Class 12 Physical Education

Unit : 1
Management
of Sporting
Events
 Functions of Sports Events Management
Sport event managers deal
with a wide range of problems
associated with planning,
organizing, staffing, directing
& controlling and executing
sporting events.
It is important to manage the
functions of sports in a proper
way.
Functions of Sports Events Management

Planning

Directing Organizing
Functions of
Sports Events

Staffing Controlling
  In sports and sports events, planning plays important role to
make the event run smoothly, effectively and remain free
from conflict.
Planning  Effective planning must clearly define aims, goals and
objectives of the event. It should also explain the procedure or
method to achieve the target in simple and easy to
understand language.

 Organizing is a next step after planning. It is a process of

execution of the plan. This includes distributing resources and
organizing personnel in order to achieve the goals established
in the planning stage.
Organising  Organizing stage determines the type of jobs and
responsibility to achieve planning objectives. Preparation of
organisation chart with various positions and reporting
should be illustrated in this stage.
  This refers to identifying key staff positions and ensuring that proper talent is
serving that specific job duty in order to achieve the aims and objectives of an
organization.
Staffing  In sports events, recruitment of staff as per organization's needs should be done.
Example, The apex post may be for Director of the event, in second line Deputy
Director and then Assistant Director of Sports event may be created.

 Directing personnel is a leadership quality and includes letting staff know

what needs to be done, by whom and also by when. It includes supervision
of personnel while simultaneously motivating them.
Directing  Without directing, planning or organizing has no meaning. It is a function
of guiding, inspiring and instructing people to accomplish organizational
goals.

 Controlling refers to all the processes that leaders create to monitor success. It
involves establishing performance standards, measuring actual performance and
comparing them for irregularities.
Controlling  To organize any sports event, instructions given to members of the organizing
committee towards achieving common goal i.e., organizing a sports event in this
case, must be carried out sincerely for an event to be successful.
 Director or Chairman

Organizing Secretary

Committees
Publicity Committee Refreshment & Entertainment
Committee
Transportation Committee
Announcement Committee
Boarding & Lodging Committee
First Aid Committee
Reception Committee Finance Committee

Decorations & Ceremony Committee Press & Media Committee

Ground & Equipment Committee Certificate Committee

The pre-tournament responsibilities/duties of the various committee officials are
performed before the commencement of the tournament or sports event. The main pre-
game responsibilities are as follows :
a) To prepare the budget of the tournament/sports event with the authority because without
sufficient budget it may be difficult to organize the tournament in a splendid and systematic
way.
b) To prepare the schedule or programme of the sports tournament i.e., the dates and venue of the
tournament.
c) To prepare sports grounds/courts/track, sports equipment which are essential for organizing a
sports tournament.
d) To form the various committees for organizing sports tournament.
e) To send the information to the various teams about dates and venues of the tournament.
f) To make necessary arrangement regarding boarding and lodging of sportspersons and officials.
g) To arrange prizes and certificates for winners.
For organising a sports tournament/event smoothly, the following responsibilities or duties during
the game or tournament are essential to be followed by the officials of the various committees:

a) To ensure proper arrangement during inauguration of sports tournament.

b) To check that the sports ground/field/court and related sports equipment are in
order.
c) To ensure that the sports events/tournament is being organized as per schedule.
d) To check the arrangement of refreshments to players and officials.
e) To make necessary announcements regarding the progress of the tournament.
f) To impart first aid to the injured athletes/sportspersons.
g) To prepare score sheet for record.
h) To maintain proper discipline
The following responsibilities are performed by the officials after the tournament :

a) To give away the prizes and certificates to the winners.

b) To provide detailed results and other necessary information to the
media.
c) To provide security refunds to the departing teams.
d) To collect all the records/files related to the sports tournament.
e) To make the payments to the officials and other concerned persons.
f) To prepare reports related to the expenditure of the tournament.
g) To present mementos of the chief guest or guest of honor, etc.
 Fixtures & Its Procedures
• In sports, an individual generally supports a
particular team or player to win the game.
Winning helps that team or player reach the next
round, and after a specified number of matches, a
player or a team wins the Championship.
• While watching a tournament, you would have
seen sometimes a player or team lose a game, and
get eliminated from the tournament.
• However, in some tournaments they remain in the
game despite losing.
• Why is this so? Basically, there are different types
of fixtures in different tournaments based on
duration, cost, manpower, level, interest etc. that
you will study here.
 Tournament is a series of games or matches played among players or teams to
determine the winner. It provides an opportunity to demonstrate skills, evaluate
one’s performance and motivate players to perform well, attract people towards
sports to make sports popular and provide healthy entertainment.
 There are various types of tournament formats based on advancement or
elimination criteria of players or teams.
 Study the three tournament formats listed below :

Tournaments

League or Round
Knock – Out Combination
Robin
Knock – Out Tournament :
 In a Knock-Out Tournament a player or team continues to play matches until it is defeated. In this type of format,
players or teams have to consistently give their best performance to avoid elimination. Such a tournament saves
cost and time and makes each match intensive because of fear of elimination. Since fixtures are drawn on the basis
of lots, there is the possibility of a match between two good teams or players even in the early stages. In this system
a good team can be eliminated even at the earliest stage due to getting defeated by chance or by accident.

League or Round Robin :

 In League or Round Robin Tournament, a player or team will play the matches that are allotted before the start of
the tournament. Fixed number of matches are given to players and teams. Players or teams will get equal chance
to play with each other. Thus, the true winner emerges from this format and ranking can be prepared for all
participating players or teams. However, this format involves more money, time and facilities as compared to the
Knock-Out Tournament and there is no provision of seeding for extraordinary teams and players.

Combination :
 They are the combination of Knock-Out and League format. Depending upon the need and importance of the
tournament, Combination Tournaments can be Knockout- League, League-Knockout, Knockout-League-
Knockout etc. These tournaments are conducted when there are :
a) A large number of participants,
b) Participants are spread in different areas,
c) Venues are in different zones/places etc.
 In this format some of the demerits of Knockout and League Tournaments can be eliminated.
Fixtures :
 In sports, the term fixtures refers to the programme listing which team (Team A) will play whom (Team B),
where (venue), and when (time).
 ‘Fixture’ is a process of arrangement of the teams in systematic order in various groups for competitive fights
for physical activity’.

Byes :
Byes means a team is not required to participate in the primary round due to allotment of draws. It should be given to any
participating team through random lottery system. In a tournament, bye is generally assigned to teams by the organizing
committee not to play a round due to one of the several reasons :
 Uneven distribution of teams in tournament (In knock out tournament, number of teams equals to power of two [e.g., 8,
16, 32, 64, ….] and in League tournament, if there is an odd number of teams.
 Separate pooling of previous winners in same group to create even competition.
 to avoid one team from playing more matches on a single day than the other, so creating disadvantage for some.

Seeding :
 It is a process in which teams will be placed in such a manner that good teams that have a ranking or previous year’s
position etc. do not meet another team at an early stage of the tournament. This procedure is generally implemented to
reduce the chance of elimination of good teams at an early stage. Procedure of allotting seeding is the same as given for
byes.
 Intramural
Tournaments
 The meaning of the word „Intramural‟ is “within
the walls”. In context of sports, it refers to a
tournament conducted within the walls of a single
institution/ school/ community.
 Intramural competitions/tournament are
conducted within players of one institution.
 The tournament may be an event/ game /more
than one games and sports conducted in one day
or more or in a month or a year, e.g., Sports Day,
Sports Festival, Athletics Meet, Swimming Meet,
Badminton Tournament conducted among
Houses, Classes, Hostels, Residents etc. of a
school/institution.
Objectives of Intramural Tournaments
To encourage mass participation in sports in an
institution.

To focus on all-round development of children.

To develop values like fair play, respect, friendship through
sports.

To provide first opportunity to compete in a controlled

environment.

To focus on fitness, wellness and health aspects of children.

To promote curricular integration through sports.

To help children to develop personality (first stage of

leadership, control of emotions, corporation etc.)
 Significance of Intramural Tournaments
Intramural Tournaments provide an opportunity to select a player or team to
Selection for Extramural participate in Extramural Tournaments. Players demonstrate skill and fitness in
events which becomes the base for selection of a player or team.
This is an opportunity where students from different Classes or Houses come together
Group Cohesion in a team, share their experiences, display cooperation and coordination and lead the
team to win the game.
As per the interest of students and need of institution, students become a helping
Professional Experience hand in conducting the tournament which gives them in professional and personal
aspects.
It helps in developing healthy and active lifestyle. Children enjoy the sports events
because it is another medium to display their desired skills. It helps them to stay fit
Health
and healthy. Intramurals help in contributing to the physical, mental, social and
spiritual well-being of children.
Joy and entertainment are the outcome of Intramural physical activities. The elements
Recreation of happiness and enjoyment are always there because activities are not so
competitive, which makes intramural events successful.
Such activities are meant for all the students of the institution not only for
Mass Participation
sportspersons or players.
 Extramural
Tournaments
 The word „Extramural‟ means “outside the
boundary or walls”. In Sports Extramural
Tournaments are the tournaments
conducted outside or beyond the walls of
the organizing unit that may be a
school/college/institution.
 Such tournaments are conducted between
two or more players/teams of different
schools/colleges/ institutions.
 For example, Zonal, Inter- District, State,
National or International Tournaments.
Objectives of Extramural Tournaments
To achieve high performance at
highest level of the tournament.
To develop the feeling of integration
with other institutions.
To provide opportunities for
choosing a career in sports.
To promote social, cultural, economic
development through sports.
 Significance of Extramural Tournaments
1) Progression in Performance
 Extramural Tournament helps to lift the level of performance through the athletes
and sportspersons gaining experience, learning to prepare tactics and strategies,
developing fitness, psychological preparation etc.
2) Psychological Factors
 Extramural events help to balance psychological factors like stress, confidence, self-
esteem, emotions, and promote qualities like leadership, team building, in students.
3) Level of Fitness
 As the level of tournament increases, gradually the level of fitness improves, that
make an individual physically as well as mentally strong to compete at higher levels.
4) Socialization
 Such tournaments held among different communities, regions, countries etc. increase
cross-cultural exchange, inter-community association etc. in which individuals get a
chance to know and understand different places, cultures, etc. which leads to closer
ties.
Community
Sports
Community sports events should be
held at residential societies,
villages, cities, schools where the
purpose is not only to demonstrate
the skills and abilities of children,
but create harmony among people
of all age groups including of senior
citizens, women and differently-
abled population.
 Sports Day
 Sports Day is one of the important programs that feature in
the annual calendar of most residentials areas, community
schools.
 It is an event not only to showcase abilities and prowess of
children and youth on the sports field but also a great
opportunity for community members to meet, greet and
interact with each other.
 It also reflects the organizational strength of the society
members and various other organizing institutions. To
celebrate Sports Day the focus should not only be
participation of talented athletes, but displaying a wide
variety of skills among its members.
 Major focus should be maximum engagement and
involvement of community members and other stakeholders.
Health Run
 Such kind of run is generally conducted for the
purpose of improving the health standards in
society and creating awareness about the
importance of physical activities for maintaining
good health or for raising charity.
 In this run, the purpose of the runners is not to
win, but to participate in the events. To get its full
impact, a large number of registrations are
required.
 There is no age bar for participants; it is not a
professional race so there is no need to run a long
distance. Such a run can be conducted by NGOs or
health departments to spread awareness about
health related issues.
 Run for Fun
 The purpose of this run is to spread the message of
staying fit and healthy among the masses. Sometimes
such races may be conducted to raise funds for a specific
purpose.
 In schools such races attract children and their parents.
These are friendly races and may be conducted for any
age group.
 However, the physical education teacher must be
careful and plan meticulously to avoid any kind of
accident or mishap. Age, mobility, types of movement
involved should be taken care of.
 Examples of such races are lemon and spoon race, sack
race, three-legged race, parent and child race, teacher
and child race, banana race, road running etc.
 Run for Specific Cause
This event is generally conducted to spread awareness about social
issues like cleanliness, promoting green environment etc. The
purpose of such events is to spread awareness among the masses for
a definite cause or to generate charity. Example, the specific cause
may be cancer, AIDS, gender inequality etc.

Run for Unity

In such a type of run the purpose is to promote the feeling of
integrity and brotherhood in community, state, nation or among
different religions. Such events help to develop bonding and a sense
of togetherness among people.

Games and Sports

Different games and sports events can be organised keeping in
mind the wholesome development of community. Indigenous game
like kho-kho, kabaddi, marbles, Gilli danda etc. may be introduced
to keep people familiar with the cultural heritage of the nation.
Class 12 Physical Education

Unit : 2
Children &
Women in
Sports
 Exercise Guidelines of WHO for different age groups

World Health Organisation (WHO) has published exercise

guidelines for different age groups, which are designed to
promote health and prevent chronic measures such as obesity,
diabetes and heart disease.
Here are the exercise guidelines for different age groups as
recommended by the WHO:
• For Children under 5 years
• Children and Adolescents age 5-17 years
• Adults 18-64 years
• Older Adult 65 years and above
Stages of Growth and Development :
1) Infants (Less than 1 year)
2) Toddlers (1-2 years of age)
3) Children (3-4 years)
4) Children and Youth (5-17 years)
5) Adults (18-64 years)
6) Older Adults (65 years and above)
 Recommendations

Infants (Less than 1 year)

• Infants should be provided enough space and open environment to promote
movement and minimize restrictive or sedentary behaviour so that they may
explore their surroundings.

• Activities like crawling and rolling should be performed on mat or sheet that is
at least 7 feet by 4 feet in size.

• During sedentary timing, the child must be engaged in reading and

storytelling for encouragement. For 0-3 months of age 14-17 hours and for 4-11
months of age baby should have 12-16 hours of good quality sleep that
includes naps.
Toddlers (1-2 years of age)
• During this period, the child should not be involved in any sedentary activity
which is more than one-hour long including being restrained in prams/strollers,
high chairs, or strapped on a caregiver’s back, or sitting for extended periods
of time.

• Once they learn to sit and stand, toddlers should be encouraged to undertake
fundamental physical activity like walking, running, jumping, catching,
throwing, leaping etc.

• In this group sedentary screen time like involvement with computer games,
watching TV or video is not recommended. Engagement in reading and
storytelling should not be for more than one hour.
• It is recommended toddlers get 11-14 hours of good quality sleep, including
naps, with regular sleep and wake-up times.
Children 3-4 years
• Children should spend at least 180 minutes in a variety of types of physical
activities at any intensity, of which at least one hour is spent in moderate to
vigorous intensity physical activity.

• This should be spread throughout the day, indoors or outside. In the 180
minutes of physical activity, we can include light activity such as standing up,
moving around, rolling and playing, as well as more energetic activities like
skipping, hopping, running and jumping.

• Sedentary time should not be more than one hour, and during this period
engagement in reading and storytelling should be encouraged. Quality sleep
between 10-13 hours is recommended which includes a nap, with regular sleep
and wake-up times.
Children and Youth 5-17 years
• These recommendations are relevant to healthy children and youth between 5 to 17 of
age irrespective of gender, race, ethnicity or socio-economic status.

• Children and youth with a specific medical condition or disability may follow these
recommendations under advice of a medical official or with the help of the school
special education teacher.

• Activities should be done in a progressive manner, for example starting the session
with simple exercises to complex, gradually increasing the frequency, duration and
intensity of the activities. There are various stages of growth in this age group,
wherein at every stage the type of activities changes.

• The chief aim of activities during this age group is to improve cardiorespiratory and
muscular fitness, bone health, cardiovascular and metabolic health biomarkers and
to reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression.
Adults 18-64 years
• These recommendations are relevant to healthy adults aged between 18 to 64
irrespective of gender, race, ethnicity or socio-economic status.

• Adults/youth with disabilities may follow these recommendations with

adjustment as per capacity or limitations. An adult having any medical
condition should follow the advice of medical official.

• Activities should be done in a progressive manner, for example, start the

session with simple exercises and move to complex, gradually increasing
frequency, duration and intensity of the activities.
Older Adults 65 Years and Above

• These recommendations are relevant to healthy older adults aged above 65 years,
irrespective of gender, race, ethnicity or socio-economic status. These
recommendations are also relevant for individuals suffering from chronic NCD
conditions.

• Adults, youth with disabilities may follow these recommendations with adjustment as
per capacity or limitations. Individuals with specific health conditions, such as
cardiovascular disease and diabetes, may need to take extra precautions and seek
medical advice before trying to achieve the recommended levels of physical activity
for older adults.

• Activities should be done in progressive manner, for example, starting the session with
simple exercises and moving to complex, gradually increasing frequency, duration
and intensity of the activities as per their ability and as conditions allow.
Common Postural Deformities and their Corrective Measures

There are a number of

Knock
postural deformities, some Knees

of which are given below Flat Foot Kyphosis

along with corrective

measures. Corrective Round
Postural
Deformities

exercises should be done

Lordosis
Shoulder

under advice and

supervision of a physician Scoliosis Bow Legs

or a physiotherapist.
 Common Postural Deformities
Various types of Postural deformities are discussed
below :
1) Knock Knee.
2) Bow legs.
3) Flat Foot.
4) Round Shoulders.
5) Spinal Curvature.
1) Knock – Knees :
➢ Knock-knees is one of the major postural deformities. In this deformity,
both the knees-knock or touch each other while in normal standing position.
➢ The gap between the ankles goes on increasing. He cannot walk or run in a
proper manner.
Causes of Knock – Knees :
➢ Generally, the lack of balanced diet, especially vitamin D, calcium and
phosphorus is the main cause of knock-knees. It may also be caused due to
rickets.
➢ Chronic illness, obesity, flatfoot and carrying heavy weight in early age may
be other possible causes of knock-knees.
Precautions :
➢ Balanced diet should be taken.
➢ Babies should not be forced or encouraged to walk at an early age.
Remedies :
➢ To rectify or treat this deformity, the following points should be taken :
1) Horse-riding is the best exercise for remedying this deformity.
2) Perform Padmasana and Gomukhasana regularly for some time every
day.
3) Cod liver oil may be beneficial in reducing this deformity up to some
extent.
2) Bow Legs :
➢ Bow legs is also a postural deformity. It is opposite to knock- knees
position. If there is a wide gap between the knees when standing
with feet together, the individual has bow legs or genu varum. In
this deformity, knees are wide apart.
Causes of Bow Legs :
➢ The main cause of bow legs is the deficiency of calcium and
phosphorus in bones. Long bones of legs become soft, hence they are
bent outward.
Precautions :
➢ Don't let the children be overweight.
➢ Don't force or encourage babies to walk at an early age.
➢ Balanced diet should be given to children. There should not be any
deficiency of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D in the diet.
Remedies :
➢ The following measures should be taken for the remedy of bow
legs :
1) Vitamin D should be taken in required amount.
2) Balanced diet should be taken.
3) Bow legs can be corrected by walking on the inner edge of the
feet.
3) Flat - Foot :
➢ Our feet act as the base of support for the body while standing, walking, running and
jumping.
➢ Flatfoot is commonly found among newborn babies but it becomes a postural deformity if it
still persists during later childhood.
➢ The children with flatfoot deformity cannot become efficient sportspersons.
Causes of Flat Foot :
➢ The main cause of flatfoot is weak muscles. Weak muscles of the foot cannot bear the body
weight. Hence, the feet become flat or without arches.
➢ Along with this, rapid increase in body weight, improper shoes, and carrying
heavy weight for a longer period are also the causes of flatfoot.
Precautions :
➢ The shoes should be of proper shape and size.
➢ Don’t walk barefoot for a long duration.
➢ Obesity should be avoided.
Remedies :
➢ The following exercises should be done to rectify or treat flatfoot deformity.
1) Walking on heels.
2) Walking on inner and outer side of feet.
3) Walking on toes.
4) Round Shoulders :
➢ In this postural deformity, the shoulders become round
and sometimes they seem to be bent forward.
Causes of Round Shoulders :
➢ Round shoulders may be due to heredity.
Precautions :
➢ Don't sit, walk or stand in bent position.
➢ Avoid tight – fitting clothes.
➢ Avoid sitting on uncomfortable furniture.
Remedies :
➢ The following exercises should be done for the remedy of round shoulders
deformity :
1) Keep your tips of fingers on your shoulders and rotate your elbows in
clockwise and anticlockwise direction.
2) Hold the horizontal bar for some time.
3) Perform Chakrasana and Dhanurasana regularly.
5) Lordosis :
➢ Lordosis is the inward curvature of spine. In fact, it is an increased
forward curve in the lumber region. It creates problem in standing
and walking.
Causes of Lordosis :
➢ Generally, imbalanced diet, improper environment, improper
development of muscles, obesity and diseases affecting vertebrae
and spinal muscles are the causes of lordosis.
Precautions :
➢ Balanced diet should be taken.
➢ Obesity should be kept away specially in early age.
Remedies :
➢ For the remedy of lordosis, the following exercises should be
performed.
1) While maintaining a standing position, bend forward from hip
level. Repeat this exercise 10 times.
2) Lie down on your back and raise your head and legs
simultaneously for 10 times.
3) Perform sit-ups regularly.
4) Halasana should be performed regularly.
6) Kyphosis :
➢ Kyphosis implies an increase or exaggeration of a backward or posterior
curve or a decrease or reversal of a forward curve. It is also called round
upper back. Depression of Chest is common in Kyphosis.
Causes of Kyphosis :
➢ Kyphosis is caused by malnutrition, illness, crowded areas, unavailability
of pure air, insufficient exercise, rickets, carrying heavy loads on
shoulders, unsuitable furniture, weak muscles, shyness among girls, habit
of doing work by leaning forward, etc.
Precautions :
➢ If specific precautions are not followed, it may result in Kyphosis. From the
very beginning, they should teach appropriate posture of sitting, standing
and walking to children so that their posture may remain balanced.
Remedies :
1) Sit in a chair such that your hips should touch the back of the chair. Your
shoulders may remain stretched backward. Remain in this position for
some time.
2) Always keep a pillow under your back while sleeping.
3) Bend your head backward in standing position.
4) Perform Dhanurasana, the yogic asana regularly.
7) Scoliosis :
➢ Postural adaptation of the spine in lateral direction is called scoliosis.
➢ In fact, these are sideways curves and may be called scoliotic curves. Scoliosis curves
may be found in ‘S’ Shapes.
Causes of Scoliosis :
➢ Scoliosis may be due to many reasons but the main reasons are diseases in the joints of
bones, under-developed legs, infantile paralysis, rickets, carrying heavy loads on one
shoulder, unhealthy conditions, such as inadequate lighting arrangement,
uncomfortable desks, partial deafness and wrong standing posture.
Precautions :
➢ Balanced diet should be taken.
➢ Studying should be avoided in sideways bending position.
Remedies :
➢ Scoliosis can be remedied by doing the following exercises.
1) Bending exercise should be done on the opposite side
of the 'C’ shaped curve.
2) Hold the horizontal bar with hands and let your
body hang for some time.
3) Swim by using breastroke technique.
 CORRECTIVE MEASURES FOR POSTURAL DEFORMITIES
Corrective Measures for Knock – Knees
➢ Horse-riding is one of the best exercises for correction of knock-knees.
➢ Keep a pillow between the knees and stand straight
for some time. Both the feet should touch each other.
➢ Perform padmasana and gomukhasana regularly.

Corrective Measures for Bow - Legs

➢ Stand erect with feet joined together. Wrap a soft piece of cloth on both legs at knee level.
Tighten it with the help of a partner. Try to squat as far as possible. Hold that position of squat
for some time. Come to the original position and repeat the exercise 4 to 6 times.
➢ Walk for some distance on the inner edge of the feet.
➢ Walk by bending the toes inward.
➢ Perform ardhmatseyendrasana, garudasana
and ardha chakrasana.
Corrective Measures for Flat – Foot
The deformity of flatfoot can be corrected with the help of the following exercises.
➢ Jumping on toes for some time.
➢ Rope skipping.
➢ Stand up and down on the heels.
➢ Walk on the toes.
➢ Sit down properly

Corrective Measures for Round Shoulders

Round shoulders is a common postural deformity. It can be corrected with the help of the following
exercises.
➢ Keep your tips of fingers on your shoulders and rotate your
elbows in clockwise and anticlockwise directions for some time.
➢ Hold the horizontal bar regularly for some time.
➢ Perform chakrasana and dhanurasana for some time.
Corrective Measures for Lordosis :
1. At least ten times, touch your toes.
2. Conduct sit-ups regularly.
3. Stand straight and place your hands on your feet.
4. Regularly practise Hal asana, Paschimottanasana, and Viparita Karani asana.

Corrective Measures for Kyphosis :

1. Improve your habit and be alert while you sit, stand or walk
2. Interlock your finger behind back and pull your shoulders upward and backward
3. Rotate your shoulders in backward directions only.
4. One must do regular physical activities so that learning forward habit would disappear and
special exercises for abdomen and shoulder stretching need to be done.
5. Exercises recommend for Kyphosis:
Corrective Measures for Scoliosis :
Scoliosis exercises are designed to
correct the rotatory curvature of the
spine.

➢ Hang on the Horizontal bar from both hands for a few minutes.
➢ Trying swimming by using the breastroke technique.
➢ Do TrikonAsana and Ardh Chakra Asana in the other directions.
➢ Perform bending excercises.
 Sports Participation of Women in India
The participation of women in sports in India is very small. Gender inequality is
strongly evident in every field of life including sports. The problem is more
socio-psychological than anything else. The Government of India instituted the
National Sports Festival for Women with the objective to promote women’s sports. However, this
programme could not bring any noticeable improvement in women’s participation in sports.

Surveys have shown that women don’t participate in sports due to :

1) Time Constraints : Women find less time for sports due to their domestic duties.
2) Social Constraints : The attitude of society towards participation of women in sports is negative.
3) Lack of Sports Infrastructure : Specialized coaching centers, training programmes, equipment that
are suitable for women athletes are not present adequately.
4) Absence of Skill : There are very few female coaches available to develop the skills of
women. Sociological constraints limit the success of male coaches with female athletes.
5) Concerns for Personal Safety : Women are more afraid to venture in a ‘male’
field (perceived) as they are concerned more about safety from harassment or exploitation.
Some other reasons for less participation of women
in sports :
Lack of Self Confidence

Lack of Female Sportsperson as Role Models

Lack of Fitness and Wellness Movements

Lack of awareness among women

Less number of women coaches

Lack of personal safety
Lack of proper access to facilities

Male dominated culture of sports

 Women Participation in Sports – Physical, Psychological and Social Benefits

I. Physical Benefits
1) Lifestyle Diseases
➢ Sports participation helps women to stay active which, in turn, reduces chances of lifestyle diseases
such as Diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity etc. and enables them to live a healthy life.
2) Bone Density
➢ There is a higher chance of osteoporosis in female than males. Sports help them to increase their
bone density and have stronger bones.
3) Toned Muscles
➢ Regular exercise and participation in sports increases the muscle tone of women which helps them
to stay strong.
4) Cardiovascular System
➢ Regular exercise helps increase the number of capillaries, helping them in the intake of oxygen.
This enables women to participate in sports for a longer period without getting fatigued.
5) Obesity
➢ Obesity is one lifestyle disease which is found in every part of the world. Most of the India’s
population is also suffering from this disease. Women has more chances of being obese than men,
regular participation in sports helps them to stay in shape and stay fit.
II. Psychological Benefits
1) Stress Management
➢ Any physical activity releases lot of hormones in our body which helps us to stay happy and reduces stress
levels. Sportspersons, men and women, who participate in sports can manage their stress better than those
who don’t participate in the sports.
2) Control Emotions
➢ Women, like their male counterparts, who participate in sports are well equipped to manage their
emotions as they face difficult situations in the game which take a toll on them, and regular participation
makes them emotionally stronger.
3) Confidence
➢ Every small win increases the confidence of the winner. Thus, when a woman participates in sports and
wins, it gives not just her, but other women sportspersons a sense of achievement and really boosts their
confidence. This renewed confidence in themselves they bring to all areas of their life.
4) Self – esteem
➢ Sports helps women to realize their self-worth and when they achieve or even participate in sports, they
get a boost in their self-image and that helps them to realize their own worth, which is very important for
an individual.
5) Leadership
➢ One of the best quality about sports is that it inculcates or bring out the leadership skills or qualities of an
individual. Those women, or men, who participate in sports better are able to lead people even outside the
sports as well.
III. Social Benefits
1) Coordination
➢ Sport helps in increasing and improving the coordination between team players and
women who participate in sports learn the skill of working in coordination with others.
2) Communication
➢ Communication is an integral part of sports as players must communicate with each
other while playing. It helps women participants to be more vocal and expressive.
3) Inter-relationships
➢ A sport is not played in isolation, it’s a team effort, whether it is inside the team or as
supporting staff, the player must maintain her relationship with everyone in the team.
Women participants learn to maintain their relationships and respect each other
whether it is on the field or off the field.
4) Cooperation
➢ Women learn to cooperate with each other when they are playing on the field. This
becomes a part of their life also as they learn to work and cooperate with others in
total harmony and peace.
 Special Consideration
(Menarche and Menstrual Dysfunction)
Special care should be taken by sportswomen because of
the problems associated with their physiology. Problems
faced by women during their life are :
A. Menarche
✓ Menarche is the first period or first menstrual bleeding that a young girl has. Menarche usually occurs
approximately at the age of 12; however, it can happen as early as during 8 or 9 years of age or as late as
during 16 years of age.

B. Menstrual dysfunction
✓ Menstrual dysfunction is a disorder or irregularity in women's menstrual cycle. In other words, it can be
defined as an 'abnormal bleeding' during the menstrual cycle.
✓ Normal menstrual cycle varies from 21 to 35 days. Its flow lasts approximately two to seven days. Menstrual
irregularities seem to be higher in women athletes in comparison to non-athletic women.
 Female Athlete Triad (Osteoporosis,
Amenorrhoea and Eating Disorders)
Female athlete triad is a syndrome in which osteoporosis,
Amenorrhoea and eating disorders are included. It is simply
known as ‘Triad’.
Symptoms of Triad
The symptoms of triad may include fatigue, frequent injuries, loss of
endurance and power, irritability, increased healing time for injuries,
enhanced chances of fracture, cessation of menstruation, low self-esteem,
etc.

Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis refers to decreased bone mineral density. It is a
skeletal disorder. A reduction in bone mass may cause fracture.
There are various factors which usually lead to osteoporosis
among women athletes :
1) Insufficient Calcium in the Diet :
➢ The main cause of osteoporosis is the insufficient intake of calcium in the diet.
➢ In fact, 100 mg calcium should be included in daily diet by a woman athlete.
➢ In addition to calcium, vitamin D should also be included because it is
essential for absorbing calcium in our body.
2) Amenorrhoea :
➢ Women suffering from menstrual dysfunction or amenorrhoea for more
than six months are likely to face osteoporosis because the secretion of
the hormone called 'oestrogen' is decreased in this condition.
➢ This hormone is necessary for the absorption of calcium in our body.
➢ If calcium is not absorbed in our body, there will be less amount of
calcium in our body which may lead to osteoporosis.
3) Eating Disorders :
➢ Eating disorders like anorexia and bulimia may also cause osteoporosis because the calcium
intake may be less or insufficient.
 Amenorrhoea
➢ Amenorrhoea is a menstrual disorder or illness in women where girls of 18 years and
above either never began menstruating or there is an absence of menstruation for three
months or more than that in women with a history of normal menstrual cycle.
➢ Amenorrhoea can also be defined as the cessation of woman's menstrual cycle for more
than three months or more.

Types of Amenorrhoea

Primary Amenorrhoea : Secondary Amenorrhoea : A

woman who has her natural
Primary amenorrhoea is
menstrual cycle at specific time
characterized by delayed and then stops menstruating for
menarche which is the onset three months or more is said to
of first period during puberty. have secondary amenorrhoea.
There are various factors which may inspire or
enhance the chances of Amenorrhoea :
Hormonal Changes
This hormone actually plays a vital role in stimulating estrogens release from
ovaries. If it does not release estrogen, the menstrual cycle gets disrupted or
stops in women causing Amenorrhoea.

Intensive Exercise
The Intensive exercises may lead to primary Amenorrhoea
and secondary Amenorrhoea

Intake of Less Calories

If a woman athlete takes less number of calories in comparison
to her requirement, she may suffer from Amenorrhoea.
 Eating Disorders
➢ Most of the girls with female athlete triad try to lose their body weight as a
way to improve their performance in the field of games and sports. In order to
lose weight, they may practice unhealthy weight-control methods, including
restricted food intake, self-induced vomiting, consumption of appetite
suppressants and diet pills and use of laxatives fatal. There are following types
of eating disorders :
1) Anonexia Nervosa : In this eating disorder, the female athletes think only
about food, dieting and body weight all the time. They have distorted body
structure. Other individuals usually feel them that they are becoming thin but
they do not believe this. In front of the mirror they see themselves as obese.
2) Bulimia Nervosa : It is also an eating disorder in which a female athlete eats
excessive amount of food and then vomits it in order not to gain weight. In
this disorder, an individual binges on food and feels a loss of control. Then, to
prevent weight gain, tries to vomit the food.
Class 12 Physical Education

Unit : 3
YOGA as Preventive
Measures for Lifestyle
Disease
 The term “yoga” comes from a Sanskrit word “Yuj”
YOGA meaning “union”. Yoga combines physical exercises,
mental meditation and breathing techniques to
strengthen the muscles and relieve stress.

Asanas as preventive measures

 According to Patanjali, asana means, "sthiram sukham
aasanam" i.e., "that position which is comfortable and
steady".
 In Brahamanopanishad, "To sit in a comfortable
position or posture for everlasting period is called
asana".
Asana is a means through which physical and mental
development is achieved, prevention of diseases and delay in
aging are the effect that are achieved through yoga exercises.
 Benefits of Asanas for Prevention of Diseases :
Bones and Joints Become Strong.

Muscles of the body Become Stronger and the efficiency of muscles also increases.

Blood Circulation is improved and blood pressure normalizes and stabilizes.

The size of the lungs and chest also so that the respiratory organ become
efficient.

Efficiency of the digestive system increases that means its absorption of food
become more efficient.

Nervous system strengthening and increase in neuromuscular coordination also

It also increase the efficiency of excretory system.

It will also increase the immune system of the body which is helpful in
preventing various diseases.
OBESITY  "Obesity is that
condition of the
body in which the
amount of fat
increases to extreme
level.
 BMI is helpful for
calculating the
Obesity Level.
 If you want to know your body mass index, then
Body Mass divide your body weight in kg by your height in
Index (BMI) meter square viz.
𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐢𝐧 𝐤𝐠 𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐢𝐧 𝐤𝐠
Body Mass Index = 𝟐 =
(𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎) 𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 × 𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭

The WHO Criteria for Overweight and Obesity by BMI :

Category BMI Category BMI
Underweight < 18.5 Obesity Class I 30-34.9
Normal weight 18.5-24.9 Obesity Class II 35-39.9
Overweight 25-29.9 Obesity Class III > 40

With the help of the above table, an individual may know

which category of weight he belongs to Obesity. Obesity can be
prevented as well as cured if the following asanas are
performed regularly.
 Tadasana : Tadasana is usually the starting position for all the standing
poses. But it‟s useful to practice Tadasana as a pose in itself..
Benefits :
 Reduce obesity
 Cure constipation
 Improves body
Contraindications :
 If you have low blood pressure and
headache you should not do this asana.
Katichakrasana : The Sanskrit word „Kati‟ means waist and „Chakra‟
means wheel. Hence, we call it in English Waist Rotating Pose. However, most
people call it a Standing Spinal Twist. It is dynamic yoga posture that involves
the movement of the waist. So, I prefer to call it a Waist Rotating Pose.
Benefits :
 Improves Flexibility of Spine & Waist
 Reduces stress
Contraindications :
 People having health conditions like
spinal issues and hernias should avoid this practice.
 Pregnant ladies should not perform this yoga pose.
 Pavanmuktasana : Known as Wind Relieving Pose in English is a reclined
posture. The Sanskrit name Pavanmuktasan is made up of three Sanskrit words
Pavan + Mukta+ Asana where Pavan means wind, Mukta means to release and
Asana means posture.
Benefits :
 Reduce the tension in lower back
 Reduce the fat of thighs and buttock and abdominal
Contraindications :
If you are suffering from heart problems, slipped disc and hernia you should
avoid this asana.

Matsyasana : Matsyasana or Fish Pose is a reclining back-

bending asana in hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise.
Benefits :
 Relief from asthma
 Cure defect of eyes
 Helps in releasing the tension in the neck and shoulder.
Contraindications :
The individuals who have neck injury or lower back
problems Should not perform this asana.
Halasana : Halasana is a classic yoga pose — or asana in Sanskrit —
that‟s included in many types of yoga practices. It involves lying on
your back and placing your feet on the floor behind your head.
Benefits :
 It is good for dyspepsia
 It increases blood circulation
 It can help in calming the brain
Contraindications :
 Anyone with high blood pressure, slipped disc, sciatica, back pain,
shoulder or any neck issues should avoid the asana. Women who
are menstruating should also avoid practicing.

Paschimottanasana : Seated Forward Bend, or Intense Dorsal

Stretch is an asana in hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise.
Benefits :
 Reduce the obesity
 Treating abdominal diseases
 Give relief in asthma.
Contraindications :
 Avoid doing this asana if you suffer from any respiratory diseases.
Ardha matseyendratasana : Meaning of Ardha matseyendratasana
as below. Ardha = Half Matsya = Fish Indra = King Asana = Posture.
Benefits :
 Increase flexibility in spine
 Help in increasing supply in lungs
 Cure back pains.
Contraindications :
Women, who are two or three months pregnant should avoid this asana.

Dhanurasana : Dhanurasana is derived from the Sanskrit word 'Dhanush,'

which means bow, whereas Asana means pose or posture. Owing to the
bow-shaped posture of the body while performing it, it is referred to as the
bow pose.
Benefits :
 Stretches the abdominal muscles and improves the digestion process
 Improves the strength in your ankles, thighs, chest, neck and shoulders
 Helps tone your abdominal region
Contraindications :
 Dhanurasna should not be performed by people suffering from high
blood pressure, hernia, colitis, peptic ulcer or heart ailment. It should
also be avoided if pregnant.
Ushtrasana : Ushtrasana is a deep backward bend from a kneeling position; the
completed pose has the hands on the heels. The backs of the feet may be flat on
the floor, or the toes may be tucked under for a slightly less strong backbend.
Benefits :
 Improves posture by correcting drooping shoulders and rounded back.
 Improves breathing by opening up the chest; hence, good for asthmatics.
 Reduces fat on abdomen, thighs and arms.
Contraindications :
 Hernia, or recent abdominal surgery. Recent or chronic knee, shoulder, neck or
back injury or inflammation.

Surya Bhedan : The Surya Bhedan is a breathing technique from Pranayama,

which is one of the eight Mahakumbhakas. Where Surya means the sun
or Pingala . and the meaning of the word “Bhedana” is piercing or enter or
breaking through something.
Benefits :
 This type of yogic breathing influences brains activity in different ways.
 Surya Bhedana Pranayama activates the body and bodily functions.
 The digestive fire is increased by this pranayama
Contraindications :
 Avoid if you have any heart disease. & High Blood Pressure.
  “Diabetes is the condition
DIABETES that impairs the body‟s
ability to process blood
glucose, otherwise known
as blood sugar.”
 A small device called a
glucose meter or
glucometer measures how
much sugar is in the
blood sample.
Katichakrasana
Kat : Known as Wind
: TheRelieving
Sanskrit Pose
wordin
„Kati‟ means
English is a waist andposture.
reclined „Chakra‟ means
The wheel.
Sanskrit
Hence, we call it in English
name Pawanmuktasan Waist up
is made Rotating Pose.
of three However,
Sanskrit wordsmost people
Pawan call it aAsana
+ Mukta+
Standing
where PawanSpinalmeans
Twist.wind,
It is dynamic yoga posture
Mukta means thatand
to release involves
Asanathe movement
means posture. of the
waist. So,: I prefer to call it a Waist Rotating Pose.
Benefits
Benefits
 Reduce : the tension in lower back
 Improves
 Reduce the Flexibility of Spine
fat of thighs and&buttock
Waist and abdominal
Reduces stress :
Contraindications

Contraindications
If you are suffering: from heart problems, slipped disc and hernia you should
People
avoid
 having health conditions like spinal issues and hernias should avoid this
this asana.
practice.
 Pregnant ladies should not perform this yoga pose.

Pawanmuktasana : Known as Wind Relieving Pose in English is a reclined

posture. The Sanskrit name Pawanmuktasan is made up of three Sanskrit words
Pawan + Mukta+ Asana where Pawan means wind, Mukta means to release and
Asana means posture.
Benefits :
 Reduce the tension in lower back
 Reduce the fat of thighs and buttock and abdominal
Contraindications :
If you are suffering from heart problems, slipped disc and hernia you should
avoid this asana.
 Bhujangasana : Bhujangasana or Cobra pose is a reclining back-bending asana in
hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise. It is commonly performed in a cycle of
asana in Surya Namaskar.
Benefits :
 Provide strength and agility
 Cure the diseases of liver
 Give strength to the hand muscle.
Contraindications :
Pregnant women and an individual who suffer from hernia, back injuries should
not perform this asana.

Shalabhasana : Shalabhasana also called locust pose, is derived from the

Sanskrit word Shalabha meaning grasshopper, and asana meaning posture.
Benefits :
 Strengthens lower back
 Improves shoulder and neck strength
 Enhances spine flexibility
Contraindications :
 Pregnant women should avoid this asana.
 Avoid if you have any back injury or discomfort..
 Dhanurasana : Dhanurasana is derived from the Sanskrit word 'Dhanush,' which
means bow, whereas Asana means pose or posture. Owing to the bow-shaped
posture of the body while performing it, it is referred to as the bow pose.
Benefits :
 Stretches the abdominal muscles and improves the digestion process
 Improves the strength in your ankles, thighs, chest, neck and shoulders
 Helps tone your abdominal region
Contraindications :
 Dhanurasna should not be performed by people suffering from high blood
pressure, hernia, colitis, peptic ulcer or heart ailment. It should also be avoided if
pregnant.

Supta Vajrasana : The word Supta Vajrasana comes from the Sanskrit
language where „Supta‟ means relined or sleeping, „Vajra‟ means thunderbolt,
and „Asana‟ means pose. It is known as Reclined Thunderbolt Pose in English.
Benefits :
 It stretches the lower spine that tones the spinal nerves and muscles in the
region.
 This improves the flexibility of the upper legs.
Contraindication :
 This asana should not be practiced by anyone who is suffering from high
blood pressure or vertigo.
 Pregnant or menstruating women should avoid this asana.
 Ardha matsyendrasana : Meaning of Ardha matsyendrasana
as below. Ardha = Half Matsya = Fish Indra = King Asana = Posture.
Benefits :
 Increase flexibility in spine
 Help in increasing supply in lungs
 Cure back pains.
Contraindications :
Women, who are two or three months pregnant should avoid this
asana.

Paschimottanasana : Seated Forward Bend, or Intense Dorsal Stretch

is an asana in hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise.
Benefits :
 Reduce the obesity
 Treating abdominal diseases
 Give relief in asthma.
Contraindications :
 Avoid doing this asana if you suffer from any respiratory diseases.
 Mandukasana : Mandukasana can be split into two words, i.e., “manduk”
and “asana”. In Sanskrit, these words mean “frog” and “pose” respectively.
This yoga pose is aptly named frog pose as your body resembles a frog when
you practise it.
Benefits :
 Mandukasana helps relieve stomach issues including constipation
 It also helps improve your body‟s digestive functions.
 Mandukasana is a great exercise if you are seeking to lose weight.
Contraindication :
 Recent or chronic injury to the knees, hips, or legs

Gomukhasana : Gomukhasana or Cow face Pose is a seated

asana in hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise, sometimes used
for meditation.
Benefits :
 It makes the leg muscles strong and elastic
 It helps in staying fit and strong.
Contraindications :
Avoid this asana in case of any knee injury or hip injury.
 Yog Mudra : Yoga Mudras are specific hand gestures created to facilitate the flow of
energy, Prana, in the body, and mind for optimal health. 'Mudra' is a Sanskrit word that
literally means 'hand gesture'. Many Hindu and Buddhist rituals and various dance
forms use mudras to convey deeper meaning.
Benefits:
• Mudras help to link the brain to the body, soothe pain, stimulate endorphins, change
the mood and increase our vitality. Mudras have been an integral part of many
Hindu and Buddhist rituals. They are used extensively in Yoga, meditation and
dance.
Contraindication:
• Avoid this Asana with high blood pressure or dizziness.

Ushtrasana : Ushtrasana is a deep backward bend from a kneeling position; the

completed pose has the hands on the heels. The backs of the feet may be flat on
the floor, or the toes may be tucked under for a slightly less strong backbend.
Benefits :
 Improves posture by correcting drooping shoulders and rounded back.
 Improves breathing by opening up the chest; hence, good for asthmatics.
 Reduces fat on abdomen, thighs and arms.
Contraindications :
 Hernia, or recent abdominal surgery. Recent or chronic knee, shoulder, neck or
back injury or inflammation.
Kapalabhati : Kapalabhati Pranayama is a breathing
practice in yoga. It gets its name from the Sanskrit
words, Kapal, meaning skull, and bhati meaning “to
shine”.
Benefits :
 It improves blood circulation and digestion.
 Increases your metabolic rate rapidly.
 Helps people with diabetes
Contraindications :
 If you are a heart patient, then go slow while exhaling.
 The kriya must not be performed immediately after a meal.
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  Asthma is the disease of liver
ASTHMA lungs in which airway become
blocked causing difficulty in
breathing. Airways also swell
up and produce extra mucus.
It usually triggered the
coughing sneezing or shortness
of breath.
 Nebulizers are machines that
turn liquid medications into
a fine mist, allowing for easy
absorption into the lungs.
 Tadasana : Tadasana is usually the starting position for all the standing
poses. But it‟s useful to practice Tadasana as a pose in itself..
Benefits :
 Reduce obesity
 Cure constipation
 Improves body
Contraindications :
If you have low blood pressure and headache you should not do this
asana.

Urdhwahastottansana : Urdhwa means upward, hasta is hands, uttana is

stretching and asana is posture.
Benefits :
 This asana stretches both sides of the body, so it massages, loosens and
exercises the sides of the ribcage and the waist
 Opens up the chest
 Improves blood circulation around the thoracic area and the heart
Contraindications :
 Usually everyone can do this asana except those who have vertigo
Uttana Mandukasana : Uttana mandukasana is also known as the
stretched-up frog posture. The name has roots in the Sanskrit
language, “Uttana” meaning upright, “Manduka” meaning frog and
“Asana” meaning pose or posture. In English, the name translates to
an upright frog pose.
Benefits :
 The pose also stretches the diaphragm effectively and also the
chest region. This facilitates easy breathing. As a consequence it
relieves respiratory congestion and diseases.
 It also helps in efficient functioning of lungs.
Contraindication :
 Females who are pregnant or menstruating
should avoid doing this asana.
 Bhujangasana : Bhujangasana or Cobra pose is a reclining back-bending asana in
hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise. It is commonly performed in a cycle of
asana in Surya Namaskar.
Benefits :
 Provide strength and agility
 Cure the diseases of liver
 Give strength to the hand muscle.
Contraindications :
Pregnant women and an individual who suffer from hernia, back injuries should
not perform this asana.

Dhanurasana : Dhanurasana is derived from the Sanskrit word 'Dhanush,'

which means bow, whereas Asana means pose or posture. Owing to the
bow-shaped posture of the body while performing it, it is referred to as the
bow pose.
Benefits :
 Stretches the abdominal muscles and improves the digestion process
 Improves the strength in your ankles, thighs, chest, neck and shoulders
 Helps tone your abdominal region
Contraindications :
 Dhanurasna should not be performed by people suffering from high
blood pressure, hernia, colitis, peptic ulcer or heart ailment. It should
also be avoided if pregnant.
Ushtrasana : Ushtrasana is a deep backward bend from a kneeling position; the
completed pose has the hands on the heels. The backs of the feet may be flat on
the floor, or the toes may be tucked under for a slightly less strong backbend.
Benefits :
 Improves posture by correcting drooping shoulders and rounded back.
 Improves breathing by opening up the chest; hence, good for asthmatics.
 Reduces fat on abdomen, thighs and arms.
Contraindications :
 Hernia, or recent abdominal surgery. Recent or chronic knee, shoulder, neck or
back injury or inflammation.

Vakrasana : Vakrasana comes from a combination of two words, Vakra which

means twisted and asana which means yoga posture. Earlier, Vakrasana was a
simplified form of Ardhamatsyendrasana. Vakrasana is among flexible yoga twist
poses where twisting is observed in the spinal region and one may also call it a
twisted pose or seated twist yoga pose.
Benefits :
 The twist in vakrasana may activate the spinal nerves. It might also help
enhance the spinal column's flexibility.
 This in turn may improve blood circulation in the spine.
Contraindication :
 Serious spinal column complaints should avoid this asana. Avoid if having recent
abdominal surgery, hernia or prolapse. Pregnancy or menstruation.
 Kapalabhati : Kapalabhati Pranayama is a breathing practice in
yoga. It gets its name from the Sanskrit words, Kapal, meaning skull,
and bhati meaning “to shine”.
Benefits :
 It improves blood circulation and digestion.
 Increases your metabolic rate rapidly.
 Helps people with diabities
Contraindictions :
 If you are a heart patient, then go slow while exhaling.
 The kriya must not be performed immediately after a meal.

Gomukhasana : Gomukhasana or Cow face Pose is a seated

asana in hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise, sometimes used
for meditation.
Benefits :
 It makes the leg muscles strong and elastic
 It helps in staying fit and strong.
Contraindications :
Avoid this asana in case of any knee injury or hip injury.
Matsyasana : Matsyasana or Fish Pose is a reclining back-
bending asana in hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise.
Benefits :
 Relief from asthma
 Cure defect of eyes
 Helps in releasing the tension in the neck and shoulder.
Contraindications :
The individuals who have neck injury or lower back
problems Should not perform this asana.

Anulom Vilom : Anulom Vilom is a specific type of pranayama, or controlled

breathing, in yoga. It involves holding one nostril closed while inhaling, then
holding the other nostril closed while exhaling. The process is then reversed and
repeated.
Benefits :
 Improved patience, focus, and control.
 Relief from stress and anxiety.
 Improvements to brain, respiratory, and cardiovascular health.
Contraindication:
 It should not be practiced by those students who are under medication for
blood pressure and acute asthma.
 Beginners should practice with breaks and avoid holding their breath.
Hypertension
 A condition in which the
force of the blood
against the artery walls
is too high.
 Usually, hypertension
is defined as blood
pressure above 140/90
and is considered
severe if the pressure is
above 180/120.
 Tadasana : Tadasana is usually the starting position for all the standing
poses. But it‟s useful to practice Tadasana as a pose in itself..
Benefits :
 Reduce obesity
 Cure constipation
 Improves body
Contraindications :
If you have low blood pressure and headache you should not do this
asana.
Katichakrasana : The Sanskrit word „Kati‟ means waist and „Chakra‟ means wheel.
Hence, we call it in English Waist Rotating Pose. However, most people call it a
Standing Spinal Twist. It is dynamic yoga posture that involves the movement of the
waist. So, I prefer to call it a Waist Rotating Pose.
Benefits :
 Improves Flexibility of Spine & Waist
 Reduces stress
Contraindications :
 People having health conditions like spinal issues and hernias should avoid this
practice.
 Pregnant ladies should not perform this yoga pose.
 Uttanpadasana : Uttanpadasana is a traditional upward-facing yoga
pose. In Sanskrit, Uttana means 'raised', and pada means 'leg'; thus,
Uttanpadasana is also called the raised leg pose.
Benefits :
 It may produce digestive juices increasing bowel movement and allowing
the waste excretion
Contraindications :
 Women during menstruation.
 People with blood pressure ailments will do under observation.

Ardha Halasana : It is the half-plough pose because 'Ardha' means half,

'Hale' means plough, and 'asana' means posture. It is considered an
intermediate-level posture
Benefits :
 It may help stretch the spine, waist, and thigh muscles. ...
 It may fight against piles and diabetes
Contraindications :
 Students who have undergone any recent stomach surgery
 Lack of awareness of breath can make it a mechanical movement.
 Sarala Matyasana : Easy Fish Pose
Benefits :
 It improves the digestion system.
 Helps to cure irritable bowel syndrome.
Contraindications :
 Students suffering from any kind of injury at the neck,
eyes, ears, face, head, shoulders, chest, ribcage, back,
spine, or lower back should avoid this pose.

Gomukhasana : Gomukhasana or Cow face Pose is a seated asana

in hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise, sometimes used for
meditation.
Benefits :
 It makes the leg muscles strong and elastic
 It helps in staying fit and strong.
Contraindications :
 Avoid this asana in case of any knee injury or hip injury.
Uttana Mandukasana : Uttana mandukasana is also known as the stretched-up frog
posture. The name has roots in the Sanskrit language, “Uttana” meaning upright,
“Manduka” meaning frog and “Asana” meaning pose or posture. In English, the name
translates to an upright frog pose.
Benefits :
 The pose also stretches the diaphragm effectively and also the chest region. This
facilitates easy breathing. As a consequence it relieves respiratory congestion and
diseases.
 It also helps in efficient functioning of lungs.
Contraindication :
 Females who are pregnant or menstruating
should avoid doing this asana.

Vakrasana : Vakrasana comes from a combination of two words, Vakra which means twisted
and asana which means yoga posture. Earlier, Vakrasana was a simplified form of
Ardhamatsyendrasana. Vakrasana is among flexible yoga twist poses where twisting is
observed in the spinal region and one may also call it a twisted pose or seated twist yoga pose.
Benefits :
 The twist in vakrasana may activate the spinal nerves. It might also help enhance the spinal
column's flexibility.
 This in turn may improve blood circulation in the spine.
Contraindication :
 Serious spinal column complaints should avoid this asana. Avoid if having recent abdominal
surgery, hernia or prolapse. Pregnancy or menstruation.
 Bhujangasana : Bhujangasana or Cobra pose is a reclining back-bending asana in
hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise. It is commonly performed in a cycle of
asana in Surya Namaskar.
Benefits :
 Provide strength and agility
 Cure the diseases of liver
 Give strength to the hand muscle.
Contraindications :
Pregnant women and an individual who suffer from hernia, back injuries should
not perform this asana.

Makarasana : Makarasana is a reclined yoga asana that relaxes

the body, stimulates the sacral chakra, and can even be used for
meditation or pranayama.
Benefits :
 Stress-relieving,
 Lower-back pain, sciatica, asthma.
 Calming the mind.
Contraindications :
Someone suffering from problems related to stomach.
Shavasana : Shavasana Corpse Pose, or Mratasana, is an asana in
hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise, often used for relaxation at
the end of a session. It is the usual pose for the practice of yoga nidra
meditation.
Benefits :
 It controls high blood pressure
 Increase the energy level
 Calm the mind
Contraindictions :
With arthritis in the knees, hips, and feet, especially senior citizens,
should avoid sitting on the floor.
 Nadi Shodhana Pranayama : Alternate nostril breathing is a
yogic breath control practice. In Sanskrit, it's known as nadi shodhana
pranayama. This translates as “subtle energy clearing breathing technique.”
Benefits :
 Clears and releases toxins
 Reduce stress and anxiousness
Contraindications :
 Avoid if you have high blood pressure or a respiratory condition.
 Avoid if you are suffering from hypertension.

Sitali Pranayama : Sitali Pranayama, often called “the cooling

breath,” is a breath practice that cools the body and has a calming
effect on the nervous system.
Benefits :
 Can help to focus,
 Can help to reduce agitation or anger.
Contraindications :
 Best to avoid if suffering from blood pressure.
 Not to be done if suffering from migraine.
Asanas to Prevent Back Pain and Arthritis

Tadasana : Tadasana is usually the starting

position for all the standing poses. But it‟s
useful to practice Tadasana as a pose in itself.
Benefits :
 Reduce obesity
 Cure constipation
 Improves body
Contraindications :
 If you have low blood pressure and
headache you should not do this asana.
Urdhwahastottansana : Urdhwa means upward, hasta is hands, uttana is
stretching and asana is posture.
Benefits :
 This asana stretches both sides of the body, so it massages, loosens and
exercises the sides of the ribcage and the waist
 Opens up the chest
 Improves blood circulation around the thoracic area and the heart
Contraindications :
 Usually everyone can do this asana except those who have vertigo

Ardha-Chakrasana : In Sanskrit, Ardha means half, Chakra means wheel and

Asana means a pose. Therefore, Ardha-chakrasan means half-wheel postures.
It is a simpler version of chakrasana.
Benefits :
 Strengthens the back and abdominal muscles.
 Relief from back problems and postural defects
 Opens the chest and strengthens the arms and shoulder muscles.
Contraindications :
 Pregnant women should avoid all poses that puts any strain on the foetus.
 Those suffering from high blood pressure should avoid this pose.
Ushtrasana : Ushtrasana is a deep backward bend from a kneeling position; the
completed pose has the hands on the heels. The backs of the feet may be flat on
the floor, or the toes may be tucked under for a slightly less strong backbend.
Benefits :
 Improves posture by correcting drooping shoulders and rounded back.
 Improves breathing by opening up the chest; hence, good for asthmatics.
 Reduces fat on abdomen, thighs and arms.
Contraindications :
 Hernia, or recent abdominal surgery. Recent or chronic knee, shoulder, neck or
back injury or inflammation.

Vakrasana : Vakrasana comes from a combination of two words, Vakra which

means twisted and asana which means yoga posture. Earlier, Vakrasana was a
simplified form of Ardhamatsyendrasana. Vakrasana is among flexible yoga twist
poses where twisting is observed in the spinal region and one may also call it a
twisted pose or seated twist yoga pose.
Benefits :
 The twist in vakrasana may activate the spinal nerves. It might also help
enhance the spinal column's flexibility.
 This in turn may improve blood circulation in the spine.
Contraindication :
 Serious spinal column complaints should avoid this asana. Avoid if having recent
abdominal surgery, hernia or prolapse. Pregnancy or menstruation.
 Sarala Matyasana : Easy Fish Pose
Benefits :
 It improves the digestion system.
 Helps to cure irritable bowel syndrome.
Contraindications :
 Students suffering from any kind of injury at the neck,
eyes, ears, face, head, shoulders, chest, ribcage, back,
spine, or lower back should avoid this pose.

Bhujangasana : Bhujangasana or Cobra pose is a reclining back-bending asana in

hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise. It is commonly performed in a cycle of
asana in Surya Namaskar.
Benefits :
 Provide strength and agility
 Cure the diseases of liver
 Give strength to the hand muscle.
Contraindications :
Pregnant women and an individual who suffer from hernia, back injuries should
not perform this asana.
Gomukhasana : Gomukhasana or Cow face Pose is a seated
asana in hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise, sometimes used
for meditation.
Benefits :
 It makes the leg muscles strong and elastic
 It helps in staying fit and strong.
Contraindications :
Avoid this asana in case of any knee injury or hip injury.

Bhadrasana : Bhadrasana means Gracious Yoga, it consists of two words –Bhadra

and Asana. Bhadra is a Sanskrit word, which means Auspicious or Gracious, while
asana indicates Yoga pose.
Benefits :
 Relieves tension from the spinal region.
 Improves posture
 Promotes concentration
Contraindications :
Although beneficial for prevention from arthritis, practitioners with serious
arthritis should consult yoga expert before practising this asana.
Makarasana : Makarasana is a reclined yoga asana that relaxes
the body, stimulates the sacral chakra, and can even be used for
meditation or pranayama.
Benefits :
 Stress-relieving,
 Lower-back pain, sciatica, asthma.
 Calming the mind.
Contraindications :
Someone suffering from problems related to stomach.

Nadi Shodhana Pranayama : Alternate nostril breathing is a

yogic breath control practice. In Sanskrit, it's known as nadi shodhana
pranayama. This translates as “subtle energy clearing breathing technique.”
Benefits :
 Clears and releases toxins
 Reduce stress and anxiousness
Contraindications :
 Avoid if you have high blood pressure or a respiratory condition.
 Avoid if you are suffering from hypertension.
Class 12 Physical Education

Unit - 4 Physical
Education &
Sports For CWSN
(Children With
Special Needs -
Divyang)
 Organisations Promoting Disability Sports
Disability  Disability refers to limitations in individual functioning, including physical
impairment, intellectual impairment, cognitive impairment, sensory
impairment, mental illness and various types of chronic diseases. A person with
disability is not able to participate in sports and physical education due to
her/his impairment, attitudinal and environmental barriers.
 Promoting disability sports is an important aspect of ensuring inclusivity and
equal opportunities for individuals with disabilities.

There are Several Organizations around the World dedicated to this cause. Here are some prominent ones :
1) Special Olympics.
2) International Paralympic Committee.
3) National Wheelchair Basketball Association.
4) British Paralympic Association.
5) Canadian Paralympic Committee.
 Special
Olympics  Headquarter: Washington DC
(1968)  World‟s largest sports organisation for children and adult with
intellectual and physical disabilities
 Covering 5 Million Athelets and Partner with 172 countries
 Started by Eunice Kennedy Shriver
 Logo - Based on Sculpture – Joy and happiness to all the children
of the world
 Mission – To provide year long sports training and athlete
competition
 Benefits – Physical, Health, Psychological
 Officially recognized by International Olympic Committee in 1988
 Programmes – Young Athlete Programme, Unified Sports
Programme, Healthy Athletes Programme
 First Time in 1968 Chicago
 Latest held in Germany 2023
  First Time- It was organized in Rome in 1960, Latest China 2022.
Paralympics  Organized by International Paralympic committee which was
formed on 22 September 1989 situated in Germany.
 Headquarter: Germany
 Paralympics = Para + Olympics
• Para means (Beside or Along Side)
• Olympics means an international games competition parallel
to Olympics
 Range of Disabilities
• Impaired Muscle Power
• Passive Range of Movement
• Limb deficiency
• Leg Length difference
 Vision of International Paralympics Committee:
• To enable the athletes to achieve sporting excellence and to
inspire and excite the world.
 Anthem: Hymne De L‟AVENIR or Anthem of the future
 Categories of Paralympics
Physical
Impairments
The Paralympics are
divided into different Visual
categories based on the Impairments
type and extent of athletes'
disabilities. These categories
Intellectual
help ensure fair
Impairments
competition. Here are some
of the main categories:
Cerebral
Palsy
Deaflympics
 These are periodic series of multi sport events sanctioned by
International Olympic Committee at which deaf athletes
compete at an elite level.
 The Athletes are guided by waving flags and using lights
etc.
 Governing Body: International Committee of sports for the
deaf
 Organized after every 4 years
 Logo designed in 2003
 Logo tie together strong elements i.e., Sign language, Deaf
International Cultures, Unity & Continuity
 Centre represents the iris of the eye
 Concept of
Classification
 The Concept of Classification and Divisioning is a process
and Divisioning
used in disability sports for providing even and fair
in Sports
competition for athletes with disability through grouping of
athletes.
 The purpose is very much similar to grouping system used in
mainstream sports according to their age-group, gender,
weight etc.
 Classification process adopted by Paralympics assigns
categories to athletes based on different types of
disabilities, on the other hand divisioning process of Special
Olympics is a performance based system of grouping
athletes bases on their skill level.
 Classification in Paralympics
 Paralympic Games, through the International Paralympics Committee (IPC), has developed classification
process which can contribute “to sporting excellence for all Athletes and sports in the Paralympic
Movement, and providing equitable competition.”
 Classification is undertaken to ensure that an Athlete‟s impairment is relevant to sport performance, and to
ensure that the Athlete competes equitably with other Athletes” with fair chance to all participant athletes
engaging in competitive sports.
 According to the IPC, the classification process serves two roles. The first is to determine who is eligible and
the second is to group sportspeople for the purpose of competition. The eligibility minimum is an
impairment that limits the sportsperson›s ability to participate in an activity and the disability needs to be
permanent in nature.

Classification Process
 The first step is generally a medical assessment.
 The second is generally a functional assessment which involves two parts: first observing a sportsperson in
training and then observing the sportsperson in competition.
 There are a number of people involved in this process beyond the sportsperson, including individual
classifiers, medical classifiers, technical classifiers, a chief classifier, a head of classification, a classification
panel and a classification committee.
 Eligible Impairments

Impaired muscle power

Impaired passive range of movement
Loss of limb or limb deficiency
Leg-length difference
Short stature
Hypertonia
Ataxia
Athetosis
 Divisioning in Sports by Special Olympics
 Special Olympics uses a competitive-level matching or grouping referred to as „divisioning‟,
which is a fundamental rule at Special Olympics. Athletes in competitions are matched with
others of the same gender, about the same age and most importantly, of about the same
competitive ability.
 The fundamental difference between Special Olympics competitions and those of other
sports organizations is that athletes of all ability levels are encouraged to participate, and
every athlete is recognized for his/her performance. Competitions are structured so that
athletes compete with other athletes of similar ability in equitable divisions.

Implementation of Divisioning
 An athlete‟s ability is the primary factor in divisioning Special Olympics competitions. The
ability of an athlete or team is determined by an entry score from a prior competition or the
result of a seeding round or preliminary event at the competition itself. Other factors that
are significant in establishing competitive divisions are age and sex.
 In the process of divisioning, athletes are firstly categorized as per their age group which is
different for individual and team sports, followed by Gender and lastly by their ability.
 Process of Divisioning
1) Age : Team Sports
15 & Under
Individual Sports
8 – 11 Years
16 – 21 years 12 – 15 Years
22 and Above 16 -21 Years
22 -29 Years
30 and Above

2) Gender : In the second step, athletes are grouped as per gender, in some
circumstances gender can be combined too.
3) Ability : Finally athletes in Special Olympics are grouped according to their skill
abilities scores which are recorded by committee through preliminary and on-site
events.
 Inclusion – Its
Needs and  Inclusion in education refers to a model wherein CWSN spend
Implementation most or all of their time with students with non-special needs. It
is based on the notion that Inclusive Education is more effective
for students with special needs since they get a mixed
experience. This social interaction leads to success in later life.
 Inclusion plays a big role in creating a safe, comfortable and
emotionally secure environment in any educational institution.
Inclusion is not a law to be forced on anyone.
 It is a process which enables a child smooth transition to
understand, accept and implement the culture of inclusion in
different situations. Physical education and sports play a very
important role in promoting inclusion in any educational
institute.
 Need for Inclusive Education
1) Builds Self Esteem
2) Improves Social and Communication Skills
3) Enhances Sensitivity
4) Creates Better Understanding and Appreciation of Others
5) Creates a Sense of Belonging
 Implementation of Inclusive Education In India
India should emphasize on the following measures for effective
implementation of inclusive education.
1) Ensuring effective implementation of the Right to Education in all states so that no child
is left out of the ambit of education so that we are able to take care of the needs of
CWSN.
2) Equipping teachers, especially in rural areas, through appropriate training and in-
service workshops to teach CWSN in an inclusive classroom.
3) Developing a support team through regular analysis of schools, curriculum and amenities
in order to give access to the regular curriculum methods to children with difficulties in
learning.
4) Encouraging a flexible approach towards curriculum transaction whereby teachers and
students are able to diagnose and resolve the problems that they face during the
teaching learning process.
5) Involving parents as partners and as a resource in the decision-making process for enhancing their child‟s
learning so that a collaborative effort results in effective inclusive education.

6) Looking at all children at what they can do rather than what they cannot do. It is important for the student‟s
self-esteem that a child with special needs is not looked at with sympathy, but is recognized for her/his
talents, capabilities and abilities.

7) Designing schools and classes in ways that help children learn and achieve to their fullest potential. Enrolling
of CWSN in regular schools requires a lot of adjustments in terms of classrooms, transport facilities and
educational materials and assistive devices such as audio textbooks or Braille text books, etc.

8) Developing education goals according to each child‟s abilities. Curriculum experts should carefully design
programmes so that the curriculum is made parallel for all the children with or without special needs in
inclusive education. This also means that children do not need to have the same education goals in order to
learn together in regular classes and will require the designing of a suitable examination system and putting
in place periodic evaluation of CWSN to meet the challenges and changing trends.

9) Making sincere efforts to develop good relations and understanding between families of students with
disabilities and without disabilities. In this way, all students will also develop good relations among
themselves and thereby create an appropriate environment for implementing inclusive education.

10) Providing students related materials like uniforms, books, stationery, transport allowance, stipend for girls,
boarding and lodging facilities, therapeutic services, teaching and learning materials, assistive devices, etc.,
to CWSN from the school.
 Advantages of Physical Activities for CWSN
Physical activity can also improve general mood and wellness. Regular fitness can be linked to
improved self-esteem, social awareness, and self- confidence, which aid in empowering the lives of
children with special needs.

1) Physical Benefits : Scientific studies of disability groups have demonstrated that participation in
physical activity and sport leads to improved levels of well-being and physical health. Children
with intellectual disabilities may have additional physical disabilities resulting in below age-level
performance in typical motor skills.
2) Mode of Recreation and Fun : CWSN frequently miss out on social activities, recreation and fun.
Participation in extracurricular and sports activities can help them overcome this obstacle,
providing them with the ability to engage in social interactions, make friends and initiate social
skills.
3) Improved Emotional Health : Including physical activity in a healthy lifestyle is proven to decrease
rates of depression. CWSN often tend to have more emotional problems like depression.
Participating in regular exercise can be a life-changing benefit by improving mental health and
wellbeing. Physical activity can also improve general mood and wellness, which aids in
empowering the lives of children with special needs.
4) Channelizing the Surplus Energy : Children with disabilities like ADHD display hyperactivity
which, if appropriately directed, can bear positive results related to cognitive benefits and
constructive behaviour.
5) Psychological Benefits : Regular participation in sports and physical activities is not just
beneficial for the body, it is beneficial for the mind, too. Physical activity improves general
mood and wellness in CWSN by improving their self-esteem, social awareness, and self-
confidence, all of which are factors essential for empowering their lives.
6) Healthy Lifestyle : CWSN are about twice as likely as other children to be overweight or obese
often due to the greater likelihood of being sedentary due to their disability. As a result of
their disability, their levels of participation in sports and physical activity is much lower than
that of their peers. It is imperative that these children, as much or more, than other students
must learn about the steps to leading a healthy lifestyle, within the context of the abilities
and limitations of their respective conditions.

7) Increased Independence : Participation in Physical Education and Sports is a mode to transit

towards greater independence due to improved daily life skills. For a person with a disability,
an increase in physical activity can lead to more independence and freedom. Increased
physical strength and energy that comes from regular exercise allows persons with disability
to do more daily tasks without assistance.
 Strategies to Make Physical Activities Accessible for CWSN
Participation in physical activity is beneficial for all children, including those with disabilities. In fact,
participation of children with disabilities in sports and recreational activities promotes inclusion, minimizes
deconditioning, optimizes physical functioning, and enhances overall well- being.

Communication • Advance information about activity, space, resource person

or any change in activity should be communicated clearly.
• A variety of different instructional strategies such as verbal,
visual and peer teaching should be used for performing
various types of physical activities so that children get
opportunity to participate in physical activity. The teacher
could use visuals or social story about the activity. Give
positive, corrective or specific feedback.
• As per the ability of the child, specific instruction must be
provided in simple words and sentences. The tone should be
low and one instruction should be given at a time. If
necessary, a communication board or communication book
could be used.
 Space For CWSN, space should be approachable for people having
physical disability. The area for the physical activity should be
limited. Space for activities should be disturbance free (noise,
heat, cold, texture of floor, audience etc.) It is always better to
start with indoor space. Boundaries should be demarked clearly
as starting point, finishing point, sitting area.

Equipment
A lack of appropriate equipment, coupled with a lack of professionals trained
to support physical activity among children and youth with different ability
levels, discourages participation. There are a growing number of disabled
people who are interested in recreation and sport activities. There are many
examples of simple and sophisticated equipment, including computerized
devices like wheelchairs for recreation and sport activities. There are sport
competitions involving four groups of disabled sportspersons, namely
1) The deaf,
2) People with physical disability,
3) People with intellectual (mental) disability,
4) People supported by specially designed high level engineering equipment.
All of them can use many kinds of equipment and facilities.
 Graded  During initial stage activities should be simple and each activity should be based on
a single action. There should be a gradual move from non-locomotor to locomotor to
Activities
manipulated activities. For these activities, the level of assistance should be
physical, verbal and independent.
 CWSN need help in learning a fundamental motor skill. It will need to be practiced
with the students so they are able to visualize it through the teacher‟s body action.
In addition, one can use videos. As they watch the video, words or phrases that
highlight the important part on which the demonstration is focusing must be used.
They could also be asked to demonstrate the skill to ensure the instructions have
been understood before commencing practice and they must start practice
immediately after viewing a demonstration.

 It‟s easier for children to be motivated when they enjoy the activity. At first, the Social
CWSN should be encouraged to watch others. Once the child sees people having fun Strategies
as they play, she/he will be motivated to participate too. Then, the child could be
started on individual training, and transferred to a small group with supervision
and reminder. The Teacher must act as a mediator, helping the CWSN to interact
with other members of group.
 There should be individual check on each person who is participating and they
should be motivated with reminders whenever they get distracted. Each person
should be greeted before the session and each lesson should end with positive
feedback.
Psychological Because of previous exclusion or limited access, children with disabilities need
Strategies
a lot of motivation to participate in physical activity. It‟s all about the cycle of
conditioning: active kids who stay active grow stronger and more physically
literate as they age. The cycle of deconditioning works the same way: for
children who don‟t participate, the less they do, the less they‟re able to do. In
fact, “Psychological barriers are the most influential. Changing attitudes is the
key to increasing participation...” These barriers include attitudes, opinions
and perceptions preventing participation in sport.
 Personal attitudes of persons with disability;
 Attitudes of non-disabled people.
All individuals benefit from regular physical activity and children with special needs
especially gain from these physical, mental and social benefits of being active. Once
children see improvements in muscle strength, coordination, and flexibility and
experience better balance, motor skills and body awareness, they will have positive
changes towards sports. It has been found that children with a disability choose to play
sport for a number of reasons including
 To improve and learn new skills;
 To have fun;
 Stay fit;
 Be physically challenged.
Class 12 Physical Education

Unit - 5
Sports &
Nutrition
 A balanced diet means eating the right amount of
foods from all food groups. Meaning of
 "A diet which consists of all the essential food Balanced
constituents, viz., proteins, carbohydrates, fats, Diet
vitamins, minerals and water in correct proportion is
called a balanced diet.“

 'Nutrition' is defined as the science of food and its relationship

with health.
Meaning of  In other words, it can be said that nutrition is the science of
Nutrition foods which comprises the dynamic process in which the
consumed food is digested, nutrients are absorbed and
distributed to the tissues for utilization and wastes are disposed
of the body.
 Nutrients can be broadly classified as macro- and micro-
nutrients depending upon their daily requirements by the
body.
 Macro Nutrients
 Macro nutrients constitute the majority of individuals' diet. Hence, it can
be said that they are taken in large amounts.
 They supply energy and are needed for growth and maintenance of the
body. They include carbohydrates, proteins, fats and water.
 The explanation of these macro nutrients is given below :

a) Carbohydrate
 Carbohydrates are actually the organic compounds that are important for different
digestive operations in our body. There are lots of differences between carbohydrates and
the other elements important for nutrition such as proteins and fats.
 There are two main types of carbohydrates, i.e., simple carbohydrates and complex
carbohydrates. Glucose, Fructose, Galactose, Sucrose, Maltose and Lactose are called simple
carbohydrates. Starch, dextrines, glycogen and cellulose are called complex carbohydrates
or polysaccharides.
 b) Proteins
 Proteins contain-carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur.
 Proteins are very large molecules, so they cannot be directly absorbed into our blood.
So, they are turned into amino acids by our digestive system.
 0.36 gram / pound of body weight is required in our body.

c) Fats
 Fats contain carbon, oxygen and hydrogen in the percentage of 76, 12 and 12, respectively.
 There are three different groups of fats in diet, that is, saturated fats, polyunsaturated
fats and mono-unsaturated fats.
 Saturated fats- increases the chances of heart disease due to the increase of cholesterol in the blood.
 The polyunsaturated fats and mono-unsaturated fats help in lowering the blood cholesterol.
 The polyunsaturated fats are slightly better than mono-unsaturated fats. Fats are essential in diet but the quantity of
intake should be limited

d) Water
 Water is a compound which is made up of hydrogen and oxygen elements
in the ratio 2 : 1. Our blood also contains 90% of water.
 Micro Nutrients
Minerals and Vitamins are included in micro nutrients. Micro
nutrients are required in very small amount.

1) Minerals
 Minerals are essential in our diet. About 4 per cent
of our body weight is made up of minerals. Minerals
are required for healthy teeth, bones and muscles.
 Minerals can be classified into macro, i.e., major
minerals and micro-elements or trace minerals.
A. Macro minerals : Some macro minerals are described below :
1) Calcium : Calcium is among the top macro-minerals in terms of growth and
development of our bones and teeth. It makes the teeth and bones strong and
healthy.
2) Potassium : Potassium is one of the most important minerals in diet. It is helpful
in keeping the nervous system and muscular system fit and active all the time.
3) Sodium : It helps in muscular activities. It also helps in the transmission
of nerve impulses. Its main sources are table salt, pickles, butter, etc.
4) Magnesium : It repairs and maintains body cells. It is found in meat,
brown rice, beans, whole grains, etc.
5) Phosphorus : Phosphorus helps in the formation of bones and teeth.
It keeps the muscles and nerve activities normal. It is found in rich
quantity in egg, fish, cod liver, milk, unpolished rice, etc.
B. Micro minerals : Some micro minerals
are described below :
1) Iodine : It helps in the production of hormones in the thyroid gland. It
is found in iodized salt, fish and sea food
2) Iron : It is essential in the production of haemoglobin.
3) Chromium : It stimulates insulin activity. Its deficiency may cause
diabetes. It is found in soyabean, blackgram, carrot, tomato,
groundnuts, bajra and barley.
4) Copper : It helps iron in the formation of haemoglobin. It is found in
eggs, pulses and green leafy vegetables.
5) Cobalt : It protects us from anaemia and is found in green leafy
vegetables, milk and meat.
 2) Vitamins
Vitamins are important nutritive component of food just
like protein, carbohydrate and fat. Vitamins are vital for
healthy life. Vitamins protect us from various types of
diseases. In fact, vitamins increase immunity in our body
against diseases.

Types of Vitamins : Vitamins can be

divided into two categories.
A. Fat Soluble Vitamins : These vitamins are easily dissolved in fat.
B. Water Soluble Vitamins : These vitamins are soluble in water.
A. Fat Soluble Vitamins : These are described below :
1) Vitamin A : It is mainly found in ghee, milk, curd,
egg yolk, fish, tomato, papaya, green vegetables,
orange, spinach, carrot, pumpkin, etc.
2) Vitamin D : It is mainly supplied by egg yolk, fish, sunlight,
vegetables, cod liver oil, milk, cream, butter, tomato, carrot, etc.
3) Vitamin E : Green vegetables, organ meats (Kidney, liver and heart),
cotton seed, sprouts, coconut oil, egg yolk, dry and fresh fruits, milk,
meat, butter and maize are rich sources of Vitamin E.
4) Vitamin K : This Vitamin is mainly available in cauliflower, spinach,
cabbage, tomato, potato, green vegetables, wheat, egg, meat, etc.
B. Water Soluble Vitamins :
i. Vitamin B Complex : There are 8 vitamins under Vitamin B Complex. Important forms of vitamin B are stated
below :

1) Vitamin B1 or Thiamin : This vitamin is also called thiamin. Wheat, Groundnuts, green peas,
orange, pig meat, liver, eggs, green vegetables, rice and sprouts seeds are rich sources of vitamin B1.
2) Vitamin B2 or Riboflavin : This vitamin is yellow in colour. This vitamin is richly found in egg yolk,
fish, pulses, peas, rice, yeast, wheat and in green vegetables.
3) Vitamin B3 or Niacin : Milk is the major source of this vitamin. Along with this, vitamin B3 is found
in egg yolk and dry fruits.
4) Vitamin B5 or Pantothenic Acid : Yeast, milk, polished rice and nuts are rich sources of vitamin B5
5) Vitamin B6 : This vitamin is richly found in meat, fish, egg yolk, yeast, rice, wheat and peas, etc.
6) Vitamin B7 or Biotin : Egg yolk, milk, fresh vegetables, yeast, rice, wheat and peas, etc.
7) Vitamin B12 : Its colour is red. This vitamin is usually destroyed in cooking for a longer time.
Its deficiency may cause anaemia.
8) Folic Acid : Folic Acid is found in yeast, spinach and liver

ii. Vitamin C : Vitamin C is also called ascorbic acid. It is odourless and white in colour. Sources: Lemons,
pineapples, grapes, apples, oranges, green vegetables, turnip, cabbage, spinach and sprout pulses are rich in
Vitamin C. This vitamin is found in high quantity in amla, green chillies and tomatoes.
Nutritive & Non-Nutritive
Components of Diet
The food which we eat contains various
nutrients which are essential for our body.
There are large number of nutrients
required in our balanced diet. Some of
them are “Nutritive components” like
Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins,
whereas some other components of diet
have no nutritive value.
 Fat
 Fat is considered as a major source of fuel for light to
moderate levels of activity. Various types of sports
require different proportions of fat to muscles to
maximise performance. A minimum amount of fat is
desirable for a distance runner, high jumper and a
gymnast.
 These athletes require nominal fat. Adding weight to their
body will hinder their performance. Distance swimmers
need a certain amount of fat distributed near the skin
surface to diminish the heat loss to the water.
 Research studies show that extra weight of fat that has to be
carried by a runner definitely diminishes the performance.
 Carbohydrate
 Carbohydrate is also a major fuel for muscular contraction.
Research studies suggest that carbohydrate is helpful in increasing
the endurance of sportspersons.
 Carbohydrate should not be given to athletes in excessive amount.
It may be risky for them. Again, a low level of carbohydrate
usually results in exhaustion.

Proteins
 Protein is necessary for the growth and development of various tissues of
the body. Now, it has been understood that some amount of protein is
consumed as fuel for muscular work. If fat and carbohydrate are
available, then they are chosen preferentially over protein as the source of
energy.
 The results of various studies have shown that work performance is neither
improved nor decreased by protein supplementation or deprivation.
Recent studies suggest that protein helps in the growth of lean tissues but
does not have any significant effect on performance
 Vitamins
 Vitamins are essential in the normal diet for good performance in work and sports but there
is no clear evidence that extra amount of vitamins improves the performance.
 There are only three vitamins which have received the attention of researchers. These are :

1. Vitamin C : Low level of vitamin C intake does not reduce the work performance
significantly. Approximately, 60 mg of vitamin C intake by non-athletes and 300 mg to 500
mg intake by successful athletes do not have any harmful effect on kidneys.
2. Vitamin E : Vitamin E has been claimed to have beneficial effects in the treatment of many
diseases and especially heart diseases. Several studies conducted on the use of Vitamin E have
shown little or no effect on the performance. It has been established that excess amount of
Vitamin E intake does not improve the performance in sports.
3. Vitamin B Complex : Deficiency of vitamin B-complex has shown
decrease in the sports performance. Several studies related to
excess amount of vitamin B-complex intake show both improvement
in performance and no influence on performance. In fact, there is a need of
further research and studies to establish the effect of this vitamin on the performance of
athletes.
 Minerals
It is a well-known fact about minerals that their deficiency can decrease
the performance, especially during the exercise in hot climate. Sweating
reduces the amount of sodium and chloride in the body. Excess amount of
salt intake can lead to potassium loss and increased water retention. This
condition can be harmful for the persons with hypertension. Still, there is
no clear indication by research studies that an excess amount of intake of
minerals improves the performance of athletes.
 Non–Nutritive Components of Diet
Non-nutritive components of diet are those components that do not
provide energy or calories. Roughage or fiber, water, colors, flavors,
pesticide residues, etc., are among tens of thousands of non-nutritive
components of diet or food.
Fiber or roughage has no nutrient value. Hence, it is
included in the non-nutritive components of diet. It is
the undigested part of the food or it can be said that
Fiber or it cannot be digested by the human intestinal tract. It
consists of water and improves intestinal function by
Roughage adding bulk to food. It satisfies the appetite. It helps
to correct the disorders of large intestine. It prevents
constipation. Roughage or fiber can be divided into
two categories, i.e., soluble and insoluble fibers.
 Water is also an essential component of diet. Even blood comprises 90% of
water. Water in the blood helps in the transportation of the nutrients to
Water various cells of the body. Water is also significant in the excretion of waste
products. It also regulates the body temperature. Our body loses
approximately 2% of our body weight as water per day.

Food or diet is made more appetizing and attractive by the wide reflection
Color of colors made possible through pigments. Natural pigments are found in
fruits and vegetables. The colors derived from animal products and grains
Compounds are less bright. There are various colors derived from fruits and vegetables
such as red, orange, yellow, green, blue and cream.

Flavors are derived from both nutritive and non-nutritive components of

Flavor food. Sometimes it becomes very difficult to know the source of a specific
flavor. An acidic food provides sour taste while an alkaline one provides a
Compounds bitter taste
In addition to colour compounds and flavor compounds, there are some
plants which contain other non-nutritive substances. When these substances
Plant are ingested they may have beneficial or harmful effects. There are many
compounds that inhibit cancer. There are also a number of harmful
Compounds substances in plants which have harmful effects if ingested in excess.
Caffeine is one such example. If it is taken in excess quantity then it may
increase heart rate, secretion of stomach acid, lead to excessive urination.
 Eating for Weight Control- A healthy Weight, The
Pitfalls of Dieting, Food Intolerance and Food Myths

Meaning of
Healthy Weight  Usually, an individual who has healthy
weight leads a healthy life with a
reduced risk of diseases. It means that if
an individual has a healthy weight, he
can lead a healthy life. On the other
hand, if an individual has an unhealthy
weight be it underweight or overweight,
he/she is not able to lead a healthy life.
 It is measured through BMI.
 Methods to Know Healthy Weight through Height & Weight Chart
Male Female
Height Low Weight Medium Maximum Height Low Weight Medium Maximum
in Cm (Kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg) in Cm (Kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg)
157.5 50.7 – 54.4 53.7 – 57.1 57.1 – 63.9 147.5 41.7 – 44.4 43.5 – 48.5 47.1 – 53.9
160 52.1 – 55.8 54.8 – 60.3 58.5 – 65.3 150 42.6 – 45.8 44.4 – 49.9 48.0 – 55.3
162.5 53.5 – 57.1 56.2 – 61.6 59.8 – 67.1 152.5 43.5 – 47.1 45.8 – 51.2 49.4 – 56.7
165 54.8 – 58.5 57.8 – 63.0 61.2 – 68.9 155 44.9 – 48.5 47.1 – 52.6 50.8 – 58.0
167.5 56.2 – 60.3 59.0 – 64.8 62.6 – 70.0 157.5 46.2 – 49.9 48.5 – 53.9 52.1 – 59.4
170 58.0 – 62.1 60.7 – 66.6 64.4 – 73.0 160 47.6 – 51.2 49.9 – 55.3 53.5 – 60.7
172.5 59.8 – 63.9 62.6 – 68.9 66.6 – 75.2 162.5 49.0 – 52.6 51.2 – 57.1 54.9 – 62.6
175 61.6 – 63.7 64.4 – 70.7 68.4 – 77.1 165 50.3 – 53-9 52.6 – 58.9 56.7 – 64.4
178 63.4 – 68.0 66.6 – 72.5 70.3 – 78.9 167.5 51.6 – 55.8 54.4 – 61.2 58.5 – 66.2
180 65.3 – 69.8 68.0 – 74.8 72.1 – 81.1 170 53.5 – 57.6 56.2 – 63.0 60.3 – 68.0
183 67.1 – 71.6 69.8 – 77.1 75.3 – 83.4 172.5 54.8 – 59.4 58.0 – 64.8 62.1 – 69.8
185.5 68.9 – 73.4 71.6 – 79.3 76.1 – 85.7 175 57.1 – 61.2 59.8 – 66.6 63.9 – 71.6
188 70.7 – 75.7 73.4 – 81.6 78.4 – 87.9 178 58.9 – 63.5 61.6 – 68.4 65.7 – 73.9
190.5 72.5 – 77.5 75.7 – 83.9 80.7 – 90.2 180 60.7 – 65.3 63.5 – 70.3 67.5 – 6.2
193 74.3 – 79.3 78.0 – 86.1 82.5 – 92.5 183 62.6 – 67.1 65.3 – 72.1 69.4 – 78.4
 The WHO criteria for underweight,
2) Method to Healthy or Normal weight, overweight
and obesity by BMI are as follows :
Calculate BMI :
Category BMI
Body Mass Index =
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 Underweight < 18.5
Normal weight 18.5 – 24.9
𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕×𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
Overweight 25 – 29.9
OR
Obesity class I 30 – 34.9
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒈
Obesity class II 35 – 39.9
𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝟐 Obesity class III > 40
 Methods to Control Healthy Body Weight
Set an Appropriate Goal
 For losing body weight, you should set an appropriate goal, i.e., how much weight you want to
shed or lose. While setting the goal, you should know about your capacities and limitations. Your
goal should be achievable. You may set your goal for one month.
 Take a pledge that you will lose 1 kg per month depending on how much excess weight you have.
After that you can further set your goal for weight control.

Lay Stress on Health not on Weight

 It is a well-known fact that losing weight for health rather than appearance can make it easier to
set reasonable goals. From the point of view of health, you should make efforts to achieve or
maintain a body mass index between the range of 18.5 and 24.9.
 If your BMI or waist measures beyond these limits you may be at a risk of contracting various
diseases. So, from the point of view of health try to maintain these limits.

Cut your Calories

 Keep a plan ready to get back on the track if your body weight begins to exceed the
required level. It is a simple plan to follow. Just cut or subtract only 100 calories a day.
In this way, you can return to your set goal.
Active Lifestyle
 An active dynamic lifestyle plays a pertinent role in controlling weight. School children should prefer to walk to school instead
of going by car or motorbike.
 Instead of elevators, they should take stairs. If they want to switch off the TV, they
should not use a remote control but should do this physically. They should not watch TV for more hours.
 Instead of watching TV for more hours they should play outdoor games. In this way,
they can lead an active lifestyle, which will be beneficial in their weight control.
Yogic Exercises
 Yogic exercises can help in controlling as well as maintaining proper weight. For example,
pranayama and yogic asana, are helpful in controlling weight. As a matter of fact, research
studies have proved that stress and tension tend to increase weight. Meditative asana are
beneficial in relieving stress and tension. Therefore, yogic exercises can also be used for keeping a good control on weight.
Avoid Fatty Foods
 If you want to lose or maintain weight, you should avoid fatty foods in your diet. Fats are known to have maximum number of
calories. These extra calories will be accumulated in your body. So, avoid fatty foods, if you want to remain healthy.

Avoid Junk & Fast Foods

 Try to avoid junk and fast foods such as pizza, burger, chips, cookies, pastry, chocolate, cold drinks, etc., if you want to lose
weight. These foodstuffs are also rich in empty calories. Intake of such foodstuffs leads to the condition of overweight.

Avoid Overeating
 To control or maintain weight, you should not overeat. It means that you should eat food as per the requirement of your body.
Suppose, you require 2,000 calories per day, then you should take the food that consists of only 2,000 calories. If you take
2,100 calories per day, the 100 calories will be accumulated daily as fat in your body. So, you should avoid overeating.
 The Pitfalls of Dieting
 Nowadays everybody wants to remain slim and trim. People who are overweight use various methods to
lose weight. Most of them adhere to dieting. In the beginning, dieting produces good results or success. But
after initial success it adds more weight later on.
 Even research studies indicate that 90% of the dieters gain all of their weight back and sometime more
than that. In fact, we are all aware that shedding or losing weight is not as simple as it sounds. Eat less and
exercise more to burn calories. We know this scientific fact but it is difficult to implement.

The major pitfalls of dieting are stated below :

1) Extreme Reduction of Calories : For dieting, intake of calories is reduced
extremely. Research studies indicate that 1800 calories a day cannot meet all
the nutritional requirements of an individual. If you reduce intake of calories
it will result in a huge loss of weight. It can be dangerous for you. It will definitely
lower your metabolism and as a result of this your body weight will not be reduced in a healthy manner.

2) Restriction on Some Nutrients : Generally, some nutrients like carbohydrates and fats are restricted in
dieting. In reality, your body needs all types of nutrients. If you don't take all the nutrients in required
amounts, the proper functioning of the body will be impaired.
3) Skipping Meals :
 It is a fact that if you have good metabolic rate, you can maintain or
lose weight. If your metabolic rate is slow you gain weight very
easily. So, if you skip meals, it will lower your metabolism to conserve
energy.
 So, skipping meals works against your weight-loss plans. Research
studies also show if you skip one meal, you take more calories during
the next meal.

4) Intake of Calories through Beverages : If you want to lose your

weight, most probably, you lay stress on not to eat more and not on
what you drink. In fact, beverages, coffee with cream and sugar,
sweetened juices and sodas really contribute to weight gain.

5) Underestimating the Calories : It is a fact that most of the persons

who go on dieting usually underestimate the number of calories they
consume. So, it is essential to be more aware of the amount of calories
you take in your diet.
 Food Intolerance
Food intolerance is more common than food allergy. Food
intolerance is a term used widely for varied physiological
responses associated with a particular food. In simple words,
food intolerance means the individual elements of certain foods
that cannot be properly processed and absorbed by our digestive system
Causes of Food Intolerance
 Food intolerance is caused by part or complete absence of activity of the enzymes
responsible for breaking down or absorbing the food elements. These deficiencies are
usually innate. Sometimes food intolerance can be diet-related or can be due to illness.

Symptoms
 Food intolerance can cause nausea, stomach pain, diarrhoea,
vomiting, flatulence, gas, cramps, heartburn, headaches, irritability, nervousness, etc.
 Management of Food Intolerance
 Individuals can try minor changes of diet to exclude food causing adverse reactions.
Sometimes, it can be managed adequately in such a way without the need
for professional assistance.
 If you are unable to know the food which causes problem you should
seek expert medical help. Guidance can also be provided by your
general practitioner to assist in diagnosis and management.
 For managing food intolerance, fructose intolerance therapy,
lactose intolerance therapy and histamine intolerance therapy can be applied.
Food Myths
 There are various food myths which are prevailing not only in India but all over the world.
What to eat, when to eat and how often to eat are such questions
which usually confuse most of the individuals. We believe in such
myths because they sound like they could be true.
 Nowadays, we have scientific knowledge and on the basis of that
knowledge we should not believe in food myths. The most common
food myths which are still prevalent in our contemporary society are stated subsequently.
  Earlier, people used to think that carbohydrate-rich foods such as rice,
Potatoes potato, etc., increase body weight. So, for losing or reducing weight they
used to eliminate carbohydrate-rich foods from the diet.
Make You  Now, we know that carbohydrates are the body's preferred energy

Fat source. Potatoes do not automatically make you fat. So, there is no
problem in taking potatoes in moderate quantity

 Fat-free labeled products can lead to weight gain, In fact, these

Fat-free foods have more calories. Approximately, these products have the
same number of calories (may be slightly less) in comparison to
Products will other regular food.
help you in  In addition, most of the persons eat more quantity of labeled food
Losing Weight under the misconception that it comprises less calories. However,
they ultimately consume more calories which can cause weight gain.

Eggs Increase  Eggs are, undoubtedly good source of health. An egg provides you
various nutrients such as protein, vitamins A, B, D, zinc, iron,
Cholesterol calcium, phosphorus, etc.
Levels So Avoid  It also fulfills the daily requirement of cholesterol by our body. So,
them taking one egg daily causes no problem in the level of cholesterol.
  The actual fact behind this misconception is that enzymes and their
Drinking while digestive juices will be diluted by drinking water while eating. It will
Eating Makes slow down your digestion which may lead to excess body fat.
you Fat  In contrary, there is a scientific fact that drinking water while
eating improves digestion

 Many people believe that you should not take milk immediately
Don’t take Milk after eating fish. They think that it will make you sick. Some people
even think that spots can appear on your skin if you consume milk
Immediately after eating fish. As a matter of fact, there is no scientific reason in
after Eating Fish taking milk immediately after eating fish. Indeed, these products
may be taken together

 Eating a good diet is more important than not to eat when

Starve Yourself if you are on a weight-loss programme. Include such food items in
you Want to Lose your diet which suppress appetite and increase metabolism
Weight so that you don't eat too much. So, there is no need to starve
yourself if you want to lose weight
 Exercise burns calories which may increase your hunger. Research
Exercise makes studies conducted in this area have not shown that the individuals
You Eat More who do exercise, consume more calories than those who don't
exercise. So, there is no truth in this statement.
 Importance of Diet in Sports
The body needs nutrition to repair and recover. Sports
persons have greater demands on their body. If these are not
met through proper diet, outcome will suffer and post
training recovery process will be affected.

For different games, there are different body composition

requirements which can be manipulated to certain extent by
nutrient composition of diet besides training, thus helping in
achieving body composition goals.

Right kind of nutritional composition in pre-competition

meals, during competition and post competition meals can
help improve performance, delay fatigue and speed up
recovery.

Adequate diet enhances physiological adaptations during

training.
 Pre Competition Diet
1) Balanced Macronutrients :
 Carbohydrates for sustained energy.
 Protein for muscle repair and maintenance.
 Healthy fats for long-lasting fuel.
2) Hydration :
 Prioritize water intake.
 Avoid excessive caffeine/alcohol.
3) Nutrient-Dense Foods :
 Whole, minimally processed options for essential nutrients.
4) Timing of Meals :
 3-4 hours before: Balanced meal rich in carbs, moderate in protein.
 1-2 hours before: Smaller snack with carbs and protein.
5) Familiar Foods :
 Stick to what your body is used to for digestive comfort.
6) Avoid Overeating :
 Consume enough for energy, but avoid excessive intake.
 During Competition Diet
1) Continued Hydration :
 Drink water regularly to prevent dehydration. Sip on a sports drink for electrolyte
replenishment, if needed.
2) Simple Carbohydrates :
 Easily digestible carbs like fruits, energy gels, or sports drinks provide quick energy.
3) Small, Balanced Snacks :
 Consume small, balanced snacks (e.g., a banana with a handful of nuts) to maintain blood
sugar levels.
4) Avoid Heavy or High-Fat Foods :
 These can lead to discomfort and sluggishness during performance.
5) Familiar Foods :
 Stick to foods you've consumed before; avoid new or unfamiliar items.
6) Avoid Overeating :
 Consume enough to sustain energy, but don't overindulge.
7) Monitor Hydration Status :
 Pay attention to signs of dehydration like dark urine or thirst.
 Post Competition Diet
1) Rehydrate :
 Start by replenishing fluids lost during the competition. Water is essential.
2) Carbohydrates for Glycogen Replenishment :
 Consume complex carbohydrates (e.g., whole grains, fruits, vegetables) to restore glycogen levels.
3) Protein for Muscle Repair :
 Include lean protein sources (e.g., chicken, fish, tofu, beans) to aid in muscle recovery.
4) Healthy Fats for Sustained Energy :
 Incorporate sources like avocados, nuts, and seeds.
5) Balanced Meal within 2-3 Hours :
 Aim for a balanced meal with carbs, protein, and healthy fats to support recovery.
6) Nutrient Dense Foods :
 Prioritize whole, nutrient-rich options for essential vitamins and minerals.
7) Include Antioxidants :
 Fruits and vegetables high in antioxidants (e.g., berries, leafy greens) aid in recovery.
8) Fiber for Digestive Health :
 Include fiber-rich foods to promote digestion and overall health.
Class 12 Physical Education

UNIT: 6
Test &
Measurement
in Sports
 Fitness Test – SAI
Khelo India Fitness
Test in School
➢ Fitness defines the ability to perform physical
activity, and encompasses a wide range of
abilities. Each activity and sports requires a
specific set of skills, and so being fit for an
activity or a sport does not necessarily make you
fit for another.
➢ Fitness is generally divided into specific fitness
categories or components, and each can be
tested and trained individually.
➢ The following pages will help you do the Fitness
Test Administration in your school more
effectively using Khelo India Fitness Assessment
App and viewing the School Dashboard on School
Interface.
 Battery of Tests
AGE GROUP 5-8 YEARS | CLASS 1 to 3 AT PRIMARY CLASS 1-3

➢ Children should acquire Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) leaving the

learning of specific physical activities to later stages.
➢ FMS provide the building blocks for many physical activities, such as
playing games, dance, and sport. Locomotor, Manipulative & Body
Management abilities are key to success in most sports and physical
activities.
➢ Abilities of children in class 1-3 which need to be measured and tracked
are :
1) Body Composition (BMI);
2) Coordination (Plate Tapping);
3) Balance (Flamingo Balance).
➢ Which are important for controlling the body in various situations.
 BODY MASS INDEX (BMI)
Body Composition refers primarily to the
distribution of muscle and fat in the body. Body
Purpose size such as height, lengths and girths are also
grouped under this component.

Infrastructure / Flat and Clean surface, Weighing Machine,

Equipment Stadiometer/Measuring Tape pasted on a
Required
wall.
Formula of Calculating BMI :
𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
Body Mass Index =
𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐗 𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
Procedure for Measuring Height Accurately
➢ Remove the participant’s shoes, bulky clothing, and hair ornaments,
and unbraid hair that interferes with the measurement.
➢ Take the height measurement on flooring that isnot carpeted and
against a flat surface such as a wall with no moulding. Have the
participant stand with feet flat, together, and back against the wall.
➢ Make sure legs are straight, arms are at sides, and shoulders are level.
Make sure the participant is looking straight ahead and that the line
of sight is parallel with the floor.
➢ Take the measurement while the participant stands with head,
shoulders, buttocks, and heels touching the flat surface (wall).
➢ Depending on the overall body shape of the participant, all points
may not touch the wall.
➢ Use a flat headpiece to form a right angle with the wall and lower the
headpiece until it firmly touches the crown of the head.
➢ Make sure the measurer’s eyes are at the same level as the headpiece.
➢ Lightly mark where the bottom of the headpiece meets the wall. Then,
use a metal tape to measure from the base on the floor to the marked
measurement on the wall to get the height measurement.
➢ Accurately record the height to the nearest 0.1 centimeter.
Procedure for Measuring Weight Accurately
➢ Use a digital scale. Avoid using bathroom scales that are spring loaded.
➢ Place the scale on firm flooring (such as tile or wood) rather than
carpet.
➢ Have the participant remove shoes and heavy clothing, such as
sweaters.
➢ Have the participant stand with both feet in the center of the scale.
➢ Record the weight to the nearest decimal fraction (for example, 25.1
kilograms).

Scoring:
➢ The test performed is Body Mass Index (BMI), which is calculated from body Weight (W) and
height(H).
➢ BMI = W / (H x H), where W = body weight in kilograms and H = height in meters.
➢ The higher the score usually indicating higher levels of body fat.
➢ Height recorded in cm and mm.
➢ Weight will be recorded in kilogram (kg) and grams (gms).
➢ Record the weight to the nearest decimal fraction (for example, 25.1 kilograms).
➢ Accurately record the height to the nearest 0.1 centimeter.
Plate Tapping Test
Purpose Tests speed and coordination of limb movement.
Infrastructure / Table (adjustable height), 2 yellow discs (20cm
Equipment Required
diameter), rectangle (30 x 20 cm), stopwatch.
➢ If possible, the table height should be adjusted so that the
subject is standing comfortably in front of the discs. The two
yellow discs are placed with their centers 60 cm apart on the
table. The rectangle is placed equidistant between both discs.
Procedure ➢ The non-preferred hand is placed on the rectangle. The subject
moves the preferred hand back and forth between the discs
over the hand in the middle as quickly as possible.
➢ This action is repeated for 25 full cycles (50 taps).
Scoring The time taken to complete 25 cycles is recorded.
 Flamingo Balance Sheet
Ability to balance successfully
on a single leg. This single leg
balance test assesses the
Purpose strength of the leg, pelvic,
and trunk muscles as well as
Static balance.
Infrastructure Non-slippery even surface,
/ Equipment Stopwatch, can be done while
Required standing on beam.
Procedure
➢ Stand on the beam. Keep balance by holding the
instructor’s hand (if required to start).
➢ While balancing on the preferred leg, the free leg
is flexed at the knee and the foot of this leg held
close to the buttocks. Start the watch as the
instructor lets go of the participant/subject.
Pause the stopwatch each time the subject loses
balance (either by falling off the beam or letting
go of the foot being held).
➢ Resume over, again timing until they lose
balance. Count the number of falls in 60 seconds
of balancing. If there are more than 15 falls in
the first 30 seconds, the test is terminated.
 Age Group : 9-18+ YEARS | CLASS 4 to 12 For Class 4 to 12
It is important for students to have an overall physical fitness.
The following Components are to be considered
in Physical Health and Fitness Profile :
Body Composition (BMI).

Strength :
a) Abdominal (Partial Curl-up);
b) Muscular Endurance (Push Ups for Boys,
Modified Push Ups for Girls).

Flexibility (Sit and Reach Test).

Cardiovascular Endurance (600 Meter Run /
Walk).
Speed (50 mt. Dash).
 Body Mass Index (BMI)
Body Composition refers primarily to the
distribution of muscle and fat in the body.
Purpose
Body size such as height, lengths and girths
are also grouped under this component.
Infrastructure / Flat and Clean surface, Weighing Machine,
Equipment Stadiometer/Measuring Tape pasted on a
Required
wall.
Formula of Calculating BMI :
𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
Body Mass Index =
𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐗 𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
50 m Standing Start / 50 m Dash :
➢ Purpose : To determine running speed and acceleration of a student.
➢ Objective : To cover the set distance as fast as possible.
➢ Equipment : Flat and clean field with markings; stopwatch.
➢ Procedure : There will be distance of 50 meters between two straight lines – starting line and
finishing line.
➢ Scoring : The total time taken to complete the distance between the command “Go” and when the
student crosses the finish line to nearest tenth of a second

600 M Run /Walk :

➢ Purpose : To determine the endurance of a student.
➢ Objective : To cover the set distance as fast as possible.
➢ Equipment : Flat and clean field with markings; stopwatch.
➢ Procedure : Student should be informed about the distance before the start of the run/ walk.
➢ Scoring : The total time taken to complete the distance between the command “Go” and when the student crosses the
finish line to nearest tenth of a second.

Sit & Reach Test :

Purpose : To determine trunk flexibility of a student.
Objective : To stretch trunk as far forward as possible.
Equipment : Sit and Reach Box; mat
Procedure : Student should sit without shoes, with the soles of her/his feet touching the sit and reach box.
Scoring : The score is recorded to the nearest centimeter that is the distance between the initial position and final position.
Partial Curl Up :
➢ Purpose : To determine abdominal strength and endurance of a student.
➢ Objective : To perform as many as curl-ups as possible in the given time.
➢ Equipment : Gym Mat with two parallel lines 6 inches apart; stopwatch.
➢ Procedure : Student should lie in supine position on the mat with knee flexed at an angle of
90 degrees. Feet should be placed apart and hands should be placed straight and parallel to the body.
➢ Scoring : Maximum member of partial curl – ups completed without rest in 30 seconds will be recorded.

Push Ups (Boys) & Modified Push Ups (Girls) :

➢ Purpose : To determine upper-body endurance of a student. Objective: To
perform as many as push-ups as possible in the given time.
➢ Equipment : Gym Mat.
➢ Procedure :
➢ Male students will take face down position in which hands should be placed
slightly apart from shoulder. Knees, back and neck must be rigid and
straight. In this position, the student’s palms and toes will touch the ground.
➢ The position will remain the same for Female students, except their knees
should touch the ground.
➢ Scoring : The maximum number of push ups recorded without rest will be
counted as the score
Modified Push Ups (Girls)
 Measurement of Cardio-Vascular Fitness
Harvard Step Harvard step test was developed by Brouha in 1943 for
Test the purpose of measuring physical fitness for work and
the ability to recover from work. The test was originally
designed for young men of college age. In the original
validation of the step test Brouha tested 2200 males.

Purpose To determine aerobic fitness.

Objective
To perform step test continuously without
break for 5 minutes or until exhausted.
Bench or wooden block 20 inches in height;
Equipment
stopwatch; metronome.
Procedure :
➢ Student will start test at the command “Go” and will step up and down, on and off the
wooden block or bench at the rate of 30 steps per minutes for 5 minutes.
➢ Participant is given instructions that on the command ‘up’ or the first sound of the
metronome, he/she should place one foot on the bench; on the second command ‘up’ or
the second sound of the metronome, he/she should place both feet fully on the bench
with the body erect straightening the legs and back.
➢ Exactly five minutes of steps, on the signal ‘stop’, the participant immediately sits down
on the bench. If the student is unable to maintain the pace, then she/he is considered to
be exhausted and the test is brought to an end before completion of 5 min. The tester
will note the duration of the exercise in seconds and use short formula.
Pulse Count :
➢ After completion of the test, the student sits down and the tester
takes the hearts beats between 1 to 1½ minutes.
Scoring : Fitness Index score will be determined by applying following
𝐃𝐮𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐱𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐢𝐬𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐒𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐬×𝟏𝟎𝟎
equation :
𝟓.𝟓×𝐏𝐮𝐥𝐬𝐞 𝐂𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝟏 −𝟏.𝟓 𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝐚𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐄𝐱𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐢𝐬𝐞

Norms for
Harvard Step
Upto 49 Poor
Test
50-8 Average
81 or Above Good
 Computing Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
➢ The Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) is the number of calories needed to maintain body function and resting
condition. In another words BMR is the number of calories burnt by the body while performing basic life
sustaining functions.
➢ That is, a person, who does not engage in any work, still requires energy for the functioning of their internal
organs. This energy is called Basal Metabolic Rate. Unit of BMR is calculated in Kcal.
➢ There are factors that may affect BMR like Muscle Mass, age, state of mind, Gender, Genetics, Body
composition etc. Environment changes like change in heat and cold may change the requirement of the body.

Purpose Determine Basal Metabolic Rate.

Equipment Stadiometer, Weight machine, Pen and paper.
Method to measure height and weight is given at BMI.
Formula used : The mifflin-St Jeor BMR Equation.
Male calculation = (10 * weight(kg.)) + (6.25 * height(cm)) – (5 *
Procedure age) + 5.
Female calculation = (10 * body weight(kg.)) + (6.25 *
height(cm)) - (5 * age) – 161.
 Rikli & Jones : Senior Citizens Fitness Test
➢ Even in old age, people want to be fit and be able to continue to do their work
without pain as long as possible. It requires proper fitness regime during old age.
➢ In the beginning, there were not enough tests to assess functional fitness. This test
is also known as Fullerton Functional Test of senior citizens.
➢ Rikli and Jones developed the Senior Citizen Fitness Test in 2001. This test has
proved to be beneficial for senior citizens. It helps the early identification of at-
risk participants.
➢ The Senior Citizens Fitness Test includes the
following test items :
A. Chair Stand Test.
B. Arm Curl Test.
C. Chair Sit-and-Reach Test.
D. Back Scratch Test.
E. Eight Foot Up and Go Test.
F. Six-minute Walk Test.
 A. 30Test
A. Chair Stand Second Chair Stand Test
Purpose : The main purpose of this test is to measure the lower body strength,
particularly the strength of legs which is usually required for various tasks such as
climbing stairs, getting in and out of vehicles, bath tub or chair.

Equipment Required : A chair with a straight back & a

seat of at least 44cm & a stopwatch.

Instructions for Participants :

1) The participant should sit in the middle of the chair.
2) He should keep his hands on the opposite shoulder
crossed at the wrists.
3) The feet should be flat on the floor.
4) His back should be erect.
5) Repeat standing up and sitting down for 30 seconds.
Scoring : The score is the total number of completed chair stands
during the given 30 seconds. The following table shows the
recommended ranges for this test for different age groups.

Recommended Ranges for Chair Stand Test

Norms for Male Norms for Female
Age Below Average Above Age Below Average Above
Average Average Average Average
60 – 64 < 14 14 to 19 > 19 60 – 64 < 12 12 to 17 > 17
65 – 69 < 12 12 to 18 > 18 65 – 69 < 11 11 to 16 > 16
70 – 74 < 12 12 to 17 > 17 70 – 74 < 10 10 to 15 > 15
75 – 79 < 11 11 to 17 > 17 75 – 79 < 10 10 to 15 > 15
80 – 84 < 10 10 to 15 > 15 80 – 84 <9 9 to 14 > 14
85 – 89 <8 8 to 14 > 14 85 – 89 <8 8 to 13 > 13
90 - 94 <7 7 to 12 > 12 90 - 94 <4 4 to 11 > 11
 B. Arm Curl Test
Purpose : The main purpose of this test is to assess the upper body strength and
endurance which is required for performing household and other activities
involving lifting and carrying things.
Equipment Required : A 5-pound weight for women and a 8-pound
weight for men, a chair without arms and a stopwatch.

Procedure :
➢ The aim of the test is to find out the maximum number of arm curls that one can
complete in 30 seconds.
➢ Arm curl is performed with the dominant arm side.
➢ The participant sits on the chair, holds the weight in the hand using a suitcase grip. It
means the palms should be facing towards the body.
➢ The arm should be in a vertically downward position.
➢ The upper arm should not move but lower arm should move freely.
➢ Curl the arm up through a complete range of motion gradually keeping the palm up.
➢ When the arm is lowered through the complete range of motion, gradually return to
the starting position.
Scoring : The score is the total number of arm curls performed within
the given 30 seconds duration. The following table shows the
recommended ranges for the test for different age groups.

Recommended Ranges for Arm Curl Test

Norms for Male Norms for Female
Age Below Average Above Age Below Average Above
Average Average Average Average
60 – 64 < 16 16 to 22 > 22 60 – 64 < 13 13 to 19 > 19
65 – 69 < 15 15 to 21 > 21 65 – 69 < 12 12 to 18 > 18
70 – 74 < 14 14 to 21 > 21 70 – 74 < 12 12 to 17 > 17
75 – 79 < 13 13 to 19 > 19 75 – 79 < 11 11 to 17 > 17
80 – 84 < 13 13 to 19 > 19 80 – 84 < 10 10 to 16 > 16
85 – 89 < 11 11 to 17 > 17 85 – 89 < 10 10 to 15 > 15
90 - 94 < 10 10 to 14 > 14 90 - 94 <8 8 to 13 > 13
 C. Chair Sit – and – Reach Test
Purpose : To assess the lower body flexibility, which is important for good
posture, normal gait patterns and various mobility tasks such as getting in and
out of bath tub or car.
Equipment Required : Ruler, a chair with straight back approximately 44 cm high.
Procedure :
➢ The participant sits on the edge of the chair (kept against a wall for safety
purpose).
➢ One foot should remain flat on the floor while the other leg should be
extended forward with the knee in straight position.
➢ Heel should be on the floor and ankle should be bent at 90°. Place one hand
on the top of the other with tips of the middle fingers at the same level.
➢ Instruct the participant to inhale and then as he exhales, reach forward
towards the toes by bending at the hip. His back should be straight and head
up. Avoid any jerk or bounce and never stretch too much. Keep the knee
straight and hold the reach for 2 seconds.
➢ The distance is measured between the tip of the finger tips and the toes. If
the finger tips touch the toes then the score is zero.
Scoring : The score is noted down to the nearest 1/2 inch or 1 cm as
the distance reached either a negative or positive score.
The following table shows the recommended norms in
inches for this test for the different age groups.

Recommended Ranges for Sit – and - Reach

Norms for Male (in inches) Norms for Female (in inches)
Age Below Average Above Age Below Average Above
Average Average Average Average
60 – 64 < -2.5 -2.5 to 4.0 > 1.0 60 – 64 < -0.5 -0.5 to 5.0 > 5.0
65 – 69 < -3.0 -3.0 to 3.0 > 3.0 65 – 69 < -0.5 -0.5 to 4.5 > 4.5
70 – 74 < -3.5 -3.5 to 2.5 > 2.5 70 – 74 < -1.0 -1.0 to 4.0 > 4.0
75 – 79 < -4.0 -4.0 to 2.0 > 2.0 75 – 79 < -1.5 -1.5 to 3.5 > 3.5
80 – 84 < -5.5 -5.5 to 1.5 > 1.5 80 – 84 < -2.0 -2.0 to 3.0 > 3.0
85 – 89 < -5.5 -5.5 to 0.5 > 0.5 85 – 89 < -2.5 -2.5 to 2.5 > 2.5
90 - 94 < -6.5 -6.5 to 0.5 > -0.5 90 - 94 < -4.5 -4.5 to 1.0 > 1.0
 D. Back Scratch Test
Purpose : This test helps to assess the upper body (shoulder) flexibility, which is
essential for a person to perform various jobs such as combing hair, putting on
overhead garments, reaching for a seat belt, etc.
Equipment Required : A Ruler.
Procedure :
➢ This test is performed in a standing position. Keep one hand behind the head and
lower it down gradually over the shoulder and reach as far as possible at the
middle of your back. Your palm should touch your body and the fingers should be
downwards.
➢ Then carry your other arm behind your back with palm facing outward and
fingers facing upward and try to reach up as far as possible in order to touch or
overlap the middle finger of the other hand.
➢ Fingers should be aligned. Measure the distance between the tips of the fingers. If
the finger tips touch then the score is zero. If they do not touch measure the
distance between the fingertips (negative score).
➢ If they overlap measure the distance (positive score).
➢ Let the participant practice twice and then two trials be conducted.
Scoring : Record the best score out of the two trials to the nearest
centimeter or 1/2 inch. The following table shows the recommended
norms (in inches) for this test for different age groups.

Recommended Ranges for Back Scratch Test

Norms for Male (in inches) Norms for Female (in inches)
Age Below Average Above Age Below Average Above
Average Average Average Average
60 – 64 > 6.5 6.5 to 0 <0 60 – 64 > 3.0 3.0 to 1.5 < 1.5
65 – 69 > 7.5 7.5 to -1.0 < -1.0 65 – 69 > 3.5 3.5 to 1.5 < 1.5
70 – 74 > 8.0 8.0 to -1.0 < -1.0 70 – 74 > 4.0 4.0 to 1.0 < 1.0
75 – 79 > 9.0 9.0 to -2.0 < -2.0 75 – 79 > 5.0 5.0 to 0.5 < 0.5
80 – 84 > 9.5 9.5 to -2.0 < -2.0 80 – 84 > 5.5 5.5 to 0 <0
85 – 89 > 10.0 10.0 to -3.0 < -3.0 85 – 89 > 7.0 7.0 to -1.0 < -1.0
90 - 94 > 10.5 10.5 to -4.0 < -4.0 90 - 94 > 8.0 8.0 to -1.0 < -1.0
 E. Eight Foot - Up and Go Test
This test is conducted to assess coordination and
agility in aged people.
Purpose : This test helps to evaluate speed, agility
and balance of a person while moving. These are
important factors in performing jobs which require
quick manoeuvring, such as getting off a bus in
time, to answer the phone, etc.

Equipment Required : A chair with straight

back (about 44 cm high), a stopwatch, cone
marker, measuring tape and an area without any
hindrances.
Procedure :
➢ Keep a chair next to the wall and place the cone marker 8 feet away in front of the chair.
➢ The participant is initially completely seated, hands resting on the knees and feet flat on the ground.
➢ On the command 'Go', stopwatch is switched and the participant stands and walks (no running at all) as quickly as
possible towards the cone, turns around and returns to the chair to sit down.
➢ Time is noted as he sits down on the chair.
➢ Two trials are given per participant.

Scoring : The best trial is recorded to the nearest 1/10th second.

The table shows the recommended norms or ranges in seconds for this test for different age groups.
Recommended Norms for Male (in Seconds) Norms for Female (in Seconds)
Ranges for Eight Age Below Average Above Age Below Average Above
Average Average Average Average
Foot Up and Go
60 – 64 > 5.6 5.6 to 3.8 < 3.8 60 – 64 > 6.0 6.0 to 4.4 < 4.4
Test
65 – 69 > 5.7 5.7 to 4.3 < 4.3 65 – 69 > 6.4 6.4 to 4.8 < 4.8
70 – 74 > 6.0 6.0 to 4.2 < 4.2 70 – 74 > 7.1 7.1 to 4.9 < 4.9
75 – 79 > 7.2 7.2 to 4.6 < 4.6 75 – 79 > 7.4 7.4 to 5.2 < 5.2
80 – 84 > 7.6 7.6 to 5.2 < 5.2 80 – 84 > 8.7 8.7 to 5.7 < 5.7
85 – 89 > 8.9 8.9 to 5.3 < 5.3 85 – 89 > 9.6 9.6 to 6.2 < 6.2
90 - 94 > 10.0 10.0 to 6.2 < 6.2 90 - 94 > 11.3 11.5 to 7.3 < 7.3
 F. Six – Minute Walk Test
The six-minute walk test is designed to test the
functional fitness of senior citizens.
Purpose : This test helps to assess
the aerobic fitness or aerobic
endurance of a person which is an
essential component for walking
distances, stair climbing, shopping,
sightseeing, etc.

Equipment Required : A
measuring tape, a stopwatch.
Procedure :
➢ The walking distance or course is marked i.e., 45.72 m or 50 yards in a rectangular area (20 x 5 yards) of 5
yards with cones placed at regular intervals to indicate the distance covered.
➢ Efforts are made to walk maximum distance as quickly as possible in six minutes.
➢ A practice trial is given to the participant.
➢ He may stop any time if he desires so.

Scoring : The total distance covered in six minutes is recorded

to the nearest meter.
Recommended Norms for Male (in yards) Norms for Female (in yards)
Ranges for Six – Age Below Average Above Age Below Average Above
Average Average Average Average
Minute Walk Test
60 – 64 < 610 610 to 735 > 795 60 – 64 < 545 545 to 660 > 660
65 – 69 < 560 560 to 700 > 700 65 – 69 < 500 500 to 635 > 635
70 – 74 < 545 545 to 680 > 680 70 – 74 < 480 480 to 615 > 615
75 – 79 < 470 470 to 640 > 640 75 – 79 < 430 430 to 585 > 585
80 – 84 < 445 445 to 605 > 605 80 – 84 < 385 385 to 540 > 540
85 – 89 < 380 380 to 570 > 570 85 – 89 < 340 340 to 510 > 510
90 - 94 < 305 305 to 500 > 500 90 - 94 < 275 275 to 440 > 440
 Johnson – Metheny Test of Motor Education
Objective Johnson - Metheny Test battery is revised version of Johnson
Educability Test which was designed in 1932. The purpose of the
Johnson battery was to measure neuromuscular skill capacity
which have ten items. In 1938 Methney studied the test and
eliminated six items.
The test battery consist of four
motor stunts are given below :
Front Roll
Back Roll
Jumping Half-Turns
Jumping Full- Turns

Four stunts are to be performed by the boys and three stunts for girls.
Test Area Mat area length is 15 feet and it is 2 feet wide. The 15 feet length divided in to
ten sections for 18” each. The width of transverse line is ¾” and 3”
alternatively. Centre of lines remains 18” apart. Another ¾” wide line is
marked lengthwise in the middle of the mat area.

1) Front Roll : Ignoring the long middle dividing line, the subject
Procedure is asked to start outside the marked area and perform two
front rolls, one up to 7.5’ i.e. 3” wide centre line and the second
in the other half of 7.5’. The subject is to perform the rolls
without touching the limits or over reaching the zones
mentioned above.
Scoring : Each correct roll gets 5 points, hence maximum of 10
points. Two points are deducted for over-reaching side line,
right or left for each roll; one point is deducted for over
reaching the end limit on each roll and full five points are
deducted when the subject fails to perform a true front roll.
2) Back Roll : The test is similar to front roll both in performing and
scoring. The subject is to start outside the marked chart area and is
to ‘perform two back rolls in the 2 feet lane area, one up to first half
and the second back roll in the second half.

3) Jumping Half Turns : The subject is asked to start with feet on first 3”
line, jump with both feet to second 3” wide line, executing a half
turn either right or left; jump to third 3” line executing half turn in
opposite direction to first half-turn and then to 4th and 5th 3” wide
lines executing half turns, right or left alternatively.
Scoring : Perfect execution of four jumps is worth ten points. Only 2
points are deducted for each wrong jump when the subject either
does not land with both feet on the 3” line or turns the wrong way or
both.
4) Jumping Full Turns : The subject is asked to start with the
feet outside the marked area at about the centre of the
lane. He / She is required to jump with feet together to
second rectangular space, executing a full turn with the
body either right or left; continue jumping to alternate
rectangular spaces across the marked mat executing full
turns, rotating body in the same direction, landing on both
feet every time.
Scoring : Perfect execution of five jumps is worth ten points.
Two points are deducted, if the subject fails to keep
balance on landing on both feet; turns too far or oversteps
the squares.
Class 12 Physical Education

UNIT: 7
Physiology &
Injuries in
Sports
 Sports Physiology
Sports physiology is the study of long and short-term effects
of training and body conditions of athletes. Indeed, It is the
study of how exercise or sports activity alters the function
and structure of our body.
Physiological factors determining the components of physical fitness

There are various physiological factors that determine the

components of physical fitness such as strength, speed,
endurance, flexibility, etc.
 Physiological factors determining strength
1) Size of the Muscle : The strength of the muscle largely depends upon
the size of the muscle. It is a well-known fact that bigger and larger
muscles can produce more force.
2) Body Weight : It is also a well-known fact that the individuals who are
heavier are generally stronger than the individuals who are lighter.
3) Muscle Composition : Each muscle consists of basically two types of
muscle fibres, i.e., fast twitch fibres (white fibres) and slow twitch
fibres (red fibres). The fast twitch fibres are capable to contract faster
and therefore they can produce more force.
4) Intensity of the Nerve Impulse : A muscle is composed of a number of
motor units. The total force of the muscle depends on the number of
contracting motor units.
 Physiological factors determining Speed
1) Mobility of Nervous System : This rapid contraction and relaxation of
muscles is made possible by rapid excitation and inhibition of the concerned
motor centres. This is called the mobility of the nervous system.
2) Muscle Composition : Different muscles of the body have different
percentages of fast twitch fibres. So, different parts of the body have
different speed performances.
3) Explosive Strength : For every quick and explosive movement, explosive
strength is indispensable. For example, a quick punch in boxing cannot be
delivered if the boxer lacks explosive strength.
4) Flexibility : Flexibility also determines the speed to a certain extent. In fact,
good flexibility allows maximum range of movement without much
internal resistance. Flexibility also enables complete utilization of explosive
strength.
 Physiological factors determining Endurance
1) Aerobic Capacity : To perform an activity continuously, energy is required by the muscles which can be
supplied by the presence of oxygen. The aerobic capacity depends on the following factors.
a) Oxygen Intake : It is the amount of oxygen which can be taken by the lungs from atmosphere.
b) Oxygen Transport : The amount of oxygen taken into the blood from lungs has to be transported
to the working muscles.
c) Oxygen Uptake : The amount of oxygen which can be absorbed and consumed by the working
muscles from the blood is called oxygen uptake.
d) Energy Reserves : The aerobic capacity also depends upon the availability of fuel to the muscles
from which energy for the activity is derived.
2) Lactic Acid Tolerance : The ability to tolerate higher concentration of lactic acid is a significant factor
in determining anaerobic capacity. The lactic acid tolerance is important for activities that lasts for
about 40 seconds or more. The lactic acid tolerance capacity can be improved through training. So, it
can help in improving endurance performance.
3) Movement Economy : The economical movements are significant for endurance performance. A runner,
who can run at a given pace with less energy expenditure can continue with the same speed for longer
duration.
4) Muscle Composition : There are two basic types of muscle fibres such as slow twitch fibres and fast
twitch fibres. The slow twitch fibres are best used for aerobic activities or endurance activities. They
produce small levels of force for long periods of time and that is why, they are better suited for
endurance activities.
 Physiological factors determining Flexibility
1) Muscle Strength : The muscles should have a minimum level of strength to make the
movement possible specially against gravity or external force.
2) Joint Structure : There are various types of joints in human body. Some of the joints
intrinsically have a greater range of motion than others. For example, the ball and socket
joint of the shoulder has the greatest range of motion in comparison to the knee joint.
3) Age and Gender : It is a well known fact that flexibility decreases with the advancement
of age. Females tend to be more flexible than males.
4) Stretchability of Muscles : The stretchability of the muscles is also a factor in limiting the
range of movements.
5) Internal Environment : Internal environment of the athlete influences the flexibility. For
example, 10 minutes in a warm bath increases body temperature and flexibility whereas,
10 minutes staying outside in 10°C reduces body temperature and flexibility.
6) Previous Injury : Injuries to connective tissues and muscles can lead to thickening or
fibrosing on the affected area. Fibrous tissues are less elastic and can lead to limb
shortening and ultimately lead to reduced flexibility
 Effects of Exercises on Cardio-Respiratory System
Increase in the Size When we perform regular exercise, the muscles of the heart
of Heart increase in size and strength

After regular exercise, the heart finally becomes more efficient. It

Decrease in Resting
has been noted that highly conditioned athletes can have their
Heart Rate
resting heart rates in the 30s.

Stroke Volume The stroke volume at rest remains up to 50-70 ml/beat in

Increases at Rest untrained individuals, 70-90 ml/beat in trained individuals and
90-110 ml/beat in the best endurance athletes.

Decrease in Blood Regular exercise decreases the blood pressure (systolic and
Pressure diastolic blood pressure) by up to 10 mm Hg at rest.

Increased Blood In response to supply the muscles with more oxygen during
Flow exercise, the body increases its number of capillaries.
 Effects of Exercises in Muscular System
During exercise, in order to match demand of fuel to muscle, the supply or
Increased Blood
concentration of blood increases in the whole body or, in the particular muscle
Supply
group where activity is largely impacted.

During exercises muscles demand energy, which comes from contracting muscles.
Increased Muscle
During the process, a lot of heat energy is generated which increases the
Temperature
temperature of muscles, and/ or the body.

Due to increase in blood flow and rise in temperature, elasticity of muscles

Increased Muscle
increases. Stretching and mobility exercises also play a dominant role in
Flexibility
increasing muscular flexibility.

Muscles requires oxygen. If blood supply does not provide appropriate volume of
Accumulation of
oxygen to muscles, it leads to accumulation of lactate acid in muscles which
Lactate result in pain, and soreness in muscles.

During exercises muscle tissue is placed under stress which results in micro-tears
Micro-tears in
in muscle fibres. The body responds by repairing the muscle fibres and making
Muscle Fibres
them larger. When a muscle gets bigger, this process is called hypertrophy.
Hypertrophy of Muscle Scientific and systematic exercise leads to increase in thickness of muscle fibres
that results in increase in muscle size also known as muscle hypertrophy.

Increase in Strength of Regular exercise helps to strengthen bones, ligaments, and tendons. This helps
Ligaments and Tendons prevent injury and promotes performance.

Increase in Size and

Number of Aerobic exercises leads to increase in size and numbers of mitochondria, and
Mitochondria which take in more oxygen and produce more ATP and energy.

Long term effect of aerobic exercise is to increase the storage of myoglobin which
Increase in Myoglobin
transports oxygen to mitochondria. Large amount of myoglobin means large
Storage
amount of oxygen and large amount of energy.

Glycogen is generally stored in muscles and liver. Regular exercise helps the body
Increase in Glycogen
Storage to increase the storage of glycogen which may give continuous energy for 90 to
120 minutes.

Endurance exercise training increases the capacity of skeletal muscle fat

Increase in Oxidation/ oxidation by increasing mitochondrial density. Long term exercises demand a lot
Metabolism of energy, and to meet this demand, metabolism increases due to oxidation of
fat. This leads to increase in provision of energy.
 Physiological Changes Due to Ageing
Ageing is an inevitable and extremely complex, multi-factorial process. It is characterized by
the progressive degeneration of organ systems and tissues. It is largely determined by genetics
and influenced by a wide range of environmental factors such as diet, exercise, exposure to
microorganism, pollutants, radiation, etc.

Physical Neural Muscular

Function Strength
changes due to
ageing :
Cardio- Physiological Body
vascular Changes Due Composition
Function to Ageing

Pulmonary
Bone Mass
Endocrine Function
Changes
1) Muscular Strength : It is defined as the maximal force that a muscle or muscle group can generate. Men
and women usually attain their highest strength levels between ages 20 and 40, the time when muscle
cross-sectional area is largest. Concentric strength of most muscle groups declines, slowly at first and then
more rapidly after middle age. Decline in eccentric strength begins at a later age and progresses more
slowly than those in concentric strength.

2) Neural Function : A nearly 40% decline in the number of spinal cord axons and a 10%
decline in nerve conduction velocity reflects the cumulative effects of ageing on central
nervous system functioning. These changes are likely to contribute to the age-related
reduction in neuromuscular performance assessed by simple and complex reaction and
movement times. Ageing most adversely affects the time required to detect a stimulus and
process the information to produce the response.

3) Endocrine Changes with Ageing : The endocrine system consists of a host organ (gland),
minute quantities of chemical messengers (hormones), and a target or receptor organ.
Approximately 40% of individuals aged between 65 and 75 years and 50% of those older
than age 80 have impaired glucose tolerance leading to Type 2 diabetes. Thyroid
dysfunction, primarily from lowered pituitary gland release of the thyroid-stimulating
hormone thyrotropin (and reduced output of thyroxine), is common among the elderly.
4) Pulmonary Function : Mechanical constraints on the pulmonary system progress with age
to cause deterioration in static and dynamic lung function measures. Also, pulmonary
ventilation and gas exchange kinetics during the transition from rest to submaximal
exercise slow substantially.
5) Cardiovascular Function : Cardiovascular function and aerobic capacity do not escape
age-related effects. Because of a lower maximum heart rate, maximum cardiac output
typically decreases with age in trained and untrained men and women. Reduced
peripheral blood flow capacity accompanies age-related decreases in muscle mass.
Sedentary living produces losses in functional capacity at least as great as the effects of
ageing.
6) Body Composition : In physical fitness, body composition is used to describe the
percentages of fat, bone, water, and muscle in human bodies. After age 60, total body
mass decreases despite increasing body fat.
7) Bone Mass : Bone Mass is a measure of the amount of minerals (mostly calcium and
phosphorous) contained in a certain volume of bone. Osteoporosis poses a major problem
with ageing, particularly among postmenopausal women. In this condition it produces loss
of bone mass as the ageing skeleton demineralizes and becomes porous. Bone mass can
decrease by 30% to 50% in persons older than age 60.
 A. Sports Injuries : Classification, Causes & Prevention
The injury in sports and exercise refers to the physical damage caused to
tissue, bone, or any other organ of the body while in action and further
leading to withdrawal from participation or experience pain while
performing movement actions.
Classification of Sports Injuries :
1) Soft Tissue Injuries
There are following types of soft tissue injuries :
Internal Injuries:
 Strain
 Sprain
External Injuries:
 Abrasion
 Contusion
 Laceration
 Abrasion is a major injury. Abrasion usually occurs due to friction

Abrasion with certain equipment or a fall over the area where the bone is
very close to the skin. It may be caused by falling on a hard
surface.

Prevention :
1. Players should undergo proper warm-up before training and
competition.
2. Players should perform proper conditioning during their
preparatory phase.
3. Sports equipment should be of good quality.
4. Good officiating quality of official is essential during practice and
competition.
5. Players should be careful and alert during practice and
competition.
6. Players should follow the rules and regulations of the game/sport.
7. Wear protective gears/equipment while playing any game.
8. One should try to cover the exposed skin with a layer of clothing.
  Contusion is a muscle injury. A direct hit with or without any
sports equipment can be the main cause of contusion.
Contusion  Contusion can also be due to minor accidents to the skin, such as
falling, bumping into something or being hit or kicked.
 Contusion is common in boxing, wrestling and kabaddi.

Prevention :
1) Proper warm-up is essential before practice, training and competition.
All the parts of a body should be exercised properly. Stretching exercises
should be performed during warm-up.
2) Conditioning should be emphasized during the preparatory period.
3) Protective equipment should be used according to the requirement of
the game or sports.
4) Sports equipment of good quality should be used in games and sports.
5) Playfields/courts should be smooth and clean.
6) For preventing sports injuries, the complete scientific knowledge about
the game is a must.
7) Players should be careful and alert during practice and competition.
8) Good officiating quality of official is must for preventing sports injuries.
 The irregular tear-like wounds
Laceration
caused by some blunt trauma.
 Cause : Mostly, laceration is the result of the
skin hitting an adjacent object, or an object
hitting the skin with force.
 Prevention : Proper personal equipment,
including eye protection can be helpful in
preventing the same.
 Treatment : Clean the surface of the
effected part. Stop bleeding at the earliest
by compression bandages.
 An incision is a cut made into the tissues
Incision of the body to expose the underlying
tissue, bone or organ.
 Cause : Can be caused by a clean, sharp-
edged object – such as a knife, razor or
glass splinter.
 Prevention : The area should be free from
the sharp edges.
 Treatment : Gently wash the affected area
with soap and water to remove the dirt.
Dry the incision with a clean, fresh towel
before applying the dressing.
  It is a ligament injury. It may occur due to overstretching or tearing of ligament.
 Many things can cause sprain.

Sprain 

Falling, twisting or getting hit can force a point out of its normal position.
This can cause ligaments around the joint to tear. Generally, sprain occurs at
wrist joint and ankle joint.
 Sometimes, fracture is also possible along with the sprain.

Prevention :
1) A thorough warm-up is necessary for preventing sprain,
especially all the joints should be exercised well during warm-
up.
2) Proper conditioning should be done during the preparatory
phase.
3) All the sports equipment must be of good quality.
4) Playfields/courts should be smooth and clean.
5) Good officiating quality of official is essential for preventing
such injury.
6) Rules of the game/sport must be followed.
  Strain is also a muscle injury. Strain can be mild as well as severe.
Sometimes, the complete muscle can be ruptured.
Strain  In case of complete rupture, it is not possible to move that part or limb.
 There may be severe pain around the rupture. Strain may occur at any
time during the practice or competitions.

Prevention :
1) From the prevention point of view, every sportsperson should
undergo a complete warm-up before participating in any sports
activity. He/she should do stretching exercises of all parts of the
body.
2) Conditioning should be done during the preparatory period.
3) Sports equipment must be of good quality.
4) Playfields/courts should be smooth and clean.
5) The scientific knowledge of the game is must for preventing
strain.
6) Players should be careful and alert during the training and
competition.
 Hard Tissue Injuries
An injury to the skeletal system of the body is termed as the hard tissue injury. They
are the injuries where the bone fractures, i.e.., the bone either cracks or breaks.

Stress Fractures

Greenstick
Types of Dislocation
Commutated
Hard Tissue
Injuries Fractures Transverse

Oblique

Impacted
 Dislocation
Dislocations are joint injuries that force the ends of bones out of position. The cause
is often a fall or a blow, sometimes from playing a contact sport. A joint dislocation,
also called luxation, occurs when there is an abnormal separation in the joint,
where two or more bones meet. A partial dislocation is referred to as a subluxation.
Dislocation can be caused by a trauma (accident or fall) or the weakening of
muscles and tendons. A dislocated joint can be treated through medication,
manipulation, rest or surgery.

 Causes : Trauma that forces a joint out of place causes

a dislocation. Accidents, falls, and contact sports such as
football are common causes of this injury. Dislocations also
occur during regular activities when the muscles and tendons
surrounding the joint are weak. These injuries happen more
often in older people who have weaker muscles and balance
issues.
Symptoms :
Symptoms of a dislocation vary depending on the severity and location of the
injury. The symptoms of a dislocated joint include :
a) Pain
b) Swelling
c) Bruising
d) Instability of the joint
e) Loss of ability to move the joint
f) Visibly deformed joint (bone looks out of place)
Treatment : Treatment can vary based on the severity of the injury, and the joint
that is dislocated. Applying ice and keeping the joint elevated can help reduce
pain while you wait to see a doctor. Treatment includes :
a) Medication: Your doctor may recommend medication to reduce pain from a
dislocation.
b) Manipulation: A doctor returns the bones to their proper places.
 Rest : Once the joint is back in place, you may need to protect it
and keep it immobile. Using a sling or splint can help the area
heal fully.
 Rehabilitation : Physical therapy exercises strengthen the muscles
and ligaments around the joint to help support it.
 Surgery : Your doctor may recommend surgery if :
a) Manipulation does not work to
put the bones back in place, the
dislocation damaged blood vessels
or nerves. the dislocation damaged
bones, tore muscles or ligaments
that need repair.
 Fractures
A fracture is a break in a bone. Fractures are caused by a direct impact, such as a fall or
a severe tackle. Stress fractures develop over time and are caused by overuse.

Stress fractures may occur because of overuse injuries and the

Stress Fracture failure to have adequate equipment to protect the body.
 Causes : Stress fractures often result from increasing the
amount or intensity of an activity too quickly.
 Prevention : Low impact activities added to exercise
regimen to avoid repetitively stressing a particular part of
the body.
 Treatment : Rest, cold therapy ice packs, cold compresses,
apply ice to the injured area, anti- inflammatory
medications such as Ibuprofen, aspirin etc. and a recovery
time of 6 to 8 weeks is required for healing.
 A fracture in a young, soft bone,
Greenstick
in which the bone bends.
 Causes : These fractures most commonly occur
with a fall.
 Prevention : Promotion of regular exercise,
ensuring the child’s safety by providing proper
safety equipment and adequate calcium in the
child’s diet can also help to prevent this kind of
fracture.
 Treatment : Removable splints result in better
outcomes than casting in children with – Torus
fractures of the distal radius.
 A fracture in which a bone is broken,
Comminuted
splinted, or crushed into number of pieces.
 Causes : Direct and indirect trauma or violence
can be causes for comminuted fracture.
 Prevention : Maintaining strong bones by eating
food that is rich in calcium and regular exercise
can help in the prevention of this type of
fracture.
 Treatment : An X-ray is important for
diagnosing of the condition. An open reduction
when the bone fragments are jammed-together
using surgical nails, wire plates etc. is required
for comminuted fracture.
 Transverse fracture is when there is a
Transverse
straight break right across a bone.
 Causes : When a large amount of force is
transmitted directly i.e., perpendicularly to the
bone.
 Prevention : Physical activity and weight bearing
exercises will make the bones stronger and denser.
Bones can also be strengthened by eating foods rich
in calcium and taking regular exercise.
 Treatment : Can be treated at home along with
rest and medicine. A back brace (called TSL) or
abdominal binder may be prescribed to reduce the
pain by limiting motion at the fracture site.
 Oblique fracture is one in which
Oblique
the bone breaks diagonally.
 Causes : This fracture is usually caused by an
injury to the bone as the result of a fall,
accident, or other trauma.
 Prevention : Bones can be strengthened by
eating food rich in calcium and exercising
regularly to help prevent this type of fracture.
 Treatment : It depends upon the severity of the
crack or break. Anti- inflammatory medication,
reduction (Resetting the bone) can also help to
some extent.
 This type of fracture occurs when the broken ends of
Impacted the bones are jammed together by the force of the
injury.
 Causes : It is caused mainly when someone falls from
height with a great impact.
 Prevention : Increased physical activity, weight
bearing exercises and maintaining good intake of
calcium in food can help in preventing this type of
fracture.
 Treatment : In an impacted fracture the bones get
broken into fragments. Therefore, a sling or a splint
may be required to keep the broken bones in place, so
that movement of the sharp ends of the broken bone
is prevented. This is essential to prevent further
damage to the bone.
Class 12 Physical Education

Unit - 8
Biomechanics
& Sports
Biomechanics  Biomechanics is the science of movement of
a living body, including how muscles, bones,
tendons, and ligaments work together to
produce movement. Biomechanics is part of
the larger field of kinesiology, explicitly
focusing on movement mechanics. It is both
a primary and applied science,
encompassing research and practical use of
its findings.
 Biomechanics studies not only the human
body but also animals and even extends to
plants and the mechanical workings of cells.
For example, the biomechanics of the squat
includes considering the position and/or
movement of the feet, hips, knees, back,
shoulders, and arms.
 Newton's Laws of Motion and their Application in Sports
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) was one of the greatest scientists and
mathematicians that ever lived. Newton came up with three general
rules about the movement of objects, which are now known as
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion.

Newton’s First According to the first law, a body will

Law Of Motion remain at rest or continue to move at a
(Law Of Inertia) constant velocity unless acted upon by an
external (resultant) force. Inertia is the
resistance of any object to any change in its
motion, including a change in direction—
objectives to keep moving in a straight line
at a constant speed.
 Application in Sports
If you slide a hockey puck on ice, eventually, it will stop because of
friction on the ice. It will also stop if it meets something like a player’s
stick or a goalpost.
A skater gliding on ice will continue gliding with the same speed and
in the same direction unless an external force acts upon the skater
That unbalanced force is the player’s foot, head, friction, gravity,
and the net during a soccer game. A soccer player uses the body’s
muscles to create a force to move the leg and kick the ball from rest
to motion until another player or the net stops or changes the ball’s
motion.
When a ball is thrown and is in mid-air, the only force acting upon it
is the force of gravity. If the force of gravity did not exist, the ball
would keep traveling at a constant speed until it was affected by an
object or another person touched it. If this ball were thrown upwards,
it would end up traveling into space.
Newton’s Second
Law of Motion
 As per the law, the rate of change of momentum
(Law of
is proportional to the resultant force and takes
Momentum) place in the direction of the resultant force. When
a net force acts on an object, the acceleration of
the object it produces is directly proportional to
the magnitude of the net force, is in the same
direction as the net force and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object. The more
mass the thing has, the more net force has to be
used to move it.
 In general, if you use the same force to push a
truck and push a car, the car will have more
acceleration than the truck because the car has
less mass.
 Application in Sports
As in Shot-put, a player who applies more force and tosses the shot-put at the
correct angle has a greater displacement of shot-put, whereas a player who
exerts less force has a lesser displacement of shot put.

In a Discuss throw, if we want to determine the force acting on a discuss (2kg),

if it is accelerated at 20 m / second sq.
F = m*a
F = 2*20
F = 40 Newton

When a ball is thrown, kicked, or struck with an implement, it tends to travel in

the direction of the line of action of the applied force. The greater the amount
of force applied, the greater the speed the ball has. If a player improves leg
strength through training while maintaining the same body mass, they will
have an increased ability to accelerate the body using the legs, resulting in
better agility and speed.

In soccer, a team will require more force to kick the ball high and faster. This
law of motion is fundamental in soccer, so you can calculate the force needed to
give a pass or kick the ball to the net without missing.
Newton’s Third
Law of Motion
(Law of
According to this law, there is an equal
Reaction) and opposite reaction for every action,
and this reaction acts with the same
Momentum and the opposite velocity
for every action. It states that
whenever one object exerts a force on a
second object, the second object exerts
an equal and opposite force on the first
object. When you walk on a floor, the
floor pushes you along. No force can
act alone.
 Application in Sports
In Swimming, a diver needs to push down on the springboard when
he/she dives off a diving board. The springboard pushes back the
force on you for proper projecting into the air during the
performance.

When you jump off a small rowing boat into the water, you will push
yourself forward towards the water. The same force used to go ahead
will make the boat move backward
During a soccer match, we need to kick the ball for passing, shooting,
or clearing the ball. While kicking the soccer ball, we will feel the
force of the kickback on our leg. we won’t feel the force as much
because our legs have more mass than the soccer ball

During any type of motion, if we need to jump, our legs apply force
to the ground, and the ground applies equal and opposite reaction
force (ground reaction force) that propels us into the air.
 Levers
The lever is a type of machine. It is the human body’s mechanism for movement, and
although it may be viewed as a part of the skeletal system, the role of the muscles in
supplying the necessary force for lever action should be kept in mind. The bony levers
will be less stationary until they are moved by the muscles, which are motionless until
the nervous system stimulates them.
All lever systems are made up of four components :
 The load;
 The fulcrum;
 The effort;
 The lever.
The load is the object requiring moving, the effort is the muscular force we use to move the
object, the fulcrum is the joint around which the movement occurs, and the bones of the
skeleton are the levers. If asked to sketch a diagram of a lever system, you would need to
include all four parts. Lever systems have standard symbols that are used to represent each
part.
 Types of Levers
There are three types/classes of levers :
a) First-Class Lever;
b) Second Class Lever;
c) Third Class Lever.

1) First-Class Lever : A first lever has the fulcrum between the force
and the resistance. This class fulcrum may be moved about along
the lever, thereby changing the relative lengths of the force arm
and the resistance arm.

Examples of
1st Class
Lever
2) Second Class Lever : A second class lever has the load resistance
between the fulcrum and the force. In this class of levers,
movement of the fulcrum will increase or decrease both the force
arm and the resistance arm. The force arm is always the longer of
the two, and therefore the force needed to lift resisting weight will
always be less than the weight.

Examples of
2nd Class
Lever
3) Third Class Lever : A third-class lever has the force between the
fulcrum and the resistance. In this class of lever, the force arm is
always shorter than the resistance arm, and so a large amount
of force must be applied, but the resistance is moved through a
much longer range of motion than the force application. In the
human body, the most common class of lever is the thread. His is
particularly important in the movements of the limps because
the desired results are often those of speed or range of motion,
albeit at the expense of force.

Examples of
3rd Class
Lever
 Application in Sports
A few examples of lever application in sports are :
1) Cricket Bat (2nd class) : The fulcrum is the top of the handle, the load
is the bat’s body, and the force is closer to the neck of the handle.
2) Kicking - Lower Limb (3rd class) : The fulcrum at the knee joint, force
at tibial tuberosity, (attachment of the quadriceps) load is the foot.
3) Jumping - Plantar Flexion of the Foot (2nd class) : The load is at the
toes, the fulcrum is at the heel, and force is your weight which is
anterior to your heel.
4) Looking up / Down or Side-to-side (1st class) : Your head is balanced on
your atlantooccipital joint, which pivots, similarly to a see-saw.
 Equilibrium (Stability / Balance)
 Equilibrium is defined as a state of balance or a stable situation, where opposite forces
cancel each other out and where no changes are occurring.
 Equilibrium or stability is necessary for performing skills. Naturally, the centre of gravity
(CG) shifts with each change in posture. In the standing posture, the centre of gravity,
while somewhat different for males than females, is located near the centre of the upper
pelvic region. It shifts with each new posture assumed by the body.
 A significant part of any skill is the continual adjustment of body segments to counteract
this change in position and control the centre of gravity.

Types of Equilibrium
With respect to the state of a body, equilibrium may be divided into two categories :
1) Static equilibrium.
2) Dynamic equilibrium.
 Static Equilibrium
For a body or an object to be in static equilibrium it must not be moving or rotating. For an
object or body to be in a static or static equilibrium, where it is completely motionless it must
meet 3 conditions :
a) The sum of all the vertical forces acting on the body must be zero
b) The sum of all the horizontal forces acting on the body must be zero.
c) The sum of all torques must be zero.
Static equilibrium can be defined as a state when a body is at rest or completely motionless. It
is the balance of the body during rest or stationary position.
Examples: Stance maintained by the batsmen in cricket, on the starting block by the sprinter,
wide stance maintained by the wrestler, etc.
 Dynamic Equilibrium
 Dynamic Equilibrium can be defined as a state when all the applied and inertial forces applied to a
moving body are in balance, resulting in movement with unchanging speed or direction. To control the
equilibrium and achieve balance, stability needs to be maximized.
 When the body or an object is moving with a constant velocity - that is with no change in speed or
direction it is said to be in dynamic equilibrium.
 Example: Body position maintained by a sprinter while running on the track, Cyclist while cycling,
dribbling of the football by a soccer player etc.
 Centre of Gravity
 The Centre of gravity is the point at which all the weight or mass of a body may be
considered to be concentrated. It means that the mass centre is constantly moving in many
sports skills.
 The ability to balance, whether stationary or moving, is key to success in most sports and
physical activities.
 The stability of an athlete depends on her/his COG. It is exactly in the middle of the body
around which it can rotate freely in any direction and where the weight of the body is
centred.

Examples :
a) For wrestlers in snatch and jerk, the widening of legs and lowering of body to maintain the
stability, makes COG come down.
b) During running, the runner’s centre of gravity is in the lower region of the pelvis and in
front of his body, because his upper body is leaning forwards. Having the centre of gravity
lower and in front of his lower body is advantageous for acceleration.
Application and Importance of centre of gravity in Sports :
a) Helps the athlete to move.
b) Stops the moving object.
c) Helps the athlete to accelerate.
d) Helps the athlete in throwing objects.
e) Helps the athlete to lift the object.
f) Helps the athlete to pull the object

More Example of Centre of Gravity :

To get better results and to be strong, the position of the centre
of gravity is quite important in many sports, few examples are
given below :
a) In the game of basketball and volleyball, high defense players
spread their legs to lower the centre of gravity towards the base
to occupy a better position against the offensive player.
b) In combative sports like wrestling, a wrestler falls on the mat
with arms, knees, and legs spread on the mat to get a proper
balanced position, (This position, makes it difficult for the
opposite player to move him.
Friction  Friction is a force that opposes the motion
between two surfaces that are in touch. Friction
& Sports always works in the direction opposite from the
direction the object is moving or trying to move.
Friction also produces heat. For example,
• If you rub your hands together quickly, they get
warmer.
• If you roll a ball on a surface, it would come to
rest after a short while.
 Types of Friction
1. Static Friction :
It occurs when the force applied to an object does not cause the
thing to move. Because of static friction, you must use extra
force to start the motion of stationary objects. eg., if you try to
push a heavy object with less force than the force of static
friction between the object and the floor, the object will not
move.

2. Kinetic Friction :
It occurs when force is applied to an object and the object moves. It
includes three different types of friction : Sliding and rolling friction.
Pushing an object across a surface. This is when two bodies
Sliding are in contact and one body moves on the surface of the
other body by sliding on it or rubbing over the surface.
Friction Example – skating on ice, planting a pole in the pole vault
event and skiing or sliding weight.
 It occurs between wheels and a surface. When two bodies are
in contact and one body rolls over the other, it is referred to as
Rolling rolling friction. E.g., when a hockey or cricket ball is hit it
begins to move ahead and roll on the ground. After sometimes
Friction it stops rolling due to the friction force, this type of friction is
often seen in sports. eg., Roller skates and skateboards.

3. Fluid Friction :
It opposes the motion of objects traveling through the fluid (gas, air, and
water). For example :
 When you ride a bike, fluid friction occurs between you and the air.
 Cyclist often wears streamlined helmets and specially designed clothing to
reduce fluid friction.
 Paragliding vs. hang gliding when an athlete glides on air.

Things that Affect Friction :

 Applying a lubricant between two surfaces. (Motor oil, grease, and wax).
 Friction can be reduced by rolling rather than pushing an object.
 Friction increases as surfaces are made rougher.
 Friction increases when the force between two objects is increased.
 In general, smooth surfaces produce less friction than uneven surfaces.
  A projectile is an object upon which the only
Projectile force acting is gravity. There are a variety of
examples of projectiles. An object dropped
from rest is a projectile (provided that the
influence of air resistance is negligible). An
object that is thrown vertically upward is also
a projectile (provided that the influence of air
resistance is negligible). And an object which is
thrown upward at an angle to the horizontal
is also a projectile.
 Examples from sports involve projectile
motion :
a) Objects acting as projectiles: basketball,
football, shot-put, hammer, discus, javelin,
golf ball, volleyball, tennis ball, etc
b) The body acts as a projectile in high jump,
long jump, gymnastics, diving, figure
skating, ski jumping etc.
 Factors Affecting Projectile Trajectory
a) Gravity : Gravity is the force exerted by the earth on any object towards the centre of the
body, and it is directly proportional to the mass of the body. Without gravity, the body
will travel in a straight line after being thrown.

b) Air Resistance : Several vital factors bring air resistance into play.
 Surface Area : The larger the surface area, the more air resistance will affect the object.
Example : Basketball compared to a golf ball.
 Speed : As speed increases, so does air resistance. Example : The Space shuttle.
 Surface of the Object : If the surface is rough, then air resistance will be greater.
Example : Swinging ball in cricket.
 Mass : The smaller the mass (lighter the object), the more air resistance will affect it.
Example : Movement of the shuttle in badminton.

c) Speed of Release : This refers to how fast the object is released (thrown or hit). The muscle
force largely determines a projectile speed of release. Generally, the greater the release
rate, the greater the distance gained. Example : Speed of release in throwing events like
javelin, discus, etc.
d) Speed of release: This refers to how fast the object is released (thrown or hit). The muscle
force largely determines a projectile speed of release. Generally, the greater the release rate,
the greater the distance gained.
Example: Speed of release in throwing events like javelin, discus, etc.
e) Angle of release/ projection angle: This refers to the pitch at which the object is thrown or hit
into the air. In sporting situations, the angle of release varies according to the activity. A
basketball angle above 45 degrees is required in activities such as shooting.
In activities such as tennis, a lower, around 3-to-15-degree grade is required.
f) Height of release: This refers to how high above the ground an object is released. Increasing
the height of release improves the horizontal distance an object can be projected. For a given
speed and angle of release, the greater the height of release, the greater the distance gained.
Example: Height of release in throwing events like javelin, Hammer throw, etc
g) Spin: Spin happens as a ball moving through the air will move in the direction of at least air
pressure. This helps the projectile maintain its course and can cause it to change height or
direction. When applying force to a projectile below, above, or the side of the centre of
gravity, you will impart spin to the projectile.
Example: principle of spin in basketball shooting.
 APPLICATION OF PROJECTILE IN SPORTS
There are many instances where projectile motion is applicable, whether it
is in daily life, sports, or technological advancements.
Here are some of the applications of projectile motion given below:

Sports
Projectile motion is very common in sports since most sports involve the motion of a projectile
(usually a ball). By using physics, we are able to determine the optimal angle of a ball’s flight
in order to maximize speed or distance.
Baseball
Pitching analysis: Projectile motion is applicable in both throwing and
hitting. A thrown ball undergoes projectile motion when it is mid-air
since the only force that affects the ball is the acceleration due to
gravity. A variety of factors will go into the trajectory of a pitch,
including a pitcher’s height, arm angle, and the spin being applied
to the ball.
Hitting Analysis
In terms of hitting, advanced analytics like to use ―launch
angle‖ as a good indicator of the optimal angle that a ball
should be hit. Launch angle is the angle at which a ball exits the
bat as soon as they connect with each other. The best launch
angles, which allow for line drives and home runs, are
calculated to be around 10–30 degrees North of East, relative to
the bat. This allows for the most optimal ball flight, usually
necessary to hit the ball over 325 to 400 feet over the fence.

Basketball
Another example of projectile motion in sports is basketball.
For a basketball shot to enter the hoop, the basketball must be
shot at a certain angle with a certain amount of force. The
optimal angle of a shot will vary depending on the height from
which the ball is shot and the player’s distance from the hoop.
According to Professor John Fontanella, the ideal angles from
the free-throw line will vary from 48.7 degrees to 52.2 degrees,
with shorter players.
Class 12 Physical Education

Unit - 9
Psychology
and Sports
 Personality
 The word personality is derived from the Latin word persona, the
mask used by actors in the Roman theatre for changing their
appearance for performing in front of their audience according
to the given role.

 Personality usually means that an individual is much more than

his outer appearance. Personality is a dynamic and organized
set of characteristics possessed by a person that influences his/her
cognitions, emotions, motivations and behaviors in various
situations.

 Personality also refers to the patterns of thoughts, feelings, social

adjustments and behaviors persistently exhibited over time that
strongly influences one's expectations, self-perceptions, attitudes
and values.
 Dimensions of Personality
 Physical dimension is considered the most significant
dimension of personality. It is based on the fact that
first impression is the last impression. In fact, physical
Physical dimension is related to good physique, good appearance, good health, etc.
Dimension  Physically weak individuals can neither protect themselves nor contribute
in the progress of their nation. That is why Greeks and Romans used to lay
stress on the development of physique, grace, strength, etc. So, physical
dimension is really a significant dimension of personality.

 Mental dimension is the most significant attribute of personality. Mental

dimension is related to mental and intellectual strength and abilities.
Mental dimension is too vital to be ignored. The real identification of
Mental personality lies in mental dimension.
Dimension  Many great personalities of the world were not good looking but
they possessed mental and intellectual qualities. The development
of thinking, reasoning, intuition and judgement, etc., are possible
only through education.
 Social dimension is the next important dimension
of personality. Humans are social animals.
Social He lives in a society in which socialization takes
Dimension place. Man does not live for himself alone, he lives
for others too. Sociability is inherent in man's
biological nature.

 Emotional dimension is also an important dimension

of personality. Emotional dimension is related to
emotional stability. To have emotional stability
Emotional is an essential aspect of one's personality.
Dimension  It means that one must have proper control over various emotions
such as fear, anger, disgust, distress, amusement, happiness, etc.,
in different situations.
 Jung‟s Classification
CG Jung has classified personality on the basis of sociability character as
introverts, extroverts and ambiverts. These are described below :
Introverts : These are the persons who share characteristics such as shyness, social
withdrawal and tendency to talk less. Owing to these characteristics such persons seem to
be self-centered, unable to adjust easily in society or social situations. They are very
sensible, rigid in ideas and future oriented.

Extroverts : Extroverts have a tendency to be friendly, outgoing, talkative and social in nature.
They usually prefer social contacts. They are generous, supportive and courageous. They may be
called happy, go, lucky persons. They show interest in present reality than future. They do not
have hesitation. They express their feelings openly. They take decision and act upon it quickly.
They are not affected easily by difficulties and troubles.

Ambiverts : There are only few persons who are pure introverts or pure extroverts.
The remaining majority of persons possess both the qualities or traits of introverts
and extroverts such persons are called as ambiverts.
 Big Five Personality Theory
1) Openness : Persons who like to learn new things, new concepts and enjoy new experiences usually
remain on the top in openness. Openness includes traits like being imaginative, insightful and
having a variety of interests.

2) Conscientiousness :sPersons who have a high degree of conscientiousness are reliable and prompt.
Such persons remain organised, systematic, laborious and complete in all respects.

3) Extraversion : Extraversion refers to dimension of personality which ranges from

having enthusiasm, energy, positive emotions, talkativeness, assertiveness at one end
to being reserved, sober and cautious at the other.

4) Agreableness : Such individuals are friendly, cooperative, compatible, kind and

gentle. Persons with too agreeableness may be more distant or aloof. They are usually
kind, generous, affectionate and sympathetic.

5) Neuroticism : Neuroticism is also called emotional stability. This domain or dimension

relates to one's emotional stability and the degree of negative emotions. Persons who
have high neuroticism usually experience emotional instability and negative emotions.
Such individuals remain moody and tense.
 Motivation, Its Types and Techniques
 Motivation is one of the main psychological factors which affects performance.
Motivation means to be inspired to do something.
 The definition of motivation is to give reason, enthusiasm or interest that
causes a specific action or certain behaviour.
 Motivation is present in every function of life. Simple acts such as eating
and drinking are motivated by hunger and thirst, respectively.

Types of Motivation
1) Intrinsic Motivation : Intrinsic motivation is internal. It occurs when people are compelled to do
something out of pleasure, importance or desire. Motivation is always intrinsic when the force comes
from within oneself. For example, when a person indulges in any sports to have mastery, to display
superiority or to gain social approval, it is an intrinsic motivation.
2) Extrinsic Motivation : Extrinsic motivation is external. It occurs when external factors compel the
person to do something. Motivation is always extrinsic, when external forces, positive or negative
produce a behavioral change. Reward, punishment, praise, blame or cash prize are examples of
extrinsic motivation. In fact, extrinsic motivation includes factors that motivate the individual in
achieving the goals.
 Techniques of Motivation
Cognitive  The active processing and interpretation of
Approach information influences the persistent and purposive
drive for action by an individual. It is based on the
notion that desired motivation can be achieved by
an individual through active processing and
interpretation of information.
 Expectancy theory and Goal Setting theory is widely
used as a cognitive approach for motivation.
 The goal setting concept maintains that a stronger
drive for actions and behaviour is fuelled by quality
of information on time set for task attainment
along with task difficulty level and specificity of the
task.
Pedagogical
Approach
 Teaching coaching pedagogies used
in sports training for planned
outcome is largely responsible in
guiding and maintaining the desired
behaviour of athletes.
 Adequate communication and
maintenance of positive relationship
during training is an essential
component influencing the
motivation of athletes towards a
consistent action or behaviour.
Let us discuss few techniques of motivation using a pedagogical approach
a) Guided Discovery Method : Athletes are highly motivated if allowed to find solutions to the
problems by themselves rather than if they are just made to do things as per instruction.

b) Valuable Feedback System : To persuade athletes to push harder for a longer period of time,
they must be provided with a strong support system. Assisting athletes with feedback which can
provide them with specific direction to move in is an effective means towards effective
motivation.

c) Fun-based Training : Training should be challenging and task-oriented for optimal

performance. However, for providing athletes with enough drive and energy to sustain them,
training methods should involve fun and enjoyment for athletes. Adding creativity and
innovation to training and the teaching-learning system helps in adding motivation for athletes
to persist with continuous demands of training load.

d) Individualized Training Program (ITP/IEP) : All athletes are unique and respond differently to
the vast variety of training demands. Each athlete is a unique individual and should have a
training programme designed for their abilities and capabilities and which is within attainable
limits of the athletes. Individualized training programmes or individualized education
programmes are very essential in sports to help athletes to set their own targets, challenges and
difficulty levels which will not only help them to avoid burnout, but also keep them motivated.
Social Support
Strategy Participation in sports and taking
up exercise is greatly influenced by
an understanding of the social
networking and perception of
people around them. Conducive
exercise environment, creating drive
among people to initiate and
maintain sporting behaviour is
deeply affected by the societal
pressure or support provided to the
individual.
 Facilitation Approach

a) Incentives and Rewards : Drive towards an action to maintain it for a long term may
sometimes need external support. Awards and rewards work effectively as a motivation
force for athletes to pursue sports with consistency and continuity.
b) Valance of Reward : Many time prizes and awards are used extrinsic sources of motivation
to maintain a desired action or behaviour. But, at times, even these may prove to be
ineffective. It is essential to understand that external factors like prize money or medals do
motivate athletes, but the most important aspect is to understand the need and
expectation of the individual athlete, this is known as „valance‟ of the reward or valuing
the award.
c) Performance appraisals : Motivation or the driving force for any desired behaviour to last
over a long period of time may need support of being recognised and praised for the
current and past endeavours.
d) Quality Support and Facilitation : Motivation for an action is influenced by the amount of
facilitation made available for athletes, but the impact is larger only if the quality of
support is of a high standard.
 Exercise
Exercise Adherence is a
Adherence combination of two words
'exercise' and 'adherence'.
Exercise means any
movement that makes your
muscles work and requires
your body to burn calories,
whereas adherence means
"to stick".
 Reasons to Exercise
Enhanced Physical Appearance : Not only can exercise help you feel better, but it also helps us to look better as
well. However, genetics play a major role in our physical or overall appearance.

Improved Psychological/Emotional Health : Improved psychological/emotional health is also one of the reasons to
exercise. In fact, exercise has been proven to provide a mood booster as it releases chemicals like endorphins into
our brain that help us to feel happier and can ease the effects of depression, ADHD and anxiety

Feel More Energized : One of the reasons to exercise regularly is that it gives us more energy or we feel more
energized. Indeed, a workout can help oxygen flow more freely throughout the body and give us a much needed
burst of energy. This burst of energy not only occurs during exercise, but also after exercise

Decreased Risk of Diseases : Decreasing the risk of diseases is also one of the reasons to exercise.
As a matter of fact, exercise builds up and improves circulation of white blood cells, which we
need to get rid of harmful bacteria that cause us to fall sick

For Controlling Body Weight : Controlling body weight is another reason to exercise. If it is
done regularly, it helps to control and manage our body weight

For Improved Social Relations : Improved social relations is also one of the significant
reasons to exercise. For good social health, social relations are essential. By joining an
exercise group or a class such as dance, hiking club or volleyball team, our social relations are improved.
 Benefits of Exercise
1) Reduced Risk of Heart Diseases : Regular exercise gradually reduces the stress related hormones from
circulating in the blood stream. This increases the blood vessel path, which in turn lowers the risk for
developing plaque that can lead to various heart diseases such as coronary heart diseases.
2) Helps in Keeping Correct Body Posture : By doing exercise, the strength of muscles
increases, which in turn, keeps the body posture in correct position. Also postural
deformities do not occur. If there is any postural deformity, it is removed by engaging in exercise.
3) Improves Mood : Exercise makes most of the individuals feel good and when they feel good their good
energy seem to elevate. It is considered that it is due to the release of hormones called endorphins.
4) Boosts Memory : Regular physical exercise boosts memory and ability to learn new things. In fact,
regular exercises increase hippocampus cells which are responsible for memory and learning.
5) Reduces Depression : Research studies indicate that regular physical exercise can greatly reduce
depression and in some cases prevent the symptoms of depression. As a matter of fact, aerobic and
anaerobic exercises seem to be equally effective in producing antidepressant effects.
6) Improves Mental Alertness : Stress, tension and fatigue negatively affect concentration,
comprehension and memory. Since exercise is the best way to reduce stress and improve
energy levels, a regular exercise will enhance mental alertness. By improving the
circulation of blood and consequently that of oxygen and nutrients, our brain can think better.
 Strategies for Enhancing Adherence to Exercise
1) Goal Setting : A moderate bout of acute exercise (20-30 min) is considered to be
beneficial for improving positive psychological effects of exercise. Exercise
performed above lactate threshold (LT) is perceived as unpleasant and the
participant may like to discontinue it due to overexertion and discomfort.
Therefore, along with setting of SMART – Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Realistic, Time based – goals.
2) Adding Variety to Exercise : Lack of new variety of exercise may lead to boredom
and dropping out. Boredom can be tackled with the addition of a variety of
exercises and moves that address the same body issues, without loss of
therapeutic benefits.
3) Social Support Enhancement : Increasing social support refers to engagement of
friends or other members who can contribute towards positive participation in
physical activity, exercise and sports because social interaction may help fuel goal
achievement and thus produce good results
4) Contract : While acute bout of exercise has been associated with positive effects,
chronic exercise habits or regular exercise behaviour are important for maintaining
these benefits. Therefore, promoting participants for signing an intent to comply
through a written contract which has specified expectations, responsibilities and
contingencies for behavioural changes have found to be more effective in exercise
adherence among the participants.
5) Reinforcement Interventions : Positive as well as negative reinforcement approaches
have found to be effective in exercise adherence. Use of incentives and rewards for
appreciating attendance and participation or awarding with badges have been
proved effective in maintaining exercise behaviour among participants as well as
motivation from many to initiate and engage in physical activity.
6) Feedback : Providing feedback to the participants in physical activity provides much
needed direction and energy for prolonging and continuing exercise behaviour.
7) Process Orientation : Exercise programmes based on outcome goals or product goals
like weight loss, physique and appearance etc. are found to be effective in the initial
stages of exercise adoption, but it is difficult to maintain the drive with prolonged
exercise behaviour.
 In psychology, the term aggression refers to a
range of behaviors that can result in both Meaning of
physical and psychological harm to oneself,
others or objects in the environment. This type of
Aggression
social interaction centers on harming another
individual either physically or mentally.
 In fact, aggression in the field of sports and
games comes out of frustration, which arises due
to goal blockage. Along with this, situational
and personal factors play a vital role in causing
a person to behave aggressively.
 It can be seen that aggression comes from a
number of sources but first of all it is more
essential for us to understand the clear- cut
meaning of aggression.
 Types of Aggression in Sports
Hostile aggression is inflicting or causing harm whether it is physical or
psychological on someone else. It is sometimes referred as reactive
Hostile aggression and can be accompanied by anger. In hostile aggression, the
main aim is to cause injury to other sportsperson. A good example of hostile
Aggression aggression is a bowler throwing a bouncer deliberately to
shake up the concentration of a batsman.
Instrumental aggression is displaying aggressive behaviour in the
Instrumental pursuit of a non-aggressive goal, It is also known as channelled
aggression and is not accompanied by anger. This type of
Aggression aggression comes in contact sports. For example, a rugby player
using aggression to tackle his opponent to win the ball.
Assertive behaviour is different type of aggression/ aggressive
behaviour. This is defined as behaviour that involves the use of
Assertive legitimate physical or verbal force to achieve one's purpose. For
example, sledging in cricket to cause psychological discomfort for the
Behaviour batsman. In assertive aggression or assertive behaviour, the intention
is to establish dominance rather than to harm the opponent.
 Psychological Attributes in Sports
Attributes are perceived to be essential for performance effectiveness and athlete
development, where athletes abilities to perform, understand and manage training and
competition environment and other important factors have many positive effects. From several
attributes which are considered to be essential, self-esteem, mental imagery, self talk and goal
setting is being discussed :

1) Self-Esteem :
a) Confidence : High self-esteem is closely linked to
confidence in one's abilities. Athletes with healthy
self-esteem are more likely to believe in themselves
and their capacity to perform well.
b) Resilience : Individuals with strong self-esteem
tend to bounce back from setbacks more easily.
They view failures as temporary and are less likely
to be discouraged by them.
2) Mental Imagery :
a) Visualization : Mental imagery is a powerful tool that involves creating a
mental picture of a desired outcome. Athletes can use this to enhance their
performance by mentally rehearsing their actions before physically
executing them.
b) Stress Reduction : By visualizing success and positive outcomes, athletes can
reduce anxiety and nervousness, leading to better performance under
pressure.
How to practice Imagery :
 Mental imagery techniques have been implemented with various different models and
strategies.
 On of the very popular model is PETTLEP framework. PETTLEP model for mental imagery
intervention framework is an acronym representing a seven point checklist of guidelines to
be followed when devising an imagery intervention that can provide an effective execution
of imagery interventions for athletes.
 These are Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion, and Perspective. Mental
Imagery intervention and training can be effective in enhancing performance.
 3. Self Talk Self-talk is defined as overt or covert personal
dialogue in which the athlete interprets feelings,
perceptions, and convictions and gives himself
instructions and reinforcement. Self-talk is an
effective technique to control thoughts and to
influence feelings. Thoughts and feelings can
influence self-confidence as well as performance.
Sports scientists support for the use of self-talk
strategies to improve performance in exercise and
sport tasks.

For self-talk to be effective, it is suggested that self-talk statements be :

a) Brief and phonetically simple,
b) Logically associated with the skill involved, and
c) Compatible with the sequential timing of the task being performed.
 Types of Self Talk
Three primary categories of self-talk include task-specific
statements, encouragement and effort, and mood words.
These three categories are further clarified below :
1) Task-specific statements relating to technique category of self-talk refers to words or
statements that reinforce technique. For example, in the tennis volley, the word “turn”
might be used in association with preparation for stepping into the volley.
2) Encouragement and effort category of self-talk refers to words or statements that provide
self-encouragement to persevere or to try harder. For example, the phrase “You can do it”
might be used in preparation for an anticipated play at home plate in softball.
3) Mood words category of self-talk refers to words that precipitate an increase in mood or
arousal. For example, the mood words “hard” or “blast” might be used in conjunction with
a play in football or soccer.
 Building and developing
self-efficacy

Skill acquisition
Benefits
of Self Creating and changing
mood

Talk Controlling effort

Focusing attention or
concentration
4. Goal  Goal setting is a mental training technique that
Setting can be used to increase an individual‟s
commitment towards achieving a specific
standard of proficiency on a task within a
specified time.
 It is a process of establishing a level of
performance proficiency which should be
reached within a prescribed time period is
known as goal setting.
 Goal setting works because it focuses attention
on specific task demands, increases effort and
intensity, encourages persistence when adversity
is encountered, and promotes the development
of strategies and problem solving to move
toward goal achievement.
 Types of Goals
1) Outcome Goal : Give priority and importance to the final outcome of a
sporting event. Examples of outcome goals may include winning a
sport, losing the desired amount of weight, or scoring a top rank in
school.
2) Performance Goal : Focus on achievements of athletes relatively
independent of other competitors or teammates. Performance goals
may help us in quantifying our efforts and measuring the progress and
also achieve outcome goals in the process.
3) Process Goal : Focus on specific behaviour or task throughout a
competition, training or specific task demans in productive ways, such
as occupying their minds with key verbal cues that lock in optimal
performance images and plans.
Principles of Goal Setting
Make goals specific, measurable, and observable
Clearly identify time constraints

Use moderately difficult goals; they are superior to either easy

or very difficult goals

Write goals down and regularly monitor progress

Use a mix of process, performance, and outcome goals
Use short-range goals to achieve long-range goals

Set team as well as individual performance goals

Set practice as well as competition goals
Make sure goals are internalized by the athlete
Consider personality and individual differences in goal setting
 Improved focus attention

Develop persistence
Benefits
of Goal Mobilization of efforts

Setting Developing new learning

techniques

Increased motivation
Class 12 Physical Education

Chapter - 10
Training
in Sports
 Concept of Talent Identification and Talent Development in Sports
Talent Talent can be defined as adequate aptitude or ability in one
direction, above the normal average. Thus, someone who has talent
can do something without trying hard.

 Talent identification can also be defined as “the process by which Talent

Identification
children are encouraged to participate in the sport they are
most likely to succeed, based on selected parameters. These
parameters are designed to predict performance capacity,
considering the child’s current level of fitness and maturity.”
 As talent identification is often confused with latent
development, keeping the above definition clearly in mind is
necessary. Identifying is the first step in progressing from
beginner to a successful international athlete; talent
development follows this as the next critical phase in achieving
sporting success.
Process of Talent Identification and Development is classified into five stages as follows :
1) Talent Detection : This is the discovery of potential performers who are not currently
involved in the sport in question.
2) Talent Identification : Recognizing participants with the potential at an earlier age to
become elite performers in the future.
3) Talent Development : Provides athletes with a suitable learning environment to
accelerate or realize their potential.
4) Talent Selection : The ongoing process of identifying individuals at various stages of
development who demonstrate pre-requisite performance levels.
5) Talent Transfer : Focuses on transfer from one sport to another sport where there are
more significant opportunities to succeed.

These five steps are common across sporting in Talent Identification and
Development System and are often operationalized within the everyday
practice (i.e., identification or selection for the next step of a programme is
influenced by performance in the previous development environment).
 Importance of Talent Identification
 Discovery of the great talent
 Recognition of the hidden talent
 By recognition the talent at the early stage, the children can show their skills at
their extreme
 Talent identification helps in finding a significant asset for the country

Components of Talent Identification

 The main components of Talent Identification (TID) can be divided into the
following categories:
 Physiological attributes
 Physical attributes
 Psychological attributes
 Technical/Tactical attributes
 Results
 Intangibles
 Introduction to Sports Training Cycle – Micro, Meso, Macro Cycle
 Different periods of the training year, namely preparatory periods, competition periods, and
transitional periods; various training cycles, i.e., microcycle, mesocycle, and macrocycle, are all
sectional plans. They are prepared based on the needs and recommendations of the annual plan.
These plans being shorter in duration, the details regarding the training of different performance
components are more specific.

1) Micro Cycle :
 The duration of this cycle is 3 to 10 days and is thus considered the shortest cycle of training. In
the case of an intermediate and high-performance sportsperson, this cycle lasts 5 to 10 days.
The last day of the micro cycle provides active recovery and relaxation to the sportsperson to
prepare him for training in the next micro cycle.
 The following three proportions of high and medium or low load are adopted in the
micro-cycle :
a) 1:1, i.e., every day of the high load is followed by a day of medium load.
b) 2:1, i.e., every two days of high load are followed by a day of medium load.
c) 3:1, i.e., every three days of high load are followed by a medium or low load day.
2) Meso Cycle :
 The duration of this training cycle is 3 to 6 weeks and is thus termed a cycle of medium
duration. The purpose of this cycle is to tackle specific training tasks. These tasks are :
a) Learning and acquiring mastery of skills;
b) Maintenance and stabilization of performance;
c) Development of physical and motor fitness components;
d) Preparation for a specific competition;
e) Attainment of optimal level of performance;
f) Preparation for the next mesocycle by providing recovery and relaxation.
 A mesocycle of 4 weeks is considered the best because this is the minimum period within
which significant change is affected in the physiological and psychological factors. The last
week of the training mesocycle is considered a transitional phase that ensures recovery and
relaxation.

3) Macro Cycle :
 The duration of this cycle is 3 to 12 months and it is, thus, considered the most extended
cycle of training. The purpose of the macrocycle is to enable the sportsperson to improve
the performance capacity to put up an optimal performance, at a specific time, during the
competition. A macrocycle comprises several mesocycles; the last mesocycle ensures
recovery and realization for a smooth transition to the following macrocycle.
 Strength
 Strength is one of the most crucial motor components of fitness and plays a significant role in
sporting events as it is a direct product of muscle contraction. It is a conditional ability that depends
on the energy liberation process in the muscles. The amount of force muscles can produce to
complete a task is known as strength.
 In simple words, strength is the ability of a group of muscles to overcome resistance.

Types of Strength: Dynamic and Static

1) Dynamic Strength :
Dynamic strength is also known as isotonic strength. In pull-ups and push-ups, we required dynamic strength.
In performing such a workout, there is a diminishing tendency in dynamic strength, and as a result, muscles
refuse to do work after some time. The man cannot do even one extra pull-up or push-up at this stage.
Movements are visible when someone uses dynamic strength.

Generally, dynamic strength can be divided into three parts :

Maximum Strength Explosive Strength Strength Endurance

a) Maximum Strength :
 Maximum strength means exerting force against resistance in
the maximal effort. Though maximum strength does not hold
much importance in most sports but is undoubtedly required in
sports like long jump, shot put, javelin throw, weightlifting,
discus throw, etc. These sporting events require the tacking of
heavy resistance.
b) Explosive Strength :
 Explosive strength is particular to the nature of movement and
is greatly influenced by motor coordination, i.e., inter and
intramuscular coordination. This strength is mainly used in
volleyball spiking, jumps in basketball, sprint events, etc.
c) Strength Endurance :
 Strength endurance can be a form of static or dynamic
strength depending upon whether the movement is isometric
(static) or isotonic (active). This strength is mainly used in
long-distance races of athletics, swimming, distance cycling,
etc.
2) Static Strength :
 Static strength is also called isometric strength. It is the ability of the muscles to act against
resistance. Static strength can be measured with a dynamometer. This type of strength is
not seen directly. Some static strength is not usually applied in sports, but it is used in phases
in weightlifting. Example : Plank or yoga asanas.

Methods to Develop Strength

a) Isometric Exercise : These are the exercises that are
not visible as there are no direct movements.
Therefore, isometric exercises cannot be observed. In
these exercises, work performed cannot be seen
directly, like pushing a wall. These exercises involve
muscles carrying out tension against the other group
of muscles. There is no change in the muscle length
when such exercises are done, hence they are called
“iso” metric.
b) Isotonic Exercise : These are exercises in which movements can
be seen directly. Isotonic exercises result in toned muscles and
increased muscle length. These exercises hold much
importance when it comes to sports. This method is
considered to be the best method to develop strength.
Examples of isotonic exercises include running and jumping
on the spot, weight training exercises, and calisthenics
exercises.
c) Isokinetic Exercise : This method was introduced by J.J.
Perrine in 1968 and involves a particular type of muscle
contraction called isokinetic contraction, generally used in
sporting events like rowing and swimming. These exercises
are performed on specially designed instruments.
In isokinetic contraction, the muscles apply maximal force
throughout the range of motion around the joint. Whereas in
isotonic contraction, the pressure is applied at a particular
angle. The use of isokinetic contraction is minimal.
Hence, the contribution of isokinetic contraction in
developing strength is yet to be scientifically proved.
 Endurance
 Endurance is the ability of a person to maintain a certain level of energy
production for a more extended period. It is the ability to sustain an activity.
 Like strength, endurance is also a conditional ability. Endurance has been studied
thoroughly and deeply because it holds great importance in health, training, and
competition.
 Endurance plays a vital role in almost every activity, directly or indirectly. It is
either measured by the number of repetitions or the times an action is performed.

Endurance

Nature of the Activity Duration of the Activity

 Types of Endurance
I. Classification according to the nature of the activity.
II. This classification is based on the kind of activity
required for endurance. It can be classified into the
following types :

Types of Endurance – Nature of Activity

General Specific
Basic Endurance
Endurance Endurance
1) Basic Endurance :
This is the ability of a person to resist fatigue in which the load is of
medium intensity and involves aerobic muscular metabolism.
Therefore, it can be said that it is the ability to do movements that
involve a large number of muscles at a slow pace for a prolonged
period. For example, jogging, cycling, and swimming for more than
30 minutes. Basic endurance forms the base for all other types of
endurance.
2) General Endurance :
It is the ability to do such sporting movements for a prolonged
duration that are general. This type is not specific to any sport and
can be developed by performing general exercises. Unlike essential
endurance, in which the intensity of the activity is medium, general
endurance activities may incorporate high-intensity practices. But
the duration for general endurance is much shorter than essential
endurance.

3) Specific Endurance :
This is the ability to perform movements of a particular sport to
resist fatigue. Specific endurance varies from activity to activity as it
depends on the nature of fatigue. For example, the specific
endurance of a hockey player is different from that of a marathon
runner or a cyclist as the need for the activity is different.
II. Classification according to the Duration of the Activity :

Duration of the Activity

Speed Short Term Medium Term Long Term

Endurance Endurance Endurance Endurance
1) Speed Endurance : This is the ability to resist fatigue in cyclic activities that last up to 45 seconds.
The classic example of this endurance type is a 400m sprint in track and field. This type of
endurance is majorly dependent on the power and capacity to produce energy.
2) Short Term Endurance : This ability is needed for activities lasting 45 seconds to about 2 minutes.
The most appropriate example for short term endurance is an 800m run. This endurance depends
majorly on speed endurance and strength endurance.
3) Medium Time Endurance : Medium time endurance is needed to resist fatigue in activities lasting
from 2 minutes to about 11 minutes. The most common example of this type is 1500m and 3000m
run and 100m rowing. As in short-time endurance, this type of endurance also depends on speed
and strength endurance, but to a limited extent.
4) Long Time Endurance : This type of endurance is
needed for activities that last for more than 11
minutes. This type of endurance is required in
events like marathons, cross country, etc.

Methods to Develop Endurance

Developing Endurance

Continuous Method Interval Method Repetition Method

Slow Continuous Method
Slow or Extensive
Fast Continuous Method Interval Method
Variable Pace Method
Fast or Intensive
Fartlek Method Interval Method
The various methods to develop endurance are discussed below :
1) Continuous Method : As the name suggests, this method is about continuity. In
this method, an exercise is done for a longer time without any rest. Because the
duration of the activity is long and continuous, the training intensity is low. This
method has the following subcategories :
a) Slow Continuous Method : In this method, the activity is performed at a certain speed without
any break for a long duration. The speed of exercise is usually determined according to heart
rate. The duration of the training should not be less than 30 minutes. This method is used for
walking, running, cycling, etc.
Effect :
Due to relatively low intensity and long duration, the effect of this method is limited mainly
to the muscles, but there are few psychic and positive effects on
metabolism. Some of the most significant changes are :
 Increased muscle glycogen.
 Increased liver glycogen.
 Increased capillarization.
 Increased number and size of mitochondria.
 Improved thermal regulation.
b) Fast Continuous Method : The activity is performed comparatively fast, but the speed remains
uniform throughout the training. Heart rate during the training should be between 160-180
beats per minute. Because the intensity is high and is more strenuous
and exhaustive than the slow continuous method, the duration of
the activity should be at least 20 minutes.
Effects :
 Effective for improving VO2 max.
 Improved capacity of muscles to consume oxygen.
 Significant increase in the size and number of mitochondria.
 Improved anaerobic capacity.
c) Variable Pace Method : In this method, activity is performed at a changing pace, but this change
in speed is pre-planned. The heart rate usually ranges between 140-180 beats per minute during
this method. The duration of this method may range from 15 minutes to 1 hour. Due to the varied
pace, this exercise is very strenuous and should be done by trained athletes.
Effect of Variable Pace Method :
 Increases glycogen in the muscles.
 Increases the number and size of mitochondria.
 Increases efficiency of heart and lungs.
 Improves willpower and confidence.
 Improve VO2 Max.
d) Fartlek Method : Fartlek is a Swedish word that means „speed play.‟ In other
words, it is another variation of the variable pace method. The difference
between the two is in the Fartlek method the speed variation is not planned.
The athlete changes the speed of his own accord during the activity due to
changes in terrain, surroundings, and feelings. The
heart rate and duration of the training are similar
to the variable pace method.
Major effects of this method :
 Promotes weight loss.
 It‟s an excellent test for strength and endurance.
 It improves speed and race tactics.
 It improves the mind over matter game.
 Increases physical and mental energy.
 Improves flexibility.
 Improves Fast and Slow Twitch Muscle Response.
2) Interval Method : It is the most versatile method used for improving endurance. In this
method, the activity is practiced at a comparatively high intensity with intervals or
breaks of incomplete recovery. It is based on the principle that “work should be done
with sufficient speed and duration so that the heart rate goes up to 180 beats per
minute. After this, there should be a short interval, and when the heart rate drops down
to 120-130 beats per minute, the work should start again.”
The most important effects of this method :
 Improved circulatory system.
 Improved aerobic capacity.
 Improved lactic acid tolerance.
 Improved VO2 max.
3) Repetition Method : The repetition method is characterized by a high intensity that
ranges from 90-to 100% of work with an interval of complete
recovery. It is the best method to develop speed endurance.
The Essential effects of this method are :
 Improved anaerobic capacity.
 Improved lactic acid tolerance.
 Improved phosphagen stores.
Speed  Speed has a complex nature and depends considerably on the
central nervous system. Speed ability, in sports, signifies the
ability to execute motor movements as quickly as possible. These
movements can be cyclic or acyclic.
 Certain factors help in determining the speed of an individual,
such as mobility of the nervous system, explosive strength of an
individual, correct technique of performing a task, bio-chemical
reserves and metabolic power of an individual, flexibility, and
certain psychic factors like optimum arousal, attention,
motivation, concentration, ability to relax, etc.

Types of Speed

Reaction Acceleration Movement Locomotor Speed

Ability Ability Speed Ability Endurance
1) Reaction Ability : Reaction ability is the ability to react quickly to a stimulus or signal. It depends
entirely on the coordinative abilities of an individual. Different games and sports have other signs
like visual, auditory and tactile, to name a few. And to respond to such signals accurately and as
quickly as possible is known as reaction ability. It can be further classified into simple and
complex reaction abilities.
2) Acceleration Ability : Acceleration ability is the ability to achieve a high locomotion speed from a
stationary position. It depends significantly on the explosive strength, technique, and movement
frequency. This ability is essential in almost every game and sport but greatly influences sprinting
events.
3) Movement Speed : Movement speed can be defined as the ability to perform a single movement in
the minimum possible time. It is highly related to acyclic sports, but its importance in cyclic sports
is limited to the initial phase. It is dependent on the technique and explosive strength.
4) Locomotor Ability : Locomotor ability is the ability to maintain maximum speed when in motion
for the maximum possible duration or distance. It is essential in sports like 100m and 200m
sprints, speed skating, and short sprints in cycling. Locomotor ability depends highly on the
mobility of the nervous system. The chances of improving locomotor ability are relatively low.
5) Speed Endurance : Speed endurance is a combination of two words, speed and endurance. It is the
ability to do the movement with high speed for a longer duration, i.e., under fatigue. It depends
highly on anaerobic capacity, technique, and psychic factors.
 Methods to Develop Speed
1) Acceleration Runs :
 Acceleration runs are usually adopted to develop speed, specially in
attaining maximum speed from stationary position.
 For example, In 100 m sprint race, we should lay stress on the
technique of start and complete running action, we should practice
it at a slow speed. After learning the proper technique, we should
practice that technique at a higher speed. After good amount of
practice of complete technique, we may switch over to acceleration
runs.

2) Pace Runs or Races :

 Pace races mean running the whole distance of a race at a constant
speed. In pace races, an athlete runs the race with uniform speed.
 For example, If there is a runner of 800 m race and his best time is 1
minute 40 seconds. So, he/she should run the first 400 m in 49
seconds and the next 400 m in 51 seconds. This procedure is called
pace race or pace run
Flexibility
Flexibility is the range of movements of joints.

In other words, it means the range of motion available in a

joint. Flexibility can be defined as the ability to execute
movements with greater amplitude or range.

Flexibility is affected by muscle strength, the structure of the

joints, tendons, ligaments, and other factors. A person
possessing good flexibility can perform daily tasks with greater
ease and comparatively more efficiency and effectiveness.
 Types of flexibility
1) Passive Flexibility : The ability to do movements with greater distance with external
help is called passive flexibility, e.g., stretching exercises with the help of a partner.
Passive flexibility is always more than active flexibility. In fact, passive flexibility is the
foundation for active flexibility.
2) Active Flexibility : Active flexibility is the ability to do movement for a longer distance
without external help, e.g., to do a stretch without the help of a partner. Active
flexibility can further be divided into two parts-static flexibility and dynamic flexibility.
a) Static Flexibility : Static flexibility is usually required by a sportsperson when he/she remains
in static position, e.g., in diving, sitting, lying and starting position in various sports.
b) Dynamic Flexibility : Dynamic flexibility is needed for doing movements with greater
distance when an individual is in motion.
Both types of flexibilities are essential for a general individual and for a sportsperson.
Flexibility can be achieved by stretching exercises. Before performing stretching exercises one
should do gentle jogging or slow running (warming-up).
 Methods to Improve Flexibility
Ballistic Static Stretching Dynamic Stretching
Method Method Method

Proprioceptive Neuro-
Muscular Facilitation
Technique
 Methods to Improve Flexibility
 In ballistic method, the movement is performed with a swing in a rhythmic
way. The related joint is stretched with a swing. The stretching exercise can be
Ballistic Method performed rhythmically with a count.
 Before performing such exercise, appropriate warm-up is essential because
there are maximum chances of over-stretching of a joint.

Static Stretching  Static stretching method involves gradually easing into the stretch position
and holding the position. The amount of time a static stretch is held depends
Method on one's purpose.

Dynamic Stretching  Dynamic stretching consists of controlled leg and arm swings that take you
gently to the limit of your range of motion. If an event requires a dynamic
Method movement, it is appropriate to conduct dynamic stretching exercises.

 This technique or method is used by advanced sportspersons for gaining

Proprioceptive Neuro- flexibility. PNF involves the use of muscle contraction before the stretch in an
Muscular Facilitation attempt to achieve maximum muscle relaxation.
 For gaining flexibility in the shortest possible time, PNF technique is the most
Technique appropriate method for increasing or developing flexibility.
 Coordinative Abilities
 "The coordinative abilities are those abilities of an individual which enable the
individual to do various related activities properly as well as efficiently.
 Coordinative abilities primarily depend on the central nervous system‟s motor
control and regulation process.

Types of Coordinative Abilities

1) Orientation Ability : It is the ability to determine the position of the body and its parts in time and space in
relation to gravity, moving objects like ball, opponent, partner, playing field, etc.
2) Coupling Ability : Coupling ability is the ability to combine the movements of different body parts for
performing perfect sports movements. For example, in boxing, the movements of hands, head, trunk and feet
are essential to couple to achieve a certain goal.
3) Reaction Ability : Reaction ability is the ability to react immediately or quickly and effectively to a signal.
Generally, there are two types of reaction ability such as simple reaction ability and complex reaction ability.
a) Simple Reaction Ability : It is the ability to react immediately or quickly in already determined manner to a
well-known signal. For example, the reaction of a runner in the start of sprint races is already known to the
runner.
b) Complex Reaction Ability : It is the ability to react immediately or quickly and accurately to undermined or
unexpected signals.
4) Balance Ability :
 Balance ability is the ability to maintain balance during the complete body movements and to regain balance
quickly after the balance-disturbing movements. It can also be defined as the ability to control the body's
position, either in stationary position (e.g., a handstand on parallel bars or horizontal bar) or while moving
(e.g., water skiing and performing on the balancing beam). This type of ability is required in most of the games
and sports.
5) Rhythm Ability :
 Rhythm ability is the ability to observe or perceive the rhythm of a movement and to do the movement with the
required rhythm. In gymnastics or figure skating, the sportsperson has to observe an external rhythm, given in
the form of music and to express it in his movements.
 Rhythm ability is also required in synchronized swimming. In various sports, rhythm is not given from outside,
the sportsperson uses the rhythm which is already stored in his/her motor memory. This type of ability is
significant in gymnastics, synchronized swimming, diving, figure skating, etc.
6) Adaptation Ability :
 Adaptation ability is the ability to adjust or change the movement effectively on the basis of changes or
anticipated changes in the situation. The change in situation can be expected one or can be sudden or
unexpected one.
 In other words, it can be said that it is the ability to solve motor task, effectively in spite of changed or changing
situation.
8) Differentiation Ability :
 Differentiation ability is the ability to achieve a high degree of accuracy and economy of separate body
movements and movement phases in a motor action. The high level of this ability depends on experienced
movement and the degree of mastery over motor action.
 Circuit Training Introduction
 "Circuit training is the Rope Climbing
training method in which Running on Rope Skipping
the spot
certain exercises of various
Carrying the
kinds are performed with or Sit-ups partner on
the back
without apparatus with given
Medicine Circuit
dosage." ball throw Training
Dipping

 The main objective of circuit Standing

Lunging
jump
training is to develop
endurance and strength along Chin-ups
Half squats
Bench press

with flexibility and mobility.

 Importance of Circuit Training
1) Maximum Results in Minimum Time : Circuit training is a perfect workout for the individuals who
have very busy schedule. In the training, you can set up as many as few stations as you like and then
continue through the circuit until your time runs out. In fact, you can get maximum results regarding
your fitness in minimum time with the help of this training.

2) Ideal for Beginners : Circuit training is ideal for beginners. It conditions the entire body and prepares
you for advanced fitness programmes. It is easy to learn. A beginner can learn to train himself.

3) Convenient : It is convenient for each individual because you can do complete workout in very short
periods. You can design it with little or no exercise equipment. It can be performed indoors and
outdoors. Even in rainy season, it can be done in rooms.
4) All the Body Parts Can be Exercised : With the help of circuit training all the body parts can be
exercised. It fact, at various stations different types of exercises can be arranged. Minor as well as
major muscles of our body can be involved in these exercises.

5) Many Trainees can Perform Exercise at a Time : Circuit training offers the best opportunity to do
exercise to many trainees at the same time. If there are 12 stations then 12 trainees can do the
exercise. They will not have to wait for their turn to next exercise.

6) Amount of Training can be Changed : The amount of training can be increased or decreased
according to the ability of trainees.