Chapter 1: Introduction to Synthetic and Mineral Fibers and their

Composites
Md Zillur Rahman, Nur Hossain Shawon, and Deju Zhu

Table of Contents
1. Abstract:.......................................................................................................................................3
2. Introduction :...............................................................................................................................3
3. Carbon Fibers:.............................................................................................................................4
3.1 Structure and classification:...................................................................................................4
3.2 Manufacturing method:..........................................................................................................4
3.2.1 PAN Based Carbon fiber:................................................................................................4
3.2.2 Pitch based carbon fibers:................................................................................................5
3.2.3 Cellulose-Based Carbon Fibres:......................................................................................6
3.3 Properties:..............................................................................................................................6
3.3.1 Mechanical Properties:....................................................................................................6
3.3.2. Chemical and thermal properties:...................................................................................7
3.3.3. Electric Propertry:..........................................................................................................8
3.4 Composites:............................................................................................................................8
3.5 Applications:........................................................................................................................11
4.Glass Fibers:...............................................................................................................................12
4.1. Structure and classification:................................................................................................13
4.2. Manufacturing Method:......................................................................................................13
4.3. Properties:...........................................................................................................................16
4.3.1. Chemical Composition:................................................................................................16
4.3.2. Physical and mechanical properties:............................................................................17
4.4. Composites:.........................................................................................................................18
4.5. Applications:.......................................................................................................................19
5.Basalt fibers:...............................................................................................................................20
5.1. Structure and classification:................................................................................................20
5.2. Manufacturing method:.......................................................................................................21
 5.3. Properties:........................................................................................................................22
5.3.1. Physical and mechanical properties:............................................................................22
5.3.2. Chemical Properties:....................................................................................................23
5.4. Composites:.........................................................................................................................24
5.5. Applications:.......................................................................................................................27
6. Ceramic Fibers:..........................................................................................................................29
6.1. Structure and classification:................................................................................................29
6.2. Manufacturing:....................................................................................................................32
6.3 Properties:............................................................................................................................34
6.3.1. Physical properties:......................................................................................................34
6.3.2 Chemical properties:......................................................................................................35
6.4. Composites:.........................................................................................................................37
6.5. Applications:.......................................................................................................................41
7.Polymaric Fiber:.........................................................................................................................43
7.1. Stucture and classification:.................................................................................................43
7.2 Aramid fibers:......................................................................................................................44
7.2.1 Chemical structure:........................................................................................................44
7.2.2 Manufacturing:..............................................................................................................44
7.2.3 Fiber properties:............................................................................................................45
7.2.4 Applications:.................................................................................................................46
7.3 Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE):..................................................46
7.3.1 Chemical structure:........................................................................................................46
7.3.2 Manufacturing Process:.................................................................................................47
7.3.4. Fiber Properties:...........................................................................................................48
7.3.5. Composites:..................................................................................................................48
7.3.6. Applications:................................................................................................................48
References:....................................................................................................................................51
1. Abstract:
For few decades in past there are a lot of industrial sector and researcher tried to
include synthetic and minerals fiber in many types of reinforced composites because of
their favourable and understanding properties. As there are lots of drawback like low
mechanical property and affection toward water in natural fibers researcher are tried
replace it by synthetic fibers. Various kind of details on synthetic and mineral fibers and
their composites are given in this chapter (such as carbon, glass, basalt, ceramic and so on).
Also their production, properties, classification, applications and demand in various
industries, manufacturing method and procedure and environmental effects are included in
the chapter.

2. Introduction :
Artificial or synthetic fibers are types of fiber which are man made
through chemical conversion of petrochemical and minerals. Mineral fibers are inorganic
fibers which are derived from natural inorganic sources. In 1880s, first man made inorganic
fiber was invented by Joseph Swan which was glass fiber. Synthetic fibers are today one of
the most important groups of material both reinforcing fiber composites and a broad variety
of industrial application domains because to their exceptional chemical, thermal, but
instead mechanical resilience. Some of the most common synthetic and mineral fibers are
carbon fibers, glass fibers, basalt fibers, and so on. In mineral fibers category glass fibers
and asbestos are commonly used in industry. In comparison with other synthetic or mineral
fibers the production per year is approximately 4,4750,000 tons which is 30-35 times
higher than Carbon fibers and 300-350 times higher than Basalt fibers. And in price range
glass fiber is much more cheaper than Carbon fibers and Aramides.[1]
In order to necessary and special properties , Carbon fibers may be derived from a wide
variety of materials, including pan and pitch, ceramic fibers, Aramide fibers, among others.
The difference properties and applications is discussed in the rest of the chapter.
3. Carbon Fibers:
3.1 Structure and classification:
In high performance applications, carbon fiber is widely applicable because of it’s high
stiffness, tensile strength, temperature tolerance, less weight, high modulus of elasticity and
high thermal conductivity nature. It is one of the most strong and fibrous material with 90%
or more carbon content. At first polyacrylonitrile was used to manufacture carbon fibers
but now a days other material like petroleum and rayon also used. In the production of
carbon fiber, three primary types of runners are used:-
i. Rayon forerunner
ii. PAN forerunner
iii. Pitch forerunner

But more than fifty percent use PAN forerunner for commercial carbon fibers in industry.
[2]

3.2 Manufacturing method:

Precursors are the raw elements used in the production of carbon fiber. On average
polyacrylonitrile is used to make 90% of carbon fiber and petroleum pitch or Ryon is used
remaining 10%. The composition of this each precursor varies company to company and also it
is considered as a trade secret. Different kind of liquid and gases are used during manufacturing.
Some are used to achieve specific effect by reacting with the fiber and some are designed to not
to create certain reaction with fibers.

3.2.1 PAN Based Carbon fiber:

In 1950, Polyacrylonitrile is responsible for producing the first carbon fiber(PAN based).[3].
Basically spinning technique is the key in production for high performance fiber. PAN
precursors are mostly produced by wet spinning. But other alternative spinning like air gap
spinning, melt spinning and dry spinnning exist in the production of PAN fiber. After spinning
the fiber, they need to be stabilized. Convertion of their linear bond to ladder bond which is
more stable is needed.
Basically, the thermal conversion of carbon fiber goes through two methods, carbonization and
stabilization. To carbonizable, all PAN precursor need to be stabilized. The chains of polymer
are converted to the heteroaromatic structure during stabilization process. It is called cyclization.
The stabilization is very complex chemical reaction cascade. In absence of the oxygen,
cyclization could be accomplished. Nevertheless, the presence of oxygen triggers an exothermic
reaction, resulting in the release of a substantial amount of heat. Flaws in the fiber may be
avoided by controlling the temperature here[4] . In the next step of processing, flame resistance
and non-meltable stabilized fibers are heated and are converted to carbon fibers because of inert
atmosphere. In this step of cabonization, N 2 is typically preferred over Ar despite being eight
times more expensive, but Ar is still utilized. Since argon is more dense and viscous than carbon,
it is used to reinforce carbon fiber. Graphitization is the process of heating fibers to temperatures
over 1600–1800°C and up to 3000°C. At this temperature, graphitic structures are formed and
the turbostratic carbon gradually cures its "defects." Thus, carbon fibers based on PAN have
lower strength but greater moduli. It is necessary to mention alternate carbonization technologies
that all attempt to use less energy. Consequently, carbonization aided by microwaves. By
applying heat directly to the carbon fiber, only when necessary during the process, leaving the
surrounding air "cool." However, this method's increased speed and decreased energy usage
work against the process's goal of maintaining a consistent fiber temperature throughout,
producing carbon fibers with subpar mechanical properties.[4]

3.2.2 Pitch based carbon fibers:

Pitches are intricate mixtures of polyaromatic compounds and heterocyclic substances that can
be utilized as carbon fiber precursors or carbon-based composites' filler materials. These pitches
vary in composition according on the primary tar and refining circumstances and carbon content
that exceeds 80% is possible. Despite having a market share of only a few percent, pitch-based
precursors are indeed the second most important materials used in the commercial carbon fiber
synthesis process, behind petroleum-based precursors. Just 1,580 tons, or 1.6% of the total, of
carbon fibers based on PAN were produced that year. Prices per kilogram for pitch-based carbon
fibers might be anything from €95 to €3,000. The creation of an appropriate base material both
for melt spinning, the melt-spinning method itself, stabilization, carbonization, graphitization,
and ultimately the administration of a surface treatment and sizing are all crucial phases in the
production of pitch-based carbon fibers.[5]
 3.2.3 Cellulose-Based Carbon Fibres:
Cotton, flax, sisal, even linen are just some of the cellulosic fibers that have been investigated as
possible carbon fiber precursors. Rayon is the most researched and widely utilized of these in
commercial applications. The cheapest kind of cellulose, wood pulp, is converted into rayon
through solution spinning. A soluble spinning dope is created by treating insoluble cellulose with
NaOH and CS2. The xanthated cellulose being spun into yarn after being removed from
coagulation bath.

Carbon fiber clothing is often made from rayon fabrics despite the material's poor carbon yield
(20%-30%), large processing costs, and limited physical features.

Solvent spinning is used to manufacture cellulose fibers. For cellulose spinning, derivatizing and
non-derivatizing techniques are both suitable. During a derivatization procedure, the appropriate
chemicals are added to cellulose to create covalent connections with the hydroxyl groups,
allowing for spinning and solution. A regeneration process is required after spinning. Since
cellulose is directly dissolved and spun in non-derivatizing methods, no regeneration procedure
is necessary. Initially, viscose (rayon) was used to create carbon fibers, however lyocell fibers
can make carbon fiber with improved mechanical properties [Both the stabilization and
carbonization processes turn cellulose fibers into carbon fibers. Either continuous or
discontinuous stabilization can be used. A thermal-chemical breakdown of organic bonds
stabilizes fibers. As opposed to a few hours for the stabilization of PAN, this process can take up
to 10 days. Low-temperature (LT) carbonization and high-temperature (HT) carbonization are
both possible (HT).[5-8]

3.3 Properties:

3.3.1 Mechanical Properties:

Fiber Type Tensile strength (Gpa) Young,s Modulus(Gpa) Ultimate Tensille strain
(%)

High Tension Modulus 2.0 - 2.5 230 – 270 0.5 – 1.5

 Inermediate Modulus Carbon 2.5 – 3.5 230 – 310 0.5 – 1.5
Fiber (IM)

High Modulus Carbon Fiber 3.5 – 4.5 310 – 345 0.5 – 1.5
(HM)

Ultra High Modulus Carbon 4.5 – 5.5 380 – 420 0.5 – 1.5
Fiber (UHM)

Table 3.3.1: Mechanical Properties of different types of carbon fibers.[9, 10]

3.3.2. Chemical and thermal properties:

Fiber types Chemical Properties Thermal Properties

PAN Based High chemical resistance Decomposition temperature:

600-800°C

Low moisture absorption

Good adhesion to resin system

Pitch Based High chemical resistance Decomposition temperature

>2000°C

High anisotropy High thermal conductivity

Limited compatibility with

resin system

Reyon Based Good chemical resistance Decomposition temperature:

1200 - 1500° C

Higher moisture absorption Good thermal insulation

properties

Table 3.3.2: Chemical and thermal properties of Carbon Fiber.[9, 10]

 3.3.3. Electric Propertry:
Both a benefit and a drawback exist for this trait. It must be considered in boat construction in
the same way that aluminum conductivity is important. Galvanic corrosion in fittings can be
facilitated by carbon fiber conductivity. Installation done carefully can lessen this issue. The
graphite structure of carbon fibers gives rise to the material's anisotropic electrical
characteristics, making it conductive all along direction of the graphene layers while
semiconducting through between them.

The usual specific resistivity of PAN-based carbon fibers is 10 -3 cm, while the average specific
resistivity of pitch-based carbon fibers is 10 -4 cm. Carbon fibers' electrical conductivity could be
employed to regulate the carbonization process. owing to the rise in conductivity brought on by
the presence of more and more carbon atoms in the structure, the electrical properties can be
used to infer the degree of carbonization.

Additionally, there is a relationship between the mechanical and electrical properties of the
fibers. Since Young's modulus mostly depends on the orientation of graphite layers in the fiber, a
correlation to it can be observed in particular. A high orientation results in an increase in
conductivity and modulus. [1, 11]

3.4 Composites:

1. Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP): CFRPs are a composite material with desirable
qualities including low weight, a high strength-to-weight ratio, and resistance to corrosion. CFRP
is produced by impregnating carbon fibres with a polymer resin, like epoxy, and then curing
them in a high-temperature mould. The increased strength and stiffness of material are due to the
large volume fraction of fibres and their even distribution throughout the material.

The bulk of the chemical characteristics of carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) are governed
either by polymeric matrix, which can be chosen to meet particular performance and
environmental goals. Epoxy is often used as a matrix material because to its high strength,
stiffness, durability, and ability to connect with carbon fibres easily. Polyimides and phenolics
are two further examples for matrix materials that can be employed under certain conditions.
In addition to a matrix material, fiber orientations, volume percentage, and quality confer
mechanical qualities on CFRP. (CFRP is ideal for lightweight, great strength applications due to
its exceptional toughness, stiffness, and fatigue resistance. By adjusting the matrix material and
production conditions, as well as the fibre type, orientation, and volume%, CFRP with the
desired mechanical characteristics may be manufactured.[12, 13]

2. Carbon fibre reinforced metal matrix composites (CFR-MMCs): Composites made of

carbon fibre reinforced metal matrix (CFR-MMC) materials have both the toughness and
ductility of metals and the rigidity and strength of carbon fibres. Carbon fibres are used to
strengthen a metal matrix (such as aluminium, titanium, or magnesium) in these composites.
Compared to traditional metals, CFR-MMCs have several benefits, including increased specific
stiffness and strength, enhanced corrosion and wear resistance, and lower weight.

The production of CFR-MMCs includes various methods, like metal powders, casting, and
infiltration. Powder metallurgy is the most widely used approach, and it entails combining
powder particles and carbon fibres before consolidating the material under high heat and
pressure. Several post-processing treatments are applied to the finished product to enhance its
qualities.

CFR-MMCs are characterised by a carbon fibre network integrated inside a metal matrix that is
three dimensional in nature. In order to improve the mechanical characteristics of a composite,
carbon fibres are normally orientated in the direction of the stress. Variables including carbon
fibre type and volume percentage, metal matrix content, and production method all influence
CFR-MMCs' mechanical characteristics.[14, 15]

3. Carbon fiber reinforced ceramic matrix composites (CFR-CMCs): Composite materials

made of carbon fibres encased in a ceramic matrix (or CFR-CMCs) are a kind of material.
Silicon carbide (SiC) and alumina are two examples of possible materials for the ceramic matrix
(Al2O3). Production methods for CFR-CMCs include chemical vapour infiltration, melt
infiltration, and polymer incursion and pyrolysis.

CFR-CMCs have great strength and stiffness thanks to the carbon fibres utilised, while the
ceramic matrix has good resistance to heat, thermal stability, and wear. Ultimate strength,
rigidity, and fracture toughness are just a few of the impressive mechanical qualities of CFR-
CMCs, and they can tolerate temperatures of up to 2000 degrees Celsius. They also have a low
thermal expansion rate and are chemically resistant.

The aerospace, military, and energy sectors all benefit from CFR-CMCs because to their
versatility under extreme conditions. Components including turbine blades, combustor liners,
and heat exchangers have all benefited from their utilisation. Nonetheless, the high production
cost of CFR-CMCs still restricts their extensive use in industry.[16, 17]

4.Carbon fiber reinforced concrete (CFRC): Composite material CFRC comprises of a

cement matrix and carbon fibres that are randomly scattered throughout the matrix. The
production of CFRC involves the combination of cement, water, aggregates, and carbon fibres.
The carbon fibres may either be cut or made into one long strand. Optimizing the mixing
procedure guarantees a consistent mixture and an even dispersion of fibres. After being
combined, the CFRC may be poured into moulds or sprayed onto surfaces.

Mechanical qualities including tensile strength, flexural strength, & toughness may be improved
by incorporating carbon fibres into concrete. The carbon fibres prevent fractures in concrete from
forming and spreading. Carbon fibre reinforced concrete (CFRC) has chemical characteristics
that are comparable to those of regular concrete, but it is more durable and resistant to
environmental deterioration. Carbon fibres used in CFRC have high durability and are resistant
to a wide range of chemicals and corrosion.

Bridge decks, tunnel walls, and earthquake-proof buildings are just some of the many places
CFRC may be put to use in the building sector. When used to infrastructure, CFRC has the
potential to increase toughness, lengthen service life, and save maintenance costs. In addition,
since CFRC is lighter than regular concrete, it may be installed and transported for less money.
[18, 19]

5. Carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites (CFR-TPCs): When carbon fibres and
thermoplastic polymers are combined, a new form of composite material is created called carbon
fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites (CFR-TPCs). In order to create CFR-TPCs, molten
thermoplastic resins are generally impregnated into continuous carbon fibres, which are
subsequently consolidated under heat and pressure to form a composite structure. The resultant
material is lightweight despite its high strength-to-weight ratio, is resistant to fatigue, and can
withstand impacts without much damage.

Aligned carbon fibres provide the framework of CFR-TPCs, which are then inserted in a
thermoplastic matrix. Altering the composite's fibre concentration, fibre orientation, and matrix
qualities allows for fine-tuning of the finished product's characteristics. As an added advantage
over thermoset-based composites, the thermoplastic matrix allows for easy recycling and repair.

The chemical characteristics of CFR-TPCs vary with the thermoplastic matrix they are
encapsulated in. Common CFR-TPC matrices include materials like polyamide (PA),
polyetherimide (PEI), and polyphenylene sulphide (PPS), each of which has its own set of
chemical characteristics and processing temperatures.

Fiber volume percentage, fibre orientation, and matrix characteristics all have significant impacts
on CFR-TPCs' mechanical properties. The tensile strength of the composite normally falls
between 1.2 and 2.0 GPa, whereas the Young's modulus falls between 70 and 200 GPa.[20, 21]

Aerospace, automotive, and sports goods are just a few of the many sectors that may benefit
from CFR-TPCs' exceptional strength, stiffness, and endurance. They're put to use in a wide
variety of things, from aeroplane frames to car panels to athletic gear.

3.5 Applications:
The most significant application of carbon fibers is still in space vehicles, which are used in civil,
military, and commercial aviation. This was the first widespread application of carbon fibers.
starting in the recent years. The number of carbon fibers and CFRP in airplanes has been steadily
increasing since the 1970s, when just a few hundred kilograms of carbon fibers were utilized in
one airplane. 30 tons of CFRP are utilized in the Boeing 787, which is more than half of the total
weight of the aircraft. About 7,500 tons of carbon fibers were consumed worldwide for
aerospace applications in 2011, and 12,500 tons are anticipated to be consumed in 2020.

Only tiny tows of intermediate or high modulus fibers have been authorized for use in aerospace
applications and are used in the production of aircraft. Epoxy resins are typically used to prepreg
these fibers in the form of textiles or tapes. Most autoclave procedures involve consolidation. In
recent years, methods like automated tape laying and automated fiber insertion have grown in
importance.

The use of carbon fiber reinforced polymers in the automotive industry has significantly
increased in recent years. The earliest vehicles made of CFRP were mostly racing vehicles,
where the use of lightweight materials improved performance.

The use of CFRP was subsequently expanded to high-end sports cars with the same goal of
building high-performance vehicles in mind. Production methods like manual lay-up or
autoclave processes are used since these applications only require limited quantities of parts to be
produced. Although they are expensive, fibers appropriate for aeronautical applications (small
tows with improved mechanical qualities) can be employed because these automobiles are in the
higher price range.

First CFRP mass production vehicle examples were established in recent years, namely the
BMW AG, Munich, Germany, i3 and i8 series. More lightweight materials are required in the
realm of electromobility in order to save large capacity batteries' added weight, which cannot be
achieved by other fiber kinds. Typically, resin transfer molding (RTM) is used for these mass-
produced items to achieve both short cycle times and high performance. Large tows (50 k) are
also frequently used due to their inexpensive cost. But the cost of CFRP made with these
methods is still too high to be competitive with widely used materials like aluminum. [1, 22]

4.Glass Fibers:
With a global yearly production of more than 10 million tons of high performance, lightweight
materials, glass fiber reinforcements are the industry's backbone. In the market for fiber-
reinforced polymer composites, which is quickly developing, glass fiber has been very successful
as the preferred reinforcement. More than 95% of the fiber reinforcements utilized in the
composites industry today are glass fiber products. Mainly because of their extremely favorable
performance to price ratio. Despite having a reputation for being relatively low-tech as a
composite reinforcement, the manufacture of glass fibers has developed into a very sophisticated
technology with needs that push the boundaries of current research and development in materials
science. [23]

4.1. Structure and classification:

No matter the chemical makeup or the temperature of the pour region, amorphous substances
formed by supercooling a melt are referred to as glass since they have the characteristics of both
movable solids.

In nature, crystalline solid substances, whose structure is characterized by a geometrically

precise order of particle Glass Fibers organization in three-dimensional (3D) space, produced the
greatest spread. The vesicle's glassy state is an amorphous type of solid state.The glassy nature of
the matter's particles results in an unorganized spatial arrangement. Silica, also known as silicon
dioxide (SiO2), which is obtained from common sand, is the main ingredient in glass fibers. Si-
O-Si bonds hold an amorphous network of silicon atoms in sand together. Each silicon atom has
a tetrahedral link with four oxygen atoms, while each oxygen atom has a tetrahedral bond with
two silicon atoms. Silica is the name for SiO2 in this crystalline state. Quartz is what it is known
as when it forms a large crystal. Sand is the name for something when it has a lot of small
crystals [24].

The main groups of GFs, their innate physical characteristics, and their chemical make-up.

4.2. Manufacturing Method:

Direct manufacturing is preferred in modern glass fiber manufacturing facilities. In this

procedure, raw materials are kept separate in the silo and accurately weighed and metered into
the mixing tank before being transferred to the batch silo and charged to the furnace. This is a
computer system regulated and airtight in a way to stop dust from spreading.

Sand for silica, clay for alumina, colemanite or boric acid for boron oxide, and limestone or
calcite for calcium oxide are the raw materials used in the production of E-glass. E-glass
furnaces are typically rectangular in shape and have a short channel at the outlet that connects to
a small forehearth channel where fiber forming is carried out.[25]
Glass fiber and yarn manufacture is an ancient concept. Silica sand and limestone make up the
majority of the raw materials used to make glass, with only trace amounts of borax, sodium
carbonate, and aluminum hydroxide. Two distinct techniques are used to create continuous
filaments or staple fibers of glass after the initial melting and spinning of glass.

1. Continuous Filament Process:

The majority of glass fibres used in composites are produced by the continuous filament
technique. Via tiny holes in a bushing, molten material is extruded into very thin fibres.
Hundreds, if not thousands, of tiny holes produce a single filament inside the bushing. To
prevent damage during subsequent processing and to increase adherence to the matrix material in
the finished composite, a sizing substance is applied to the filaments as they emerge from the
bushing.

After that, the continuous filaments are bundled into spools. Depending on the final product's
purpose, these spools may be transformed into rovings, carpets, or textiles. For further
processing into final composite goods, the spools may be shipped to downstream processors.

There are a number of benefits to making glass fibres using the continuous filament technique as
opposed to alternative ways. It's highly mechanised, so it can crank out plenty of fibres with
uniform quality. The resultant fibres are very robust, rigid, and resistant to chemicals and high
temperatures.

2. Staple Fiber Process:

Producing glass fibres through the staple fibre technique is widespread. This technique involves
pumping molten glass through a rotating mechanism called a bushing, which contains hundreds
of tiny holes. The molten glass is swiftly cooled as it passes through these openings, resulting in
the formation of fine fibres. Mats made from these fibres are transported down a conveyor belt,
where they are further processed into various items including insulation, textiles, and composite
material reinforcements.

The staple fibre technique' main benefit is that it may make fibres of varying lengths and
diameters. Manufacturers may create fibres with a wide range of diameters and lengths by
changing the size and form of the orifices in the bushing. This paves the way for the manufacture
of glass fibres with a broad spectrum of qualities to meet the needs of various sectors.

The staple fibre technique, which results in shorter and less uniform fibres, may be less efficient
than the continuous filament process. There are often more surface flaws and impurities on the
fibres, which might reduce their effectiveness in composites. Nonetheless, the staple fibre
technique is still significant in the manufacturing of glass fibres, especially for uses that call for
shorter or more tailored fibre lengths.[26, 27]

The indirect marble melting process and the direct melt process are the two industrial melting
methods used to create glass filaments. Glass is first created as glass beads with a diameter of 15-
20 mm, which are later re-melted in a subsequent step of the glass-forming process (two-stage
process). The components are combined, melted, and immediately fiberized. In order to prevent
material homogeneity, raw materials are first fused at a high temperature in the furnace. Due to
the rapid drawing, the temperature of the melt is quenched during the glass fiberization process.
Up to 5000 nozzles can be placed in each bushing during the E-Glass fiberization process.
Through a final direct electrical resistance that passes through the platinum rhodium alloy, the
bushing's temperature is controlled. Sizing is an aqueous dispersion made up of many
components. Coupling agents and film formers are the two components of a sizing for glass fiber
reinforcements that are most crucial. Glass fiber and the polymeric matrix adhere better when
coupling agents are applied. The wettability, strength, and cohesiveness of the roving are all
improved by film former. [1,14]

The process of making filaments from molten glass results in products with diameters ranging
from 4 to 40 mm and bundle counts ranging from 200 to 4000 filaments. Each point emits
molten glass that attenuates into fibers. The fibers are pulled, and then a sizing is added to help
prevent damage to the fibers during mechanical processing. The rotary process is the most
widely used method for producing short fibers. The glass is flung out horizontally by the
centrifugal force as it exits the furnace through the forehearth and into a spinning spinner with
several orifices. It is pushed vertically downward by the air jets, creating filaments. These
filaments are typically given a binder before being formed into a mat. A low-energy-
consumption spinning process of purely inorganic systems using electrospinning and sol-gel
synthesis has been reported. The process today comes to be known as an effective fabrication
method for especially nanofiber of polymeric solution and many composite fibers. It is clear that
the process is low energy consumption. [28]

4.3. Properties:
4.3.1. Chemical Composition:
5-6% boron oxide makes up the fiber in e-glass. Environmental laws prevent the emission of
boron into the air in the US and Europe, though. Some ingredients, including as boron, lead,
antimony, selenium, and chlorine, may evaporate during the making of glass. High volatility
refers to the ease with which certain substances can evaporate. Companies must utilize pricey
filtration systems because of this.

Types Composition(wt%)
of
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 TiO2 B2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K 2O
Glass
Fibers

E- 55 14 0.3 0.2 7 22 1 0.5 0.3

glasss

C-glass 64.6 4.1 - - 5 13.4 3.3 9.6 0.5

S-glass 65 25 0.1 - - - 10 - -

A-glass 67.5 3.5 - - 1.5 6.5 4.5 13.5 3

R-glass 60 - - - - 9 6 0.5 0.1

EC- 58 11.6 0.1 2.5 - 21.7 2 - -

glass

AR- 61 1 - 2.8 - 5 1 14 3

glass
 Table 4.1- Chemical compositions of Fiber glass [25, 29, 30]

4.3.2. Physical and mechanical properties:

Typ Densit Telsile Young’s Elongatio Coefficien Poison’ Refractiv

e y Strengt modulu n (%) t of s ratio e index
h (GPa) s (GPa) thermal
(g/cm3)
expantion
(10-7/C)

E 2.58 3.445 72.3 4.8 54 0.2 1.558

C 2.52 3.310 68.9 4.8 63 - 1.533

S 2.46 4.890 86.9 5.7 16 0.22 1.521

A 2.44 3.310 68.9 4.8 73 - 1.538

R 2.54 4.135 85.5 4.8 33 - 1.546

EC 2.72 3.445 85.5 4.8 59 - 1.579

AR 2.70 3.241 73.1 4.4 65 - 1.562

Table 4.3.2. Physical and mechanical property of glass fibers. [25, 29, 30]

4.4. Composites:
1. Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers(GFRP): High strength-to-weight ratio, resistance to
corrosion, and long service life are only some of the benefits associated with GFRP composites.
They find widespread usage as bridge decking, wind turbine blades, and automobile parts in the
building, aerospace, and automotive sectors. Low maintenance, great fatigue resistance, and
excellent design flexibility are just a few of the many benefits of GFRP composites. There are,
however, downsides, such as their expensive price and their fragile breakdown under certain
situations.[31]

2. Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete (GERC): Concrete's tensile strength, ductility, and
fracture resistance are all increased when GFRC composites are added. Facades, countertops,
and ornamental panels are just some of the many architectural and aesthetic uses for them.
GFRC's many benefits include being very long-lasting, fireproof, and simple to set up. There are,
however, drawbacks, including the fact that it is expensive, easily damaged by water, and not
very adaptable in terms of design.[32]

3. Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic(GRP): Glass fibres are encased in a polymer matrix, often
polypropylene or polyester, which may be either thermoplastic or thermosetting. They find
widespread usage in fields like shipping and transportation that depend on products with superior
strength, stiffness, and longevity. Among its many benefits, GRP composites are lightweight,
strong, and chemical and weather resistant. Unfortunately, they are vulnerable to damage from
impacts and have restricted design options.[33]

4. Glass Fiber Reinforced Gypsum: GRG composites are made by combining glass fibres with
gypsum to increase the material's strength and longevity. Ornamental mouldings, columns, and
ceiling tiles are just some of the many architectural and aesthetic uses for them. Among these
benefits are GRG's fireproofing, acoustic quality, and simplicity of installation. It has certain
drawbacks, such as being easily damaged by dampness and having a low weight bearing
capability.[34]

4.5. Applications:
 Dental Application: The usage of GFRC (Glass Fiber Reinforced Composite) in
dentistry is growing. They may be produced in a range of elastic stiffnesses by increasing the
fiber-to-matrix ratio. GFRCs may be used with porcelain to provide a three-unit bridge that
meets the demands for strength, resilience, and aesthetics.[35]

Aerospace industry: The aerospace industry frequently uses glass fiber as a reinforcing
component in composite materials. It keeps the composite structure lightweight while also giving
it strength and longevity. This makes it a desirable material for use in the wings, fuselages, and
tail portions of aircraft.[36, 37]

Construction: To increase the durability, strength, and resistance to corrosion of

reinforced concrete bridge decks, columns, and beams, GFRP is often employed. Panels,
cladding, and façades made of GFRC are popular because of the material's high strength-to-
weight ratio, adaptability in design, and resilience to the elements. The high corrosion resistance
of GRP makes it a popular material for use in wastewater and water treatment tanks, pipeline,
and offshore constructions. Because of its malleability, GRG finds use in a variety of ornamental
applications, including columns, mouldings, and ceiling tiles.[38-40]

Automotive: To achieve a balance between light weight and structural integrity, GFRP
is often utilised in the fabrication of automotive bodywork, hoods, doors, and spoilers. Car
fenders, bumpers, and dashboards are all made from GRP because of the material's malleability,
durability, and resistance to impact and corrosion. Due to its strong resistance to heat, glass fibre
composites also find use in engine parts like cylinders and exhaust systems.[41-43]

Electronics: Electronic gadgets like smartphones, tablets, and laptops may have their
housings, connections, and printed circuit boards made from GRP or GFRP. They have useful
features for electronic components, including as great dimensional stability, chemical resistance,
and effective heat dissipation. Glass fibre composites may also be used to strengthen electronic
enclosures, increasing their resistance to impacts and extending their lifespan.[44, 45]

Sports equipment: Sports equipment including helmets, tennis rackets, golf clubs, and
surfboards all benefit from the usage of GFRP and GRP. These composites are perfect for high-
performance sports gear because to their low weight, high rigidity, and long lifespan. Glass fibre
composites can provide more design versatility, enabling the creation of sporting equipment with
more intricate forms and patterns.[46, 47]

5.Basalt fibers:

5.1. Structure and classification:

The mineral fibre known as basalt fibre is derived from basalt, a kind of volcanic rock. Basalt
fibres are unrivalled in terms of their mechanical qualities. They have a high resistance to
corrosion and are very robust and rigid. Due of these qualities, basalt fibres have several
applications, the most prominent of which are in the construction and transportation sectors.
There has been a recent uptick in the popularity of producing high-performance composite
materials using basalt fibres.[48, 49]

Since both basalt and glass fibres are made from molten materials that are pulled into thin
strands, their structural designs are quite similar. Yet, unlike fibreglass, basalt fibres have such a
distinct crystalline structure. Basalt's fibrous matrix is mostly composed of long, thin crystals of
plagioclase feldspar. Other minerals, such pyroxene and olivine, are present in the fibres in
minute quantities.[50, 51]

Basalt fibres may be classified in several ways depending on factors including their production
method, fibre diameter, and level of surface polishing.

1.Continous Basalt Fibers: CBF are manufactured by melting basalt rocks at high temperatures
and then forcing the molten material through tiny nozzles. High tensile strength, rigidity, and
chemical and heat resistance are hallmarks of CBFs. Depending on how they were spun, they
may be further broken down into two categories: direct-melt spun and indirect-melt spun fibres.
[52]

2.Discontinuous Basalt Fibers: DBF are the resulting fibres when basalt rock is mechanically
processed, at which point the rock is broken up into tiny pieces and the fibres are recovered from
of the matrix material. DBFs are often used because of their low price and moderate strength. In
comparison to CBFs, their form is often shorter and less symmetrical. There may be differences
in mechanical qualities and usefulness between DBFs of different lengths and aspect ratios.[53]

3.Microfibers:
These fibers, often made using centrifugal or blown processes, with diameters of less than 10
microns. Because of their substantial ratio of surface area to volume, microfibers may increase
interfacial bonding for matrix materials in composite constructions. Basalt fiber mechanical
characteristics are highly correlated with their diameter, with smaller diameters yielding stronger
and much more modulus-retaining fibres.[54]

4.Macrofibers:
The diameter of these fibres is more than 10 microns, and they are often made by mechanical
processing of basalt rock or the melt spinning technique. Macrofibers may not be able to adhere
to matrices as effectively as microfibers because of their smaller surface area to volume ratio.
While macrofibers may have greater total strain tensile strength than microfibers.[54, 55]

5.2. Manufacturing method:

Many methods, including melt spinning, centrifugal blowing, and continuous filament winding,
may be used to create basalt fibers.

Melt Spinning: Typically, melt spinning is used to create basalt fibres. For this method to work,
basalt rock must be melted at very high temperatures (about 1450°C)[22]. Sizing material is
added before the filaments are wound onto spools, after which the molten material is extruded
via small nozzles to create continuous filaments. Melt spinning has the potential to produce
basalt fibres with superior tensile strength and stiffness. And the basalt fibres produced in this
manner are very resistant to heat, chemicals, and radiation.[56]

Centrifugal Blowing: The process of making basalt fibres using centrifugal blowing involves
spinning molten basalt rock into very fine threads. A disc is rotated as molten material is poured
onto it; this causes the liquid to be pushed outward in a circular motion. Long, continuous fibres
are formed when it cools and freezes. The possible environmental benefits of centrifugal blowing
stem from the fact that it does not need the use of resizing agents, such as chemical additives.
[57][24,25]
Continuous Filament Winding: Producing basalt fibres involves wrapping the filaments around
a spinning mandrel in a process known as continuous filament winding. The basalt fibres become
a composite after they have been impregnated with glue and wound around the mandrel. Pipes
and pressure vessels, which both need strong yet lightweight materials, are common applications
for this fabrication technique.[58, 59]

5.3. Properties:

5.3.1. Physical and mechanical properties:

The mechanical and physical properties of basalt fibre might vary with the manufacturing
technique and fibre size.

Properties Tensile Modulus of Flexural Compressive Fatigue

Strength elasticity strength strength resistance
Types (Cycle)
(Gpa) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa)

Continuous 3.5 – 4.5 80 – 100 500 -900 400 -700 2.5*106

Discontinuou 2.2 – 2.5 40 - 70 200 - 600 200 - 400 107

s

Microfibers 4.5 – 7 70 - 110 100 - 200 - -

Macrofibers 2.8 – 4.2 40 - 70 200 - 600 - -

Table 5.3.1. Physical and mechanical properties of different types of basalt fibers. [60-70]

5.3.2. Chemical Properties:

Due to their many desirable chemical properties, basalt fibres may be used in many different
contexts. Some examples of these traits are:
Thermal expansion: Because of their low coefficient of thermal expansion, basalt fibres may
be used in applications that are subjected to very high temperatures. The CTE of basalt fibres
varies from 4. 8 to 7. 1 m/m°C. The CTE varies depending on the manufacturing process and the
fibre's diameter. [71-73]

Chemical resistance: Chemicals like acid, alkalis, and salts have virtually little effect on basalt
fibres. Whereas most organic solvents won't destroy the fibres, hydrofluoric acid as well as
strong alkalis could. As compared to other fibres, basalt fibers have a major advantage due to
their resistance to moisture and dampness. The chemical resilience of basalt fibers makes them
useful in a wide variety of contexts, including the oil and gas sector, chemical processing, and
maritime applications.[74-76]

Thermal stability: Fibers made from basalt rock are very heat-resistant because of the
material's high melting point. The melting point of basalt fibres is 1450 degrees Celsius, which is
higher than that of glass fibres. Basalt fibres seldom expand or contract in response to
temperature changes because of their poor coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). Because of
this, they may be used in very hot environments, including the automotive and aerospace sectors.

Nevertheless, consistent exposure to high temperatures may compromise the mechanical

properties of basalt fibres. Basalt fibres become brittle when subjected to temperatures over 400
° C. due to thermal oxidation. High temperatures and extended exposure both accelerate the
breakdown process. Thus, the temperature of operation must be taken into account when basalt
fibres are used in high-temperature applications.[77, 78]

Electrical insulation: Due to their strong resistance to electrical conductivity, basalt fibres
provide excellent electrical insulation. Basalt fibres demonstrated excellent electrical insulation
qualities, with a resistivity of 1.52 x 1014 m [79]. What makes them suitable to be used in
whatever makes them suitable to be used in what makes them suitable for use is the fact that they
are suitable for use there[80]. Adding basalt fibres to the composites made them more
electrically resistant, making them ideal for use as insulation. Because of their superior electrical
qualities, basalt fibres are being considered as a potential replacement to fibreglass in electrical
insulation [81].
Resistance to biological degradation: As basalt fibres are mostly composed of inorganic
materials, they are often believed to be invulnerable to deterioration by living organisms. Basalt
fibres are resistant to the bacteria that induce microbial degradation of organic materials because
of the substantial amount of silica in them. The basalt fibres' density and structure were not
noticeably altered after 60 days of fungal contact[79]. Basalt fibres were examined for
biodegradation after being grown inside a bacterial culture for 30 days, and they showed no signs
of disintegration[79, 80].

5.4. Composites:
Because of its great strength, stiffness, plus heat resistance, basalt fibres are often utilised in
composites. Basalt fibres are often used in the following composites:

Basalt fiber-reinforced polymer (BFRP) composites : BFRP composites are cutting-edge

materials that bring together the advantages of polymers, such as low weight, high toughness,
and corrosion resistance, with the outstanding mechanical capabilities of basalt fibers. In many
different industries, including aerospace, automotive, construction, and sports equipment, BFRP
composites have found a wide range of uses.

Preparation: BFRP composites may be made by a variety of processes, including hand lay-up,
hoover infusion, pultrusion, filament winding, and compression molding. The approach used will
depend on the specifics of the job at hand or the desired composite qualities.

The team used the hoover infusion technique to create BFRP composites and then analysed how
different fibre orientations impacted the composite's tensile characteristics. A second scientist
investigated the link among fibre content but also mechanical qualities while synthesising BFRP
composites using the pultrusion technique.

Tensile and flexural characteristics of BFRP composites were shown to improve with increased
fibre orientation, according to a study of the impact on fiber orientation and stacking sequence
just on mechanical properties of BFRP composites.

Physical and chemical property:

Density Tensile Modulus of Thermal Water Compressive

(g/cm3) strength elasticity stability absorption strength
 (MPa) (Gpa) (Melting (%) (MPa)
point, °C)

2.6 -2.8 350 - 4800 80 - 90 1450 1 50 - 200

Table: 5.4.1. Physical and chemical property of Basalt fiber-reinforced polymer (BFRP) composites[79, 80]

Basalt fiber-reinforced ceramic (BFRC) composites : Composites made of a ceramic

matrix with basalt fibres are known as basalt fiber-reinforced ceramics (BFRC). Compared to
conventional ceramics, these composites are more resilient to thermal stress, have better fracture
resistance, and are tougher. Aerospace, automobile, and tooling operations, which all need
materials that can endure high temperatures and wear, are driving increased interest in their
investigation.

The flexural strength, fracture toughness[81], and wear resistance[82] of the composites were all
dramatically increased by the addition of basalt fibers. By incorporating basalt fibres into
ceramic matrix composites, mechanical and wear qualities may be greatly improved, allowing
for a variety of new high-performance applications.

Preparation: Some of the methods used to create basalt fiber-reinforced ceramic (BFRC)
composites include hot pressing, hot isostatic pressing, slip casting, and sellotape casting. After
incorporating the basalt fibres into the ceramic matrix, the material is subjected to intense
crushing pressure. As in cold isostatic pressing, ceramic and basalt fibers being heated to very
high temperatures in a pressurised tank filled with inert gas. Slip casting entails combining basalt
fibres with such a slurry from ceramic matrix material and pouring the mixture into a mould. To
create a tape cast, basalt fibers plus ceramic matrix material are applied to a carrier film, let to
cure, and then shaped into the desired object.[83]

Physical and chemical property:

Density Tensile Modulus of Thermal Water Compressive

(g/cm3) strength elasticity stability absorption strength
(MPa) (Gpa) (Melting (%) (MPa)
point, °C)
 2.5 - 3.5 50 - 300 100 - 300 1200-1400 1.52 – 1.6 100 - 1000

Table 5.4.2: Physical and chemical property of Basalt fiber-reinforced ceramic (BFRC) composites [84-88]

Basalt fiber-reinforced concrete (BFRC) composite:

The fibres may be added to the concrete in a variety of forms, including woven materials,
continuous filaments, and chopped strands. The resultant BFRC composites have promising
mechanical properties, including enhanced impact resistance, reduced breaking, and high
compressive and flexural strengths.

Bridge decks, pavement, tunnels, maritime projects, and earthquake-resistant buildings are just
some of the many places BFRC composites might be used. The enhanced mechanical qualities,
increased durability, lower cost, and reduced environmental impact of these composites indicate
that they have the potential to replace traditional concrete materials.[89-91]

Preparation: BFRC is a composite material made by incorporating basalt fibres into concrete
during in the mixing process. Common procedures for producing BFRC composites include:

Selection of appropriate basalt fiber type and content: Basalt fibre selection is optimised by
To tailor the BFRC composite's characteristics and performance, the proportion of different types
of basalt fibres in the concrete mixture may be adjusted. In most cases, one would like to find
fibres that are 10-20 m in diameter and 6-12 mm in length.

Concrete mix preparation: Cement, sand, aggregate, water, and any other additives or
admixtures are mixed to create the concrete mix.

Basalt fiber addition: During the mixing procedure, basalt fibres are added to the concrete. To
ensure that the fibres distribute uniformly throughout the mixture, they should be added little by
little.

Mixing of concrete with basalt fibers: Basalt fibres are mixed with the concrete again so that
they are dispersed evenly and no fibres are bunched together.
Casting and curing: Typically, 28 days are allowed for the BFRC composite to cure after being
poured into the designated mould.

Testing: Whenever the BFRC composite cures, a series of tests is performed to characterise the
mechanical, physical, including chemical characteristics.[92]

Physical and chemical property:

Density Tensile Modulus of Thermal Water Compressive

(g/cm3) strength elasticity stability absorption strength
(MPa) (Gpa) (Melting (%) (MPa)
point, °C)

2 – 2.5 2.5 – 7.5 15 - 50 1450 1.2 – 3.2 40 - 100

Table 5.4.3: Physical and chemical property of Basalt fiber-reinforced concrete (BFRC) composites [93-95]

5.5. Applications:

Construction industry: Reinforcing concrete is among the most important ways in which
basalt fibres are used in building. The mechanical qualities and durability of concrete are
enhanced when basalt fibres are included as a reinforcing element. Basalt fibres have been
shown to increase the flexural strength, compressive, and toughness of reinforced concrete. The
flexural strength of concrete reinforced with basalt fibres was found to be 22% higher than that
of conventional concrete.[96] Basalt fibers were added to concrete, increasing its compressive
strength by 9.5%.[97] Basalt fibre composites have been utilised for anything from reinforcing
concrete to manufacturing turbine blades, bridges, even tunnels. Basalt fibres are perfect for use
in making lightweight composite constructions due to their great strength and stiffness.[98]

Aerospace industry: Basalt fibres are often employed as reinforcing components in composite
materials for aircraft construction. The mechanical properties of composites made using basalt
fibre were superior to those of standard composites.[99] To safeguard spacecraft from the
blistering heat of re-entry in Earth's atmosphere, basalt fibres are employed in thermal protection
systems. The thermal characteristics of basalt fibres were found to be superior to those of carbon
fibres[97]. The strong resistance to heat that basalt fibres provide makes them useful in
applications such as engine exhaust pipes. Basalt fibres have the potential to be employed in
engine parts due to their resistance to temperatures up to 800 °C.[98]

Automotive industry: Because of their great rigidity and strength, low weight, corrosion
resistance at high temperatures, as well as other properties, basalt fibres find employment in cars.
From the inside to the outside, they're employed for a lot of different things in cars. Basalt fiber-
reinforced polymer composites are used to create lightweight vehicle components that are
stronger and stiffer than those manufactured using conventional glass fiber-reinforced polymer
composites[100]. Basalt fiber-reinforced polyamide composite have been investigated for usage
in automotive engine covers due to their better mechanical qualities and reduced weight than
standard materials.[101]

Marine Industry: Among these nautical uses is the production for composite materials as boat
construction using basalt fibres. Hulls, decks, and other ship structures might benefit from basalt-
reinforced composites since they are lightweight, robust, and corrosion-resistant.[102, 103]

Marine ropes but also cables have been fortified using basalt fibres. Due to its great strength and
limited elongation, basalt fibres may be useful in making mooring ropes, towlines, as well as
other heavy-duty ropes for use in nautical applications[104, 105].

Sports equipment industry: High-performance composites, such as those made from basalt
fibres, are used to make sporting equipment including tennis racquets, golf clubs, hockey sticks,
other bicycle frames. Composites reinforced using basalt fibre are ideal for usage in sporting
goods because to their high strength-to-weight ratio and outstanding damping qualities. As
compared to more common carbon fibre composites, the basalt fibre composites utilised to build
tennis racket frames fared better in terms of vibration damping and rigidity[106]. The resulting
composites, when applied to the manufacture for golf club shafts, outperformed conventional
graphite composite materials in regards to impact resistance overall torsional stiffness[107].
6. Ceramic Fibers:

6.1. Structure and classification:

One kind of inorganic fibre with remarkable mechanical, thermal, and chemical qualities is
ceramic fibre. Its high strength, corrosion resistance, high thermal stability make them useful in a
wide variety of applications, which include the automotive, energy, and aerospace sectors.
Alumina, silicon carbide, and zirconia are the most widely used ceramic fibres. These fibres may
be made in a variety of ways, including the sol-gel technique, chemical vapor deposition, and
perhaps melt spinning. They work well at high temperatures and have amazing characteristics,
making them a great option for certain applications. As a result, a lot of effort has been put into
enhancing the mechanical but instead thermal characteristics of ceramic fibres and otherwise
discovering new uses for them.[108-111]

Inorganic elements such as oxides, carbides, and maybe even nitrides are often used to create
ceramic fibres in the form of long, fibrils or whiskers. The fibres may be made by a number of
processes, including as chemical vapour deposition, sol-gel processing, and melt spinning.
Ceramic fibres have a high aspect ratio because their length is substantially bigger than their
diameter in their microstructure.[112-114]

Composition, crystal structure, shape, and production process may all be used to categorise
ceramic fibres. Classifying objects based on their parts is the most popular organisational
strategy:

Oxide ceramics: Oxide ceramics include both metallic and nonmetallic materials due to the
presence of oxygen as a common component. Its adaptable physical, chemical, and mechanical
qualities have potential applications in a wide range of disciplines, including aerospace,
electronics, energy storage, even biomedical engineering.

Max tensile proportions, resistance of wearing, and chemical inertness make oxide ceramics like
alumina (Al2O3), zirconia (ZrO2), and others and silica (SiO2) particularly popular. Their high
melting points are beneficial in applications that need very high temperatures.

Improved toughness, biocompatibility, and perhaps electrical conductivity are only some of the
benefits of recent advances in oxide ceramic production and characterization methods.
Nonetheless, issues like as poor toughness and sometimes even low ductility persist and need
more study.[115-117]

Non-oxide ceramics: Another subcategory of ceramic fibers that has seen increased interest is
non-oxide ceramics. These fibers offer special qualities including high strength, high temperature
stability, and exceptional resistance to wear and corrosion. Fibers made of non-oxide ceramics
are made of substances like carbides, nitrides, and borides. Due to their high strength, low
density, and superior thermal stability, silicon carbide (SiC) fibers stand out among them and are
often utilized in a variety of applications, including those in the aerospace, automotive, and
military sectors. In addition, research has been done on the possible uses of various non-oxide
ceramic fibers such silicon nitride (Si3N4) and aluminum nitride (AlN).

The Si3N4 fibers had outstanding oxidation resistance and thermal stability, whereas the SiC
fibers exhibited great tensile strength and modulus.[118] At high temperatures, the AlN fibres
demonstrated remarkable resistance for mechanical and thermal stress.[119]

Classification based on crystal structure includes:

Single crystal ceramic fibers: The atoms in single-crystalline ceramic fibres are all aligned in
the same crystallographic direction, making for a very specific microstructure. Hence, because of
their increased thermal and chemical resilience, high strength, and stiffness, they are appropriate
for high-temperature applications. Alumina, sapphire, and silicon carbide are common materials
used to create single crystal ceramic fibres.

Ceramic fibres with such a single crystal structure are made by extracting a seed crystal from a
molten material. Long, perfectly straight crystal fibres are the end product. Single-crystalline
ceramic fibres have indeed been researched for use as high-temperature insulation in the
aerospace and nuclear sectors in addition to reinforcing with metal matrix composites.[120]

Polycrystalline ceramic fibers: Ceramic fibres that either include several tiny crystals or grains
are referred to as "polycrystalline." The strength and other desired properties of fibres are
frequently the result of the crystals being aligned with a particular orientation during in the
spinning or even drawing process. Ceramic materials like alumina, silicon carbide, and zirconia
may all be used to create polycrystalline fibers. These fibers find widespread usage in industries
as diverse as aerospace, defence, power generation, and biomedical technology. Polycrystalline
ceramic fibres have the potential to be employed in high-temperature applications due to their
exceptional durability and thermal stability. They might be used as reinforcements also in
composites made of ceramic matrix due to their great mechanical strength.[121]

Amorphous ceramic fibers: Vitreous fibres, also known as amorphous ceramic fibres, are made
from glassy solids with no significant organisation at their crystalline nucleus. These fibres
originate from amorphous glass, which is produced when glass is quickly cooled. Amorphous
fibres, unlike their crystalline counterparts, are very resistant to thermal stress and chemical
damage.

Because of their large surface area and porosity, amorphous ceramic fibres may be used in a
variety of contexts. High-temperature insulation, polymeric that and ceramic composite
reinforcement, and filtration media are all examples. Nevertheless, certain amorphous ceramic
fibres have been shown to be cancerous in animal experiments, prompting worries about their
potential health risks.[122, 123]

Among the classifications based on morphology are:

Continuous fibers: The organic precursors for continuous ceramic fibre are pyrolyzed or
chemical vapour deposited (CVD). Ceramic fibres may be either hollow and otherwise solid after
being removed from a ceramic substance applied toward a substrate but rather core material.

Its excellent corrosion, corrosion, and creep resistance makes them suitable for harsh situations.
Continuous ceramic fibres may be made from a variety of materials, the most popular of which
being alumina, silicon carbide, the boron carbide. These fibres might be strengthened by adding
other components, including carbon or ceramic particles.[124, 125]

Discontinuous fibers: Ceramic fibres with a length-to-diameter ratio of 10-1 to 1/1000 are
known as whisker, short fibres, or sometimes discontinuous fibres. These parts are made from
materials with high tensile strength and stiffness, such as silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, and
boron carbide.
Given their exceptional strength and stiffness, in addition to their capacity to increase fracture
resistance and creep resistance, discontinuous ceramic fibre are often utilized primary reinforcing
in ceramic matrix composites. They might be used in the production of protective gear and
electronic cases.[126, 127]

6.2. Manufacturing:

Sol Gel Process:

Steps Process

Solution A precursor solution is created by dissolving a metal alkoxide inside a

Preparation solvent.

Gel formation The precursor is then subjected to condensation and hydrolysis processes to
create the gel. Just before it hardens, this gel can be shaped into any form.

Drying Water and any remaining solvent are evaporated when the gel is dried.
Drying the gel in the oven or with a fan is standard procedure.

Calcination In order to change the gel into ceramic, it is first dried out and then fired at
very high temperatures. Different types of ceramic need various calcination
temperatures.

Fiber drawing The calcined material is then drawn into fibres using either a chemical
spinning process or even a melt spinning method.

Post-treatment The resultant ceramic fibres have the potential to have both
mechanical and thermal characteristics enhanced by the addition of a wide
variety of compounds.

Table 6.2.1. Step by step process of Sol Gel manufacturing process.[113, 128-130]

Polymers precursor process:

 Steps Process

Polymer spinning The polymeric precursors must be dispersed in a practical manner before
spinning gear can be used to create fibres.

Stabilization After already being heated in air, the solvent evaporates and also the
spinning fibres become stabilised. By oxidising the polymer fibres to
generate cross-linked structures, this method keeps them from melting or
dissolving at high temperatures.

Pyrolysis Fibres that have been stabilised are turned into a ceramic by subjecting
them to extremely high temperatures inside an inert environment, which
drives out any residual carbon. The type of polymer precursor and the
desired ceramic composition dictate the pyrolysis temperature and
duration.

Fiber processing Manufactured ceramic fibres are used to create a wide variety of goods,
including yarns, textiles, carpets, and papers.

Table 6.2.2. Step by step process of Polymers precursor processing [131-133].

CVD chemical vapor deposition process: Ceramic fibres are often produced by chemical
vapour deposition (CVD). In the chemical vapour deposition (CVD) process, a solid ceramic
fibre is produced from the reaction of precursor gases. The fibers are created continuously by
depositing one thin layer of composite materials upon a surface under zero or low pressure.
Following that, ceramic fiber is formed while gradually being removed from the substrate. This
method allows for the precise modification of fiber dimensions, morphology, and chemical
makeup. CVD is a promising technique for producing ceramic fibers since it allows for the
production of uniform and pure fibres. It is often used in the manufacturing of silicon carbide
(SiC) fibers because to its high stiffness, strength, and thermal stability. Besides alumina,
zirconia, and boron nitride, boron nitride ceramic fibres have also been fabricated using CVD.
Variations in reactor layout, precursor gas composition, and operating temperature may all affect
the CVD process. Only with a superior substrate and carefully managed deposition
circumstances can high-quality ceramic fibres be produced. One difficulty with CVD is ensuring
 the coatings on surfaces are consistently and uniformly deposited from ceramic materials. The
deposition conditions and reaction kinetics might be adjusted to accomplish this.[111, 134]

6.3 Properties:

6.3.1. Physical properties:

Properties Density Tensile Modulus Flexural Compressive Water Melting Point Fatigue Thermal
Strengt of strength strength Absorption resistance conductivity
(°C)
(g/cm3) h (Gpa) elasticity (GPa) (GPa) (%) (GPa) (W/mK)

Types (GPa)

Oxide 2.6-6.05 0.5-4.5 60-600 0.3-1.1 0.4-2.5 0.02-1 1800-2700 3.5-180

Non oxide 1.4-4.1 0.2-4.5 60-450 0.2-0.7 0.15-0.5 0.1-1 1900-2500 0.15-0.5 10-200

Amorphous 2-2.5 2.5-3.5 700-100 1.5-2 1-1.5 1 1200-1400 0.2-0.3

Continuous 2.5-3.5 2-4 200-400 500-800 1500-2000 >2000 10-40

Discontinuous 2.6-4 0.5-4 50-400 0.2-0.5 1-4 <1 <2000 0.024-0.038 0.1-30

Single crystal 2-3.3 1-4 100-400 0.3-0.7 1-2 <1 2000-2400 20-30

Polycrystallin 2-4 0.2-2 1000 0.15-1.5 0.5-3 1-30

e ceramic
fibers

Table 6.3.1. Physical properties of different types of ceramic fibers[135-159].

6.3.2 Chemical properties:

Chemical resistance: The particular chemical composition and crystalline structure of ceramic
fibres provide them extraordinary resistance to chemicals. The chemical resistance of ceramic
fibres is conditional on both the fibre type and the corrosive environment. The following are
some examples of chemically resistant ceramic fibres:
Strong bases such NaOH and KOH may corrode oxide ceramic fibres like alumina and zirconia.
They are unaffected by oxidation and reduction even when heated to very high temperatures.
[160]
Fibres made from silicon carbide (SiC) can withstand strong acids, bases, but also organic
solvents without much damage. Even when heated to very high temperatures, they do not lose
their resistance to oxidation and reduction.[161]

Oxidation resistance: Ceramic fibres' oxidation resistance makes them useful for applications
in which high temperatures are present. The fibres' resistance to oxidation allows them to
maintain their structural integrity under extreme thermal and oxidative stress. High-temperature
air oxidation did not compromise the SiC fibres' tensile strength or structural integrity. The SiC
fibres were well shielded from oxidation thanks to the carbon layer.

Due to the formation of an amorphous borosilicate coating on their surface, ABS fibres are very
resistant to oxidation.[162-164]

Thermal stability: The content of the fiber, its microstructure, and the production conditions
all have an impact on the thermal stability of ceramic fibers. Alumina and silica fibers are
examples of oxide ceramic fibers that have a reputation for having exceptional thermal stability
up to temperatures over 1000°C[165]. Contrarily, non-oxide ceramic fibers may survive
temperatures as high as 1600-1800°C, including silicon carbide and silicon nitride fibers[166,
167].

Hydrophilicity/Hydrophobicity: The behaviour of ceramic fibres may be affected by their

hydrophilic or hydrophobic properties. Hydrophobic fibres are resistive towards wet and prefer
to reject water, whereas hydrophilic fibres could absorb liquids and other polar chemicals.

It's possible that the surface chemistry and shape of ceramic fibres influence whether or not they
are hydrophilic. Hydrophobicity could be imparted to ceramic fibres through surface treatments
using hydrophobic compounds such as silanes. Nevertheless, hydrophilic processes, such as acid
etching, may enhance ceramic fibres' hydrophilicity.

For several applications, including filtration, adsorption, and catalysis, ceramic fibres'
hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity is crucial. Catalysis benefits from hydrophobic fibres because
to their inertness to water or other polar reactants, while filtration benefits from hydrophilic
fibres due to their superior capacity to gather submicron particles.[168]

Reactivity: The chemical makeup and microstructure of a substance determine how strongly it
will react with ceramic fibres. Non-oxide ceramic fibre, on the other hand, may suffer significant
reactions with specific chemicals and gases, in contrast to the strong chemical stability and
moderate reactivity among most oxide ceramic fibres. The reactivity of ceramic fibers could
have a significant impact on their effectiveness and durability.

In comparison to alumina-silica fibres, alumina fibres exhibited the best reactivity resistance to
aluminium[169].

The presence of water vapour affected the fibres' microstructure and mechanical characteristics.
[170].

Biocompatibity: Due to their high strength and biocompatibility, ceramic fibres have garnered a
lot of interest in the medical community. Ceramic fibres, like as alumina and zirconia fibre, have
been demonstrated to encourage cell adhesion and proliferation in vitro with minimal
cytotoxicity using a number of different research methods.

There was no evidence that the fibres hindered cell proliferation or differentiation[171]. Zirconia
fibres have been shown to be highly biocompatible and may even encourage cell adhesion and
growth. [172].

6.4. Composites:

Carbon/carbon composites reinforced with silicon carbide (SiC) ceramic fibers :

Advanced materials with great strength and stiffness at high temperatures, outstanding thermal
stability, and strong oxidation resistance include carbon/carbon composites strengthened by
silicon carbide (SiC) ceramic fibers. They are appealing to be utilized in high-temperature
application, such as in the aerospace and military sectors, because the combination of both the
carbon matrix with SiC fibers results in improved mechanical qualities.[173, 174]

Chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) and liquid silicon infiltration (LSI) procedures are commonly
used to create carbon/carbon composites reinforced with silicon carbide ceramic fibers. The
carbon fiber preform is first densified by CVI, which deposits a silicon carbide (SiC) layer on the
carbon fibers using a gaseous silicon source such methyltrichlorosilane (MTS). The SiC coating
density and homogeneity may be very precisely controlled using the CVI technique.The liquid
silicon is then infused into the SiC-coated carbon fiber preform in the next stage, often by
capillary action. In order to penetrate the SiC coating and fill the remaining voids, the preform is
heated during the LSI process in a furnace that contains a silicon melt. Compared to CVI alone,
the LSI process offers better densification and mechanical characteristics.Due to their high
strength, stiffness, and thermal stability, the resultant carbon/carbon composites reinforced with
SiC ceramic fibers are excellent for high-temperature applications.[175-177]

High tensile strength, elastic modulus, and fracture toughness are just a few of the great
mechanical qualities that carbon/carbon composites reinforced with silicon carbide ceramic
fibers display. Depending on the manufacturing variables and the volume percentage of the
ceramic fibers, overall flexural strength of the these composites varies between 200 MPa to 500
MPa. These composites generally have densities between 1.5 and 1.8 g/cm3. The composites'
thermal conductivity, which is substantially greater than that of traditional carbon/carbon
composites, may reach 50 W/mK. These composites also have excellent high-temperature
stability and oxidation resistance. Moreover, the SiC fibers strengthen the interfacial adhesion
between both the carbon fibers and matrix, which improves the composites' overall performance.

The maximum flexural toughness of these composites was attained at a fiber loading of 20% vol
%[178]. Flexural modulus of these composites rose as SiC fiber content increased. Up to 15 vol
% SiC fiber concentration, the composites' thermal conductivity rose; however, beyond that
point, SiC cluster formation caused the thermal conductivity to drop. By generating a protecting
SiO2 layer on the outside of the fibers at high temperatures, the SiC fibers improved the
resistance to oxidation of the carbon/carbon composites[179].

Due to their superior mechanical and thermal characteristics, carbon/carbon composites

reinforced with silicon carbide ceramic fibers have a broad variety of applications. Because of
their resistive element and low coefficient of thermal expansion, they are used in the aerospace
sector for airplane brakes, rocket nozzles, and thermal safety systems. Because to their excellent
thermal conductivity and chemical resistance, they are also utilized in the semiconductor sector
for pressure furnace parts and in the nuclear industry in fueling wrapping and control rods.[176,
180, 181]

Aluminum matrix composites reinforced with alumina ceramic fibers:

Advanced materials with remarkable mechanical and physical qualities are alumina ceramic
fiber-reinforced aluminum matrix composites. These composites are used in a variety of sectors,
including aerospace, automotive, and others, where great strength and toughness are necessary.
The composite's tensile strength, stiffness, and hardness are improved by the insertion of alumina
ceramic fibers to the aluminum matrix. These composites are useful for applications involving
high temperatures because to their exceptional thermal stability and wear resistance. These
composites' synthesis, characterisation, and performance assessment have all been the subject of
several investigations, and the findings are encouraging.[182-184]

There are many ways to create aluminum matrix composites reinforced with alumina ceramic
fibers, including stir casting, powder metallurgy, squeeze casting, and infiltration processes. In
stir casting, pre-synthesised ceramic fibers are incorporated into the molten aluminum matrix
while being subjected to high shear rates. In order to create the composite, powder metallurgy
mixes pre-synthesised ceramic fibers with aluminum powder, which is then compacted and
sintered. In squeeze casting, a preform made of ceramic fibers is put within the mold and the
molten aluminum matrix is injected into it. Using infiltration methods, molten aluminum is
impregnated into a porous preform of ceramic fibers, which is then consolidated under pressure
or heat. Regarding the ability to manage the fiber-matrix interface, the level of fiber alignment,
and the overall composite microstructure, each of these techniques has benefits and drawbacks.
[185, 186]

Due to its high strength, stiffness, and resistance to wear, aluminum matrix composites (AMCs)
reinforced with alumina (Al2O3) ceramic fibers have gained interest. These composites are
produced by molten aluminum being injected into an alumina fiber preform, followed by a stage
of hot pressing. The alignment of the fibers in the processing direction causes the final composite
to behave in an anisotropic manner. The fiber content, fiber length, and manufacturing conditions
all have an impact on the mechanical characteristics of AMC reinforced with alumina fibers.
These composites generally have densities between 2.6 and 2.8 g/cm3, tensile strengths between
400 and 700 MPa, and elastic moduli between 100 and 150 GPa. These composites have better
wear resistance compared to the matrix material, and their compressive strength varies from 800-
1100 MPa. Due to the insulating qualities of the ceramic fibers, the thermal conductivity of these
composites is often lower than that of the matrix material.[187-189]

Among other industries, these composites are used in the aerospace, automotive, and military
sectors. They have been utilized for brake discs, engine parts, and wear-resistant components.
High strength, stiffness, and thermal stability are all provided by alumina ceramic fibers for the
composite material. Aluminum alloys' mechanical characteristics, wear resistance, and high-
temperature performance have all been shown to be enhanced by the use of AMCs reinforced
with alumina ceramic fibers. By lowering the rate of wear and raising the material's hardness,
alumina fibers added to an aluminum matrix increased the composite material's wear resistance
[190]. The strength and stiffness of the composite material were enhanced while preserving high
ductility by the insertion of alumina fibers to an aluminum matrix [191]. AMCs reinforced with
alumina fibers function better at high temperatures because to their exceptional thermal stability.

Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) reinforced with ceramic fibers:

Ceramic fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites (PMCs) have a special set of qualities that
include high strength, stiffness, and thermal stability in addition to low density and exceptional
corrosion resistance. These composites are made of high-strength ceramic fibers, such as carbon,
glass, or alumina, contained inside a polymeric matrix made of epoxy, polyester, or polyimide.
In comparison to the basic polymer, the final product demonstrates improved mechanical and
thermal characteristics, making it appropriate for a variety of structural and high-performance
applications, such as aerospace, automotive, and sports goods.[192]

In order to create polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic fibers, a polymer resin is
normally first impregnated into the ceramic fibers, followed by consolidation and curing. Many
techniques, including resin transfer molding, vacuum aided resin transfer molding, and
prepregging, may be used to complete the impregnation process. After impregnation, the fibers
are cemented using pressure and heat. Autoclave processing or compression molding may be
used for consolidation. The cross-linked polymer matrix composite is subsequently created by
the curing process.[193, 194]

Depending on the kind of ceramic fiber employed, the physical and chemical characteristics of
ceramic fiber reinforced polymer composites change. For instance, carbon fibers are renowned
for their great stiffness, strength, and thermal conductivity, while glass fibers are renowned for
their excellent electrical insulation and corrosion resistance. The characteristics of the polymer
matrix also influence how the composite behaves. These composites are perfect for high-
temperature applications in the aerospace sector because the addition of ceramic fibers improves
the polymer matrix's heat stability and flame retardancy. Ceramic fibers are appropriate for usage
in tough situations since they can endure temperatures of up to 1600°C.[195-197]

For instance, epoxy reinforced with alumina fibers may have a tensile strength of up to 2.5 GPa,
which is more than 10 times stronger than clean epoxy (200 MPa) [198]. Similar to this, a
polyimide matrix's flexural strength improved by 30% silicon carbide fibers, going from 100
MPa to 500 MPa [199]. The thermal characteristics of polymer composites are also improved by
ceramic fibers. For instance, a composite containing 50 vol% alumina fibers enhanced the
thermal conductivity of polyamide reinforced with alumina fibers from 0.3 W/m 2K for the neat
polymer to 3.8 W/m2K. [200]. Moreover, ceramic fibers are suited for high-temperature
applications because of their great tolerance to increased temperatures. Ceramic fibers may,
however, adversely impact the composite's characteristics as well. For instance, the thermal
insulating qualities of the composite may be diminished by the introduction of ceramic fibers
with high heat conductivity. Moreover, due to the high stiffness of ceramic fibers, the matrix
may experience stress concentration, which may result in brittle fracture behavior.

Ceramic fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites have a variety of applications in the

aerospace, automotive, marine, and sporting goods sectors. Due to their exceptional fatigue
resistance and high strength-to-weight ratio, these composites are employed in the aerospace
industry for structural applications such as aircraft panels, wings, and rotor blades. They provide
the automobile sector great strength and rigidity while lowering the vehicle's weight. They are
used in the maritime sector for sporting goods as well as boat hulls, propellers, and other
structural elements.[201-204]
6.5. Applications:

Aerospace industry: Making thermal protection systems for spaceships and missiles is one use
for this technology. In order to create heat shields and insulating materials that can withstand the
high temperatures produced during atmospheric reentry or rocket propulsion, ceramic fibers
made of alumina and silica are utilized.[205]

Moreover, ceramic fibers are utilized to create composite materials for the construction of
spacecraft and airplanes. For instance, because to their great strength and heat resistance,
carbon/carbon composites reinforced with silicon carbide ceramic fibers are used to make
airplane brakes and engine components.[206]

Making ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) for use in high-temperature applications is another
use. To increase the strength and hardness of the material, a ceramic matrix is reinforced with
ceramic fibers such as silicon carbide or alumina. Because of their outstanding thermal stability
and mechanical characteristics, CMCs are employed in the aerospace sector for turbine engine
components, exhaust nozzles, and hypersonic vehicle constructions[207]. Ceramic fibers are also
employed in the construction of the insulation used in rocket motors to shield the motor's
structure from the high temperatures produced during rocket propulsion. Thermal insulation
blankets are made from ceramic fibers like alumina and silica and provide a lightweight and
efficient insulation option for rocket engines[208].

Automotive industry: In the automobile sector, ceramic fibers have a wide range of uses,
notably in high-performance cars where weight reduction and increased fuel economy are
essential. These are some instances of their use:

Due to their great strength, stiffness, and thermal stability, ceramic fibers, especially those
composed of silicon carbide, are used to strengthen ceramic brake discs in high-performance
automobiles. Also, they offer a great wear resistance and low coefficient of friction, which lessen
brake dust and increase the lifetime of the braking system.[209]

In order to increase the strength and wear resistance of engine parts including cylinder liners,
pistons, and valves, ceramic fibers are utilized to strengthen them. Alumina or zirconia-based
ceramic fibers are especially well-suited for this application owing to their outstanding thermal
and chemical resilience.[210]

Polymer matrix composites used for automobile body panels are reinforced with ceramic fibers,
notably those formed of carbon or glass. These composite materials help lighten the vehicle
while providing exceptional strength and rigidity.[211]

Because of their high temperature resistance and low thermal expansion coefficient, ceramic
fibers, especially those composed of silicon carbide, are used to strengthen exhaust systems.
Also, they may lighten the exhaust system, which will help the car's fuel economy.[212]

Energy industry: CMCs have been used in a variety of applications, including absorber plates
in solar thermal systems[213], electrodes in energy storage devices[214], and turbine shrouds,
combustor liners, and vanes in gas turbine engines[175]. Due to their high-temperature stability
and resistance to thermal stress, they have also been used as heat exchanger materials in
sophisticated power cycles and aerospace applications[213].

Electrical industry: Due to its ability to withstand high temperatures and electrical insulation,
ceramic fibers are used in the electrical sector. They serve as insulating materials for a variety of
electrical appliances, such as heating elements, furnaces, and kilns. They are also used to
electrical components like wires and cables as heat barriers and coatings. Examples of high-
temperature electrical insulators that employ ceramic fiber-reinforced composites are spark
plugs, gas igniters, and furnace thermocouples. They are resistant to thermal shock well and can
survive extreme heat and abrasive conditions. In high-temperature electrical applications such as
transformers and circuit breakers, ceramic fibers are also employed as insulation material. As
they have great thermal stability, low thermal conductivity, and high dielectric strength, they
may be used as electrical insulation.[215]

Medical industry: To stimulate the development of bone cells and encourage bone
regeneration, ceramic fibers like hydroxyapatite and bioglass fibers have been utilized as
scaffolds in bone tissue engineering. These fibers are suited for use in orthopedic applications
because of their strong mechanical characteristics and high biocompatibility. Drug delivery
systems have also made use of ceramic fibers, which serve as carriers for the medications and
release them gradually. It has been shown that silicon carbide and alumina fibers are efficient in
delivering medications for the treatment of cancer and other disorders. Moreover, ceramic fibers
have been used in the creation of implantable medical devices including dental implants and
prosthetic joints. The strength and longevity of these devices may be increased by using these
fibers, which have high biocompatibility.[216-218]

7.Polymaric Fiber:

7.1. Stucture and classification:

Due to their many uses in industries including the textile industry, biomedical engineering, and
energy storage, polymeric fibres are receiving more and more attention. They are made of
synthetic or natural polymers that have undergone numerous processes to become fibres. These
fibres have special qualities that make them suited for a wide range of applications, including
high strength, flexibility, and biocompatibility. This article seeks to provide a thorough analysis
of the status of polymeric fibre research at the moment, with a focus on recent advancements in
the area. The several varieties of polymeric fibres, their characteristics, and their uses will all be
covered in the study. The review will also go over the difficulties and potential possibilities for
polymeric fibres.[219]

7.2 Aramid fibers:

7.2.1 Chemical structure:
Aramid fibres are a kind of very durable synthetic fibre that is also resistant to high temperatures
and abrasion. These are lengthy strands of repeating units held together by amide (-CO-NH-)
bonds. Aramid fibres, in particular, are constructed from a class of polymers known as aromatic
polyamide polymers, the most well-known of which is poly(paraphenylene terephthalamide)
(PPTA). This is an illustration of PPTA's molecular structure, which comprises of para-
phenylene rings joined together by amide linkages:

HH
||
--C-(CO-NH-)n-C—
||HH
Aramid fibres' superior strength and stiffness come from the special configuration of para-
phenylene rings and amide links in the polymer chain.[220]

7.2.2 Manufacturing:
Polymerization, spinning, drawing, and heat treatment are only some of the stages in the
production of aramid fibres. The following is a detailed breakdown of how aramid fibres are
created:

Polymerization: In order to create aramid polymer, a diamine and a diacid chloride are reacted
in a polar solvent like N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) to produce a polyamide chain via the process
of polymerization. P-phenylenediamine is the most frequent diamine used in aramid
manufacturing, whereas terephthalic acid chloride is the most common diacid chloride.

Spinning: During the spinning process, the polymer solution is forced through a spinneret and
into a coagulation bath where it is combined with an aqueous solution to form a solid fibre. The
diameter and form of the resultant fibre are determined by the size and geometry of the
spinneret's numerous tiny holes.

Drawing: By drawing or stretching the fibres, the polymer chains are aligned, boosting the
fibres' strength and stiffness. To acquire the appropriate qualities, the fibres are normally pulled
in two phases, first at ambient temperature and then at high temperature.

Heat treatment: When the fibres have been pulled, they are heated to much beyond 300
degrees Celsius in order to stabilise the polymer chains and enhance the fiber's characteristics.
Any remaining solvents or other contaminants may be burned out during the heat treatment
process.

Post treatment: Fibers may be subjected to further processing after their initial manufacture,
including surface treatment and coating, depending on their final use.

The above procedure serves as a high-level overview of the processes required to create aramid
fibres. Nevertheless, the exact procedure may change from one manufacturer to another, and
from one application to another.[220]
 7.2.3 Fiber properties:

Properties Value

Tensile strength 2.5 – 4.0 Gpa

Young’s modulus 70 – 130 Gpa

Density 1.44 – 1.47 g/cm3

Thermal stability Decomposition above 500°C

Moisture regain <5%

Chemical resistance Resistant to most organic solvent and acids

UV resistance Good

Table 7.2.3: Aramid fibers property table.[220, 221]

7.2.4 Applications:
The high strength-to-weight ratio, superior fatigue resistance, and outstanding impact resistance
of aramid fibre composites make them useful in many different settings. These are some use
cases for composites made from aramid fibres:

Aerospace: Aramid fibre composites are utilised to make structural components, fuel tanks, and
wing skins. Because of their great strength and stiffness, these composites are lighter and more
efficient.

Automotive: Components including body panels, brake pads, and suspension elements are
made using aramid fibre composites in the automobile sector. Crash resistance is increased while
weight is decreased thanks to the use of these composites due to their great strength and
toughness.
Marine: Boat hulls, decks, and mast are just some of the maritime applications for Aramid fibre
composites. The exceptional strength and rigidity of these composites allows for significant
weight savings while also boosting performance.

Sports equipment: Aramid fibre composites are utilised in a variety of sports tools, including
bicycle frames, kayaks, and canoes. The exceptional strength and rigidity of these composites
allows for significant weight savings while also boosting performance.

Protective gear: Aramid fibre composites are employed in many types of protective clothing
and equipment. These composites are very resistant to impact and penetration because to their
great strength and toughness..[222-226]

7.3 Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE):

7.3.1 Chemical structure:

UHMWPE is characterised by an extremely high molecular weight due to its chemical structure,
which is a lengthy chain of repeating ethylene monomer units. UHMWPE's great crystallinity
and strength come from the material's linear, unbranched structure and the parallel orientation of
its polymer chains.

The chemical structure of UHMWPE is shown in three different illustrations below:

1. Structural formula
2. Condensed structural formula
3. Ball and stick model[227-229]

7.3.2 Manufacturing Process:

The following steps are involved in the production of Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene
(UHMWPE).

Polymerization: Polymerization of ethylene monomer is the first stage in making UHMWPE,

and a catalyst, often Ziegler-Natta or metallocene, is used for this purpose. Extreme heat and
pressure cause a chemical reaction that results in a polymer with a very large molecular weight.
Pelletizing: When the UHMWPE polymer has been melted, it is extruded via a die and
pelletized. The pellets are the raw material for further processing and are generally tiny,
cylindrical, or spherical in form.

Melt spinning: After being heated, the UHMWPE pellets are extruded via a spinneret to create
a continuous fiber. After passing through a quenching bath to harden, the fibers are coiled onto a
spool.

Drawing: The UHMWPE fibers are then heated to temperatures between 120 and 150 degrees
Celsius and either stretched or pulled. This procedure enhances the crystallinity of the fiber and
aligns the polymer chains, both of which contribute to the fiber's enhanced strength and stiffness.

Annealing: The residual stresses in the UHMWPE fibers are reduced and the fiber's
crystallinity is further enhanced by an annealing process at temperatures between 135 and 150
degrees Celsius for several hours.

Finishing: Finishing compounds including lubricants and sizing agents are applied to the
UHMWPE fibers to make them more workable and compatible with other materials. [227-229]

7.3.4. Fiber Properties:

Property Value

Tensile Strength 3.5-4.0 Gpa

Young’s modulus 100-130 Gpa

Density 0.94-0.97 g/cm3

Melting point 145-150 °C

Thermal Conductivity 0.3-0.4 W/mK

Chemical resistance Resistant to most chemicals, acids and bases

Abrasion resistance Excellent

Table 7.3.4. Fiber properties of Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE).
 7.3.5. Composites:
As UHMWPE fibers have such high mechanical qualities, they are often employed as a
reinforcement in polymer matrix composites. UHMWPE composite materials include:

1. UHMWPE/epoxy composites
2. UHMWPE/polypropylene composites
3. UHMWPE/polyester composites
4. UHMWPE/nylon composites
5. UHMWPE/carbon fiber composites.[228, 229]

7.3.6. Applications:

Medical: UHMWPE's strong biocompatibility, superior wear resistance, and low coefficient of
friction make it a material of choice for orthopaedic implants in the medical field. UHMWPE is
utilised in the production of a wide variety of orthopaedic implants, including prosthetic hips,
knees, shoulders, and spines. Dental implants and equipment for surgery are two more areas
where the material has been put to use. UHMWPE's high strength and low wear rate make it a
great choice for the increasingly prevalent joint replacement procedures performed on an elderly
population. Spinal implants constructed of UHMWPE are increasingly used because to the
material's strong mechanical strength and superior fatigue resistance.[230, 231]

Sports: The sports sector has made extensive use of UHMWPE because to the material's
exceptional strength, light weight, and resistance to impact. Skis, snowboards, helmets, and other
sporting equipment are all made from UHMWPE fibres. These fibres are very strong and rigid,
which increases the equipment's durability and resistance to wear and tear.

Ropes and cables used in sports like rock climbing and sailing are often made using UHMWPE
fibres. Because of their low stretch and great abrasion resistance, the fibres are well suited for
demanding uses. UHMWPE is not only employed in the construction of machinery, but also in
the production of lightweight and breathable performance textiles for athletic apparel. These
materials are great for usage in sports where heavy perspiration is common because of their
ability to wick away sweat.[232, 233]
Aerospace: The wings, fuselage, and other structural components of aircraft are all made from
composite materials that use UHMWPE fibres. These composites improve fuel economy by
decreasing the aircraft's total weight while maintaining or improving strength, stiffness, and
durability. UHMWPE is also utilised to make aircraft ballistic-resistant materials like armour
plates and bulletproof vests. These materials are great for the military and law enforcement since
they provide a lot of protection without being cumbersome to wear. Radiation shielding and
insulation are only two of the many uses for UHMWPE in the aerospace industry. The low levels
of outgassing and high resilience to radiation make this material perfect for use in the vacuum of
space.[234, 235]

Automobile: Automotive components including gears, bearings, and bushings are some of the
most frequent users. Due to UHMWPE's low friction coefficient and excellent strength, these
components will last longer and use less fuel. Composite materials, such as those used for car
body panels, bumpers, and other structural components, often use ultra-high molecular weight
polyethylene (UHMWPE) fibres in their composition. Composites like this help increase fuel
economy and cut down on pollutants by decreasing the weight of the vehicle without sacrificing
strength, stiffness, or impact resistance. UHMWPE is also used to make brake pads, another
component of automobiles. UHMWPE is a great material for these parts because of its excellent
wear resistance and low friction coefficient, which leads to better braking performance and a
longer lifespan.[236, 237]

Marine: UHMWPE is widely used in the production of ropes and lines for the maritime sector.
Mooring lines, tow ropes, and other maritime applications that need high strength with little
weight may benefit greatly from UHMWPE fibres due to their high tensile strength and low
stretch. UHMWPE is also employed in the production of marine bearings, bushings, and other
parts because to its excellent durability and low friction. UHMWPE is a great choice for these
uses because of its durability and resistance to moisture and salinity. UHMWPE is also used to
make composite materials for boat hulls and decks in the maritime sector. UHMWPE-based
composites increase performance and fuel economy because of its high strength, stiffness, and
impact resistance while also decreasing the boat's total weight.[238, 239]
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