COMMUNICATION The elements of communication

SPEAKER
Derived from the Latin word “communis” meaning The person who creates and transmits the message by
“common,” typically refers to the process of transmitting: means of his voice and body. Messages are transmitted
knowledge, ideas, information, attitudes and feelings. through verbal symbols and nonverbal behavior. May also
Generally, it is the exchange or the transmission of be called the sender, source or encoder.
messages. Communication is what distinguishes us as
human beings-not religion, race, politics, culture, LISTENER
education, or gender. The person who receives, analyzes, understands, and
interprets the message; processes the messages and
behaviors her receives and reacts to them. May also be
Nature of communication called receiver or decoder.

1. Communication is a process MESSAGE

2. It occurs between two or more people The element transmitted in communication. It may consist of
3. Communication can be expressed through written or the idea, opinion, information, feeling, emotion, attitude,
spoken words. or skill. These meanings are transmitted using both verbal
and non-verbal symbols such as words sounds and actions.

Importance of communication CHANNEL

The pathway through which the message travels to reach
• We communicate to meet needs. We are by its destination. The channel may be oral, visual or audio-
nature social animals, we need other people just visual.
as we need food, water, and shelter.

• We communicate to enhance and maintain our FEEDBACK

sense of self. We learn who we are, where we This is the return process of communication in which the
are good at and how people react to how we communicants give both verbal and non-verbal signals to
behave. show whether the message is understood or not and it may
be either positive or negative.
• We communicate to fulfill social obligations.
We acknowledge a person we recognize. By not NOISE
speaking we risk being perceived as arrogant or Refers to anything that interferes with or hinders the
insensitive. transmission and reception of the message. Noise may
either be physical or psychological.
• We communicate to develop relationships.
Relationships grow and deepen or wither away
because of communication. LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
• We communicate to exchange information. Intrapersonal communication - The prefix “intra” Means
Some information we get through observation, within or inside. Communicating with oneself.
reading, watching and a great deal through
direct communication. Interpersonal communication - Type of communication
that involves two persons or a relatively small number of
• We communicate to influence others. It is people.
doubtful whether a day goes by in which you do
not engage in such behavior as trying to convince
others.
Benefits from having Interpersonal communication:
PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
1. People come to know each other
2. Misunderstandings are settle
Communication is considered to be a process because it is 3. Conflicts are resolved
a continuous series of actions, having no beginning or end, 4. Problems are given solutions
that is constantly changing.
Small group communication - In small group Ting-Toomey, 1999
communication every person can participate actively with Intercultural communication happens when individuals
the other members. Small groups are a common fixture of interact, negotiate, and create meanings while bringing in
everyday life. their varied cultural backgrounds.

Public communication - In this level of communication, the Gudykunst, 2003

person is involved with several people. The communicator Intercultural communication pertains to communication
transmits messages to a large group of people. among people from different nationalities

Gudykunst & Kim, 2003

Things to consider in Public Communication Intercultural communication takes place when people draw
from their cultural identity to understand values,
1. Much more detailed and careful preparation prejudices, language, attitudes, and relationships
2. Problem on how to hold the attention of the
audience
3. Consider the audience’s background The developmental model of intercultural sensitivity
4. Noise: physical or psychological
The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
Mass communication - Consists of messages that are (DMIS) offers a structure that explores how people
transmitted to large audiences via broadcast, print and experience cultural differences. According to Bennett and
electronic media. Bennett (2004), it has six stages.

Examples of Mass Media STAGE 1: DENIAL

✓ Newspapers - The individual does not recognize cultural

✓ Magazine differences.
✓ Television - An individual in the denial stage might be heard
✓ Radio saying:
✓ Computers
✓ Social Media sites: Facebook, Instagram, Twitter
etc. STAGE 2: DEFENSE

- The individual starts to recognize cultural

Functions of communication differences and is intimidated by them, resulting
in either a superior view on own culture or an
Control - Communication functions to control behavior. unjustified high regard for the new one.
- An individual in the defense stage might be
Social interaction - Communication allows individuals to heard saying:
interact with others.

Motivation - Communication motivates or encourages STAGE 3: MINIMIZATION

people to live better.
- Although individuals see cultural differences, they
Emotional expression - Communication facilitates bank more on the universality of ideas rather than
people’s expression of their feelings and emotions. on cultural differences.
- An individual in the minimization stage might be
Information dissemination - Communication functions to heard saying:
convey information.

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION STAGE 4: ACCEPTANCE

- The individual begins to appreciate important

Intercultural communication is the sending and receiving of cultural differences in behaviors and eventually
messages across languages and cultures. in values.
- An individual in the acceptance stage might be
heard saying:
STAGE 5: ADAPTATION TYPES OF SPEECH STYLE
- The individual is very open to world views when
accepting new perspectives. INTIMATE
- An individual in the adaptation stage might be This style is used in conversation between people who are
heard saying: very close and know each other quite well because having
a maximum of shared background information

STAGE 6: INTEGRATION
CASUAL
- Individuals start to go beyond their own cultures This style allows the use of slang, jargons, profanity,
and see themselves and their actions based on verncular and unconventional english words. There is free
multifarious cultural viewpoints. and easy participation of both speaker and listener.
- An individual in the integration stage might be
heard saying:
CONSULTATIVE
It is unplanned speech. This speech style uses listener’s
Once you understand these stages, you may apply it to participation and fedback.

1. Recognize communication behaviors which differ Defining feature:

from your own. (Allwood, 1985). ➢ Speaker supplies
2. Take into account what can influence these types ➢ Listener participates
of behaviors. (Allwood, 1985).
3. Try to analyze how linguistic and cultural
communities differ in terms of communication FORMAL
behavior and influencing factors (Allwood, 1985). This style uses formal words and expressions. This style is
expected to be presented in complete sentences with
specific word usage. Phrases are well structured, logically
Characteristics of Competent Intercultural Communicators sequenced, and strongly coherent.
1. Flexibility and the ability to tolerate high levels
of uncertainty
FROZEN
2. Reflectiveness or mindfulness
This style is “frozen” In time and remains unchanged. It
3. open-mindedness
mostly occurs in ceremonies. Also known as fixed speech, it
4. Sensibility and Adaptability
is most formal communicative style that is often used in
5. ability to engage in divergent thinking and
respectful situation or formal ceremony. It uses the complex
systems-level thinking
grammatical sentence structure and vocabulary known
6. politeness
only to experts in a particular field.
Note that in addition to culture, other elements such as
gender, age, social status, and religion must also be taken
into consideration when communicating with others. Models of communication
Refrain from showing bias when talking to someone by One way to understand more about what it means to
following the tips below. communicate is to look at basic models of communication.
Scholars have different ways of perceiving how a
1. Avoid stereotypes, generalizations about a communication process works.
certain group.
2. Challenge gender norms; avoid using “he” and
THE LASSWELL FORMULA
“man” to refer to a general group of people. To
remedy this, you may use plural pronouns or
This model was developed by Harold Lasswell which
rewrite a sentence to avoid using pronouns. The
simply describes the process of communication in this
use of his/her is also acceptable.
phrase:
3. Do not talk down on younger people and the
elderly.
4. Be sensitive to the religious practices of others. ✓ Who ?
5. Be polite at all times; do not belittle people you ✓ Says What ?
perceive to be on a lower social class than you. ✓ In Which Channel ?
✓ To Whom ?
✓ With What Effect ?
 The Lasswell model of communication provides the EUGENE WHITE MODEL
basic elements of the communication process:
Communicator, Message, Medium, Receiver and Effect. - Who tells us that communication is circular and
This model is linear and lacks the element of feedback. continuous, without a beginning or end.
- He made a cyclical model.
- He contributed the concept of Feedback in the
THE SMCRN MODEL field of communication.
The SMCRN model by Berlo stands for elements of
communication such as Source, Message, Channel, Receiver
and Noise. This model of communication shows active The cycle goes like this:
process of exchanging messages among sources and
receivers via channel or medium ✓ Thinking
✓ Symbolizing
✓ Expressing
THE WILBUR SCHRAMM MODEL ✓ Transmitting
✓ Receiving
- The Wilbur Schramm Model illustrates the ✓ Decoding
communication process by two circles that ✓ Feedback
represent the accumulated experience of two ✓ Monitoring
individuals who are engaged in communication.
- Where the two circles do not meet there has been
no common shared experience, and it is though this
area that the communicants enlarge upon each COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN
others’ common experiences and, thus, come to
understand one another. Communication breakdown means failure to exchange
information, lack of communication.

THE STIMULUS-RESPONSE MODEL

The so-called stimulus-response model of communication Reasons why there is communication breakdown:
suggests that effects are specific reactions to specific
stimuli, so that one can expect and predict a close ✓ Poor listening skills - causes misunderstanding
correspondence, for example, between media message and misinterpretation of information in the
and audience reaction. environment

The main elements in this model are:

BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION
(stimulus, S)
(organism, O) “Barriers prevent the communication from being effective”
(response, R).

PERCEPTUAL BARRIER
the most common problem faced these days is that of the
SHANNON – WEAVER MODEL difference in opinion of two people.

- Often called the TELEPHONE MODEL

- Proposed by Claude Shannon and Warren EMOTIONAL BARRIER
Weaver may result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused,
for example, by ill health, poor eye sight or hearing
In this model, they both assert that the Message sent by difficulties
the Source is not necessarily the Message received by the
Destination. This is due to the intervention of “Noise” or
anything that hampers the communication.
LANGUAGE BARRIER / SEMANTICS Types of speech according to delivery
- Semantics, or code noise, occurs when the
meaning of a message to the sender differs from Manuscript speech - Is the word-for-word iteration of a
its meaning to the recipient. written message using visual aids.
- Too often, this may be the result of “jargon,”
involving pretentious terminology or language Memorized speech - Is the rote recitation of a written
specific to a particular profession or group. message that the speaker has committed to memory.

Extemporaneous speech - is the presentation of a

POOR RETENTION BARRIER carefully planned and rehearsed speech, spoken in a
conversational manner using brief notes.
- If your message is too lengthy, disorganized, or
contains errors, you can expect the message to be Impromptu speech - is the presentation of a short
misunderstood and misinterpreted. Use of poor message without advance preparation and is for people
verbal and body language can also confuse the knowledgeable about the subject.
message.
- Human memory cannot function beyond a limit.
Three types of speech act
CULTURAL BARRIER
We communicate the way we do because we are raised J.L. Austin (1962) - a philosopher of language and the
culture and learn its language, rules, and norms. Different developer of the Speech Act Theory, there are three types
cultures (and sub cultures)may have different rules and of acts in every utterance, given the right circumstances or
norms. Understanding the other's culture facilitates cross- context. These are:
cultural communication.
LOCUTIONARY ACT
is the actual act of uttering or saying something. This act
PHYSICAL BARRIERS happens with the utterances of a sound, a word or even a
are often due to the nature of the environment.
phrase as a natural unit of speech.
Likewise, poor, or outdated equipment, particularly the
failure of management to introduce new technology, may
also cause problems.
For the utterances to be a Locutionary Act, consider the
following:
Strategies to avoid communication breakdown ✓ It has sense, and mostly importantly, for
communication to take place.
✓ Face the speaker, and maintain eye contact. ✓ It has the same meaning to both the speaker and
✓ Be attentive, pay attention. the listener. Utterances give rise to shared
✓ Keep an open mind. meaning when it in adjusted by the speaker for
the listener.

Types of Speech According to Purpose

ILLOCUTIONARY ACT
is the nocial function of what is said. In an illocutionary
Informative or expository speech - Is mainly performed speech act, it is not just saying something itself but of
for the purpose of educating the audience on new or saying something with the intention of:
relevant piece of information on a particular topic.
- stating an opinion, conforming, or denying
Persuasive speech - is given solely for the purpose of something:
convincing the audience to agree with the speaker's - making a prediction, a promise, a request;
opinion on a particular topic - issuing an order or a decision; or
- giving advice or permission.
Entertainment speech - aims to share laughter and
enjoyment to the audience through witty and humorous
lines. example: speech of a comedian This Speech Act uses the Illocutionary Force of a statement,
a confirmation, a denial, a prediction, a promise, a
request, etc.
PERLOCUTIONARY ACT
refers to the consequent effect of what was said. This is COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGY
based on the particular context in which the speech act
was mentioned. This is seen when a particular effect is Since engaging in conversation is also bound by implicit
sought from either the speaker or the listener, or both. rules, Cohen (1990) states that strategies must be used to
start and maintain a conversation. Knowing and applying
grammar appropriately is one of the most basic
The response may not necessarily be physical or verbal and strategies to maintain a conversation.
is elicited by:
“Successful communication requires understanding of the
- inspiring or insulting relationship between words and sentences and the
- persunding/convincing; or speech acts they represent. “
- deterring/scaring

The aim of Perlocutionary Speech Act is to change NOMINATION

feelings, thoughts, or actions.
- A speaker carries out nomination to
collaboratively and productively establish a
topic. Basically, when you employ this strategy,
Searle's classification of speech act you try to open a topic with the people you are
talking to.
John Searle (1976) a professor from the University of - Presenting a particular topic clearly, truthfully
California, Berkeley, classified illocutionary acts into five and saying only what is relevant.
distinct categories.

RESTRICTION
ASSERTIVE
a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses - Restriction in communication refers to any
belief about the truth of a proposition. Some examples of limitation you may have as a speaker. When
an assertive act are suggesting, putting forward, communicating in the classroom, in a meeting, or
swearing, boasting and concluding while hanging out with your friends, you are
typically given specific instructions that you must
follow. These instructions confine you as a
DIRECTIVE speaker and limit what you can say.
a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker tries to - Constraining the response/reaction within a set
make the addressee perform an action. Some examples of categories given by the speaker.
of a directive act are asking, ordering, requesting, inviting,
advising, and begging.
TURN-TAKING

COMMISSIVE - Turn-taking pertains to the process by which

a type of illocutionary act which commits the speaker to people decide who takes the conversational
doing something in the future. floor. There is a code of behavior behind
establishing and sustaining a productive
Examples of a commissive act are conversation, but the primary idea is to give all
communicators a chance to speak.
- Promising - Recognizing when and how to speak.
- Planning
- Vowing
- Betting TOPIC CONTROL

- Topic control covers how procedural formality or

EXPRESSIVE informality affects the development of topic in
a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses conversations.
his/her feelings or emotional reactions. Some examples of - Keeping the interaction going by asking
an expressive act are thanking, apologizing, welcoming questions and eliciting a response.
and deploring.
TOPIC SHIFTING Public speaking can serve the purpose of transmitting
information, telling a story, motivating people to act or
- Topic shifting suggests involves moving from one some combination of those.
topic to another. In other words, it is where one
part of a conversation ends and where another It is for business and commercial events, and often done
begins. by professionals.
- Introducing a new topic followed by continuation
of that topic. While technology and methods used in PS have
traditionally featured simple oratory structure – new
speaking technologies have been created in the past few
REPAIR decades that have transformed traditional speaking.

- Repair refers to how speakers address the Lecterns - hold papers while speakers talk
problems in speaking, listening, and
comprehending that they may encounter in a Speakers - project his/her voice the aid of a public
conversation. address system
- Overcoming communication breakdown to send
more comprehensible messages. Microphone and loudspeaker - used for a large group
of audience

TERMINATION
Technological and media sources:
- Termination refers to the conversation
participants’ close-initiating expressions that end Telecommunication and video conferencing which have
a topic in a conversation. Most of the time, the revolutionized the way public speaker communicate to
topic initiator takes responsibility to signal the masses across the world.
end of the discussion as well.
- Using verbal and nonverbal signals to end their The use of virtual reality platform which immerses users in
interaction. a variety of realistic environments in which they can train
according to each – is a new way to educate public
speakers that helps them prepare for a range of possible
FUNDAMENTALS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING situations.

PUBLIC SPEAKING

- It is also called oratory or oration.

- It is the process or act of performing a speech to
a live audience.
- And, commonly understood as formal, face-to-
face speaking of a single person to a group of
listeners.

There are five basic elements of public speaking that are

described in lasswell’s model

✓ The communicator
✓ Message
✓ Medium
✓ Audience
✓ Effect

In short, the speaker should be answering the question

“who says, what, in which channel, to whom, with what
effect?”