What is a Research Problem?

Before you conceive of your project, you need to ask yourself “What is a research
problem?” A research problem definition can be broadly put forward as the
primary statement of a knowledge gap or a fundamental challenge in a field, which
forms the foundation for research. Conversely, the findings from a research
investigation provide solutions to the problem.
A research problem guides the selection of approaches and methodologies, data
collection, and interpretation of results to find answers or solutions. A well-
defined problem determines the generation of valuable insights and contributions
to the broader intellectual discourse.
What are the Sources of Research Problems?
five sources of a research problem:
1. Interviews
Interviews sessions can be significant sources of research problems. The method
gives you an opportunity to have formal discussions and informal interactions with
individuals who can provide useful insights into research and make findings more
relevant to future research.
Consider having discussions with experts in the field you wish to investigate.
These professionals mat be healthcare service providers, business leaders, teachers,
social workers, attorneys, and accountants to mention but a few examples.
By interacting with these experts, you’re able to identify real-world problems that
researchers have either ignored or understudied in the academic space.
2. Personal Experiences
Your everyday experiences are a good source of research problem.
You have to think critically about your personal experiences with an issue that
affects your family, your personal life, or your community.
A research problem derived from personal experience can spring from any issue
and from anywhere.
For example, you can construct a research problem from events that appear to be
out of the ordinary or from community relationships that don’t have clear
explanations.
3. Deductions from Theory
A deduction from theory refers to inferences a researcher makes from the
generalizations of life in a society that a researcher knows very well.
A researcher takes the deduction, places them in an empirical frame, and then,
based on a theory, they come up with a research problem and a hypothesis that
suggests some findings based on given empirical results.
The research accounts for the relationship to observe if a theory summarizes the
state of an affair.

4. Interdisciplinary Perspective
If you consider interdisciplinary perspective to identify a problem for a research
study, you’ll have to look at scholarship and academic movements from outside
your main area of investigation.
It’s an intellectually involving process, one that requires reviewing pertinent
literature to discover unique avenues of exploration an analysis.
5. Relevant Literature
To generate a research problem from relevant literature, you first have to review
research related to your area of interest.
Doing so allows you to find gaps on the topic, making it easy for you to understand
just how much understudied your area of interest is.
Data collected from relevant literature is relevant because it helps to:
 Fill existing gaps in knowledge based on a specific research
 Determine if current studies can have implications on further research on the
same issue
 See if it’s possible to conduct a similar study in a different area or apply the
same in a different context

Characteristics of a Research Problem

Knowing the characteristics of a research problem is instrumental in formulating a

research inquiry; take a look at the five key characteristics below:
Novel: An ideal research problem introduces a fresh perspective, offering
something new to the existing body of knowledge. It should contribute original
insights and address unresolved matters or essential knowledge.

Significant: A problem should hold significance in terms of its potential impact on

theory, practice, policy, or the understanding of a particular phenomenon. It should
be relevant to the field of study, addressing a gap in knowledge, a practical
concern, or a theoretical dilemma that holds significance.

Feasible: A practical research problem allows for the formulation of hypotheses

and the design of research methodologies. A feasible research problem is one that
can realistically be investigated given the available resources, time, and expertise.
It should not be too broad or too narrow to explore effectively, and should be
measurable in terms of its variables and outcomes. It should be amenable to
investigation through empirical research methods, such as data collection and
analysis, to arrive at meaningful conclusions A practical research
problem considers budgetary and time constraints, as well as limitations of
the problem. These limitations may arise due to constraints in methodology,
resources, or the complexity of the problem.

Clear and specific: A well-defined research problem is clear and specific, leaving
no room for ambiguity; it should be easily understandable and precisely
articulated. Ensuring specificity in the problem ensures that it is focused, addresses
a distinct aspect of the broader topic and is not vague.

Rooted in evidence: A good research problem leans on trustworthy evidence and

data, while dismissing unverifiable information. It must also consider ethical
guidelines, ensuring the well-being and rights of any individuals or groups
involved in the study.

Types of Research Problems

Across fields and disciplines, there are different types of research problems. We
can broadly categorize them into three types.

1. Theoretical research problems

Theoretical research problems deal with conceptual and intellectual inquiries that
may not involve empirical data collection but instead seek to advance our
understanding of complex concepts, theories, and phenomena within their
respective disciplines. For example, in the social sciences, research problems may
be casuist (relating to the determination of right and wrong in questions of conduct
or conscience), difference (comparing or contrasting two or more
phenomena), descriptive (aims to describe a situation or state),
or relational (investigating characteristics that are related in some way).

2. Applied research problems

Applied or practical research problems focus on addressing real-world challenges

and generating practical solutions to improve various aspects of society,
technology, health, and the environment.

3. Action research problems

Action research problems aim to create positive change within specific contexts by
involving stakeholders, implementing interventions, and evaluating outcomes in a
collaborative manner.

What is a research objective?

Research objectives describe what your research project intends to accomplish.
They should guide every step of the research process, including how you collect
data, build your argument, and develop your conclusions.
Your research objectives may evolve slightly as your research progresses, but they
should always line up with the research carried out and the actual content of your
paper.
Errors in selecting the research problem
1. Population Specification
Population specification errors occur when the researcher does not understand who
they should survey. This can be tricky because there are multiple people who might
consume the product, but only one who purchases it, or they may miss a segment
looking to purchase in the future.
Example: Packaged goods manufacturers often conduct surveys of housewives,
because they are easier to contact, and it is assumed they decide what is to be
purchased and also do the actual purchasing. In this situation there often is
population specification error. The husband may purchase a significant share of the
packaged goods, and have significant direct and indirect influence over what is
bought. For this reason, excluding husbands from samples may yield results
targeted to the wrong audience.
How to avoid this: Understand who purchases your product and why they buy it.
It’s important to survey the one making the buying decision so you know how to
better reach them.
2. Sampling and Sample Frame Errors
Survey sampling and sample frame errors occur when the wrong subpopulation is
used to select a sample, or because of variation in the number or representativeness
of the sample that responds, but the resulting sample is not representative of the
population concern.
Unfortunately, some element of sampling error is unavoidable, but sometimes, it
can be predicted. For instance, in the 1936 presidential election between Roosevelt
and Landon, the sample frame was from car registrations and telephone directories.
The researchers failed to realize that the majority of people that owned cars and
telephones were Republicans, and wrongly predicted a Republican victory.
Example: Suppose that we collected a random sample of 500 people from the
general U.S. adult population to gauge their entertainment preferences. Then, upon
analysis, found it to be composed of 70% females. This sample would not be
representative of the general adult population and would influence the data. The
entertainment preferences of females would hold more weight, preventing accurate
extrapolation to the US general adult population. Sampling error is affected by the
homogeneity of the population being studied and sampled from and by the size of
the sample.
How to avoid this: While this cannot be completely avoided, you should have
multiple people reviewing your sample to account for an accurate representation of
your target population. You can also increase the size of your sample so you get
more survey participants.
3. Selection
Selection error is the sampling error for a sample selected by a non-probability
method. When respondents choose to self-participate in a study and only those
interested respond, you can end up with selection error because there may already
be an inherent bias. This can also occur when respondents who are not relevant to
the study participate, or when there’s a bias in the way participants are put into
groups.
Example: Interviewers conducting a mall intercept study have a natural tendency
to select those respondents who are the most accessible and agreeable whenever
there is latitude to do so. Such samples often comprise friends and associates who
bear some degree of resemblance in characteristics to those of the desired
population.
How to avoid this: Selection error can be controlled by going extra lengths to get
participation. A typical survey process includes initiating pre-survey contact
requesting cooperation, actual surveying, and post-survey follow-up. If a response
is not received, a second survey request follows, and perhaps interviews using
alternate modes such as telephone or person-to-person.
4. Non-responsive
Nonresponse error can exist when an obtained sample differs from the original
selected sample.
This may occur because either the potential respondent was not contacted or they
refused to respond. The key factor is the absence of data rather than inaccurate
data.
Example: In telephone surveys, some respondents are inaccessible because they
are not at home for the initial call or call-backs. Others have moved or are away
from home for the period of the survey. Not-at-home respondents are typically
younger with no small children, and have a much higher proportion of working
wives than households with someone at home. People who have moved or are
away for the survey period have a higher geographic mobility than the average of
the population. Thus, most surveys can anticipate errors from non-contact of
respondents. Online surveys seek to avoid this error through e-mail distribution,
thus eliminating not-at-home respondents.
How to avoid this: When collecting responses, ensure your original respondents
are participating, and use follow-up surveys and alternates modes of reaching them
if they don’t initially respond. You can also use different channels to reach your
audience like in person, web surveys, or SMS.
5. Measurement
Measurement error is generated by the measurement process itself, and represents
the difference between the information generated and the information wanted by
the researcher. Generally, there is always some small level of measurement error
due to uncontrollable factors.
Example: A retail store would like to assess customer feedback from at-the-
counter purchases. The survey is developed but fails to target those who purchase
in the store. Instead, the results are skewed by customers who bought items online.
How to avoid this: Double check all measurements for accuracy and ensure your
observers and measurement takes are well trained and understand the parameters of
the experiment.
While not all of these errors can be completely avoidable, recognizing them is half
the battle. Next time you’re starting a research project, use this blog as a checklist
to ensure you’re doing everything you can to avoid these common mistakes.
Also, before you begin your next research project, read How to Define Your
Research Question. This is vital to any research project because you can’t begin
creating surveys unless you understand the research problem.
Four steps to defining your research problem

1. Observe and identify

Businesses today have so much data that it can be difficult to know which
problems to address first. Researchers also have business stakeholders who come
to them with problems they would like to have explored. A researcher’s job is to
sift through these inputs and discover exactly what higher-level trends and key
concepts are worth investing in.
This often means asking questions and doing some initial investigation to decide
which avenues to pursue. This could mean gathering interdisciplinary perspectives
identifying additional expertise and contextual information.
2. Review the key factors involved
As a marketing researcher, you must work closely with your team of researchers to
define and test the influencing factors and the wider context involved in your
study. These might include demographic and economic trends or the business
environment affecting the question at hand. This is referred to as a relational
research problem.
To do this, you have to identify the factors that will affect the research and begin
formulating different methods to control them.
3. Prioritize
Once you and your research team have a few observations, prioritize them based
on their business impact and importance. It may be that you can answer more than
one question with a single study, but don’t do it at the risk of losing focus on your
overarching research problem.
Questions to ask:
 Who? Who are the people with the problem? Are they end-users,
stakeholders, teams within your business? Have you validated the
information to see what the scale of the problem is?
 What? What is its nature and what is the supporting evidence?
4. Align
Get feedback from the key teams within your business to make sure everyone is
aligned and has the same understanding of the research problem and questions, and
the actions you hope to take based on the results. Now is also a good time to
demonstrate the ROI of your research and lay out its potential benefits to your
stakeholders.
Research Design
Definition:
Research design refers to the overall strategy or plan for conducting a research
study. It outlines the methods and procedures that will be used to collect and
analyze data, as well as the goals and objectives of the study. Research design is
important because it guides the entire research process and ensures that the study is
conducted in a systematic and rigorous manner.
Types of Research Design
Types of Research Design are as follows:
Descriptive Research Design
This type of research design is used to describe a phenomenon or situation. It
involves collecting data through surveys, questionnaires, interviews, and
observations. The aim of descriptive research is to provide an accurate and detailed
portrayal of a particular group, event, or situation. It can be useful in identifying
patterns, trends, and relationships in the data.
Correlational Research Design
Correlational research design is used to determine if there is a relationship between
two or more variables. This type of research design involves collecting data from
participants and analyzing the relationship between the variables using statistical
methods. The aim of correlational research is to identify the strength and direction
of the relationship between the variables.
Experimental Research Design
Experimental research design is used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships
between variables. This type of research design involves manipulating one variable
and measuring the effect on another variable. It usually involves randomly
assigning participants to groups and manipulating an independent variable to
determine its effect on a dependent variable. The aim of experimental research is to
establish causality.
Quasi-experimental Research Design
Quasi-experimental research design is similar to experimental research design, but
it lacks one or more of the features of a true experiment. For example, there may
not be random assignment to groups or a control group. This type of research
design is used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a true experiment.
Case Study Research Design
Case study research design is used to investigate a single case or a small number of
cases in depth. It involves collecting data through various methods, such as
interviews, observations, and document analysis. The aim of case study research is
to provide an in-depth understanding of a particular case or situation.
Longitudinal Research Design
Longitudinal research design is used to study changes in a particular phenomenon
over time. It involves collecting data at multiple time points and analyzing the
changes that occur. The aim of longitudinal research is to provide insights into the
development, growth, or decline of a particular phenomenon over time.
Structure of Research Design
The format of a research design typically includes the following sections:
 Introduction: This section provides an overview of the research problem,
the research questions, and the importance of the study. It also includes a
brief literature review that summarizes previous research on the topic and
identifies gaps in the existing knowledge.
 Research Questions or Hypotheses: This section identifies the specific
research questions or hypotheses that the study will address. These questions
should be clear, specific, and testable.
 Research Methods: This section describes the methods that will be used to
collect and analyze data. It includes details about the study design, the
sampling strategy, the data collection instruments, and the data analysis
techniques.
 Data Collection: This section describes how the data will be collected,
including the sample size, data collection procedures, and any ethical
considerations.
 Data Analysis: This section describes how the data will be analyzed,
including the statistical techniques that will be used to test the research
questions or hypotheses.
  Results: This section presents the findings of the study, including descriptive
statistics and statistical tests.
 Discussion and Conclusion: This section summarizes the key findings of
the study, interprets the results, and discusses the implications of the
findings. It also includes recommendations for future research.
 References: This section lists the sources cited in the research design.
A Literature Review

 Explains the background of research on a topic

 Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area
 Helps focus your own research questions or problems
 Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas
 Suggests unexplored ideas or populations
 Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic
 Tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and remove
unconscious bias.
 Identifies critical gaps, points of disagreement, or potentially flawed
methodology or theoretical approaches

Types of Literature Reviews

Argumentative Review
This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument,
deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the
literature.
Integrative Review
Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes
representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks
and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all
studies that address related or identical hypotheses. A well-done integrative review
meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and
replication.
Historical Review
Historical reviews are focused on examining research throughout a period of time,
often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in
the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The
purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-
the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.
Methodological Review
This approach provides a framework of understanding at different levels (i.e. those
of theory, substantive fields, research approaches and data collection and analysis
techniques), enables researchers to draw on a wide variety of knowledge ranging
from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork.
Systematic Review
Uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise
relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are
included in the review. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question.
Theoretical Review
Examines the theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory,
phenomena. Helps to establish what theories already exist, the relationships
between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to
develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a
lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for
explaining new or emerging research problems.
Data Collection
Definition:
Data collection is the process of gathering and collecting information from various
sources to analyze and make informed decisions based on the data collected. This
can involve various methods, such as surveys, interviews, experiments, and
observation.

In order for data collection to be effective, it is important to have a clear

understanding of what data is needed and what the purpose of the data collection
is. This can involve identifying the population or sample being studied,
determining the variables to be measured, and selecting appropriate methods for
collecting and recording data.
Types of Data Collection
Types of Data Collection are as follows:
Primary Data Collection
Primary data collection is the process of gathering original and firsthand
information directly from the source or target population. This type of data
collection involves collecting data that has not been previously gathered, recorded,
or published. Primary data can be collected through various methods such as
surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, and focus groups. The data
collected is usually specific to the research question or objective and can provide
valuable insights that cannot be obtained from secondary data sources. Primary
data collection is often used in market research, social research, and scientific
research.
Secondary Data Collection
Secondary data collection is the process of gathering information from existing
sources that have already been collected and analyzed by someone else, rather than
conducting new research to collect primary data. Secondary data can be collected
from various sources, such as published reports, books, journals, newspapers,
websites, government publications, and other documents.
Qualitative Data Collection
Qualitative data collection is used to gather non-numerical data such as opinions,
experiences, perceptions, and feelings, through techniques such as interviews,
focus groups, observations, and document analysis. It seeks to understand the
deeper meaning and context of a phenomenon or situation and is often used in
social sciences, psychology, and humanities. Qualitative data collection methods
allow for a more in-depth and holistic exploration of research questions and can
provide rich and nuanced insights into human behavior and experiences.

Quantitative Data Collection

Quantitative data collection is a used to gather numerical data that can be analyzed
using statistical methods. This data is typically collected through surveys,
experiments, and other structured data collection methods. Quantitative data
collection seeks to quantify and measure variables, such as behaviors, attitudes,
and opinions, in a systematic and objective way. This data is often used to test
hypotheses, identify patterns, and establish correlations between variables.
Quantitative data collection methods allow for precise measurement and
generalization of findings to a larger population. It is commonly used in fields such
as economics, psychology, and natural sciences.

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods are as follows:
Surveys
Surveys involve asking questions to a sample of individuals or organizations to
collect data. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, or online.

Interviews
Interviews involve a one-on-one conversation between the interviewer and the
respondent. Interviews can be structured or unstructured and can be conducted in
person or over the phone.

Focus Groups
Focus groups are group discussions that are moderated by a facilitator. Focus
groups are used to collect qualitative data on a specific topic.

Observation
Observation involves watching and recording the behavior of people, objects, or
events in their natural setting. Observation can be done overtly or covertly,
depending on the research question.

Experiments
Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables and observing the effect
on another variable. Experiments are commonly used in scientific research.

Case Studies
Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a single individual, organization, or
event. Case studies are used to gain detailed information about a specific
phenomenon.

Secondary Data Analysis

Secondary data analysis involves using existing data that was collected for another
purpose. Secondary data can come from various sources, such as government
agencies, academic institutions, or private companies.

Validity tells you how accurately a method measures something. If a method

measures what it claims to measure, and the results closely correspond to real-
world values, then it can be considered valid. There are four main types of validity:
Construct validity
Construct validity evaluates whether a measurement tool really represents the thing
we are interested in measuring. It’s central to establishing the overall validity of a
method.
What is a construct?
A construct refers to a concept or characteristic that can’t be directly observed, but
can be measured by observing other indicators that are associated with it.
Constructs can be characteristics of individuals, such as intelligence, obesity, job
satisfaction, or depression; they can also be broader concepts applied to
organizations or social groups, such as gender equality, corporate social
responsibility, or freedom of speech.
What is construct validity?
Construct validity is about ensuring that the method of measurement matches the
construct you want to measure. If you develop a questionnaire to diagnose
depression, you need to know: does the questionnaire really measure the construct
of depression? Or is it actually measuring the respondent’s mood, self-esteem, or
some other construct?
To achieve construct validity, you have to ensure that your indicators and
measurements are carefully developed based on relevant existing knowledge. The
questionnaire must include only relevant questions that measure known indicators
of depression.
The other types of validity described below can all be considered as forms of
evidence for construct validity.
Content validity
Content validity assesses whether a test is representative of all aspects of the
construct.
To produce valid results, the content of a test, survey or measurement method must
cover all relevant parts of the subject it aims to measure. If some aspects are
missing from the measurement (or if irrelevant aspects are included), the validity is
threatened and the research is likely suffering from omitted variable bias.
Face validity
Face validity considers how suitable the content of a test seems to be on the
surface. It’s similar to content validity, but face validity is a more informal and
subjective assessment.
Criterion validity
Criterion validity evaluates how well a test can predict a concrete outcome, or how
well the results of your test approximate the results of another test.
What is a criterion variable?
A criterion variable is an established and effective measurement that is widely
considered valid, sometimes referred to as a “gold standard” measurement.
Criterion variables can be very difficult to find.
What is criterion validity?
To evaluate criterion validity, you calculate the correlation between the results of
your measurement and the results of the criterion measurement. If there is a high
correlation, this gives a good indication that your test is measuring what it intends
to measure.
Sampling method
When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely possible to collect
data from every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample. The sample is
the group of individuals who will actually participate in the research.
To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how you
will select a sample that is representative of the group as a whole. This is called
a sampling method. There are two primary types of sampling methods that you
can use in your research:
 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make
strong statistical inferences about the whole group.
 Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.
Probability sampling methods
Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of
being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce
results that are representative of the whole population, probability sampling
techniques are the most valid choice.
There are four main types of probability sample.

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria,
and not every individual has a chance of being included.
This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk
of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can make about the population are
weaker than with probability samples, and your conclusions may be more limited.
If you use a non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as
representative of the population as possible.
Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative
research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a
broad population, but to develop an initial understanding of a small or under-
researched population.
What is a Hypothesis?
The first step in your scientific endeavor, a hypothesis, is a strong, concise
statement that forms the basis of your research. It is not the same as a thesis
statement, which is a brief summary of your research paper.
The sole purpose of a hypothesis is to predict your paper's findings, data, and
conclusion. It comes from a place of curiosity and intuition. When you write a
hypothesis, you're essentially making an educated guess based on scientific
prejudices and evidence, which is further proven or disproven through the
scientific method.

Different Types of Hypotheses‌

1. Null hypothesis
A null hypothesis proposes no relationship between two variables. Denoted by H0,
it is a negative statement like “Attending physiotherapy sessions does not affect
athletes' on-field performance.” Here, the author claims physiotherapy sessions
have no effect on on-field performances. Even if there is, it's only a coincidence.
2. Alternative hypothesis
Considered to be the opposite of a null hypothesis, an alternative hypothesis is
donated as H1 or Ha. It explicitly states that the dependent variable affects the
independent variable. A good alternative hypothesis example is “Attending
physiotherapy sessions improves athletes' on-field performance.” or “Water
evaporates at 100°C.”

The alternative hypothesis further branches into directional and non-directional.

 Directional hypothesis: A hypothesis that states the result would be either
positive or negative is called directional hypothesis. It accompanies H1 with
either the ‘<' or ‘>' sign.
  Non-directional hypothesis: A non-directional hypothesis only claims an
effect on the dependent variable. It does not clarify whether the result would
be positive or negative. The sign for a non-directional hypothesis is ‘≠.'
3. Simple hypothesis
A simple hypothesis is a statement made to reflect the relation between exactly two
variables. One independent and one dependent. Consider the example, “Smoking is
a prominent cause of lung cancer." The dependent variable, lung cancer, is
dependent on the independent variable, smoking.
4. Complex hypothesis
In contrast to a simple hypothesis, a complex hypothesis implies the relationship
between multiple independent and dependent variables. For instance, “Individuals
who eat more fruits tend to have higher immunity, lesser cholesterol, and high
metabolism.” The independent variable is eating more fruits, while the dependent
variables are higher immunity, lesser cholesterol, and high metabolism.
5. Associative and casual hypothesis
Associative and casual hypotheses don't exhibit how many variables there will be.
They define the relationship between the variables. In an associative hypothesis,
changing any one variable, dependent or independent, affects others. In a casual
hypothesis, the independent variable directly affects the dependent.
6. Empirical hypothesis
Also referred to as the working hypothesis, an empirical hypothesis claims a
theory's validation via experiments and observation. This way, the statement
appears justifiable and different from a wild guess.
Say, the hypothesis is “Women who take iron tablets face a lesser risk of anemia
than those who take vitamin B12.” This is an example of an empirical hypothesis
where the researcher the statement after assessing a group of women who take
iron tablets and charting the findings.
7. Statistical hypothesis
The point of a statistical hypothesis is to test an already existing hypothesis by
studying a population sample. Hypothesis like “44% of the Indian population
belong in the age group of 22-27.” leverage evidence to prove or disprove a
particular statement.
What is Research Ethics?
Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In
addition, it educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high
ethical standard. The following is a general summary of some ethical principles:
Honesty:
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do
not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
Objectivity:
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer
review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of
research.
Integrity:
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of
thought and action.
Carefulness:
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own
work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities.
Openness:
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property:
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use
unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit
is due. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality:
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for
publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication:
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own
career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring:
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow
them to make their own decisions.
Respect for Colleagues:
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility:
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through
research, public education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination:
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race,
ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and
integrity.
Competence:
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through
lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a
whole.
Legality:
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care:
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not
conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
Human Subjects Protection:
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and
maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.
What is an h-index?
An h-index is a rough summary measure of a researcher’s productivity and impact.
Productivity is quantified by the number of papers, and impact by the number of
citations the researchers' publications have received. It can be useful for identifying
the centrality of certain researchers as researchers with a higher h-index will, in
general, have produced more work that is considered important by their peers.
How to calculate your h-index
As Jorge E. Hirsch, the creator of the h-index describes it, the index h is “the
number of papers with citation number ≥h.” While this formula might not explain
much, it makes it clear any researcher is able to calculate their h-index. Below are
some guides that will help you find or learn how to calculate your h-index:
➡️Find your h-index on Google Scholar
➡️How to calculate your h-index using Scopus
➡️How to calculate your h-index using Web of Science
➡️The ultimate how-to-guide on the h-index (to calculate it yourself)
Using Web of Science at different stages of research
You can make the most of what WoS has to offer at nearly every stage of research
and writing.
a. Find and read articles
As a registered user, you can browse articles or follow relevant article suggestions
to find the relevant literature and stay up to date.
b. Find connections between articles
WoS indexes the cited and citing references of all its entries. In this way, it maps
linkages between the indexed research and the broader literature, allowing you to
track interconnected networks of research papers.
c. Identify impactful studies
You can identify highly cited studies (articles in top percentiles according to year
or field) that have had the greatest impact in a field or across disciplines.
d. Write review articles
Article linkages and identification of high-impact studies allow you to appraise a
massive amount of content. This stands you in good stead to write regular literature
reviews and even more rigorous, scientific reviews such as systematic
reviews and meta-analyses.
e. Find suitable target journals
You can use the Master Journal List and Manuscript Matcher to identify
the perfect journal to which to submit your manuscript. (For a free tool closer
home, view our Journal Finder.)
What is the goal of a research proposal?
In a research proposal, the goal is to present the author’s plan for the research they
intend to conduct. In some cases, part of this goal is to secure funding for said
research. In others, it’s to have the research approved by the author’s supervisor or
department so they can move forward with it. In some cases, a research proposal is
a required part of a graduate school application. In every one of these
circumstances, research proposals follow the same structure.

Research proposal structure

A research proposal follows a fairly straightforward structure. In order to achieve
the goals described in the previous section, nearly all research proposals include
the following sections:
Introduction
Your introduction achieves a few goals:
 Introduces your topic
 States your problem statement and the questions your research aims to
answer
 Provides context for your research
In a research proposal, an introduction can be a few paragraphs long. It should be
concise, but don’t feel like you need to cram all of your information into one
paragraph.
In some cases, you need to include an abstract and/or a table of contents in your
research proposal. These are included just before the introduction.
Background significance
This is where you explain why your research is necessary and how it relates to
established research in your field. Your work might complement existing research,
strengthen it, or even challenge it—no matter how your work will “play with”
other researchers’ work, you need to express it in detail in your research proposal.
This is also the section where you clearly define the existing problems your
research will address. By doing this, you’re explaining why your work is necessary
—in other words, this is where you answer the reader’s “so what?”
In your background significance section, you’ll also outline how you’ll conduct
your research. If necessary, note which related questions and issues you won’t be
covering in your research.
Literature review
In your literature review, you introduce all the sources you plan to use in your
research. This includes landmark studies and their data, books, and scholarly
articles. A literature review isn’t merely a list of sources (that’s what your
bibliography is for); a literature review delves into the collection of sources you
chose and explains how you’re using them in your research.
Research design, methods, and schedule
Following your research review, you’ll discuss your research plans. In this section,
make sure you cover these aspects:
 The type of research you will do. Are you conducting qualitative or
quantitative research? Are you collecting original data or working with data
collected by other researchers?
 Whether you’re doing experimental, correlational, or descriptive research
 The data you’re working with. For example, if you’re conducting research in
the social sciences, you’ll need to describe the population you’re studying.
You’ll also need to cover how you’ll select your subjects and how you’ll
collect data from them.
 The tools you’ll use to collect data. Will you be running experiments?
Conducting surveys? Observing phenomena? Note all data collection
methods here along with why they’re effective methods for your specific
research.
Beyond a comprehensive look at your research itself, you’ll also need to include:
 Your research timeline
  Your research budget
 Any potential obstacles you foresee and your plan for handling them
Suppositions and implications
Although you can’t know your research’s results until you’ve actually done the
work, you should be going into the project with a clear idea of how your work will
contribute to your field. This section is perhaps the most critical to your research
proposal’s argument because it expresses exactly why your research is necessary.
In this section, make sure you cover the following:
 Any ways your work can challenge existing theories and assumptions in
your field
 How your work will create the foundation for future research
 The practical value your findings will provide to practitioners, educators,
and other academics in your field
 The problems your work can potentially help to fix
 Policies that could be impacted by your findings
 How your findings can be implemented in academia or other settings and
how this will improve or otherwise transform these settings
In other words, this section isn’t about stating the specific results you expect.
Rather, it’s where you state how your findings will be valuable.
Conclusion
This is where you wrap it all up. Your conclusion section, just like your conclusion
paragraph for an essay, briefly summarizes your research proposal and reinforces
your research’s stated purpose.
Bibliography
Yes, you need to write a bibliography in addition to your literature review. Unlike
your literature review, where you explained the relevance of the sources you chose
and in some cases, challenged them, your bibliography simply lists your sources
and their authors.
The way you write a citation depends on the style guide you’re using. The three
most common style guides for academics are MLA, APA, and Chicago, and each
has its own particular rules and requirements. Keep in mind that each formatting
style has specific guidelines for citing just about any kind of source,
including photos, websites, speeches, and YouTube videos
Grant Proposal
Grant Proposal is a written document that outlines a request for funding from a
grant-making organization, such as a government agency, foundation, or private
donor. The purpose of a grant proposal is to present a compelling case for why an
individual, organization, or project deserves financial support.
Grant Proposal Outline
While the structure and specific sections of a grant proposal can vary depending on
the funder’s requirements, here is a common outline that you can use as a starting
point for developing your grant proposal:
1. Executive Summary:
 Brief overview of the project and its significance.
 Summary of the funding request and project goals.
 Key highlights and anticipated outcomes.
2. Introduction:
 Background information on the issue or problem being addressed.
 Explanation of the project’s relevance and importance.
 Clear statement of the project’s objectives.
3. Needs Assessment:
 Detailed description of the problem or need to be addressed.
 Supporting evidence and data to demonstrate the extent and impact of
the problem.
 Identification of the target population or beneficiaries.
4. Goals and Objectives:
 Broad goals that describe the desired outcomes of the project.
  Specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART)
objectives that contribute to the goals.
5. Project Methods and Approach:
 Description of the strategies, activities, and interventions to achieve
the objectives.
 Explanation of the project’s implementation plan, timeline, and key
milestones.
 Roles and responsibilities of project staff and partners.
6. Evaluation and Monitoring:
 Plan for assessing the project’s effectiveness and measuring its
impact.
 Description of the data collection methods, tools, and indicators used
for evaluation.
 Explanation of how the results will be used to improve the project.
7. Budget:
 Comprehensive breakdown of project expenses, including personnel,
supplies, equipment, and other costs.
 Clear justification for each budget item.
 Information about any matching funds or in-kind contributions, if
applicable.
8. Sustainability:
 Explanation of how the project will be sustained beyond the grant
period.
 Discussion of long-term funding strategies, partnerships, and
community involvement.
 Description of how the project will continue to address the identified
problem in the future.
9. Organizational Capacity and Expertise:
 Overview of the organization’s mission, history, and track record.
  Description of the organization’s experience and qualifications related
to the proposed project.
 Summary of key staff and their roles.
10.Conclusion:
 Recap of the project’s goals, objectives, and anticipated outcomes.
 Appreciation for the funder’s consideration.
 Contact information for further inquiries.
Grant Proposal Template
Here is a template for a grant proposal that you can use as a starting point.
Remember to customize and adapt it based on the specific requirements and
guidelines provided by the funding organization.
[Your Organization’s Letterhead or Name] [Date]
[Grant-making Organization Name]
[Address]
[City, State, ZIP]
Dear [Grant-making Organization Name],
Executive Summary:
[Introduce your organization and provide a brief overview of the project proposal.
Summarize the funding request and highlight the key points, including the problem
being addressed, objectives, and expected outcomes.]
I. Introduction:
[Acknowledge the grant-making organization and express gratitude for the
opportunity to submit a proposal. Provide background information on the issue or
problem being addressed and explain its significance. Clearly state the project
objectives.]
II. Needs Assessment:
[Present a detailed description of the problem or need being addressed. Provide
supporting evidence, data, and statistics to illustrate the extent and impact of the
problem. Identify the target population or beneficiaries.]
III. Goals and Objectives:
[State the broad goals of the project, describing the desired outcomes. Present
specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) objectives
that contribute to the goals.]
IV. Project Methods and Approach:
[Describe the strategies, activities, and interventions that will be employed to
achieve the objectives. Explain the project’s implementation plan, timeline, and
key milestones. Outline the roles and responsibilities of project staff and partners.]
V. Evaluation and Monitoring:
[Detail the plan for assessing the project’s effectiveness and measuring its impact.
Describe the data collection methods, tools, and indicators that will be used for
evaluation. Explain how the results will be used to improve the project.]
VI. Budget:
[Provide a comprehensive breakdown of project expenses, including personnel,
supplies, equipment, and other costs. Justify each budget item clearly. If
applicable, include information about any matching funds or in-kind
contributions.]
VII. Sustainability:
[Explain how the project will be sustained beyond the grant period. Discuss long-
term funding strategies, partnerships, and community involvement. Describe how
the project will continue to address the identified problem in the future.]
VIII. Organizational Capacity and Expertise:
[Provide an overview of your organization’s mission, history, and track record.
Describe your organization’s experience and qualifications related to the proposed
project. Summarize key staff and their roles.]
IX. Conclusion:
[Recap the project’s goals, objectives, and anticipated outcomes. Express
appreciation for the grant-making organization’s consideration and support.
Provide contact information for further inquiries.]
Thank you for considering our grant proposal. We believe that this project will
make a significant impact and address an important need in our community. We
look forward to the opportunity to discuss our proposal further.