Chemical Engineering Operations

Filtration
Second Year Chemical Engineering

Institute of Chemical Technology

SVJ

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 Reference Books

7. Lecture Notes/Handouts

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Unit Operations in Typical Processing Plant

• Crystallization
• Filtration and/or Sedimentation and/or Centrifugation
• Drying 3
 Filtration
• Mechanism of filtration
• Basic equation
• Constant volume filtration
• Constant pressure filtration
• Rate expressions for cake and filter cloth resistances
• Rate expressions for compressible and incompressible cakes

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 Filtration – Definition
• Filtration: Removal of solids from a fluid (liquid /gas) by passing
through a filter medium (called septum or filter cloth), on
which the solids are deposited
• Carried out to recover: fluid OR solid OR both OR none
• Covers range of solid content: from Traces to a High Percentage
• Driving force: ΔP = Pupstream – Pdownstream
• ΔP: by gravity of liquid column (static head) OR by pump /
blower OR by centrifugal force

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 Filters – Classification
1. Cake filters
2. Clarifying filters
3. Crossflow filters

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 Filters – Classification
1. Cake filters:
• Relatively large amounts of solids are separated as cake or
crystals
• + provision for washing of cake and partial recovery of
liquid contained in the cake

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 Filters – Classification
2. Clarifying filters:
• Small amounts of solids are filtered out to produce a clean
gas or sparklingly clear liquids
• The solid particles are trapped inside the filter medium
and on its external surface

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 Filters – Classification
3. Crossflow filters:
• The feed suspension flows under pressure at high velocity
across the filter medium
• A thin layer of solids may form on the surface of medium, but
it does not form a permanent layer due to high liquid velocity
• The pores of filter medium are small enough to exclude most
of the suspended particles
• Some liquid passes through filter medium (clear filtrate). More
concentrated suspension remain behind
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 Mode of Operation
• Filters can be continuous or discontinuous (batch)
• Continuous: the discharge of filtered solids is steady
In this case the discharge of both fluid and solid is
uninterrupted during the operation
• Discontinuous: the discharge of filtered solids is intermittent
Here the flow of the fluid is continuous but needs to be
interrupted periodically to allow for the discharging of the
accumulated (filtered) solids
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 Cake Filtration
• In the beginning of filtration, some particles enter the pores of filter
medium and get immobilized.
• Afterwards, the particles start gathering on the filter medium (septum)
⇒ eventually, the cake of solids affects the filtration operation, and not
the filter media.
• A cake of some thickness builds up on the septum surface, and this cake
is removed periodically (in the case of discontinuous filtration
operation). Sometimes cake itself assists in filtration.
• Cake filters are used mostly for solid-liquid systems.
• Cake filters may operate with super-atmospheric pressure upstream OR
with vacuum applied downstream.
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12
Filtration – Mechanism

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 Requirements of Filter Media
• It must retain the solids to be filtered ⇒ clear filtrate
• It must not plug / blind
• It must be resistant chemically and strong enough physically to
withstand the process conditions
• It must permit the cake formed to discharge cleanly and
completely
• It must not be prohibitively expensive
• Typical industrial filter media: canvas cloth (woven or non-woven), woolen cloth,
metallic cloth (monel / SS), glass cloth, paper, nylon, polypropylene, polyesters, etc.
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 Filter Aid
• Slimy or very fine solids tend to form impermeable cake ⇒ filter media is
plugged quickly.
• Hence the porosity of the cake must be increased to allow the smooth
passage of liquid.
• This is achieved by adding “filter aid”, such as purified wood cellulose, perlite,
diatomaceous earth, or any other porous solid (adsorbent) to the slurry, prior
to filtration.
• Alternately, filter aid may be “precoated” on septum, prior to actual filtration.
• The filter aid can be recovered by dissolving the cake (at the end of filtration)
in a suitable solvent.
• If solids have zero value, then whole cake is burned out or disposed off. 15
Principles of Filtration
• Filtration: a special case of “flow through
porous media”
• In case of filtration, the flow resistances
increase with time, because EITHER the
filter medium becomes clogged OR a
filter cake builds up
• Therefore, the equations of “flow
through porous media” must be modified
to allow for this resistance build up
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Principles of Filtration
• As time progresses, EITHER the filtrate
flow rate decreases OR the pressure drop
increases.
• Constant pressure filtration: ΔP is held
constant and the flow rate is allowed to
fall with time (more common).
• Constant rate filtration: ΔP is
progressively increased to give a
constant flow rate (less common).
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Principles of Filtration
• In cake filtration, the liquid passes through
two resistances in series, namely, cake and
filter medium (septum)
• Filter medium resistance: important only
during the startup
• Cake resistance: zero at the startup and
increases with time
• Overall pressure drop at any time is sum of
pressure drops over filter medium and cake
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 Principles of Filtration
Let,
pa = inlet (upstream) pressure
pb = outlet (downstream) pressure
p′ = pressure at boundary between
cake and filter medium
then,
Δp = pa–pb = (pa–p′) + (p′–pb) = ΔpC + ΔpM
where,
Δp = overall pressure drop
Section through filter medium and cake at time ‘t’
ΔpC = pressure drop over filter cake
ΔpM = pressure drop over filter medium 19
 Principles of Filtration
• Consider a thin layer of cake
having differential thickness dL,
situated at a distance of L from
the filter medium
• Let p = pressure at above point
• Assume: the velocity in the filter
bed sufficiently low so as to
assume “laminar flow” (realistic
assumption)
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 Principles of Filtration
1. The appropriate equation (Kozeny
Carman) for “flow through porous
beds with laminar flow” is given by,

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 Principles of Filtration
where,
dp/dL = pressure gradient at cake thickness L
μ = viscosity of filtrate
u = linear velocity of filtrate, based on filter area
sp = surface area of single particle
vp = volume of single particle
ε = porosity of cake
Φs = sphericity of particle = ratio of surface area of a sphere (with the
same volume as the given particle) to the surface area of the particle
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 Principles of Filtration
2. The linear velocity ‘u’ at a time ‘t’ = u = (dV/dt)/A
where, V = cumulative volume of filtrate collected up to time ‘t’
Since filtrate passes through entire cake, ‘u’ is independent of L
3. Volume of solids in the differential layer = A dL(1–ε)
4. If ρp = density of particles, then mass of solids in the
differential layer dm = ρp A dL (1 – ε)
5. Elimination of dL gives,

k1 is used in place of 4.17 to account for any non-ideality 23

 Principles of Filtration
During “low pressure drop filtration” operations, containing rigid
uniform particles, all factors (except ‘m’) are independent of L,
and hence the equation can be integrated directly.
6. If mC = total cake mass, then integration gives,
2
𝑠𝑝
𝑘1 𝜇 𝑢 1 − 𝜀
𝑝𝑎 𝑣𝑝 𝑚𝑐
න 𝑑𝑝 = න 𝑑𝑚
𝑝′ 𝜀3 𝜌𝑝 𝐴 0

2
𝑠𝑝
𝑘1 𝜇 𝑢 1 − 𝜀 𝑚𝑐
𝑣𝑝
𝑝𝑎 − 𝑝′ = 𝛥𝑃𝑐 =
𝜀 3 𝜌𝑝 𝐴 24
 Principles of Filtration – Cake Resistance
7. “Specific cake resistance” (α) [LM-1] is defined as,
𝑠𝑝 2
𝑘1 1−𝜀
𝛥𝑃𝑐 𝐴 𝑣𝑝
𝛼= =
𝜇 𝑢 𝑚𝑐 𝜀 3 𝜌𝑝

8. “Cake resistance” [L-1] is defined as,

𝛼 𝑚𝑐 𝛥𝑃𝑐
=
𝐴 𝜇𝑢

For incompressible cakes, specific cake resistance “α” is independent of

the pressure drop and position within the cake.
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 Principles of Filtration – Media Resistance
9. Analogously, the “filter medium resistance” (RM) [L-1] is
defined as,
𝑃′ − 𝑃𝑏 𝛥𝑃𝑚
𝑅𝑚 = =
𝜇𝑢 𝜇𝑢
RM may vary with ΔPM, because higher liquid velocities caused by
large ΔPm may force additional particles of solid in to the filter
medium. But Rm is considered as empirical constant.

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 Principles of Filtration
Since, 𝛥𝑃 = 𝛥𝑃𝑐 + 𝛥𝑃𝑚
10. From Eq. 7 and 9,
𝑚𝑐 𝛼
𝛥𝑃 = 𝜇 𝑢 + 𝑅𝑚
𝐴
At an appreciable cake thickness, ΔPM is negligible compared to
ΔPC ⇒ α can be assumed to be a function of ΔP instead of ΔPC ⇒
this eases integration

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 Principles of Filtration – Basic Equation
To simplify, replace mc and u as a function of volume, V
11. If C = mass of particles deposited per unit volume of filtrate,
then, total cake mass, mC = V C
12. Also, velocity, u = (dV/dt)/A
13. Substituting mc and u into Eq. 10
𝑑𝑡 𝜇 𝛼𝐶𝑉
= + 𝑅𝑚
𝑑𝑉 𝐴 𝛥𝑃 𝐴
Above equation represents the basic equation for filtration
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 Constant Pressure Filtration
When ΔP remains constant during operation, the only variables
are V and t
14. Integrating Eq. 13,
𝑡 𝜇 𝛼𝐶𝑉
= + 𝑅𝑚
𝑉 𝐴 𝛥𝑃 2𝐴
𝑡
Eq. 14 is a straight line also written as, 𝑉
= 𝐵1 𝑉 + 𝐵2
𝜇𝛼𝐶
Where, 𝐵1 = 2
2𝐴 𝛥𝑃

𝜇𝑅𝑚
𝐵2 =
𝛥𝑃𝐴

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 Constant Rate filtration
If flow rate is kept constant, then, dV/dt = V/t = q
15. Eq. 13 becomes,
𝜇𝛼𝐶 2 𝜇 𝑅𝑚
∆𝑃 = 2
𝑞 𝑡+ 𝑞
𝐴 𝐴

Eq. 15 is a linear plot of ΔP vs t

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 Compressible Cake Filtration
16. For compressible cakes, specific cake resistance (α) is a
function of pressure drop given by,
𝛼 = 𝛼0 ∆𝑃𝑛
𝑙𝑛𝛼 = 𝑙𝑛𝛼0 + 𝑛 𝑙𝑛∆𝑃
Where,
α0 = Constant at unit applied pressure
n = compressibility index i.e. indicative of the extent to which filter cake may
compress when subjected to compressive force
When, n~1, very compressible cake
n~0.5, moderately compressible cake
n<0.2, almost incompressible cake
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Compressible Cake Filtration

Particle Type α0 n
Alumina 2.37x108 0.3
Aluminium hydroxide 3.32x1011 0.34
Calcium carbonate 8.93x109 0.2
Cement 2.22x1010 0.298
Talc 7.05x108 0.51
Zinc Sulphide 1.48x109 0.92

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 Understanding α
• Ability of cake to resist the flow of filtrate through cake
• Gives first approximation of the filtration behaviour of suspension
• Useful tool in sizing and process design of filters
Ease of Separation α (m kg –1 )
Very easy ≤109
Easy 1010
Moderate 1011
Difficult 1012
Very Difficult ≥1013
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 Cake Washing
• Cake washing is a process of removing solutes from the voids
in the filter cake by application of wash liquid or solvent
• Basic purpose of cake washing:
1. To remove liquid or solid impurities from the filter cake
2. To increase liquid product from the cake

• Wash liquid is usually soluble with the filtrate

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 Cake Deliquoring/Dewatering
• Cake deliquoring or dewatering is carried out to further reduce
the moisture content of filter cake
• Cake dewatering is achieved by
1. Pushing the gas/air
2. Pulling the the gas/air
3. Mechanical squeezing
• Basic purpose of cake dewatering:
1. To improve cake discharge and handling
2. To reduce transportation costs of solids
3. To remove contaminated liquids from cake 35
 Question

Q1. Calculate the specific cake resistance and media resistance

from the given filtration data.

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Data:
Density of solids: 2710 kg/m3
Viscosity of slurry: 0.001 N.s/m2
Filter dimensions: 430x430x30 mm
No of filter plates: 2
Slurry concentration: 0.104 kg/m3

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 Question

Q2. If the cake is compressible, calculate the compressibility

index and specific resistance at unit applied pressure from
the same data.
Assume: ΔP as 0.6x105 N/m2 for first four readings and
1.3x105 N/m2 for second four readings.

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 0.6

Data: 0.6
0.6
0.6
1.3
Density of solids: 2710 kg/m3 1.3

Viscosity of slurry: 0.001 N.s/m2 1.3

1.3

Filter dimensions: 430x430x30 mm

No of filter plates: 2
Slurry concentration: 0.104 kg/m3

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Non-linearities During Practice

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Experimental Example – Effect of Time on V or m

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Experimental Example – t/V vs V

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Experimental Example – Effect of Pressure on α

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Experimental Example – Effect of Pressure on α and ε

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 Question
Q3. A suspension containing 225 g of carbonyl iron powder,
Grade E, per litre of a solution of 0.001 N NaOH is to be
filtered using a leaf filter. Estimate the area of the filter
needed to obtain 100 lb of dry cake in 1 hour of filtration at
a constant pressure of 20 psi. The cake is incompressible.
The specific cake resistance is 6.72x1010 m/kg. The filter
medium resistance is 4 m–1. Make suitable assumptions if required.

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 Question

Q4. From Q3, calculate the filter area for 30 mins and 15 mins of
operation. Comment on your findings.

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 Question
Q5. A slurry of sitosterol is filtered at constant pressure through a filtration
medium consisting of a screen support mounted across the end of a
Pyrex pipe. The resistance of the filter medium is negligible. Following
is the data for laboratory test:
Weight of crystals 62 g Cake depth 12.5 cm
Filtration pressure 15 Psi Cake volume 253.3.cm3
Filter diameter 5 cm Filtration time 163 min

On the basis of lab tests, calculate the number of frames (30in x 30in x
1in) needed for a plate & frame filter press. Also, estimate the time
required for filtering 63 kg batch of steroid at 3.5 Psi.
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 Steps for the Design of Filtration Equipment
• In industry, the slurry (e.g. alumina, gypsum, etc.) to be filtered will be
defined. The time will also be given to complete the filtration.
• You will be asked to calculate filter area and recommend type of filter.
1. Make a choice of filter material and its pore size depending upon the
particle size of the slurry.
2. Perform the filtration experiments in the laboratory and collect filter
volume vs time data. Calculate cake resistance, α, and filter media
resistance, Rm, using Eq. 14 or 15.
3. Use both, α, and Rm, to back calculate the filter area using the same
equations at desired time and pressure for the filtration.
4. Call suppliers to shortlist type of filter equipment. 48
 Recommended reading
• Chemical Engineering – Volume 2 (Coulson; Richardson)
• Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering (McCabe; Smith)
• SOLVED and EXERCISE problems in the above books

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