Differential form of Maxwell’s equations

⃗ ⃗
(i) ∇ ⋅ E =
ρ
Gauss’s law
ϵ0
⃗ ⃗
(ii) ∇ ⋅ B = 0 No name (non-existence of magnetic monopole)
⃗
⃗ ⃗
(iii) ∇ × E = −
∂ B
Faraday’s law
∂t
⃗
(iv) ∇ ⃗ × B ⃗ = μ0 J ⃗ + μ0ϵ0
∂E
Maxwell-modi ed Ampere’s law
∂t
fi
 Differential and integral forms of Maxwell’s equations

⃗ Q
(i) ∇ ⃗ ⋅ E ⃗ = ∮
ρ (i) E ⋅ ds ⃗ = enc

ϵ0 ϵ0
B ⃗ ⋅ ds ⃗ = 0
(ii) ∇ ⃗ ⋅ B ⃗ = 0 ∮
(ii)
⃗ ⃗
(iii) ∇ ⃗ × E ⃗ = −
∂B ⃗ ∂ B
∮ ∫ ∂t
(iii) E ⋅ dl ⃗ = − ⋅ ds ⃗
∂t
∂E ⃗ ⃗
(iv) ∇ ⃗ × B ⃗ = μ0 J ⃗ + μ0ϵ0 B ⃗ ⋅ d l ⃗ = μ0 Ienc + μ0ϵ0
∂E
∮ ∫ ∂t
(iv) ⋅ ds ⃗
∂t
 Modified Ampere’s law for the charging capacitor problem

⃗
B ⃗ ⋅ d l ⃗ = μ0 Ienc + μ0ϵ0
∂ E
∮ ∫ ∂t
⋅ ds ⃗

⃗
For the at surface A1, Ienc = I, E | = 0
|

B ⃗ ⋅ d l ⃗ = μ0 I
∮

For the balloon-shaped surface A2, enclosed current Ienc = 0, E ⃗ = E (t)

⃗
σ 1 Q ⃗
E= = ⃗ ∂ E
⋅ d s ⃗ = μ0ϵ0(
1
I)A = μ0I
∮ ∫ ∂t
ϵ0 ϵ0 A B ⋅ d l ⃗ = μ0ϵ0
ϵ0 A
∂E 1 dQ 1
= = I Both surfaces give the same answer: rst one is actual current
∂t ϵ0 A dt ϵ0 A
and second one is displacement current.
fl
fi
 Magnetization in magnetic materials
What is the origin of magnetism in a bar magnet?
• To understand this, we can think of the process of
breaking the bar magnet into pieces. Continuing to do
this process till we reach a single atom (which is
technically not possible), we can understand what
happens at the atomic level.
• Atoms with even number of electrons, the moments
cancel. But atoms with odd number of electrons
constitute a tiny atomic moment.
• These tiny atomic moments are usually randomly
oriented.
In the presence of an external B ⃗ eld, these moments
Orbital and spin moments
•
⃗
m orbital ⃗
m spin experience a torque τ ⃗ = m ⃗ × B ⃗ and get aligned
towards to eld direction and develop a net moment
called the ‘magnetization’.
Based on this magnetic eld response, magnetic materials
are classi ed into three di erent types:

(i) Paramagnet, (ii) Diamagnet, (iii) Ferromagnet

fi
fi
fi
ff
fi
 Magnetization and bound current densities

Magnetisation M ⃗ = magnetic dipole moment per unit volume

∑i=1 m i⃗
N

M ⃗ = lim
ΔV→0 ΔV

The atomic magnetic moments will create bound currents

inside the magnetic materials (just like bound charges in
dielectric materials)

⃗
Volume bound charge density Jb = ∇ × M ⃗
⃗

Surface bound charge density K b⃗ = M ⃗ × n ̂

n ̂ = Unit vector normal to the surface
volume bound current

surface bound current

 Modified Ampere’s law in magnetic materials

In the absence of any time-varying elds (magnetostatic condition), Ampere’s law states

∇ ⃗ × B ⃗ = μ0 J ⃗
⃗ + ∇ ⃗ × M)⃗
⃗ + Jb⃗ ) = μ0 (Jfree
= μ0 (Jfree
⃗
⃗ B
⇒ ∇ × ( − M)⃗ = J⃗
f
μ0
⃗
⇒ ∇ ⃗ × H ⃗ = Jf⃗ where H ⃗ = − M ⃗ is known as auxiliary eld
B
μ0

Integral form

H ⃗ ⋅ d l ⃗ = Ifree,enclosed
∮

Notice the similarity with modi ed Gauss’s law in dielectrics

fi
fi
fi
 Magnetic susceptibility and classification of magnetic materials

⃗ + M⃗
B ⃗ = μ0( H ⃗ + M)⃗ = μ0 H(1 )
H⃗
Now, for most magnetic materials M⃗ ∝ H ⃗ (known as linear magnetic materials)

M ⃗ = χm H ⃗ where χm is known as magnetic susceptibility

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
B = μ0(1 + χm) H = μ0 μr H = μ H ⃗ where μ = μ0 μr permeability
μr = 1 + χm relative permeability

If μr = 1, χm = 0 : non-magnetic material (do not attract magnetic ux)

If μr < 1, χm small negative : diamagnetic material (weakly repel magnetic ux)
If μr > 1, χm small positive : paramagnetic material (weakly attract magnetic ux)
If μr ≫ 1, χm large positive : ferromagnetic material (strongly attract magnetic ux)

fl
fl
fl
fl
 Magnetostatic boundary conditions

Consider the interface between two magnetic materials with permeabilities μ1 and μ2

B 1⃗
B1n There is a surface current density K ⃗ at the interface
E1t
K⃗
Medium 1 We shall nd out how the normal and tangential
B 2⃗
s components of the elds B ⃗ and H ⃗ change at the
B2n interface
Medium 2
For B ,⃗ we shall use B ⃗ ⋅ ds ⃗ = 0
h
∮
B2t (i)

For H ,⃗ we shall use H ⃗ ⋅ d l ⃗ = If,enc

∮
(ii)

Consider a pillbox (cylindrical) of at surface area s and height h. Then apply eq. (i)

B1ns − B2ns = 0 ⇒ B1n = B2n

B ⃗ = μH ⃗ ⇒ μ1H1n = μ2H2n
fi
fi
fl
 Magnetostatic boundary conditions
Now let us nd out the tangential components

H 1⃗ H ⃗ ⋅ d l ⃗ = If,enc
∮
We shall use (ii)
H1n

H1t
K⃗ Consider an Amperian loop (rectangular) of height h
Medium 1
H 2⃗ and width w and apply eq. (ii)
Medium 2 H2n
w h
H2t h h h h
−H1tw − H1n − H2n + H2tw + H2n + H1n = Kw
2 2 2 2
⇒ H1t − H2t = K

This can be written as ( H 1⃗ − H 2⃗ ) × n12

̂ = K⃗

̂ is the unit vector normal to the interface,

where n12
directed from medium 1 to medium 2

If surface current vanishes, H1t = H2t

fi
 Boundary conditions for electric and magnetic fields

Interface between two dielectric media Interface between two magnetic media
D1n − D2n = σs B1n = B2n
E1t = E2t H1t − H2t = K
D1t D2t μ1H1n = μ2H2n
=
ϵ1 ϵ2

Things to remember:
• Tangential component of E ⃗ is continuous
• Normal component of B ⃗ is continuous
• Normal component of D ⃗ is continuous at a charge-free interface
• Tangential component of H ⃗ is continuous at a current-free interface
• If we know the elds in one side of the boundary, we can nd the elds on the other side
fi
fi
fi
 Laws of refraction at a charge/current -free interface

E1n E 1⃗ B1n B 1⃗
θ1 θ1
Mag. medium 1
Dielectric 1 E1t B1t
E⃗ | K |⃗ = 0 B⃗
σs = 0 E2n B2n
2 2
Dielectric 2 θ2 Mag. medium 2 θ2
E2t B2t

E1t = E2t ⇒ E1 sin θ1 = E2 sin θ2 B1n = B2n ⇒ B1 cos θ1 = B2 cos θ2

B1 B2
D1n − D2n = 0 ⇒ ϵ1E1 cos θ1 = ϵ2E2 cos θ2 H1t − H2t = 0 ⇒ sin θ1 = sin θ2
μ1 μ2
tan θ1 ϵ1 ϵr1 tan θ1 μ1 μr1
= = = =
tan θ2 ϵ2 ϵr2 tan θ2 μ2 μr2

Snell’s law
 Differential and integral forms of Maxwell’s equations
(in material parameter free form)

(i) ∇ ⃗ ⋅ D ⃗ = ρ D ⃗ ⋅ d s ⃗ = Qenc
∮
(i)

(ii) ∇ ⃗ ⋅ B ⃗ = 0 B ⃗ ⋅ ds ⃗ = 0
∮
(ii)
⃗ ⃗
(iii) ∇ ⃗ × E ⃗ = −
∂B ⃗ ∂ B
∮ ∫ ∂t
(iii) E ⋅ dl ⃗ = − ⋅ ds ⃗
∂t
⃗ ⃗
(iv) ∇ ⃗ × H ⃗ = J ⃗ + H ⃗ ⋅ d l ⃗ = Ienc +
∂ D ∂ D
∮ ∫ ∂t
(iv) ⋅ ds ⃗
∂t