Signaling,

TDM Hierarchies/SONET
and Switching #13
Victor S. Frost
Dan F. Servey Distinguished Professor
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
University of Kansas
2335 Irving Hill Dr.
Lawrence, Kansas 66045
Phone: (785) 864-4833 FAX:(785) 864-7789
e-mail: [email protected]
http://www.ittc.ku.edu/

Chapter 4 Signaling ….
1

Overview
„ Signaling & VoIP
„ TDM Hierarchies and SONET
„ Switching
¾ “Crossbar”
¾ Time division switching
¾ Packet switching
¾ Optical switching

Signaling ….
2
Signaling
„ Exchange of messages related to call setup,
monitoring, teardown, and network
management information.
„ Provides command and control infrastructure
for communications networks.
„ End device (e.g., Telephone)-to-Switch and
Between Switches
„ Signaling enables the advanced features of
modern communications (e.g., telephone)
systems

Signaling ….
3

Signaling
„ In-band
„ Out-of-band
„ Common channel signaling
¾ Reduces connect time
¾ Increases signaling capacity
¾ Increases flexibility
¾ Enhanced customer services
¾ Common Channel Interoffice Signaling (CCIS)
¾ Common Signaling protocols
– SS #7,
– RSVP,
– SIP,
– H.323

Signaling ….
4
Requirements for signaling

„ STRICT performance and reliability

requirements
¾ Fast call set up
¾ Always available
„ To grow and provide more services signaling
code must be:
¾ Extensible
¾ Maintainable
„ Interoperability

Signaling ….
5

SS7
ƒ Signaling System 7
¾ Predominant control signaling network for PSTN.
¾ Signaling Point: use signaling to transmit and
receive control information .
¾ Signaling Link: interconnect signaling points.
¾ Signaling Transfer Point (STP): transfer signaling
messages from one link to another.
¾ Signaling Control Point (SCP): database for SS7
network.

Signaling ….
6
 SS7 Network

User B User A

SSP = SS7 Signaling Points

User C SCP = Service Control Point
STP = Signal Transfer Point

From: International Engineering Consortium,

Signaling ….
7
http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/ip_in/topic01.html, 2002

Signaling System 7 (SS7) Protocols

OSI layer name SS7 layer name Functionality Internet example

Application Application Service Application FTP

Element
Transaction RPC RPC
Capabilities
Application part
Transport Signaling Connection Connections, TCP
Control Part sequence numbers,
segmentation and
reassembly, flow
control
Network Message Transfer Routing IP
Part 3 (MTP-3)
Datalink MTP-2 Framing , link-level Ethernet
error detection and
retransmission
Physical MTP-1 Physical bit transfer Ethernet

From: An Engineering Approach to Computer Networks, S, Keshav

Signaling ….
8
Resource ReSerVation Protocol
(RSVP)
ƒ Designed to provide integrated services
across the Internet.
ƒ Host requests service with very specific
connection parameters from the network.
ƒ Each network element along the specified
path will receive a requested for dedicated
resources (e.g., bandwidth).
ƒ If all nodes along the path dedicate the
resources, the reservation is complete and the
host may begin use.

Signaling ….
9

Resource ReSerVation Protocol

(RSVP)

RVSP Request RVSP Request

RVSP Request
RVSP Request

Signaling ….
10
Voice over IP (VoIP)
ƒ A network that transmits voice packets
over IP.
ƒ Specialized signaling protocols are used
to set up and tear down calls, carry
information required to locate users and
negotiate capabilities.
ƒ Voice signal is digitized, compressed and
converted to IP packets.

Signaling ….
11

Voice over the Internet:

Common Operational Modes
„ PC-to-PC
¾ Requires connection to “Internet”
¾ Requires PC sound card
¾ Requires internet voice software
„ PC-to-Phone
¾ Requires connection to “Internet”
¾ Requires PC sound card
¾ Requires internet voice software
¾ Requires an internet-to-telephone gateway (switch-to-router)
„ Phone-to-Phone
¾ Requires connection to “Internet”
¾ Requires PC sound card
¾ Requires internet voice software
¾ Requires an internet-to-telephone gateway (switch-to-router)

Signaling ….
12
Voice over the Internet:
Benefits
„ Can place a phone call to any other
internet telephony user anywhere in the
world and only pay for call to local ISP
„ Simplifies voice/data conferencing
„ Enhanced helpdesks
„ Enhanced on-line order placement
„ Integration offers potential to reduce
administrative cost

Signaling ….
13

Voice over the Internet:

Problems
„ Quality of Service
¾ The internet is currently “best effort”
¾ The internet is unreliable
„ Lack of standards
~~> plethora of proprietary solutions
¾ Lack of Interoperatability
„ Lack of high volume call processing
capability
„ 911

Signaling ….
14
 Session Initiation Protocol
(SIP)
„ Session Initiation Protocol
„ Comes from IETF
SIP long-term vision
„ All telephone calls and video conference calls take
place over the Internet
„ People are identified by names or e-mail addresses,
rather than by phone numbers.
„ You can reach the callee, no matter where the callee
roams, no matter what IP device the callee is
currently using.

From Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring the Internet,

2nd edition. Jim Kurose, Keith Ross, Addison-Wesley, Copyright 1996-2002, Signaling ….
15
J .F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved

Session Initiation Protocol

(SIP)
ƒ Begins, changes and terminates network sessions.
ƒ Provides advanced signaling and control to an IP network.
ƒ User Agent: end users of the SIP network that initiate requests
and are the destination of services offered across the SIP
network.
ƒ Registrar: manage user agents assigned to their network
domain.
ƒ Proxy Server: forward SIP requests and responses.
ƒ Redirect Server: take SIP requests and return location
information of another user agent or server.
ƒ Location Server: locates the next-hop for an incoming session
request.
ƒ Also, media GW and signaling GW for interworking with
PSTN.

Signaling ….
16
 Session Initiation Protocol
(SIP) Network Elements
Proxy/Registrar/Redirect Services
Location Server

Signaling/Media GW
Signaling/Media GW
SIP SIP

IP PRI
IP
SIP
PRI

PST N/SS7
IP Network

SIP IP

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9

* 8 #

ENTERPRISE IP IP
User A
NETW ORK 1
4
7
*
2
5
8
8
3
6
9
#

SIP
IP SIP Phone
SIP User Agent

Dashed Lines are

Soft Phone Signaling links
User Agent

Signaling ….
17

SIP Services
„ Setting up a call „ Determine current IP
¾ Provides mechanisms for address of callee.
caller to let callee know ¾ Maps mnemonic
she wants to establish a identifier to current IP
call address
¾ Provides mechanisms so „ Call management
that caller and callee can ¾ Add new media streams
agree on media type and during call
encoding.
¾ Change encoding during
¾ Provides mechanisms to call
end call.
¾ Invite others
¾ Transfer and hold calls

From Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring the Internet,

2nd edition. Jim Kurose, Keith Ross, Addison-Wesley, Copyright 1996-2002, Signaling ….
18
J .F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved
 Setting up a call to a known IP address
• Alice’s SIP invite
message indicates her port
number & IP address.
Indicates encoding that
Alice prefers to receive
(PCM ulaw)

• Bob’s 200 OK message

indicates his port number,
IP address & preferred
encoding (GSM)
µ

• SIP messages can be sent

over TCP or UDP; here
sent over RTP/UDP.

•Default SIP port number

is 5060.

From Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring the Internet,

2nd edition. Jim Kurose, Keith Ross, Addison-Wesley, Copyright 1996-2002, Signaling ….
19
J .F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved

Setting up a call (more)

„ Codec negotiation: „ Rejecting the call
¾ Suppose Bob doesn’t
¾ Bob can reject with
have PCM ulaw replies “busy,”
encoder. “gone,” “payment
¾ Bob will instead reply required,”
with 606 Not “forbidden”.
Acceptable Reply and
„ Media can be sent over
list encoders he can
RTP or some other
use.
protocol.
¾ Alice can then send a
„ Signaling and media
new INVITE message, can go over different
advertising an paths
appropriate encoder.
From Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring the Internet,
2nd edition. Jim Kurose, Keith Ross, Addison-Wesley, Copyright 1996-2002, Signaling ….
20
J .F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved
 Example of SIP message
• Here we don’t know
INVITE sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0
Via: SIP/2.0/UDP 167.180.112.24 Bob’s IP address.
From: sip:[email protected] Intermediate SIP
To: sip:[email protected] servers will be
Call-ID: [email protected] necessary.
Content-Type: application/sdp
Content-Length: 885 • Alice sends and
receives SIP messages
using the SIP default
c=IN IP4 167.180.112.24
port number 506.
m=audio 38060 RTP/AVP 0
• Alice specifies in Via:
Notes: header that SIP client
„ HTTP message syntax sends and receives
„ sdp = session description protocol SIP messages over UDP
„ Call-ID is unique for every call.
From Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring the Internet,
2nd edition. Jim Kurose, Keith Ross, Addison-Wesley, Copyright 1996-2002, Signaling ….
21
J .F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved

Name translation and user

location
„ Caller wants to call „ Result can be based on:
callee, but only has ¾ time of day (work, home)
callee’s name or e-mail ¾ caller (don’t want boss to
address. call you at home)
¾ status of callee (calls sent to
„ Need to get IP address voicemail when callee is
of callee’s current host: already talking to someone)
¾ user moves around Service provided by SIP
¾ DHCP protocol servers:
¾ user has different IP
„ SIP registrar server
devices (PC, PDA, car
device) „ SIP proxy server

From Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring the Internet,

2nd edition. Jim Kurose, Keith Ross, Addison-Wesley, Copyright 1996-2002, Signaling ….
22
J .F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved
SIP Registrar
„ When Bob starts SIP client, client sends SIP
REGISTER message to Bob’s registrar server
(similar function needed by Instant Messaging)
Register Message:

REGISTER sip:domain.com SIP/2.0

Via: SIP/2.0/UDP 193.64.210.89
From: sip:[email protected]
To: sip:[email protected]
Expires: 3600
From Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring the Internet,
2nd edition. Jim Kurose, Keith Ross, Addison-Wesley, Copyright 1996-2002, Signaling ….
23
J .F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved

SIP Proxy
„ Alice send’s invite message to her proxy server
¾ contains address sip:[email protected]
„ Proxy responsible for routing SIP messages to callee
¾ possibly through multiple proxies.
„ Callee sends response back through the same set of
proxies.
„ Proxy returns SIP response message to Alice
¾ contains Bob’s IP address
„ Note: proxy is analogous to local DNS server

From Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring the Internet,

2nd edition. Jim Kurose, Keith Ross, Addison-Wesley, Copyright 1996-2002, Signaling ….
24
J .F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved
Example: Caller [email protected] with places a
call to [email protected]
SIP registrar
upenn.edu

(1) Jim sends INVITE 2

SIP
registrar
message to umass SIP SIP proxy eurecom.fr

proxy. (2) Proxy forwards umass.edu 3

4

request to upenn
registrar server. 1 7 5

(3) upenn server returns 8

6

redirect response,
indicating that it should 9
SIP client
try [email protected] SIP client 197.87.54.21
217.123.56.89

(4) umass proxy sends INVITE to eurecom registrar. (5) eurecom

regristrar forwards INVITE to 197.87.54.21, which is running keith’s
SIP client. (6-8) SIP response sent back (9) media sent directly
between clients.
Note: also a SIP ack message, which is not shown.
From Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring the Internet,
2nd edition. Jim Kurose, Keith Ross, Addison-Wesley, Copyright 1996-2002, Signaling ….
25
J .F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved

Signal Transport (SigTran)

ƒ Developed to allow VoIP networks to utilize
the extensive functionality and superior
performance of SS7.
ƒ Interworks VoIP network with SS7/PSTN
ƒ SS7 packets are encapsulated in IP packets by
Signaling GW and sent to Media GW
Controller which makes routing decisions.
ƒ Media stream (voice) is encapsulated in IP
packets by Media GW.

Signaling ….
26
 Comparison with H.323
„ H.323 is another signaling
„ H.323 comes from the ITU
protocol for real-time,
(telephony).
interactive
„ SIP comes from IETF:
„ H.323 is a complete,
Borrows much of its
vertically integrated suite of
concepts from HTTP. SIP has
protocols for multimedia
a Web flavor, whereas H.323
conferencing: signaling,
has a telephony flavor.
registration, admission
control, transport and „ SIP uses the KISS principle:
codecs. Keep it simple stupid.
„ SIP is a single component.
Works with RTP, but does
not mandate it. Can be
combined with other
protocols and services.
From Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring the Internet,
2nd edition. Jim Kurose, Keith Ross, Addison-Wesley, Copyright 1996-2002, Signaling ….
27
J .F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved

Components of H.323 System

H.323 is a set of standards to support
Gatekeeper real-time multimedia
Multipoint communications on
control unit Packet Networks, call control,
management,
and interfacing issues
Gateway

Public telephone
IP network
network

Telephone

H.323 terminal
H.323 terminal
From: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Signaling ….
28
TDM & FDM
Frequency
Synchronization intervals

Time
Division W 1 2 3 … M 1
Multiplexing
Time
1 Frame

Frequency

1 Guard bands
Frequency 2
Division W

…
Multiplexing M-1
M
Time

Signaling ….
29

TDM Frame Structures

Continued on next slide

Signaling ….
30
TDM Frame Structures
Continued from previous slide

Signaling ….
31

T-1 Frame Structures

1 1

2 MUX MUX 2
...

...

22 23 24 b 1 2 ... 24 b
24 Frame 24

•Bit Rate = 8000 frames/sec. x (1 + 8 x 24) bits/frame = 1.544 Mbps

•Framing bit used to synchronize, look for 101010
•In Band Signalling (Bit Robbing for Off and On hook, Alarms, Busy)
•Super Frames (12 consecutive frames, Only Every 6th Frame do we
steal a bit from the least significant bit of each channel.
•Extended Super Frame (24 frames, 6 bits for sync, rest for
diagnostics – can test without taking link down)
•Dedicated circuits don’t rob bits. (Clear Channel)

Figure 4.4 Leon-Garcia, Widjaja Signaling ….

32
 T-Carrier Framing Cont.
„ Timing
¾ Bit Sync – recover the clock from received bit
stream
¾ Requires minimum one’s density – can’t flatline.
¾ Voice coding schemes never encode a sample as
all zeros
¾ But data could so ..
– AMI – Alternate Mark Inversion - Steal a bit per byte and
set it to 1 – Zero Code Suppression (ZCS) – 56K per DS0.
AMI alternates the polarity of a “1” being transmitted.
– Or use B8ZS – substitution, along with line encoding
trick. Perform a deliberate AMI violation, I.e. don’t
alternate on 4th and 7th bit of the substitution pattern.
The pattern is 00011011. - Can transmit full 64K data –
Clear Channel
Signaling ….
33

North America T- System

1 DS1 signal, 1.544Mbps
.
. Mux
24

1 DS2 signal, 6.312Mbps

24 DS0 .
4 DS1 . Mux
4

1 DS3 signal, 44.736Mpbs

.
7 DS2 . Mux
7
„ DS0, 64 Kbps channel 1
„ DS1, 1.544 Mbps channel .
6 DS3 . Mux
„ DS2, 6.312 Mbps channel 6
„ DS3, 44.736 Mbps channel
DS4 signal
„ DS4, 274.176 Mbps channel
274.176Mbps

Figure 4.5 Leon-Garcia, Widjaja Signaling ….

34
 TDM Frame Structures
„ E1 System
„ 32 time slots
„ 8 bits/slot
„ 2.048 Mb/s
„ 2 time slots (128 kb/s) used for
signaling
Signaling ….
35

SONET
(Synchronous Optical Network)

„ Open standard for optical transmission and

interfaces
„ It defines standard optical signals, a synchronous
frame structure for multiplexed digital traffic, and
operations procedures
„ SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) is an
specification developed by Bellcore in 1985 for
optical transmission networks

Signaling ….
36
SONET
(Synchronous Optical Network)

„ ITU-T (CCITT) also adopted a set of SONET

interface standards
„ By the end of the 1980s, ITU-T (CCITT)
adopted SONET as one of the physical layer
standards for BISDN
„ Framing overhead not in the cell structure
„ Transport overhead distributed throughout
the frame
„ Frame time = 125us

Signaling ….
37

SONET
„ Extensive management, performance
monitoring, and fault detection
„ Synchronous multiplexing
„ Compatible with DS0, DS1, and DS3
transport mechanism as well as ATM
„ Software control and access to DS0,
DS1, and DS3, Add/Drop multiplexers
„ Transport of advanced services

Signaling ….
38
 SONET Multiplexing
DS1 „ STS ==> Synchronous
Low-speed
mapping
Transport Signal (Electrical)
DS2
E1 function STS-1 „ OC ==> Optical Transport
51.84 Mbps Signal (Optical)
Medium „OC- # c ==> Concatenated
DS3 speed STS-1
44.736 mapping OC-n
STS-n

...
function
...

Scrambler E/O
STS-3c
High- STS-1 MUX
E4
speed STS-1
mapping STS-1
139.264 function
STS-3c
STS-1
High- STS-1 POS= Packet
ATM or
POS
speed
mapping
STS-1 over SONET
function

Figure 4.10 Leon-Garcia, Widjaja Signaling ….

39

SONET
Layered Architecture

„ Photonic Layer --> Light transfer

„ Section Layer ----> Frame transport
„ Line Layer --------> Multiplexing
„ Path Layer --------> Map services
into synchronous payload

Signaling ….
40
SONET: Physical Hierarchy
Terminals Terminals

Regenerator STS Regenerator

STS MUX STS
MUX or MUX
SW

Section Section Section Section

Line Line

Path

„ Section: Basic building block, a single run of optical cable

between transmitter/receiver
„ Line: Sequence of sections connected by repeaters; line end
points are muxers or switches
„ Path: Sequence of lines connecting the end terminals
Signaling ….
41

SONET Layered Architecture

„ By Signaling between elements

¾ Section Terminating Equipment (STE): span of fiber between
adjacent devices, e.g. regenerators – Frame Transport
¾ Line Terminating Equipment (LTE): span between adjacent
multiplexers, encompasses multiple sections - Multiplexing
¾ Path Terminating Equipment (PTE): span between SONET
terminals at end of network, encompasses multiple lines – Map
services into payload
„ By Functionality
¾ ADMs: dropping & inserting tributaries
¾ Regenerators: digital signal regeneration
¾ Cross-Connects: interconnecting SONET streams

Signaling ….
42
 SONET
„ SONET Rates
Line Rate CCITT ANSI Optical
(Mbps) Designation Designation Level
51.84 STS-1 OC-1
155.52 STM-1 STS-3 OC-3
466.56 STM-3 STS-9 OC-9
622.08 STM-4 STS-12 OC-12
933.12 STM-6 STS-18 OC-18
1244.16 STM-8 STS-24 OC-24
1866.24 STM-12 STS-36 OC-36
2488.32 STM-16 STS-48 OC-48
9953.28 Available for IP router interfaces OC-192
39,813 OC-768

Starting to appear in MANs

Signaling ….
43

SONET: Frame Structure (STS-1/OC-1)

„ 9 Bytes Section
„ 18 Bytes Line
„ 9 Bytes Path
„ 774 Bytes Payload
„ 810 Bytes*(8bits/Byte)/125us= 51.84 Mb/s

Signaling ….
44
 SONET: Frame Structure (STS-1/OC-1)

90 Octets
Overhead 87 Octets
3 Octets STS-1 Envelope Capacity
Section B B B B
Overhead
3 Rows

Line
Overhead
6 Rows

B = 8-bit octet Path 125 Microsecond

Overhead

(90 bytes*9 rows*8 bits/byte)/125us = 51.84Mb/s

Signaling ….
45

SONET: Frame Structure (STS-N/OC-N)

N x 90 Octets
Overhead
Nx3 STS-N Envelope Capacity
Octets
Section B B B B
Overhead
3 Rows

Line
Overhead
6 Rows

B = 8-bit octet Path 125 Microsecond

Overhead

Signaling ….
46
SONET Overhead

Signaling ….
47

SONET
Operation, Administration, and Maintenance (OAM)

ATE ATE
F3 (PTE) Flow PTE
PTE
F2 (LTE) Flow LTE
LTE
STE F1 (STE) Flow STE
ATE: ATM Terminating Equipment
PTE: SONET Path Terminating Equipment
LTE: SONET Line Terminating Equipment
STE: SONET Section Terminating Equipment

Signaling ….
48
 Wavelength-division Multiplexing
(WDM)

Optical Optical
λ1 MUX deMUX
λ1
λ2 λ1 λ2. λm λ2
SONET SONET
Optical
fiber
λm λm

Today each wavelength carries a SONET signal

Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Signaling ….

49

WDM Network Elements

Data
APPLICATIONS
Applications

X-C WDM Cross Connect

Multimedia
Layers

Optical
Access Video Wavelength Routed Star
Voice
LAN Image WDM Add/Drop Multiplexer

Legacy
ELECTRONIC
Electronic
Switching

ATM / Switch
Layers

ATM / SONET
SONET ATM / ATM /
SONET SONET
Legacy
Switch
Configurable
WDM Layers

OPTICAL
(MONET)

X-C X-C
Ring X-C
X-C
X-C X-C X-C
Private Network
with Direct
Local-Exchange Network Long-Distance Network Optical Access

From R. E.Wagner, MONET Overview

DARPA NETS PI Meeting 3-7-97 Signaling ….
50
 Beyond SONET:
Future transport over WDM Using Digital Wrapper

IP ATM Enet
Header
Oh SONET payload
Header Header

Digital
Och FEC
Wrapper OH

Optical Channel Frame

Signaling ….
51

Beyond SONET:
Optical Burst Switching

Optical Burst

Switch configuration using optical control Burst

From: WDM Burst Switching Jonathan S. TURNER <[email protected]> Signaling ….

52
Washington University in St. Louis, USA http://www.isoc.org/inet99/4j/4j_3.htm
Switching
„ Fully connected

Number Nodes = N
Number of Lines = N(N-1)/2
N
Disadvantages: N is large
Long distances between nodes
Each node does switching
N2 Problem
Signaling ….
53

Switching
„ Centralized switching
To other switches

Connections
Number of Lines = N

Maybe
Control to operate off-board
connections

Signaling ….
54
Switch Architectures
„ Crossbar
„ Time division multiplex

Signaling ….
55

Crossbar Switch
Switch Architectures

Cross point:
Electromagnetic
1 Electronic
Optical

Input Distribution
Switch-to-Switch

1 K
Output
Signaling ….
56
 Crossbar Switch

Input
Concentration
K>L
Switch-to-Trunk
K

1 L
Output

Signaling ….
57

Crossbar Switch

1
Expansion
Input
Trunk-to-Switch
P
P<K

1 K
Output

Signaling ….
58
 Nonblocking Networks
„ N ports need ~N*N switch connections
or cross-points
„ Using multistage switch architectures
fewer cross points are needed
„ Multistage switch architectures provide
the model for the current generation of
digital switches
„ Optical crossbar switches are appearing
in optical networks
Signaling ….
59

Three Stage Spatial Switch

Architectures
1 1
1
1 1 1
16

1
16 2 2
15

16

1
32 31 32
16 512
512

Signaling ….
60
Three Stage Spatial Switch
Architectures
„ Every stage 1 switch has one connection
to each center stage switch
„ Every stage 3 switch has one connection
to each center stage switch
„ Stage 1 switches are expansion stages
„ Center stage switches are distribution
stages
„ Stage 3 switches are concentration
stages
Signaling ….
61

Three Stage Spatial Switch

Architectures
„N input ports
„ N output ports
„ k center stage switches
„ n input ports/first stage switch
„ n output ports/last stage switch
„ N/n first(last) stage switches

Signaling ….
62
 Three Stage Spatial Switch Architectures
Nonblocking Analysis

1 1 1
1 1
1 1
16 15

1
2 2
16 15

31 16
1

30 15
1
32 32
16 512
512 31
31 N=512, n= 32, k=16

Signaling ….
63

Three Stage Spatial Switch

Architectures: Nonblocking Analysis
„ n-1 (15) center stage switches busy
serving output from stage 1 element
„ n-1 (15) center stage switches busy
serving input to stage 3 element
„ Need one more center stage switch to
serve the 16th input port on the stage
one element
„ k = (n-1) + (n-1) + 1 = 2n - 1 needed for
nonblocking
Signaling ….
64
 Three Stage Spatial Switch Architectures
Non-blocking Analysis
Number of cross points
N c = (N/n)(k • n) + k(N/n) 2
+ (N/n)(k • n)
2
kN
= 2Nk +
n2
To prevent blocking
k = 2n - 1, so
2
⎛N⎞
N c = 2N(2n - 1) + (2n - 1) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ n ⎠
Minimum N c = 4N( 2N − 1)
Optimum n = N
2

Example: N = 8,192--> Single Stage Switch Nc = 67 Million

Three Stage Switch Nc = 4.2 Million
Signaling ….
65

Optical Switch fabric 512 ports

to/from shelf processor

1 1
8
1:2 16x32
2
32x32 2

32
8
1:2 16
16x32 32x32 32x16
#1
64 #1 16
board
8
32x16
1:2 16x32 32x32 #1

8
1:2
16x32 32x32
#2
#2

8 16
Center
8 1st Stage #32 3rd Stage#16 16
Stage #32
From: Signaling ….
66
 Enabling Technology
Agilent Technologies’ Photonic Switch
 Innovative use of reliable inkjet
 Light switched based on the principle of Total Internal Reflection

fill hole
crosspoint

trench

waveguide

PLC Matrix Controller

Substrate

From: Signaling ….
67

Agilent Optical Switch Concept

Top-Down View
Diagonal Cross Section

waveguide
In

index-matching fluid

Transmitting when Reflecting when

Out “bubble” is absent “bubble” is present

From: Signaling ….
68
 Principle (cont’d)

Silicon matrix
controller chip Index-matching fluid

Optical
fibers

waveguide

Silica Actuator off

planar (Transmitting)
lightwave
chip

From: Signaling ….
69

Principle (cont’d)

Actuator on
(Reflecting)

From: Signaling ….
70
 Characteristics

„ # of ports: 32 x 32
„ Insertion loss: 5.0 dB average
„ Channel isolation: > 50 dB
„ Return loss: < -38 dB
„ PDL: < 0.3 dB
„ Switching time: < 7 ms
„ Optical bandwidth: 1260 to 1650 nm

From: Signaling ….
71

Assembly

Switch Module

• 32x32 switch
• Waveguide chip, Matrix Controller Chip,
Fibers • Full control electronics
• Well defined interfaces
• Strictly non-blocking + add/drop ports
• Full diagnostics
• Integrated test and monitoring

Signaling ….
72
Digital Switching
„ All voice signals are digital
„ TDM is used
„ Sample rate is 8000 samples/sec.
„ Time between samples is 125us
„ 8 bits/sample

1 24

125us
Signaling ….
73

Digital Switching:
Time Slot Interchanger (T)

Signaling ….
74
Digital Switching: Time Slot
Interchanger (T)-Speed & Memory

„Let Ns=Number of time

slots/frame
„Rate = (Ns*8)/125us b/s
„Memory requirement
= (Ns*8)bits
Signaling ….
75

Digital Switching
Examples:
„ Ns=128
–Rate =
(128*8)/125us=8.192Mb/s
–Memory = 128 bytes
„ Ns=131,072 (ESS #4)
–Rate = 8.389 Gb/s
–Memory 131,072 bytes
Signaling ….
76
Digital Switching
„ Time shared space division switch (S)
¾ Fast electronic crossbar switch
¾ Switch configuration changes every time
slot
¾ Each input(output) is a TDM bus
¾ Slot X on TDM input bus i can be switched
to Slot X on TDM output bus j

Signaling ….
77

Time shared space division switch

1 2 n
1
Time
S11 S12 Slot
i
2

S21

Sm1 Sm2 Smn

Signaling ….
78
Time shared space division switch
1 2 n
1
Time
S11 S12 Slot
i+1
2

S21

Sm1 Sm2 Smn

Signaling ….
79

Time shared space division switch

1:n translator

1
2
Timing 3
and
Control
K
Signaling ….
80
Digital Switch Architectures
„ One stage: TSI only (T)
¾ Can build a switch with T stage
„ One stage: Time shared
space division only (S)
¾ Usually one component of larger
switching system

Signaling ….
81

Digital Switch Architectures:

T-S
TDM Bus TDM Bus

1 T 1
S
m by m
m T m
User A on input TDM slot 3, bus 1 ==>
User B on output TDM slot 6, bus 5
T stage does TSI
Input to S stage is slot 6 on bus 1
S stage does space switching
Output is slot 6 on bus 5
Signaling ….
82
Digital Switch Architectures
T-S-T
TDM Bus

1 T T 1
. S .
. m by m .
m T m
T

Signaling ….
83

Digital Switch Architectures

„ Slot 2 on bus 1 --> Slot 5 on Bus 10
¾ Slot 2 on bus 1 (TSI) Slot 5 on bus 1 (input to S-
stage)
¾ Slot 5 on bus 1 (S) Slot 5 on bus 10
„ Slot 3 on bus 1--> Slot 5 on Bus 20
¾ Slot 3 on bus 1 (TSI) Slot 4 on bus 1 (input to S-
stage)
¾ Slot 4 on bus 1 (S) slot 4 on bus 20 (output from S-
stage)
¾ Slot 4 on bus 20 (TSI) slot 5 on bus 20

Signaling ….
84
 Time-Space-Time Switch
1 7 N

1 5 N Time
1 3 N
Time Slot
Slot Interchanger
Interchanger
Space 1 5 N

Switch 1 9 N

Time
Time
Slot
Slot
Interchanger
1 9 N Interchanger
1 4 N

Signaling ….
85

Digital Switch Architectures

Non-blocking Analysis

Let Tin = Total number on input time slots

= m(busses)T (slots/bus)
Let N in = Total number of space stage time slots
= m (busses) N(slots/bus)
Using same analysis applied to the three stage switch,
if N in = 2Tin - 1 then the system is nonblocking.

Signaling ….
86
 Digital Switch Architectures
Non-blocking Analysis
Example :
Number of users = 2048, T = 128, m = 16
A 16 - by -16 switch at 8.192 Mb/s per bus.
N in = 2Tin -1 = 2(128)16 -1 ~ 4096
N = N in /m = 4096/16 = 256
A speed up of a factor of two in the space stage switch
will make the TST switch nonblocking.

Signaling ….
87

The Structure of the Telephone

Network

From: Computer Networks, A. S. Tanenbaum

3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, 1996 Signaling ….
88
The Structure of the Telephone Network

IXC:
Interexchange
Carrier

LEC:
Local
Exchange
Carrier

LATA:
Local Access
and Transport
Area

From: Computer Networks, A. S. Tanenbaum

3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, 1996 Signaling ….
89

The “port count” problem

Typical Drawing of a switch

Switch

Signaling ….
90
The “port count” problem
Hardware implementation

Interfaces Interfaces

Signaling ….
91