Thermodynamics

Sangyong Lee, Ph.D.

Mechanical, Robotics, and Energy Department
Dongguk University

Chapt 1. Introduction and

Basic Concepts
 Objectives
 Identify the unique vocabulary
associated with Thermodynamics
(Definition)
 SI and English unit
 Basic concepts about system,
state, equilibrium, process and
cycle

2
Intensive & Extensive Properties
 Intensive Property - Quality
 Extensive Property - Quantity
 Specific Property – Extensive properties per
unit mass
e.g. Which of the following is an extensive property?
a) Temperature b) Velocity c) Pressure d) mass

e.g. Which of the following is not an extensive

property?
a) Momentum b) Kinetic E c) Enthalpy d) Density

4
1-1 Thermodynamics and Energy

 Energy is the capacity for doing work. You

must have energy to accomplish work
 Calculation of Heat & Work requirements
for physical and Chemical process
 Determination of equilibrium conditions

Optimize the Process

Energy
Kinetic Energy
1
EK  mv 2
2
Potential Energy

E p  mzg
Internal Energy
3
U kT
2
6
Work
refers to an activity involving a force and
movement in the direction of the force.
 The general definition of mechanical work
is given by the following line integral:

W   F  dx

The 1st Law of Thermodynamics

 Joule’s Experiments

W  T increase

Existence of a
quantitative
relationship between
Temperature work and heat

Insulated

8
 Conservation of Energy Principle

 Total amount of energy remains constant

 Energy can change from one from the other
 Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

Energy
Kinetic Energy
1
EK  mv 2
2
Potential Energy
E p  mzg
Internal Energy
3
U kT
2
Energy Conservation
E p  Ek  0 At constant T 10
The First Law of Thermodynamics

 Although energy assumes many forms,

the total quantity of energy is constant,
and when energy disappears in one
form it appears simultaneously in other
form

11

Thermodynamic State and State Functions

 State Function: Properties do not depend
on the past history of the substance nor
on the means by which it reaches a given
state. Depends only on present conditions
 E.g. internal energy - U(T,P)
 Path Function: depends on the nature of
the process casing the change
 E.g. W, Q

U=Q+W dU =dQ + dW
State Fn Path Fn
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  Total quantity of energy is conserved

Surroundings

W
System
Q

Boundary

Esystem  Esurroundings  0
13

Energy Balance for Closed Systems

 Closed system : no transfer of matter

between the system and its surroundings

Esurroundings  Q  W
+ : for transfer into the system from the
surroundings
- : for transfer out of the system to the
surrounding

c.f.  E system   Q  W
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 W
system
Q

Esurr  Q  W

Esystem  Q  W
Total Internal Energy of the System
U t  Q  W

dU t  dQ  dW
15

E.g. 1 Energy Conservation

1kg of water Assume, the system does not exchange
energy with its surroundings.
a) What is the potential energy of the
water at the top
b) What is the kinetic energy of the
water just before it strikes bottom
c) After the 1kg of water enters the
100m river below the falls what change
has occurred in its state

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 The Second law of Thermo

 Energy has quality as well as quantity

(The actual processes occur in the
direction of decreasing quality of energy)

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The Phase Rule

 For any system at equilibrium, the number

of independent variables that must be
arbitrarily fixed to establish its intensive
state.
Number of phases

F  2   N Number of species

Degree of freedom of the system

18
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process:
Any change that a system undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another.
Path:
The series of states through which a system
passes during a process.

19

Cycle
 Cycle: A process during which the initial
and final states are identical.

20
The Basic Manometer
• Measuring the pressure drop across a flow section
or a flow device by a differential manometer.

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Chapter 2
ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER,
AND GENERAL ENERGY
ANALYSIS

22
Internal Energy, Kinetic Energy, and
Potential Energy
 Internal energy, U: The sum of all the
microscopic forms of energy
• Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that a system
possesses as a result of its motion relative to
some reference frame

• Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system

possesses as a result of its elevation in a
gravitational field.

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Total Energy

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Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy
 Internal energy: The sum of all the microscopic
forms of energy of a system
 molecular structure
 degree of molecular activity
 the kinetic and potential energy of molecules
 Sensible energy and latent energy
 Chemical energy: associated with chemical
reaction
 Nuclear Energy: strong bonds within the nucleus
 Energy interactions
 Heat and Work

Thermal = Sensible + Latent

Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear
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Mechanical Energy
 the form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly
 Kinetic and potential energies: The familiar
forms of mechanical energy.
v2 v2
KE  m ( KJ ) ke  ( KJ / kg )
2 2
PE  mgz (KJ ) pe  gz ( KJ / kg )

v2
E  U  KE  PE  U  m  mgz
2

v2
e  u  ke  pe  u   gz
2
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 2-3 Energy Transfer by Heat
 Heat: form of energy that is transferred between
two systems (or a system and its surroundings)
by virtue of a temperature difference
 Adiabatic process: a process with no heat
transfer

Energy is recognized as heat transfer only as

it crosses the system boundary. 27

ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK

 Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
 A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system
boundaries are all associated with work interactions
 Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system
are positive; heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are
negative.
 Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate
direction. This is the primary approach in this text.

Work done
per unit mass

Power is the
work done per Specifying the directions
unit time (kW) of heat and work. 28
 MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
 There are two requirements for a work interaction between
a system and its surroundings to exist:
 there must be a force acting on the boundary.
 the boundary must move.

Work = Force  Distance When force is not constant

29

Shaft Work
A force F acting through a moment arm r
generates a torque T
This force acts through a distance s

Shaft work

The power transmitted through the

shaft is the shaft work done per unit
time

30 30
 Spring Work
 When the length of the spring changes by a differential
amount dx under the influence of a force F, the work
done is

 For linear elastic springs, the displacement x is

proportional to the force applied

 Substituting and integrating yield

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The 1st law of Thermo.

 Energy balance
Change in the Total Energy Total Energy
total energy of the = entering the - leaving the
system system system

Esystem = Ein – E out

 Energy change of the system

Change in the Energy at Energy at
total energy of the = final state - initial state
system

Esystem = Einitial – Efinal

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Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout

The energy
 Heat transfer content of a
 Work transfer control volume
 Mass flow can be changed
by mass flow as
well as heat and
work interactions.

33

ENERGY CONVERSION
EFFICIENCIES
Efficiency is one of the most frequently used terms in
thermodynamics, and it indicates how well an energy conversion
or transfer process is accomplished.

34
• Generator: A device that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy.
• Generator efficiency: The ratio of the electrical power output to the
mechanical power input.
• Thermal efficiency of a power plant: The ratio of the net electrical
power output to the rate of fuel energy input.

Lighting efficacy: The amount of light

output in lumens per W of electricity
consumed.

Overall efficiency of a power plant

High P
steam/ gas
Fuel
combustion Generator

ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

 The conversion of energy from one form to another often affects the
environment and the air we breathe in many ways, and thus the study of
energy is not complete without considering its impact on the environment.
 Pollutants emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels are responsible
for smog, acid rain, and global warming.
 The environmental pollution has reached such high levels that it became a
serious threat to vegetation, wild life, and human health.

Energy conversion processes are often

accompanied by environmental pollution.
 Chapter 3
PROPERTIES OF PURE
SUBSTANCES

37

Phase Diagram P-T diagram

P-V diagram

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 PROPERTY TABLES
 For most substances, the relationships among thermodynamic properties are
too complex to be expressed by simple equations.
 Therefore, properties are frequently presented in the form of tables.
 The results of these measurements and calculations are presented in tables in
a convenient format.

Enthalpy—A Combination Property

The combination u+Pv

is frequently
encountered in the
analysis of control
volumes.
The product pressure 
volume has energy units.
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Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States

 Table A–4: Saturation properties of water under temperature.
 Table A–5: Saturation properties of water under pressure.

A partial list of Table A–4.

Enthalpy of vaporization, hfg (Latent

heat of vaporization): The amount of
energy needed to vaporize a unit mass
of saturated liquid at a given
temperature or pressure.

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Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture
Quality, x : The ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass
of the mixture. Quality is between 0 and 1 0: sat.
liquid, 1: sat. vapor.
The properties of the saturated liquid are the same whether
it exists alone or in a mixture with saturated vapor.

The relative amounts of liquid and vapor phases in a saturated

mixture are specified by the quality x.

41

Superheated Vapor

In the region to the right of the saturated vapor line and at

temperatures above the critical point temperature, a
substance exists as superheated vapor.
In this region, temperature and pressure are independent
properties.

Compared to saturated vapor, superheated vapor is

characterized by

42
 Compressed Liquid
The compressed liquid properties depend on
temperature much more strongly than they do on
pressure.
Compressed liquid is
characterized by

43

Linear Interpolation

44
Equation of States

 A relation connecting P, V, and T

 Expressed by the functional equation
f ( P,V , T )  0
45

1. Ideal Gas Law

2. Virial Equation of States
3. Cubic Equation of States
4. Generalized Correlation

What is ideal Gas?

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