. In the
Philippines the 7 billionth baby was awarded to Danica May Camacho born at the
Fabella Hospital in Manila. The UN officers to the Philippines brought a cake and
other gifts to Danica May such as scholarship grant and financial support for her
parents to start a general merchandise store.

But the symbolic day of the birth of Danica may is more of a concern than
a celebration. According to the UN Chief Ban Ki-moon, more concern should ne
given to billions of people who go to bed hungry in contrast to those few who enjoy
life of luxury. This is a story of 7 billion people who need enough food, enough
energy, good opportunities in jobs and education, rights, and freedom
(www.collegenews.com)

Its because of this fact that there is a need to study population. Change in
population size constitutes some of the important features of social transition and
change. Like the introduction of new forms of technology, increase or decrease in
population can also be catalyst for social change.

10.1 Basic Concepts

Demography is the science that deals with the study of population. Three
of the most important components that affect the issues above are fertility,
mortality, and migration. The fertility rate of a society is a measure noting the
number of children born. The fertility number is generally lower than the fecundity

67
number, which measures the potential number of children that could be born to
women of childbearing age. Sociologists measure fertility using the crude birthrate
(the number of live births per 1,000 people per year). Just as fertility measures
childbearing, the mortality rate is a measure of the number of people who die. The
crude death rate is a number derived from the number of deaths per 1,000 people
per year. When analyzed together, fertility and mortality rates help researchers
understand the overall growth occurring in a population. Another key element in
studying populations is the movement of people into and out of an area called
migration.

Changing fertility, mortality, and migration rates make up the total

population composition, a snapshot of the demographic profile of a population.
This number can be measured for societies, nations, world regions, or other
groups. The population composition includes the sex ratio, the number of men for
every hundred women, as well as the population pyramid, a picture of population
distribution by sex and age. Currently, the world has around 7.8 billion population.

Top 20 Largest Countries by Population 2021

Source: https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/

1 China 1,439,323,776

2 India 1,380,004,385

3 U.S.A. 331,002,651

4 Indonesia 273,523,615

5 Pakistan 220,892,340

6 Brazil 212,559,417

7 Nigeria 206,139,589

8 Bangladesh 164,689,383

9 Russia 145,934,462

10 Mexico 128,932,753

11 Japan 126,476,461

12 Ethiopia 114,963,588

13 Philippines 109,581,078

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 14 Egypt 102,334,404

15 Vietnam 97,338,579

16 D.R. Congo 89,561,403

17 Turkey 84,339,067

18 Iran 83,992,949

19 Germany 83,783,942

20 Thailand 69,799,978

10.2 Demographic Theories

Sociologists have long looked at population issues as central to

understanding human interactions. Below we will look at four theories about
population that inform sociological thought: Malthusian, zero population growth,
cornucopian, and demographic transition theories.

10.2.1 Malthusian Theory

Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) was an English clergyman who made dire

predictions about earth’s ability to sustain its growing population. According to
Malthusian theory, three factors would control human population that exceeded
the earth’s carrying capacity, or how many people can live in a given area
considering the number of available resources. Malthus identified these factors as
war, famine, and disease (Malthus 1798). He termed them “positive checks”
because they increase mortality rates, thus keeping the population in check. They
are countered by “preventive checks,” which also control the population but by
reducing fertility rates; preventive checks include birth control and celibacy.
Thinking practically, Malthus saw that people could produce only so much food in
a given year, yet the population was increasing at an exponential rate. Eventually,
he thought people would run out of food and begin to starve. They would go to war
over increasingly scarce resources and reduce the population to a manageable
level, and then the cycle would begin anew.

Of course, this has not exactly happened. The human population has
continued to grow long past Malthus’s predictions. So what happened? Why didn’t
we die off? There are three reasons sociologists believe we are continuing to
expand the population of our planet. First, technological increases in food
production have increased both the amount and quality of calories we can produce
per person. Second, human ingenuity has developed new medicine to curtail death
from disease. Finally, the development and widespread use of contraception and

69
other forms of family planning have decreased the speed at which our population
increases. But what about the future? Some still believe Malthus was correct and
that ample resources to support the earth’s population will soon run out.

10.2.2 Zero Population Growth

A neo-Malthusian researcher named Paul Ehrlich brought Malthus’s

predictions into the twentieth century. However, according to Ehrlich, it is the
environment, not specifically the food supply, that will play a crucial role in the
continued health of planet’s population (Ehrlich 1968). Ehrlich’s ideas suggest that
the human population is moving rapidly toward complete environmental collapse,
as privileged people use up or pollute a number of environmental resources such
as water and air. He advocated for a goal of zero population growth (ZPG), in
which the number of people entering a population through birth or immigration is
equal to the number of people leaving it via death or emigration. While support for
this concept is mixed, it is still considered a possible solution to global
overpopulation.

10.2.3 Cornucopian Theory

Of course, some theories are less focused on the pessimistic hypothesis

that the world’s population will meet a detrimental challenge to sustaining itself.
Cornucopian theory scoffs at the idea of humans wiping themselves out; it
asserts that human ingenuity can resolve any environmental or social issues that
develop. As an example, it points to the issue of food supply. If we need more food,
the theory contends, agricultural scientists will figure out how to grow it, as they
have already been doing for centuries. After all, in this perspective, human
ingenuity has been up to the task for thousands of years and there is no reason
for that pattern not to continue (Simon 1981).

10.2.4 Demographic Transition Theory

Whether you believe that we are headed for environmental disaster and
the end of human existence as we know it, or you think people will always adapt
to changing circumstances, we can see clear patterns in population growth.
Societies develop along a predictable continuum as they evolve from
unindustrialized to postindustrial. Demographic transition theory (Caldwell and
Caldwell 2006) suggests that future population growth will develop along a
predictable four-stage model.

In Stage 1, birth, death, and infant mortality rates are all high, while life
expectancy is short. An example of this stage is the 1800s in the United States. As
countries begin to industrialize, they enter Stage 2, where birthrates are higher
while infant mortality and the death rates drop. Life expectancy also increases.
Afghanistan is currently in this stage. Stage 3 occurs once a society is thoroughly
industrialized; birthrates decline, while life expectancy continues to increase.

70
Death rates continue to decrease. Mexico’s population is at this stage. In the final
phase, Stage 4, we see the postindustrial era of a society. Birth and death rates
are low, people are healthier and live longer, and society enters a phase of
population stability. Overall population may even decline. For example, Sweden is
considered to be in Stage 4.

The United Nations Population Fund (2008) categorizes nations as high

fertility, intermediate fertility, or low fertility. The United Nations (UN) anticipates
the population growth will triple between 2011 and 2100 in high-fertility countries,
which are currently concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa. For countries with
intermediate fertility rates (the United States, India, and Mexico all fall into this
category), growth is expected to be about 26 percent. And low-fertility countries
like China, Australia, and most of Europe will actually see population declines of
approximately 20 percent. The graphs below illustrate this trend.(
https://courses.lumenlearning.com)

Video Link:
Joel Cohen: An Introduction to Demography
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2vr44C_G0-o

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E.
(2018). Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.

71
 CHAPTER 11

GLOBAL MIGRATION

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Understand the basic concept of migration, and theories of migration.

2. Distinguish the various types of migrants, their patterns and their

special needs.
3. Know the consequences of migration.

11.1 Basic Concepts In Migration

As discussed in the previous chapter, migration is one of the processes

that influence the demographic structure of the country. To reiterate, migration
pertains to the act or process of crossing the boundary of a political or
administrative unit for certain minimum period (Boyle et; 1998 as quoted by
Dicolen, 2013). It comes from the Latin word “Migratio” which means physical
movements by people from one area to another, sometimes over long distances
or in large groups (Dicolen, 2013:55). The concept of migration usually involves
the “detachment from the organization of activities at one place and the movement
of total round of activities to another”, although admittedly, this is not always the
primary consideration of migration.

Not all types of change in one’s residence are called migration. For a
change of residence to be considered migration, it must cross a certain political or
administrative unit. Otherwise, it is merely a movement. An example of the
movement is when there is a change of residence within the same barangay.
Furthermore, such movement must also be for a well-defined period, which may
be as temporary as six months, or as permanent as a lifetime abode. Hence, any
brief change in residence, say for two months, is just merely a vacation, and not
migration.

An individual who moves from one area or region to another is called a

migrant. He / She is also known as emigrant from the point of view of the place of
origin and an immigrant from the point of view of the place of destination. Migrants
may be permanent, long term or short term according to the length of the stay in
the place of destination. It is permanent if the migrant does not return to his or her

72
place of origin; long-term if the usual stay extends to more than 12 months; and
short –term if it falls below 12 months.

Migration can also be classified according to choice. It is classified as

voluntary if the migrant decides to move by his choice. Most of these migrants are
labor-related such as the case of temporary labor migrants, who migrate for a
limited period as guest-workers or overseas contract workers from a few months
to several years in order to take up employment and send home money
(Remittances); highly-skilled and business migrants, who are hired as managers,
executives, professionals, technicians and similar, who move with the internal
labor markets of transnational corporations and international organizations, or who
seek employment through international labor markets for scarce skills; irregular
migrants, who enter a country, usually in search of employments without the
necessary documents and permits; and return migrants, who return to their
countries of origin after a period in another country.

There is also migration by involuntary choice. This includes refugees,

people residing outside of their country of Nationality, who is unable or Unwillingly
to return because of a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion,
nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. It also
includes asylum-seekers, or those people who moves across borders seeking
protection, but who may not fulfill the strict criteria laid down by the 1952
Convention. Further, this also includes the forced migrants, or those forced to
move by environmental catastrophes or development projects such as new
factories, road or dams.

Finally, migration is generally classified into internal and international

migration. Internal migration refers to a move from one area (a province, district or
municipality) to another within one country. International migration on the other
hand refers means crossing the frontiers which separates one of the world’s
approximately 200 states from another (Castles, 2000:169)

11.2 Reasons of Migration

11.2.1 Neo-Classical Theory

According to Neo-Classical theory, migration is usually associated with

individual’s efforts to maximize their income my moving from low-income to
high wage economies (Borjas, 1989 as quoted by Castles, 2000:272). This is
the most common reason for migration especially the migration of one coming
from a developing nation to a developed one with high proportion of
underemployment in the country of origin. The current pattern of migration is
an empirical data of this theory.

73
11.2.2 Labor Migration Theory

This theory is a new economic approach in explaining migration. It

argues that migration cannot simply be explained by income differences
between two countries, but also by factors such as chances of secure
employment, availability of capital for entrepreneurial activity, and the need to
manage risk over long periods. Migration decisions are made not just by
individuals but most often represent family strategies to maximize income and
survival chance (Hugo, 1994 as quoted by Castles, 2000:272) (

11.2.3 Migration System Theory

This theory is argued as an outcome of collaboration of two

countries where the migration system is constituted by two or more countries
which exchange migrants with each other. In this system, it is necessary to
examine both ends of the flow and study the linkages (economic, cultural,
political, military, etc.) Between the places concerned. Migratory movements
generally arise from the existence of prior links between sending and receiving
countries based on colonization, political influence, trade, investment, or cultural
ties (ibid; 2000:272)

While this is the most prevailing reason for migration, this does not
capture other reasons of migration. As already mentioned, there are some
reasons of migrations which are not economic or income-related especially
those who are driven away from their place residence.

11.2.4 Push-Pull Theory

The Most Popular theory explaining the causes of migration is one

propounded by Ravenstein (1889) known as the Push-Pull Theory. This theory
states that some people move because they are pushed out of their former
location (push factors), or because they have been pulled or attracted to some
places elsewhere (pull Factor) Examples of the push factor are scarcity of Job
Opportunity, Poor medical care, death threats, poor housing, natural disasters,
famine, loss of wealth and discrimination. Pull Factors on the other hand are the
opposite Better Job Opportunities, Improved Living conditions, Political and/or
Religious freedom, attractive climates, better Education, ect. Ravenstein further
opined that pull factors were more important than the push factors because in
most instances, people move in order to improve themselves in material
respects, but they would rather endure the conditions in their current residence
unless attached by the abovementioned pull factors. To do this however, a
potential migrant usually weighs the cost-benefit of migration.

Most of movement or migration has been considered as an “implementing

strategy” in order to attain the goal of migration. The goal can be in terms of
advancement in education, better job, a nicer house, a more pleasant

74
 environment, etc. It is in this implementing strategy that migration is selective
and more apparent at a certain age of the life cycle because there is a specific
age-group of population that is more prone to migration (Weeks, 1986:179-180).

11.3 Trends in Migration

Based on the statistics provided by the International Organization for

Migration, Mobility of people is increasing over time, either internal or
international, migration. In 2009, an estimated 740 million migration happen
without crossing national borders. In 2015, there are about 244 million people
living in a country other than their country of birth. These figures however
remain a slim proportion of the world population, as these movements
constitute only around 12% of the world population (9% for internal migration
and 3% for international migration)

In terms of international migration, the increase in mobility is notable for

the past 4 ½ decades. In 1970, international migrants were estimated at 84
Million while in 1990 they increase at around 153 million people

Migrants as a % of the
Year Number of migrants
world’s population
1970 84,460,125 2.3%
1975 90,368,010 2.3%
1980 101,983,149 2.3%
1985 113,206,691 2.3%
1990 152,563,212 2.9%
1995 160,801,752 2.8%
2000 172,703,309 2.8%
2005 191,269,100 2.9%
2010 221,714,243 3.2%
2015 246,700,236 3.3%

Europe and Asia catered around 75 million migrants each in the year 2015.
This constitutes 62% of the total global international migrants. In 2017, it is
estimated that there were around 80 million international migrants residing in Asia,
while 78 million Europe. North America, on the other hand hosted around 54 million
international migrants (58 million in 2017), which constitute 22 % of the total
international migrants, Africa 9 % (25 million in 2017), Latin America and the
Caribbean at 4 % (9.5 million in 2017), and Oceania at 3% (8.4 million in 2017)
(IOM, IOM 2018:18). In most countries of Europe, Northern America and Oceania,
international migrants compromised more than 10% of the total population of 2017.

For about 45 years until now, United States of America has been the main
country of destination for international migration. In 1970, there were around 12
million migrants to the USA. In 2015, it quadrupled to 46.6 million migrants. Since
2005 onwards, Germany became the second top destination for migrants,

75
accommodating around 12 million migrants in 2015. Some other top destination
for migrants include Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, United Kingdom, UAE,
Canada, France, Australia, and Spain

According to IOM’s World Migration Report 2015, nearly 1 in every 5

migrants in the world lives in the top 20 largest cities which include Sydney,
Auckland, Singapore, London, Amsterdam, Frankfurt, and Paris.

Expectedly, migrant distribution is skewed to high-income countries. About

2/3 of international migrants resided in high-income countries, around 157 million
as of year 2015. Around 77 million migrants resided in middle-income countries,
while only 9 million migrants resided in low-income countries (IOM, 2018:20). In
2017, these high-income countries accommodated nearly 165 million of the total
number of international migrants worldwide. According to region, the south to south
migration (migration within developing countries) continued to grow compared to
South-North migration is estimated at 90.2 million, while the south to north
migration is calculated at 85.3 million

In 2017, Asia and Europe were the regions of origin with the largest
numbers of international migrants – 106 million and 61 million, respectively. Latin
American and the Caribbean followed with 38 million and African with 36 million.

Between 2000 and 2017, African experienced the largest relative increase
in the number of international migrants who had originated in that region (+68%),
followed by Asia (+62%), Latin American and the Caribbean (+52%) and Ocean
(+51%)

India has the largest number of person born in the country who are now
living outside its borders. The number of Indian-born persons residing aboard
number 17 million in 2017, ahead of the number of Mexican-Born persons living
outside Mexico (13 million). The Russian Federation, China, Bangladesh, Syrian
Arab Republic, Pakistan and Ukraine also have large migrant populations living
abroad, ranging from6 to 11 million each (International Migration Report, 2017)

Patterns of Migration

Statistics shows that the bulk of Migrants belong to the working population,
i.e. those belong to the ages 15-64. Based on the estimates of the International
Organization for Migration, 72% of the international migrants belong to the working
population (IOM, 2018:17). This is not surprising because as mentioned above,
labor is the primary reason for migration. It is also in the age group when Individual
trend to separate from their parents, have their own lives, and/or look for their own
fortune.

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11.4 Special Types of Migrants

Irregular Migrants

As defined above, irregular migrants, also known as undocumented or

illegal migrants, are those who enter a country, usually in search of employment,
without the necessary documents and permits (Castles, 2000:270). The is usually
the case of Labor migration flows. It is illegal because it does not go through the
process of documentation from country of origin to the country destination. There
are countries, however, which tolerate this country of destination. There are
countries however, which tolerate this practice of migration because in a way, it
“allows Mobilization of labor in response to employer demands without social costs
or measure for protection of migrants (ibid)”. The evil side of this practice, however,
lies on the fact that most of these irregular migrants are at a high risk of abuses
committed by host country, without the necessary protection from the sending
country.

Migrants in Human Trafficking

Trafficking-in Persons, also known as “Human Trafficking”, is defined as

the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means
of threats, force, coercion, abduction, deception, abuse of power, etc. For the
purpose of exploitation. The End-goal of these exploitation can be in various
manners. Examples are, Prostitution, Force Labor and slavery, Sex tourism,
sexual exploitation, debt bondages, or pornography. More recent additions to the
list are Force Marriages (How?), and Black-Market Organ Harvesting.

Diaspora and Transnationalism Migrants

Typically, migratory chains are started by an external factor, such as

recruitment or military service, or by an initial movement of young people
pioneers. Once a movement is established, the migrants mainly follow ‘beaten
paths’ (Stahl, 1993; Castles, 2000:272), and are helped by relatives and the
friends already in immigration. Networks based on family or on common place of
origin help provide shelter, work, assistance with bureaucratic procedures and
support in personal difficulties.

Diaspora refers to “people, and often their descendants, from a specific

country who are living abroad” (IOM, 2018:20) It is used interchangeably with
transnational communities, where “migrants may establish and maintain
connections with people in their home communities or migrants in other countries”.
The distinguishing characteristics of diasporas from other migrant groups in the
presence of strong cultural, historical, religious and affective ties with the country
or community of origin, or a sense of identity and belonging (Vertovec and Cohen,
1999, as quoted by IOM, ibid; 304)

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Refugees and Asylum Seekers

Refugee pertains to any person who, “Owing to well-founded fear of being

persecuted for reason of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular
social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is
unable or, owing to such fear, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable
or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of the country;
or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual
residence as a result of such events, is unable to, owing to such fear is unwilling
to return to it (1951 UNCHR Convention Relating to the status of Refugees to be
a Refugee).

11.5 Consequences of Migration

Migration Brings forth multiple Benefits. On an Individual’s case it gives the

migrant the chance to work and enhance their skills and productivity, while giving
them a sense of accomplishment and a sense of purpose. In Familial side it
increases the living standards of the family and/or relatives. This is the usual
migration strategy especially among Filipinos, they may also send a petition to the
country of destination’s government to allow his family to join them there. On
International Scale, this increases productivity as well as increase trade and other
relations between the nations.

The only few consequences of migrations, in both personal and familial

standpoint, are the likelihood of stress and/or disorganization of daily life. It may
also strain Familial bonds because of the distance between, even thou modern
technology lessened the strain there are some still there. On National Scale, the
Home country would have lessened pool of workforces while the country of
destination gets an increase of work.

Video Link
Migration and Globalization
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l69CZFCPCp8

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 CHAPTER 12

URBANIZATION and GLOBAL CITIES

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Define and enumerate the concept and indicators of urbanization.
2. Trace the development of the cities as well as the process and pacing of
urbanization.
3. Differentiate world class cities, multicultural cities, and cities of the
developing world.

13.1 Concept of Urbanization

Urbanization is defined as the process of gradual shift from agricultural society to

the industrial society with a wide access to information, government and other institutions,
means of transportation, and other manifestations of a city or urban life. Generally,
however, it means the process or rate of concentration or migration of a population in a
particular area.

According to the World Cities Report (2016), more than half of the world’s
population today resides in urban areas. Expectedly, this is the result of the continuing
industrialization, as more and more segment of the population migrates to urban areas for
non-agricultural sources of living. Cities create wealth, generate employment and drive
human progress by harnessing the forces of agglomeration and industrialization. (Farooq,
2013).

Although only 48 percent of its areas are urbanized, Asia has by far the highest
number of people living in urban areas. This is perhaps expected considering that Asia is
the home of 2.11 billion population. Following Asia are Europe, Africa and Latin America.

Because of the unprecedented increase in urban growth rate, large and mega
cities subsequently emerged. Large cities are those with 5 to 10 million inhabitants while
megacities are those with more than 10 million inhabitants.

13.2 Indicators of Urbanization

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 a. Continuing industrialization – By industrialization, it means the proliferation of
industries that are basically non-agricultural in nature, but surely the expansion of
establishment aimed at increasing services for agricultural and non agricultural
production.
b. Expanded employment opportunity – This means employment opportunities bot
in formal and informal sectors. Particularly cities are responsible for generating
new private sector jobs. According to World Cities Report (2018:33), “the 750
cities in the world created 87.7 million private sector jobs, or 58 percent of all new
private sector jobs in 129 countries.” This is between 2006 to 2012.
c. Access to information and communication technology – The fact-paced
environment in the cities of highly urbanized areas is usually driven by high
powered technology to hasten production. Since the goal is mass production,
technology is obviously an important tool to meet the need of industries and the
mass of people.
d. Better infrastructure facilities –In an effort to provide efficient social services to
urban dwellers , and in order to boost economic production, infrastructure
improvement is a must in the urban environment.

13.3 City Dwellers

Sociologist Herbert Gans as quoted by Ullman (2002:2) identified five types of

people who lives in the city. The first three types live in the city by choice, finding in it a
valued sense of community. The last two have little choice about where they live.

a. Cosmopolites –these are the students, intellectuals, professionals, artists and

entertainers. They have been drawn to the city because of its conveniences and
cultural benefits.
b. Singles – young unmarried people who come to the cities seeing jobs and
entertainment. Businesses and services such as singes bar, single apartment
complexes, high rise condominiums cater to their needs.
c. Ethnic villagers – United by race ethnicity and social class, these people live in a
tightly knit neighborhoods that resemble villages in a small town. Moving within
close circle of family and friends, the ethnic villagers try to isolate themselves
from what they view as the harmful effects of the city life.
d. Deprived- They live in blighted neighborhoods more of like an urban jungles than
urban villages. Consisting of the very poor, they represent the bottom of society
in terms of income, education, social status, and work skills.
e. Trapped – they consist of people who could not afford to move when their
neighborhood is invaded by other migrant groups.

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13.4 Development of Cities

“Why did cities form in the first place? There is insufficient evidence to assert what
conditions gave rise to the first cities, but some theorists have speculated on what they
consider pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that could explain the rise of cities.
Agriculture is believed to be a pre-requisite for cities, which help preserve surplus
production and create economies of scale. The conventional view holds that cities first
formed after the Neolithic Revolution, with the spread of agriculture. The advent of farming
encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and settle near others who
lived by agricultural production. Agriculture yielded more food, which made denser human
populations possible, thereby supporting city development. Farming led to dense, settled
populations, and food surpluses that required storage and could facilitate trade. These
conditions seem to be important prerequisites for city life. Many theorists hypothesize that
agriculture preceded the development of cities and led to their growth.

A good environment and strong social organization are two necessities for the
formation of a successful city. A good environment includes clean water and a favorable
climate for growing crops and agriculture. A strong sense of social organization helps a
newly formed city work together in times of need, and it allows people to develop various
functions to assist in the future development of the city (for example, farmer or merchant).
Without these two common features, as well as advanced agricultural technology, a newly
formed city is not likely to succeed.

Cities may have held other advantages, too. For example, cities reduced transport
costs for goods, people, and ideas by bringing them all together in one spot. By reducing
these transaction costs, cities contributed to worker productivity. Finally, cities likely
performed the essential function of providing protection for people and the valuable things
they were beginning to accumulate. Some theorists hypothesize that people may have
come together to form cities as a form of protection against marauding barbarian armies”.
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com )

13.5 The Process of Urbanization

Urbanization is the process of a population shift from rural areas to cities. During
the last century, global populations have urbanized rapidly:

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 13% of people lived in urban environments in the year 1900

29% of people lived in urban environments in the year 1950

One projection suggests that, by 2030, the proportion of people living in cities may reach
60%.

Urbanization tends to correlate positively with industrialization. With the promise

of greater employment opportunities that come from industrialization, people from rural
areas will go to cities in pursuit of greater economic rewards.

Another term for urbanization is “rural flight.” In modern times, this flight often
occurs in a region following the industrialization of agriculture—when fewer people are
needed to bring the same amount of agricultural output to market—and related agricultural
services and industries are consolidated. These factors negatively affect the economy of
small- and middle-sized farms and strongly reduce the size of the rural labor market. Rural
flight is exacerbated when the population decline leads to the loss of rural services (such
as business enterprises and schools), which leads to greater loss of population as people
leave to seek those features.

As more and more people leave villages and farms to live in cities, urban growth
results. The rapid growth of cities like Chicago in the late nineteenth century and Mumbai
a century later can be attributed largely to rural-urban migration. This kind of growth is
especially commonplace in developing countries.

Urbanization occurs naturally from individual and corporate efforts to reduce time
and expense in commuting, while improving opportunities for jobs, education, housing,
entertainment, and transportation. Living in cities permits individuals and families to take
advantage of the opportunities of proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition. Due
to their high populations, urban areas can also have more diverse social communities
than rural areas, allowing others to find people like them.
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com)

Some cities have grown so large and have such influence over a region that the
term “city” is no longer adequate to describe them. The term metropolis is used instead.
This term refers to a central city surrounded by smaller cities and suburbs.

Another consequence of urbanization is the convergence of people with diverse

cultural background. Sociologists most often call it multi-culturalism or cultural pluralism,
which pertains to a situation where various ethnic groups converged in amixed ethnic
community area resulting to the existence of multi-cultural traditions, these are called
Multi cultural cities.

Challenges and Issues in urbanization

1.Growth of Slums

2. Provision of adequate basic services and infrastructures

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3. Climate change

4. Increasing urban divide between the rich and the poor

13.5 The Global City

A global city or world city sometimes called Alpha cities, are a concept which
postulates that globalization can be broken down in terms of strategic geographic locales
that see global processes being created, facilitated, and enacted. The most complex of
these entities is the "global city", whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct and
tangible effect on global affairs through more than just socio-economic means, with
influence in terms of culture, or politics. The terminology of "global city", as opposed to
megacity, is thought to have been first coined by Saskia Sassen in reference to London,
New York and Tokyo in her 1991 work The Global City. ( https://www.cs.mcgill.ca )

It has been argued that global cities are those sharing the following characteristics:
(https://www.cs.mcgill.ca )

International, first-name familiarity; whereby a city is recognized without the need for a
political subdivision. For example. although there are numerous cities and other political
entities with the name Paris or variations on it, one would say "Paris", not "Paris, France".

Active influence and participation in international events and world affairs; for example,
New York City is home to the United Nations headquarters complex and consequently
contains a vast majority of the permanent missions to the UN.

A large population (the centre of a metropolitan area with a population of at least one
million, typically several million).

A major international airport (for example, London Heathrow Airport) that serves as an
established hub for several international airlines.

An advanced transportation system that includes several freeways and/or a large mass
transit network offering multiple modes of transportation (rapid transit, light rail, regional
rail, ferry, or bus).

In the West, several international cultures and communities (such as a Chinatown, a

Little Italy, or other immigrant communities). In other parts of the world, cities which attract
large foreign businesses and related expatriate communities, for example, Singapore,
Shanghai, Hong Kong, Tokyo, and Moscow.

International financial institutions, law firms, corporate headquarters (especially

conglomerates), and stock exchanges (for example the London Stock Exchange, the New
York Stock Exchange or the Tokyo Stock Exchange) that have influence over the world
economy.

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 An advanced communications infrastructure on which modern trans-national
corporations rely, such as fiberoptics, Wi-Fi networks, cellular phone services, and other
high-speed lines of communications.

World-renowned cultural institutions, such as museums and universities.

A lively cultural scene, including film festivals (for example the Toronto International
Film Festival), premieres, a thriving music or theatre scene (for example, West End theatre
and Broadway); an orchestra, an opera company, art galleries, and street performers.

Several powerful and influential media outlets with an international reach, such as the
BBC, Associated Press, Reuters, The New York Times, The Times, or Agence France-
Presse.

A strong sporting community, including major sports facilities, home teams in major
league sports, and the ability and historical experience to host international sporting
events such as the Olympic Games, Football World Cup, or Grand Slam tennis events.

To some, London, New York City, Paris, and Tokyo have been traditionally considered the
'big four' world cities – not coincidentally, they also serve as symbols of global capitalism.
However, many people have their own personal lists, and any two lists are likely to differ
based on cultural background, values, and experience.

In certain countries, the rise of suburbia and the ongoing migration of manufacturing jobs
to these countries has led to significant urban decay. Therefore, to boost urban
regeneration, tourism, and revenue, the goal of building a "world-class" city has recently
become an obsession with the governments of some mid-size cities and their constituents.

The phenomenon of world-city building has also been observed in Buenos Aires,
Santiago, Frankfurt, Montréal, Sydney, Mexico City and Toronto: each of these cities has
emerged as large and influential.

Video Link:
What is a Global City?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dJekil09KA8
Global Cities: Introduction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bfUH2DKUoeI
New Clark City
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjuqAH4cf5E

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 .

CHAPTER 13

SOCIAL ISSUES AND PROBLEMS OF URBANIZATION IN A GLOBAL WORLD

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. differentiate the concepts of social issue and social problem
2. identify emerging social problems in a global world and determine their
causes.
3. Analyze the effects of these social problems and issues to Globalization

A social problem is any condition or behavior that has negative consequences

for large numbers of people and that is generally recognized as a condition or behavior
that needs to be addressed.

A social issue is a problem that influences many citizens within a society. It is a

common problem in present-day society and one that many people strive to solve. It is
often the consequence of factors extending beyond an individual's control. Social issues
are the source of a conflicting opinion on the grounds of what is perceived as morally
correct or incorrect

Four factors have been outlined that seem to characterize a social issue or
problem. These include:

➢ The public must recognize the situation as a problem.

➢ The situation is against the general values accepted by the society.

➢ A large segment of the population recognizes the problem as a valid concern.

➢ The problem can be rectified or alleviated through the joint action of citizens
and/or community resources.

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Common Social Problems and Issues in Globalization

12.1 Global Health Issues including HIV and AIDS

In recent years, cities around the world are seriously disturbed with communicable
health risks such as but not limited to Ebola fever, SARS, AH1N1, and many others. Just
recently added to this is the spread of the New Corona Virus (NCOV2) which became a
Pandemic that locked down almost all countries all over the world.

State monitoring particularly on returning nationals from abroad was found to be

effective mechanism to prevent the spread of such viruses. But then in the process of
Globalization as people move about so as these health threat move also thus creating
Health problems and social issues among many countries.

The World Health Organization has released a list of 10 threats to global health in
2019. They include:

• Air pollution and climate change

• Noncommunicable diseases
• Threat of a global influenza pandemic
• Fragile and vulnerable settings, such as regions affected by drought and conflict
• Antimicrobial resistance
• Ebola and high-threat pathogens
• Weak primary care
• Vaccine hesitancy
• Dengue
• HIV/AIDS

This year the Novel Corona Virus (NCOV 2) is added to the above threats because it
has evolved already into a worldwide pandemic and continue to wreak havoc not only on
health infrastructures but on Economic infrastructures as well because of lock downs
imposed by countries in order to contain its spread.

12.1.1 WHAT IS HIV?

HIV stands for HUMAN IMMUNODEFFICIENCY VIRUS is a virus that attacks cells
that help the body fight infection, making a person more vulnerable to other infections and
diseases. Without treatment, HIV can gradually destroy the immune system and advance
to AIDS.

AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. AIDS is the most advanced
stage of HIV infection.

The spread of HIV from person to person is called HIV transmission. HIV is spread
only in certain body fluids from a person who has HIV. These body fluids include Blood,
Semen, Pre-seminal fluid, Vaginal fluids, Rectal fluids, and Breast milk.

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 In the United States, HIV is spread mainly by having anal or vaginal sex with
someone who has HIV without using a condom or taking medicines to prevent or treat HIV

Sharing injection drug equipment (works), such as needles, with someone who
has HIV, The spread of HIV from a woman with HIV to her child during pregnancy,
childbirth, or breastfeeding is called mother-to-child transmission of HIV.

On the other hand, one CANNOT get HIV by shaking hands or hugging a person
who has HIV and from contact with objects such as dishes, toilet seats, or doorknobs
used by a person with HIV. HIV is not spread through the air or in water or by
mosquitoes, ticks, or other blood-sucking insects.

Within 2 to 4 weeks after infection with HIV, some people may have flu-like
symptoms, such as fever, chills, or rash. The symptoms may last for a few days to
several weeks. During this earliest stage of HIV infection, the virus multiplies rapidly.

After the initial stage of infection, HIV continues to multiply but at very low levels.
More severe symptoms of HIV infection, such as signs of opportunistic infections,
generally don’t appear for many years.

A person can reduce the risk of being infected with the following guidelines:

➢ Use condoms correctly every time you have sex.

➢ Limit your number of sexual partners.

➢ Never share injection drug equipment.

HIV medicines, given to women with HIV during pregnancy and childbirth and to their
babies after birth, reduce the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV

Infection with HIV/AIDS leads to numerous bodily, mental and social issues that
affect the individual and impacts on their families and communities at large. The impact of
the HIV treatment is further aggravated by other factors such as worry about employment,
sexuality, the prospects of relationships, and the social reactions of other community
members. Another impact of HIV is the stigma and discrimination against persons living
with HIV/AIDS. Apart from having to endure treatment with severe side-effects, they
constantly must cope with rejection and social discrimination. (https://nursinganswers.net)

Video Link:
Positive/Negative: HIV & AIDS in the Philippines
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SQmysmzZvVw

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12.2 Sex and Gender Discrimination

The distinction between sex and gender differentiates a person's biological

sex (the anatomy of an individual's reproductive system, and secondary sex
characteristics) from that person's gender, which can refer to either social roles based on
the sex of the person (gender role) or personal identification of one's own gender based
on an internal awareness.

Sex often refers to what doctors (and society) assign a person at birth based on
their genitals. So, the division become binary referring to being Male or Female. While
sex is often based on biology, gender is a social construct.

According to the World Health organization, Gender as a social construction

includes norms, behaviors and roles associated with being a woman, man, girl or boy, as
well as relationships with each other. As a social construct, gender varies from society to
society and can change over time. Because there are more than two genders, it
therefore not binary but instead it is a spectrum. Below are the most popular gender
description in this spectrum.

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 Gender or sex as classification is hierarchical and produces inequalities that
intersect with other social and economic inequalities. Gender-based discrimination
intersects with other factors of discrimination, such as ethnicity, socio-economic status,
disability, age, geographic location, gender identity and sexual orientation, among
others.

Gender or sex discrimination occurs when a person is subjected to different or

unequal treatment ("discrimination") in any number of situations, when that treatment is
based on the person's gender.

Sex discrimination - refers to discrimination based on the biological differences

between male and female.

Gender discrimination - refers to discrimination based on social behavior such as

nonconformance of gender roles including sexual orientation and gender identity
discrimination.

Gender and sex discrimination can take place in many different settings, but
typically occurs most often in the following situations:

a. Workplace- Gender discrimination may be direct or indirect. Direct gender

discrimination is when an employee is treating unfavorably because of
their gender. Indirect gender discrimination can occur if employers or

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 managers hold assumptions about what sort of work women and men are
capable, or not capable, of doing.
b. Education - When a child is treated less favorably on the grounds of
gender, sexual orientation. Sometimes they are not given equal
opportunity and treatment because of the sex or gender. In some regions,
boys’ educational opportunities are limited by gender roles that force
them to work rather than attend school. These financial responsibilities
are often increased in boys’ adolescent years, making it difficult for them
to complete secondary school in some regions. However, in many parts
of the world, girls are most often the victims of gender discrimination as
they pursue an education.
c. Household – when male children are given more opportunities than their
sisters. Sometimes this takes the form of giving more household chores
to female children while those having other genders such as gays or
lesbians are looked down upon or totally become unaccepted.

Gender stereotypes is a generalized view or preconception about attributes or

characteristics, or the roles that are or ought to be possessed by, or performed by
women and men. A gender stereotype is harmful when it limits women’s and men’s
capacity to develop their personal abilities, pursue their professional careers and make
choices about their lives.

Gender equality is a human right, but our world faces a persistent gap in access
to opportunities and decision-making power for women and men.

Globally, women have fewer opportunities for economic participation than men,
less access to basic and higher education, greater health and safety risks, and less
political representation.

Guaranteeing the rights of women and giving them opportunities to reach their
full potential is critical not only for attaining gender equality, but also for meeting a wide
range of international development goals. Empowered women and girls contribute to the
health and productivity of their families, communities, and countries, creating a ripple
effect that benefits everyone.

Video Link:

Gender Stratification: Crash Course Sociology #32

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yb1_4FPtzrI

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12. 3 Climate Change

Weather, state of the atmosphere at a particular place during a short period of

time. It involves such atmospheric phenomena as temperature, humidity, precipitation
(type and amount), air pressure, wind, and cloud cover.

Climate describes the average weather of a particular part of the world at

different times of the year.

Climate change is the long-term shift in average weather patterns across the
world. Since the mid-1800s, humans have contributed to the release of carbon dioxide
and other greenhouse gases into the air. This causes global temperatures to rise,
resulting in long-term changes to the climate. (Met College, 2016)

12.3.1 What are the causes?

a. SOLAR VARIABILITY- The luminosity, or brightness, of the Sun has been

increasing steadily since its formation. This phenomenon is important to Earth’s
climate, because the Sun provides the energy to drive atmospheric circulation
and constitutes the input for Earth’s heat budget. Low solar luminosity during
Precambrian time underlies the faint young Sun paradox, described in the
section Climates of early Earth.
b. HUMAN ACTIVITIES- Recognition of global climate change as an environmental
issue has drawn attention to the climatic impact of human activities. Most of this
attention has focused on carbon dioxide emission via fossil-fuel combustion and
deforestation. Human activities also yield releases of other greenhouse gases,
such as methane (from rice cultivation, livestock, landfills, and other sources) and
chlorofluorocarbons (from industrial sources). There is little doubt among
climatologists that these greenhouse gases affect the radiation budget of Earth;
the nature and magnitude of the climatic response are a subject of intense
research activity.
c. GREENHOUSE GASES- It is a gas that contributes to the greenhouse effect by
absorbing infrared radiation, e.g., carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons. When
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide build in the atmosphere, they act like
a blanket around the earth. When sunlight (ultraviolet radiation) hits this blanket,
it passes straight through and continues until it reaches the surface of the planet.

12.3. 2 Effects of Climate Change

Global climate change has already had observable effects on the environment.
Glaciers have shrunk, ice on rivers and lakes is breaking up earlier, plant and
animal ranges have shifted and trees are flowering sooner.

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12.3.3 Possible Solutions

United Nations legal instruments

A. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCC)

-"International environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as the
Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992."
- It has no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual
countries. No enforcement mechanism.
-The treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international
treaties (called "protocols") that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases.

B. Kyoto Protocol
-Is an international agreement that called for industrialized nations to
reduce their greenhouse gas emissions significantly.

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 -"Kyoto" because it was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997, when
greenhouse gases were rapidly threatening our climate.

C. Paris Agreement
“At COP 21 in Paris, on 12 December 2015, Parties to the UNFCCC
reached a landmark agreement to combat climate change and to accelerate and
intensify the actions and investments needed for a sustainable low carbon future.”
“The Paris Agreement’s central aim is to strengthen the global response to
the threat of climate change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well
below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit
the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Additionally, the
agreement aims to increase the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of
climate change, and at making finance flows consistent with a low GHG emissions
and climate-resilient pathway. To reach these ambitious goals, appropriate
mobilization and provision of financial resources, a new technology framework and
enhanced capacity-building is to be put in place, thus supporting action by
developing countries and the most vulnerable countries, in line with their own
national objectives. The Agreement also provides for an enhanced transparency
framework for action and support.” (https://unfccc.int)

Video Link:
What is Climate Change? | Start Here
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dcBXmj1nMTQ&t=41s

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