OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

2.1.Introduction:
 Communication may be broadly defined as the transfer of information from one
point to another. If information is to be transferred over a long distance, a
communication system is required.
 Within the communication system, the information transfer is usually achieved by
superimposing or modulating the information on to an electromagnetic wave which
acts as a carrier for the information signal.
 This modulated carrier is then transmitted to the required destination where it is
received and the original information signal is obtained by demodulation.
 Techniques have been developed for this process using electromagnetic carrier
waves operating at radio frequencies, microwave and millimeter wave frequencies.
 Recently, communication has been achieved using electromagnetic carrier obtained
from the optical range of frequencies.
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2.2. The general system

 An optical fiber communication system is similar in basic concept to any type of communication
system. A block diagram of a general communication system is as shown in Fig. 1

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2.2. The general system

 In fiber-optic system as shown in Fig. 1, three major parts perform the task of
communication:-
a) A light source which can be either a light-emitting diode or semiconductor laser diode
b) An optical fiber which can be a strand as short as 1m or as long as 7km
c) A light detector (or receiver) which can be either an avalanche photodiode (APD) or a
positive-intrinsic –negative (PIN) diode
 In Fig. 1, the information source provides an electrical signal to a transmitter comprising an
electrical stage which drives an optical source to give modulation of the light wave carrier.
 The transmission medium consists of an optical fiber cable and the receiver consists of an
optical detector, which drives a further electrical stage and hence provides demodulation of the
optical carrier. This involves the detection of the optical signal and the optical-electrical
conversion.
 Thus, there is a requirement for electrical interfacing at either of the optical link and at the
moment the signal processing is usually performed electrically.
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2.2. The general system

 Thus, in summary, a fiber-optic system simply converts an electrical signal to an infrared light
signal launches or transmits this light signal onto an optical fiber, and then captures the signal
on the other end where its reconverts it to an electrical signal.
 The optical carrier can be modulated in two ways:-
a) Analogue
b) Digital
 In analogue modulation, the intensity of the light from the laser or LED is varied continuously i.e. the
light source emits a continuous beam of varying intensity.
 In digital modulation the intensity is changed impulsively, in an on/off fashion (i.e. on-off pulses).
The light flashes on and off at an extremely fast rate. In most typical systems, Pulse-Code
Modulation (PCM) is used.
 Digital modulation is more popular since it allows greater transmission distances with the same
power than analogue modulation but analogue is simpler to implement. Also, analogue modulation is
less efficient, requiring a far higher signal to noise ratio at the receiver than digital modulation.

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2.2. The general system

 A block schematic of a typical digital optical fiber link is as shown in Fig. 2

 As shown the input digital signal from the information source is initially encoded for optical transmission.
The laser drive circuit directly modulates the intensity of the semiconductor laser with the encoded digital
signal. Hence a digital optical signal is launched into the optical fiber cable.
 The avalanche photodiode (APD) detector is used to extract the optical signal from the cable which is then
amplified and equalized (filtered). Finally, the signal is decoded to give the original digital information.
The various elements of this system are subject of this course.
NB: For long distances repeaters are used to regenerate the light signal. The repeater consists of a light
receiver, pulse amplifier and generator, and a light source.
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2.3. Advantages of Optical Fiber communication

Extreme wide bandwidth – the optical carrier frequency in the range of 1013to
1016 Hz yields a far greater potential transmission bandwidth than metallic cable
system (i.e. coaxial cable bandwidth is up to around 500MHz).
Small size and weight – optical fibers have very small diameters which are often
no greater than the diameter of a human hair. Even when such fibers are covered
with protective coatings, they are far smaller and much lighter than corresponding
copper cables.
 Electrical isolation – optical fibers which are fabricated from glass or plastic
polymer are electrical insulators and therefore, unlike metallic conductors, they do
not exhibit earth loop and interface problems. They’re also useful as
communication systems in electrically hazardous environments as the fibers
create no arcing or spark hazard at abrasion or short circuits.
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2.3. Advantages of Optical Fiber communication

 Immunity to interference and crosstalk – optical fibers form a dielectric waveguide and
therefore free from electromagnetic interference (EMI), radiofrequency interference (RFI),
or switching transients giving electromagnetic pulses (EMP). Crosstalk is negligible even
when many fibers are cabled together.
 Signal security – the light from optical fibers does not radiate significantly and therefore
they provide a high degree of signal security. Unlike the copper cables, a transmitted
optical signal cannot be obtained from a fiber in a noninvasive manner (i.e. without drawing
optical power from the fiber). Therefore, theoretically, any attempt to acquire a message
signal transmitted optically may be detected.
 Low transmission loss – the optical fiber technology have produced optic fiber cables
which exhibit very low attenuation or transmission loss in comparison with the best
copper conductors. Fibers have losses as low as 0.2dB/km compared with copper
cables which range from 5dB to 10dB/km .
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2.3. Advantages of Optical Fiber communication

 Ruggedness and flexibility – although protective coatings are essential, optical fibers may be
manufactured with very high tensile strength. They may be bent to quite small size or twisted
without damage. These fiber cables are generally superior in terms of storage, transportation,
handling and installation to corresponding copper cables, whilst exhibiting at least comparable
strength and durability.
 System reliability and ease of maintenance – these features primarily steps from the low loss
property of optical cables which reduces the requirement for intermediate repeaters or line
amplifiers to boost the transmitted signal strength. Hence with fewer repeaters, system reliability
is generally enhanced in comparison with conventional electrical conductor systems. They
also have a predicted lifetimes of 20 to 30 years reducing maintenance time and cost.
 Potential low cost – the glass which generally provides the optical fiber transmission medium is
made from sand – not a scarce resource. Thus, in comparison with copper conductors, optical
fibers offer the potential for low cost line communication.

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2.4. Applications of Fiber-optics

 Telephone systems – these cables have been used since 1977 when General Telephone Company of
California used an optical link to provide telephone service.
 Cable Television – fiber optic links are being used to transmit video signals: between TV camera and
vans, in closed-circuit TV surveillance, as part of regular network TV links, in cable TV systems
 Power stations – they are now being used to provide telephone and data communication into and
within power stations. Copper cables used have problems such as ground potential rise, induction,
and high-frequency arc noise but fiber optics avoided these problems.
 Military – military uses fiber optics systems on the military ships for communication because they
are of less weight as oppose to copper cables which are heavy.
 Other uses of fiber optics in communication include:-
 Noncontact temperature measurements
 Monitoring of current and voltage at high-power stations
 Barbed-wired perimeter fence that warn intruders
 Measuring hazardous high-level electromagnetic fields withoutperturbing the fields.

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2.5. Optical Fiber Waveguides

 An optical fiber is a transparent rod usually made of glass or clear plastic through which light can
propagate. It consists of an optical rod core coated with a cladding.
 The refractive index of the rod is higher than the refractive index of the cladding material in order to
utilize the phenomenon of total internal reflection for the propagation of the light through the rod.
 A cladded and uncladded glass fibers are shown in Fig. 3(a) and Fig.3 (b).

 As seen from the two diagrams, uncladded

glass fiber has a loss of light to the surrounding
whereas there is no such loss in the cladded fiber.
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2.6. Structure of Optical Fibers

 Apart from the core and cladding, most of the cable bulk is made up of
strengthening and buffering materials for mechanical, moisture and chemical
protection as shown in Fig. 4.

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2.7. Propagation of light (Ray theory)

 Light is an electromagnetic wave, which travels in a vacuum at a velocity of𝑐 =
3.0 × 108 𝑚/𝑠.
 This velocity is independent of frequency but the velocity of light propagating in a
medium depends on the particular material’s refractive index, 𝑛 such that the
velocity is given by
𝑐
𝑣= 1
𝑛

 Most light consist of a group of frequencies rather than a wave with a single
frequency.
 For example, the visible light of an incandescent lamp contains blue light
0.6 × 1015 𝐻𝑧 to red light 0.4 × 1015 𝐻𝑧 and lower
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2.7. Propagation of light (Ray theory)

 When a light travels through a medium, its wavelength changes but not its
frequency.
 Thus, in a vacuum (or air), the wavelength,𝜆, is given by
𝑐
𝜆= (2)
𝑓
 While in a medium, it is given by
𝑣
𝜆′ = (3)
𝑓

 Therefore

𝜆′ 𝑣 ′
𝑣
= 𝑜𝑟 𝜆 = 𝜆 × = 𝑛𝜆 (4)
𝜆 𝑐 𝑐
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2.7. Propagation of light (Ray theory)

Example 1:
Compute the velocity and wavelength of light of frequency 𝑓 = 0.5 × 1015 𝐻𝑧
when travelling through a glass having a refractive index of 𝑛 = 1.5

Solution:
𝑐 3.0 × 108
𝑣= = = 2.0 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝑛 1.5

8
𝑣 2.0 × 10
𝜆′ = = 15
= 400𝑛𝑚
𝑓 0.5 × 10

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2.8. Refraction and Snell’s law

 According to the theory of geometrical optics,
a) Light is considered as a narrow rays which travels in a straight path unless
deflected by some change in the medium

b) When such light travels from one medium to another having different refractive
indices of 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 both reflection and refraction occurs as shown in Fig. 5

NB: The angles are measured with respect to the boundary normal i.e.the direction
perpendicular to the surface

Therefore,𝜃1 = 𝜃3 but 𝜃2 is less than 𝜃1 because the light is going from a rare to a
denser medium .
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2.8. Refraction and Snell’s law

 The relationship between 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 is given by Snell’s laws of refraction, which
states
 The amount of light reflected
depends on the angle of
incidence and refractive
indices. For incident angles of
smaller than 300 , the reflected
light is less than 5% of the
incident light.
sin 𝜃1 𝑛2 𝑣2
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2 𝑜𝑟 = = (5ቇ
sin 𝜃2 𝑛1 𝑣1

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2.8. Total Internal Reflection

A light wave travelling in a medium of higher refractive index 𝑛1 and directed
towards one of lower refractive index 𝑛2 passes into the medium only if the angle
of incidence is not too large.
If the angle of incidence is increased, a limit is reached when the ray does not enter
the second medium at all but is totally reflected at the interface.
Consider the Fig. 6 below:-

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2.8. Total Internal Reflection

 From Fig.6, it shows that as the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction is
also increased.
 At some critical angle𝜃𝑐 , the angle of refraction becomes900 . Hence, the refracted ray
grazes along the boundary between the two media.
 This angle of incidence in which the corresponding angle of refraction is900 is called the
angle of critical incidence for the two media.
 If a ray is, now incident at angle𝜃3 > 𝜃𝑐 , then the angle of refraction is more than 900
and hence the ray suffers total internal reflection (this total internal reflection obeys the
ordinary laws of reflection). Hence, at this angle,
sin 𝜃𝑐 𝑛2
= 𝑜𝑟
sin 900 𝑛1
𝑛2 𝑛2
sin 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑜𝑟 𝜃𝑐 = sin−1 (6)
𝑛1 𝑛1
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2.8. Total Internal Reflection

 Thus, the conditions for total internal reflection to occur are
a) The ray of the light must travel from medium of higher refractive index to a
medium of lower refractive index
b) The angle of incidence at the interface must be greater than the angle of
critical incidence for the two media concerned.
 This is the mechanism by which light at a sufficiently shallow angle (less
than 900 − 𝜃𝑐 ) may be considered to propagate down an optical fiber with
low loss.
 Fig. 7 illustrates the transmission of a light ray in an optical fiber through a
series of total internal reflections at the interface of the silica core and the
slightly lower refractive index silica cladding.
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2.8. Total Internal Reflection

Fig. 7 Transmission of a light ray in a perfect optical fiber

 The light ray as shown in Fig. 7 is known as a meridional ray as it passes through
the axis of the fiber core.
 The above transmission assumes a perfect fiber, and any discontinuities or
imperfections at the core-cladding interface would result in refraction rather than
total internal reflection.
 This will results in loss of light ray into the cladding.
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2.9. Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture

 Since only rays with an angle to the normal greater than 𝜃𝑐 at the core- cladding
interface are transmitted by total internal reflection, it is clear that not all rays
entering the fiber core will continue to be propagated down its length.
 Thus, for a ray of light to be propagated by total internal reflection with the core,
there is a range of incident angle s within which this can be achieved.
 Fig. 8 illustrates this.

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2.9. Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture

 From Fig. 8, it is evident that a light ray can only be propagated within the core
if it enters the optic fiber within a cone having a semi angle less than a certain
maximum value known as half acceptance angle 𝜃𝑎 (or conical half angle).
 As an illustration, ray A enters the fiber core at an angle 𝜃𝑎 to the fiber axis
and is refracted at the air-core interface before transmission to the core-cladding
interface at the critical angle.
 Hence, any rays which are incident into the fiber core at an angle that 𝜃𝑎 will
be transmitted to the core-cladding interface at an angle less than𝜃𝑎 and will not
be totally internally reflected.
 This is illustrated by incident ray B at an angle greater than𝜃𝑐 which is refracted
into the cladding and eventually lost by radiation.

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2.9. Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture

Consider fig. 9 below

 Fig. 9 shows a light ray incident on the fiber core at angle𝜃𝑐 , which is less than the
acceptance angle for the fiber.
 The ray enters the fiber from air of refractive index𝑛0 and the fiber core has a refractive
index𝑛1 which is slightly greater than the cladding refractive index𝑛2 .
 Then at the air-core interface, have
𝑛0 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛1 sin 𝜃2 (7)
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2.9. Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture

 Considering the right-angled triangle ABC, have that
𝜋
𝜑 = − 𝜃2 (8)
2
 Where 𝜑 is greater than the critical angle at the core-cladding interface. Hence,
equation (7) becomes
𝑛0 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛1 cos 𝜑 (9)
 Applying trigonometrical relationship sin2 𝜑 + cos 2 𝜑 = 1 eq. (9) becomes
𝑛0 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛1 1 − sin2 𝜑 (10)
 For total internal reflection, 𝜑 = 𝜃𝑐 and𝜃1 = 𝜃𝑎 . Hence, eq. (10) becomes
𝑛0 sin 𝜃𝑎 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 (11)

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2.9. Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture

 Eq. (11) relates the acceptance angle to the refractive index and also defines a fiber optical parameter called
numerical aperture (NA).Thus,
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛0 sin 𝜃𝑎 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 (12)
 The value of NA can be expressed in terms of the relative refractive index difference∆, which is defined as
𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 𝑁𝐴 2
∆= 2
= (13)
2 𝑛1 2 𝑛1 2
 Therefore 𝑁𝐴 2 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 = 2 𝑛1 2 ∆ or
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 2∆ (14)
 An approximate expression of  can be obtained as
𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
∆= =
2 𝑛1 2 2 𝑛1 2
 If 𝑛1 ≈ 𝑛2 ,then
2𝑛1 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
∆= = (15)
2 𝑛1 2 𝑛1
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2.9. Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture

 The relationships given in eq. (12) and (14) for NA are very useful measure of the
light-collectivity of a fiber.
 They independent of the fiber core diameter and holds for diameters as small
as8𝜇𝑚 .
 However, for smaller diameters, the geometric optics are invalid and thus above
relationships cannot apply. This is because the ray theory describes the direction a
plane wave component takes in the fiber but does not take into account
interference between such components.
 When interferences are considered, only rays with certain discrete characteristics
propagate in the fiber core.
 This is critical in small core diameter fibers which support only on or few
modes. Hence, electromagnetic theory must be applied in that case.
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Example 2:
A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to be considered by ray theory analysis has a
core refractive index of 1.50 and a cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine
a) The critical angle at the core-cladding interface
b) The NA for the fiber
c) The acceptance angle in air for the fiber
Solution:
a)
𝑛2 1.47
𝜃𝑐 = sin−1 = sin−1 = 78.50
𝑛1 1.50

b) 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 = 1.502 − 1.472 = 0.30

c) Acceptance angle,
𝜃𝑎 = sin−1 𝑁𝐴 = sin−1 0.30 = 17.40
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Example 3:
A typical relative refractive index for an optical fiber designed for long distance transmission is 1%. Estimate the
NA and the solid acceptance angle in air for the fiber when the fiber core index is 1.46. Further, calculate the
critical angle at the core-cladding interface within the fiber. Assumes that the concept of geometric optics hold for
the fiber.
Solution: Now ∆= 0.01
Then 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 2∆= 1.46 2 × 0.01 = 0.21
For small angles, the solid acceptance angle in air 𝜉 is given by:
𝜉 = 𝜋𝜃𝑎 2 = 𝜋sin2 𝜃𝑎
Hence,𝜉 = 𝜋(𝑁𝐴)2 = 𝜋(0.21)2 = 0.41𝑟𝑎𝑑
From relative refractive index difference∆, have
𝑛1 − 𝑛2 𝑛2
∆= =1−
𝑛1 𝑛1
𝑛2
Hence = 1 − ∆= 1 − 0.01 = 0.99
𝑛1
𝑛2
Thus, from eq. (6) the critical angle at core-cladding interface is: 𝜃𝑐 = sin−1 = sin−1 0.99 = 81.90
𝑛1
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2.10. Skew Rays

 The transmission of light rays through fiber optic does not only involve meridional
ray but the majority follow helical paths through the fiber. Such waves are referred
to as skew rays.
 An illustration is as shown in Fig. 10.

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2.10. Skew Rays

 The cross-sectional view of the fiber in Fig. 11 shows the helical path traced by the ray.
Thus, unlike the meridional rays, the point of emergence of skew rays from the fiber in air
will depend upon the number of reflections they undergo rather than the input conditions
of the fiber.
 Thus this skew rays have an advantage in that when light input in to the fiber is no
uniform, at the output, it tends to be uniform due to the smoothing effect on the
distribution of light as it is transmitted caused by the reflections encountered by the skew
rays.

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2.10. Skew Rays

 Fig. 12 illustrates another advantage.

 When considering the ray between A and B 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 (𝑖)

it is necessary to resolve the direction of the 𝑇𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑖𝑖
ray path AB to the core radius at the
point B.
 Using Fig. 13 obtained from Fig. 12, we
have that
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2.10. Skew Rays

 Considering the triangle TRB, the radius of the core i.e. RB is given by
𝑅𝐵 = 𝑇𝐵 cos 𝛾 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜙 cos 𝛾 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
 Taking the projection of the ray AB on the plane BRS, have that
𝑅𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜙 (𝑖𝑣)
 Equating eq. (iii) and (iv), have
𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜙 cos 𝛾 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜙
Or
sin 𝜙 cos 𝛾 = cos 𝜙 (16)
 Using trigonometric relationship sin2 𝜙 + cos 2 𝜙 = 1 on eq. (16), have
sin 𝜙 cos 𝛾 = 1 − cos 2 𝜙 (17)

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2.10. Skew Rays

 For the limiting condition of total internal reflection,
𝜙 = 𝜙𝑐 , hence
𝑛2
sin 𝜙𝑐 =
𝑛1
 Thus, eq. (17) becomes
𝑛2 2
sin 𝜙 cos 𝛾 ≤ cos 𝜙𝑐 = 1−𝑛 2 (18)
1
 Applying Snell’s law at point A, have
𝑛0 sin 𝜃𝑎 = 𝑛1 sin 𝜃 (19)
Where 𝜃𝑎 represents the maximum input axial angle for meridionalrays and is the internal axial
angle.
 Substituting eq. (18) in (19), have

𝑛1 𝑛1 cos 𝜙𝑐 𝑛1 𝑛2 2
sin 𝜃𝑎𝑠 = sin 𝜃 = . = 1− 2 (20)
𝑛0 𝑛0 cos 𝛾 𝑛0 cos 𝛾 𝑛1
Where 𝜃𝑎𝑠 is the maximum input angle or acceptance angle for skewrays
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2.10. Skew Rays

 Thus, acceptance conditions for skew rays are

𝑛2 2
𝑛0 sin 𝜃𝑎𝑠 cos 𝛾 = 𝑛1 1− 2 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 = 𝑁𝐴 (21)
𝑛1
 In addition, for a case of the fiber in air(𝑛0 = 1), have
sin 𝜃𝑎𝑠 cos 𝛾 = 𝑁𝐴 (22)

 Therefore, comparing eq. (12) and (22), it shows that skew rays are accepted at
larger axial angles in a given fiber than meridional rays; depending on the value of
cos 𝛾 .
 Thus, although𝜃𝑎 is the minimum conical half angle for the acceptance of
meridional rays.
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Example 4
An optical fiber in air has an NA of 0.4. Compare the acceptance angle for
meridional rays with that for skew rays, which change direction by1000 at each
reflection.
Solution: With𝑛0 = 1, then acceptance angle for meridional rays is
𝜃𝑎 = sin−1 𝑁𝐴 = sin−1 0.4 = 23.60
The skew rays change direction by1000 at each reflection, hence
𝛾 = 50
Hence, acceptance angel for skew rays becomes
𝑁𝐴 0.4
𝜃𝑎𝑠 =sin−1 = sin −1 = 38.50
cos 𝛾 cos 50
The acceptance angle of the skew rays is about150 greater than the corresponding
angle for meridional rays.
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2.11. Types of Fibers
Optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide that operates at optical frequencies (visible &
infrared).
It confines electromagnetic energy in the form of light to within its surfaces and
guides the light in a direction parallel to its axis. Its transmission properties are
determined by its structural characteristics.
The structure establishes the information-carrying capacity of the fiber and also
influences the response of the waveguide to environmental perturbation.
The propagation of light along a fiber can be described in terms of a set of guided
electromagnetic waves called modes of the waveguide.
These guided modes are called bound or trapped modes of the waveguide. Each guided
mode is a pattern of electric and magnetic field line that is repeated along the fiber at
intervals equal to the wavelength.
Only certain discrete numbers of modes are capable of propagating along the guide.
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2.11. Types of Fibers
 As stated above the fiber has two main components plus the protection i.e. core
and cladding. The core is used to propagate the waves while the cladding has three
main functions:-
a) It reduces scattering loss resulting from dielectric discontinues at the core surface
b) It adds mechanical strength to the fiber
c) It protects the core from absorbing surface contaminants with which it could
come in contact
 Variation in material composition of the core give rise to the two commonly used
types of fibers:-
a) Step-index fiber
b) Graded-index fiber
 Both the step- and graded-index fiber can be further divided into single-mode and
multi-mode classes.
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2.11. Types of Fibers
1. Step-index fiber Structure
 The index profile of a fiber refers to how its refractive index varies as a function of radial distance
from the center of the fiber. For a step- index profile, the refractive index exhibits an abrupt
change (step) in value at radius 𝑟𝑐 core − cladding boundary
 In this fiber, propagation of the optical energy occurs through total internal reflection at the core-
cladding interface. Hence, the core indexmust be greater than the cladding index.
 A cross-section of this fiberis as shown in figure 14.

 This differences in refractive index of the core and

cladding allows an estimate of the number of guided
modes propagating in particular multimode step index
fiber. This is illustrated in the following example.

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Example 5.
A multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of 80 𝜇𝑚 and a relative index difference of 1.5% is
operating at a wavelength of 0 . 8 5 𝜇𝑚. If the core refractive index is 1.48, estimate:
a) the normalized frequency for the fiber
b) the number of guided modes
Solution:
a) the normalized frequency,𝑉, is obtained as
2𝜋 1
𝑉= 𝑎𝑛1 2∆ ൗ2
𝜆
Where 𝑎-the radius of the core
𝑛1 -refractive index of the core
∆- refractive index difference
2𝜋 1ൗ 2𝜋 × 40 × 10−6 × 1.48 1ൗ
𝑉= 𝑎𝑛1 (2∆𝛼 2 ) = × 2 × 0.015 2 = 75.8
𝜆 0.85 × 10−6
a) the number of guided modes
𝑉 2 75.82
𝑀= = = 2873𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠
2 2

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2.11. Types of Fibers

 The analysis of energy propagation within an optical fiber involves solution of
Maxwell’s equations. This analysis shows that the propagation energy is distributed
among a discrete set of superimposed fields called modes.
 Differences in the propagation characteristics of these individual modes give rise to
modal dispersion, which limits the fiber bandwidth.
 To demonstrate this limitation, consider the following example:
Example 6: A 1km fiber has a core and cladding indices of 𝑛1 = 1.48and 𝑛2 =
1.46. The core diameter is 50 𝜇𝑚.Find
a) The minimum angle that supports total internal reflection
b)The time delay of an off-axis ray compared to a ray that propagate directly down
the fiber and
c)An estimate of the modal-dispersion-limited bandwidth
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Example 6 Cont’d…
Solution:
a) Using Snell’s law
𝑛2 1.46
sin 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 0.985
𝑛1 1.48
Therefore, 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 80.570
Hence,
𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 900 − 80.570 = 9.430
b) The time delay
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
∆𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 =
𝑉
Now, the fiber can be represented as
shown in figure 15
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Example 6 Cont’d…
b) From the figure,
ℎ = 𝐷 tan 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 50 × 80.570 = 301.047𝜇𝑚

Number of
1000𝑚 Hence
ℎ= 6 = 3.322 × 106
301.047 × 10 13.78
Length ∆𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = = 67.98𝑛𝑆
3 × 108 Τ1.48
ℎ 1000𝑚
𝐿= = = 305.17𝜇𝑚
sin 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 sin 80.570 c) the modal-dispersion-limited bandwidth, BW, is
estimated as
The number of L’s=the number of h’s
1 1
𝐵𝑊 ≈ = = 14.71𝑀𝐻𝑧
∆𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 67.98 × 10−9
Hence, the zigzag path distance is given by
𝑧𝑖𝑔𝑧𝑎𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 ℎ′ 𝑠 × 𝐿
= 3.322 × 106 305.17 × 10−6
= 1013.78𝑚
∆𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 1013.78 − 1000 = 13.78𝑚
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2.11. Types of Fibers
NB: Hence, from the example, the propagation times of a bouncing ray and a ray that propagated straight down
the central axis of the axis fiber differ by67.98𝑛𝑆 .
 The temporal delay (dispersion) in the arrival time of these two rays along with those of rays travelling
intermediate paths produce bit smearing or intersymbol interference in pulse data systems and delay distortion
in an analog modulated system.
 The dispersion-limited bandwidth is approximately15𝑀𝐻𝑧. Because the above fiber supports more than one
mode, it is called a multi- mode step-index fiber.
 Using electromagnetic theory, a mode volume parameter, is expressedas:
𝜋𝑑
𝑉= 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 (23)
𝜆
Where 𝑑- fiber core diameter
𝜆 Wavelength of the optical source
 Using the expression of the refractive index𝑛 = 𝑐 Τ𝑉 , the number of propagation modes, N, in a step index
fiber can be estimated as
𝑉2
𝑁= (24)
2
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Example 7
Estimate the number of propagation modes for the fiber of example 6.
Assume the wavelength to be6 × 10−7 𝑚
Solution:
𝜋𝑑
𝑉= 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
𝜆
𝜋 × (50 × 10−6 ) 2 − 1.462
= 1.48
6 × 10−7
= 63.48
Hence, no. of modes,
𝑉 2 63.882
𝑁= = = 2015 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠
2 2
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Single-mode fiber
 In multi-mode fibers, mode dispersion occurs due to different modes travelling
different distances through the fiber.
 The carrying capacity of a fiber is inversely related to the total dispersion.
 This total dispersion is composed of three components namely:-
a) Mode dispersion
b) Material dispersion
c) Waveguide dispersion
 To reduce modal dispersion, the mode volume must be reduced.
 Using expression (23), three ways can used to achieve this:-
i) Reduce the core diameter
ii) Increase the wavelength of the optical source
iii)Decrease the difference between the core and cladding indices
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Single-mode fiber
 The second option cannot be used because absorption in the glass increases with an increase in
wavelength. Reduction in the ratio 𝑛1 Τ𝑛2 can be done but it must remain greater than one to
maintain total internal reflection.
 Thus, the only way could be to reduce the core diameter. This is more viable but small-diameter core
makes it difficult to couple the light to core. But with advancement in technology, this problem is
being solved.
 Studies have shown that if 𝑉 < 2.405 , only one mode (an axial ray) can propagate. For single-mode
fibers, the light source should be a laser emitting in a single transverse mode.
 For a fiber with a core diameter 2𝑎 , a fractional index difference between core and cladding
∆= ∆𝑛/𝑛 , and a homogeneous core refractive index will enable a single mode to
propagate for all wavelengths greater than the cutoff wavelength,
2𝜋𝑎𝑛1 2∆
 where 𝜆𝑐 = (25)
2.405
𝑛1 −𝑛2
With ∆= (26)
𝑛1 Additional modes will propagate for shorter wavelengths.
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 OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Single-mode fiber
 In single-mode fibers, no dispersion between the modes can exist and thus high bandwidths are
possible. However, this bandwidth is not infinite because of other sources of dispersion.
 Present single-mode fiber permit transmission of data rates greater than 400 𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠/
𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎrepeater spacing in the tens of kilometers. Research is going on, on fibers that can transmit
high data rates over long distances.
 The zero dispersion wavelength in t h i s mode is 1.3 𝜇𝑚 and a minimum loss wavelength of
1.5 𝜇𝑚. Now, high data rates are limited by loss.
 Since dispersion is proportional to source spectral width, the optimization process consists of both
trying to lower the attenuation at 1.55 𝜇𝑚 trying to narrow the laser spectral width.
 Distributed feedback laser has been developed to narrow the source spectral width in which a
grating in the semiconductor material reflects light of a particular wavelength back to the laser’s
active region.
 This stabilizes the output in a narrow range of wavelengths. Using this type of laser a
transmission rate of 4𝐺𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠/𝑠 through a distance of 100𝑘𝑚 has been realized with a single
mode without a repeater.
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 OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Single-mode fiber
 Material dispersion and wavelength dispersion arise due to the manner in which
light propagates through materials.
 Both types are measured in picoseconds (of pulse spreading) per nanometer (of the
source spectral width) per kilometer of fiber length. Thus, the total dispersion of a
single-mode fiber is the sum of the two.
 Material dispersion is caused by the variation in refractive index of glass with
wavelength , that is why its referred to as spectral or chromatic dispersion.
Dispersion leads to pulse spreading even when different wavelengths follow the
same path.
 Waveguide dispersion occurs in a single-mode fiber because light is not
completely confined to the core. Roughly, 20% of the light travels in the cladding
adjacent to the core.
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Single-mode fiber
 Since refractive index of the cladding is less than that of the core, light in the core
travels slower but the core and cladding light belong to the same mode and thus must
travel at the same speed.
 The effective velocity is in between the two speeds. But normally, the effective velocity is
wavelength- dependent hence dispersion occurs. Figure 16 illustrates these dispersions.

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2. Graded-index Fibers
 The graded-index (GRIN) fiber has a core material whose refractive index varies with
distance from the fiber axis.
 The index variation is described by
𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑛1 1 − 2 𝑟Τ𝑎 𝛼 ∆, 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎 (27)

𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑛1 1 − 2∆, = 𝑛2 , 𝑟𝑎 (28)
 Where
𝑛1 −Refractive index along the axis of the fiber
𝑛2 −Refractive index of the cladding
𝑎 -core radius
𝛼 -parameter describing the refractive index profile variation
∆ −parameter determining the scale of the profile change
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 OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

2. Graded-index Fibers
Which can be approximated for usual case when
𝑛1 = 𝑛2 as
𝑛1 − 𝑛2
∆= (30)
𝑛1

Equation (28) gives the scale factor as

𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
∆= (29)
𝑛1 2

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2. Graded-index Fibers
In this fiber, light rays travelled in an oscillatory fashion as shown in figure 18.

 The changing refractive index causes the rays to be continually redirected towards
the fiber axis, and the particular variations in equation (29) and (30) causes them
to be periodically refocused.
 The numerical aperture (NA) of this fiber depends on the parameters 𝛼 and∆.
Also the acceptance angle and numerical aperture decreases with radial distance
from the axis i.e. the entry angle (of the incident ray) yielding trapped rays
decreases as the excitation point moves away from the fiber axis.
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2. Graded-index Fibers
 Thus, the coupling is more efficient near the axis than further out. This is unlike the step-index fiber
for which NA remains the same, regardless of the entry point.
 That is why the coupling efficiency of step-index is higher than for GRIN fibers, for the same core
size and same fractional refractive index change.
 When 𝛼 = 2 the core index from equation (27) and (28) becomes
𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑛1 1 − 2 𝑟Τ𝑎 2 ∆, (31)
For∆<< 1, as is normally the case, this variation is adequately represented as
𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑛1 1 − 𝑟Τ𝑎 2 ∆ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎 (32)
𝑛2 = 𝑛1 1 − ∆ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 > 𝑎 (33)

 This index distribution is called the parabolic profile. For parabolicprofile, the NA is given by
1
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 2∆ ൗ2 1 − 𝑟Τ𝑎 2 (34)
 The axial NA for the parabolic fiber is
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 2∆ (35)
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2. Graded-index Fibers
Which can be obtained from the step index (SI) numerical aperture as-
For SI, 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 𝑛1 + 𝑛2
If 𝑛1 ≈ 𝑛2 then it becomes
𝑁𝐴 = 2𝑛1 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
Now replacing 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 with ∆ it becomes
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 2∆ , for a step waveguide, identical to the axial na of the parabolic index.
 Typical sizes of multimode GRIN fibers are 50/125,62.5/125,85/125
 GRIN multimode fiber is a compromise between the high bandwidth of a single-mode
fiber and the easy coupling of step-index multimode fiber.
 The GRIN multimode fiber with 50 µ𝑚 cores and 125 µ𝑚 cladding are currently used in
many telecommunication systems operating at 45 − 140 𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠/𝑠over a distance of 10-
20 km.
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 OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

2. Graded-index Fibers
 For higher data rates, single-mode fibers are preferred.
 A new GRIN fiber with 85 µ𝑚 core is being used for short-distance video
transmission and high-speed digital LANs.
 It reduces coupling problems relative to 50 µ𝑚 core without a significant
reduction in bandwidth.
 In terms of minimal dispersion, analytical studies show that the optimum profile
for GRIN is parabolic as described above.
Example 8:
A graded index fiber has a core with a parabolic refractive index profile which has a
diameter of 50 µ𝑚. The fiber has numerical aperture of 0.2. Estimate the total
number of guided modes propagating in the fiber when it is operating at a
wavelength of 1µ𝑚.
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Example 8:
Solution:
The normalized frequency for the fiber is
2𝜋
𝑉= 𝑎 𝑁𝐴
𝜆
2𝜋 × 25 × 10−6 × 0.2
=
1 × 10−6
= 31.4
The mode volume for a parabolic profile is
𝑉2
𝑀𝑔 =
4
2
31.4
= = 247
4
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Transmission characteristics of optical fibers

 These are the factors, which affect the performance of optical fibers as a transmission medium. They
determine the suitability of optical fibers for communication purposes. The most important are the
attenuation and bandwidth.
Attenuation
 It determines largely the maximum transmission distance prior to signal restoration. Optical fibers
have very low attenuation (𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 5𝑑𝐵 𝑘𝑚−1 ) as compared to those of metallic conductors.
 Signal attenuation within optical fibers is usually defined for a particular optical wavelength. It is
expressed in decibels per unit length (i.e.𝑑𝐵 𝑘𝑚−1 ) as-
𝑃𝑖
𝛼𝑑𝐵 𝐿 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (36)
𝑃0
where 𝛼𝑑𝐵 signal attenuation per unit length in decibels
𝐿-the fiber length
𝑃𝑖 -input (transmitted) optical power
𝑃0 −output (received) optical power

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Transmission characteristics of optical fibers

Example 9:
When the mean optical power launched into an 8 km length of fiber is 120 µ𝑊, the mean
optical power at the fiber output is 3 µ𝑊. Determine:
a) the overall signal attenuation or loss in decibels through the fiber assuming there are no
connectors or splices
b) the signal attenuation per kilometer for the fiber
c) the overall signal attenuation for a 10km optical link using the same fiber with splices at
1km intervals, each giving an attenuation of 1 𝑑𝐵.
d) The numerical input/output power ratio in (c)
Solution:
a) the overall signal attenuation or loss in decibels
𝑃𝑖 120 × 10−6
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 == 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 16𝑑𝐵
𝑃0 3 × 10−6
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Transmission characteristics of optical fibers

b) The signal attenuation per kilometer for the fiber may be simply obtained by dividing the result in (a)
by the fiber length which corresponds to it using equation (33).
𝛼𝑑𝐵 𝐿 = 16𝑑𝐵
16
Hence, 𝛼𝑑𝐵 = = 2𝑑𝐵 𝑘𝑚−1
8

c) As𝛼𝑑𝐵 = 2𝑑𝐵 𝑘𝑚−1 , the loss incurred along 10km of the fiber is given by
𝛼𝑑𝐵 𝐿 = 2 × 10 = 20𝑑𝐵
However, the link also has nine splices (at 1 km intervals) each with an attenuation of1 𝑑𝐵. Therefore,
the loss due to the splices is 9 𝑑𝐵 . Hence, the overall signal attenuation for the link is:
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 20 + 9 29 𝑑𝐵

d) To obtain a numerical value for the input/output power ratio, we use

𝑃𝑖
= 1029Τ10 = 794.3
𝑃0

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Transmission characteristics of optical fibers

 A number of mechanism are responsible the signal attenuation. These mechanisms
are influenced by:-
i) the material composition
ii) the preparation and purification technique and
iii)the waveguide structure.

 These mechanisms may be broadly classified

a) material absorption
b) material scattering (linear and non-linear)
c) curve and micro bending losses
d) mode coupling radiation losses and
e) losses due to leaky modes
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Material absorption losses in silica glass fibers

 It’s a loss related to material composition and fabrication process for the
fiber, which results in dissipation of some of the transmitted optical
power as heat in the waveguide. It can be either intrinsic or extrinsic
absorption.
 Intrinsic absorption – caused by interaction of the signal with one or more
of the major components of the glass. They occur at the wavelength range
0.8 to 1.7 µm. this is due to stimulation of electron transitions within the
glass by higher energy excitations.
 Extrinsic absorption – caused by transition metal element impurities within
the glass. Some of the common metallic impurities found in glass are
shown in the table.
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Material absorption losses in silica glass fibers

NB: The last column shows the absorption losses caused by one part in 109 . It shows
that some these impurities, namely Chromium and copper, in their worst valence state
can cause attenuation in excess of 1𝑑𝐵 𝑘𝑚−1 in the near-infrared region.
Impurities Peak wavelength One partin 109 (dB  Transition element contamination may be reduced to
(nm) 𝒌𝒎−𝟏 ) acceptable levels (i.e. one part 1010 by glass refining
Cr3+ 625 1.60 techniques such as vapor-phase oxidation, w h i c h
C2+ 685 0.10 largely eliminates the effect of these metallic
Cu2+ 850 1.10 impurities.
Fe2+ 1100 0.68  Another major extrinsic loss mechanism is caused by
Fe3+ 400 0.15 absorption due to water (as the hydroxyl or OH ions)
Ni2+ 650 0.10 dissolved in glass. They occur at wavelengths between
Mn3+ 460 0.20
2.7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4.2 µ𝑚 . they can overcome by operating
V4+ 725 2.70
below these wavelengths.

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Linear scattering losses
 This cause some or all of the optical power contained within one propagation mode to be transferred
linearly (proportional to the mode power) into another mode.
 It can result in attenuation in that the transfer may be to a leaky or radiating mode which does not
continueto propagate within the fiber, but is radiated from the fiber. They are in two forms
i) Rayleigh scattering
ii) Mie scattering
i) Rayleigh scattering
 These are as result of in homogeneities in the fiber. They manifest themselves as refractive index
fluctuations and arise from density and compositional variations, which are frozen, into the glass
lattice on cooling.
 Compositional variations can be reduced by improved fabrication but index fluctuation caused by the
freezing-in of density in homogeneities cannot be avoided. This scattering results in attenuation
proportional to1Τ𝜆4 . For single component glass it is given by
8𝜋 3 8 2
𝛾𝑅 = 4 𝑛 𝑝 𝛽𝑐 𝐾𝑇𝐹 (37)
3𝜆
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Linear scattering losses
where
𝛾𝑅 - The Rayleigh scattering coefficient
𝜆 - Optical wavelength
𝑛 - The refractive index of the medium
𝑝- The average photo elastic coefficient
𝛽𝑐 - The isothermal compressibility at a fictive temperature TF
𝐾- Boltzmann’s constant
NB: Fictive temperature is the temperature at which the glass can reach a state of thermal
equilibrium and is closely related to the anneal temperature.
It can also be given in terms of transmission loss factor L as
𝐿 = exp(−𝛾𝑅 𝐿) (38)
where L is the length of the fiber.
This scattering is reduced by operating at the longest possible wavelength.
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Linear scattering losses
Example 10:
Silica has an estimate fictive temperature of 1400 K with an isothermal compressibility of7 ×
10−10 𝑀2 𝑁 −1 . The refractive index and the photoelastic coefficient for silica are 1.46 and
0.286 respectively. Determine the theoretical attenuation in decibels per kilometer due to the
fundamental Rayleigh scattering in silica at optical wavelengths of 0.63, 1.00 and 1.30 µm.
Boltzmann’s constant is of1.381× 10−23 𝐽𝐾 −1

Solution:
8𝜋 3 8 2
𝛾𝑅 = 4 𝑛 𝑝 𝛽𝑐 𝐾𝑇𝐹
3𝜆
248.15 × 20.65 × 0.082 × 7 × 10−10 × 1.381 × 10−23 × 1400
=
3𝜆4
1.895 × 10−28 −1
= 𝑚
𝜆4
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Linear scattering losses
i) At a wavelength of 0.63𝜇𝑚
1.895 × 10−28 −3 𝑚−1
𝛾𝑅 = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗𝟗 × 10
0.63 × 10−6 4

The transmission loss factor for one kilometer of fiber in this case is

𝐿𝑘𝑚 = exp −𝛾𝑅 𝐿 = exp −𝟏. 𝟏𝟗𝟗 × 10−3 × 103 = 0.301

The attenuation due to Rayleigh scattering in 𝑑𝐵 𝑘𝑚−1 is

Attenuation= 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1Τ𝐿𝑘𝑚 )

= 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 3.322 = 5.2𝑑𝐵 𝑘𝑚−1
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Linear scattering losses
ii) At a wavelength of 1.00𝜇𝑚 iii) At a wavelength of 1.30𝜇𝑚
1.895 ×10−28 1.895 × 10−28
𝛾𝑅 = 𝛾𝑅 =
1.00 × 10−6 4 1.30 × 10−6 4
= 𝟏. 𝟖𝟗𝟓 × 10−4 𝑚−1 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟒 × 10−4 𝑚−1
The transmission loss factor for one The transmission loss factor for one
kilometer of fiber in this case is kilometer of fiber in this case is
𝐿𝑘𝑚 = exp −𝛾𝑅 𝐿 𝐿𝑘𝑚 = exp −𝛾𝑅 𝐿
= exp −𝟏. 𝟖𝟗𝟓 × 10−4 × 103 = 0.827 = exp −𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟒 × 10−4 × 103
Attenuation = 0.936
= 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1Τ𝐿𝑘𝑚 ) Attenuation
= 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 1.209 = 0.8𝑑𝐵 𝑘𝑚−1 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1Τ𝐿𝑘𝑚 )
= 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 1.069 = 0.3𝑑𝐵 𝑘𝑚−1
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(ii) Mie scattering
 This scattering is as a result of non-perfect cylindrical structure of the
waveguide and may be caused by fiber imperfections such as
irregularities in the core-cladding interface, core-cladding refractive
index differences along the fiber length, diameter fluctuation, strains
and bubbles.
 It may reduce by
a) Removing imperfections due to the glass manufacturing process
b) Carefully controlled extrusion and coating of the fiber
c) Increasing the fiber guidance by increasing the relative refractive index
difference
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Fiber bend loss

 Optical fibers suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on their paths.
 This is due to the energy in the evanescent field at the bend exceeding the velocity of light
in the cladding and hence the guidance mechanism is inhibited, which causes light energy
to be radiated from the fiber.
 As shown in figure 19, the part of the mode, which is outside of the bend, is required to
travel faster than that on the inside so that a wave front perpendicular to the direction of
propagation is maintained.
 As this is not possible, the energy associated with this part of the mode is lost through
radiation.
 This loss is represented by a radiation attenuation coefficient given by
𝛼𝑟 = 𝑐1 exp −𝑐2 𝑅 (39)
where R – the radius of curvature of the fiber and
𝑐1 , 𝑐2 - are the constants, which are independent of R.
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Fiber bend loss

Figure 19: An illustration of the radiation loss at a fiber bend.

 The part of the mode in the cladding outside the dashed arrowed line may be
required to travel faster than the velocity of light in order to maintain a plane wave
front.
 Since it cannot do this, the energy contained in this part of the mode is radiated
away
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Fiber bend loss
 Large bend losses occur in multimode fibers at a critical radius of curvature RC
which is estimated using
3𝑛1 2 𝜆
𝑅𝑐 ≈ 3 (40)
4𝜋 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 2
 These losses may reduced by
a) Designing fibers with large relative refractive index differences
b) Operating at the shorted wavelength possible.
 For single-mode fibers, the critical radius of curvature to minimize bend losses
is given by
−3
20𝜆 𝜆
𝑅𝑐𝑠 = 3 2.748 − 0.996 (41)
𝜆𝑐
(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )2
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Fiber bend loss

Example 11:
Two-step index fibers exhibit the following parameters:
i) A multimode fiber with a core refractive index of 1.5, a relative refractive index difference of 3% and an
operating wavelength of 0.82µ𝑚.
ii) An 8µ𝑚 core diameter single-mode fiber with a core refractive index the same as (i), a relative refractive
index difference of 0.3% and anoperating wavelength of 1.55 µm.
Estimate the critical radius of curvature at which large bending lossesoccur in both cases
Solution:
i) Relative refractive index difference is given by
𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
∆=
2𝑛1 2
Hence, 𝑛2 2 = 𝑛1 2 − 2∆𝑛1 2 = 1.52 − 2 × 0.003 × 1.52 = 2.115
For the multimode fiber, the critical radius of curvature is
3𝑛1 2 𝜆 3 × 2.225 × 0.82 × 10−6
𝑅𝑐 ≈ 3 = 3 = 9𝜇𝑚
4𝜋 𝑛1 2 − 2
𝑛2 2 4𝜋 × 0.135 2

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Fiber bend loss

ii) Again, 𝑛2 2 = 𝑛1 2 − 2∆𝑛1 2 = 1.52 − 2 × 0.003 × 1.52 = 2.115 or 𝑛2 = 1.496

The cutoff wavelength for the single-mode fiber is given by

2𝜋𝑎𝑛1 2∆ 2𝜋𝑎4 × 10−6 × 1.5 2 × 0.03
𝜆𝑐 = = = 1.214𝜇𝑚
2.405 2.405

Hence, critical radius of curvature is

−3
20𝜆 𝜆
𝑅𝑐𝑠 = 3 2.748 − 0.996
𝜆𝑐
(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )2
−3
20 × 1.55 × 10−6 1.55 × 10−6
= 3 2.748 − 0.996
1.214 × 10−6
(1.500 − 1.496)2
= 38𝑚𝑚

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Dispersion
 This causes distortion of the transmitted optical signal for both digital and analog
transmission along optical fibers. It causes the broadening of the transmitted light
pulses as the travel along the channel.
 Consider the figure 20. Its show that each pulse broadens and overlaps its
neighbors, eventually becoming indistinguishable at the receiver input. The effect
is called intersymbol interference (ISI).
 Thus, it limits the maximum possible bandwidth attainable with a particular optical
fiber to the point where individual symbols can no longer be distinguished.
 For no overlapping of light pulses down the fiber, the digital bit rate 𝐵𝑇 must be
less the reciprocal of the broadened(through dispersion) pulse duration 2𝜏. Hence,
1
𝐵𝑇 ≤ (42)
2𝜏
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Dispersion
Assuming that the broadening due to dispersion on the channel is 𝜏 which dictates
the input pulse duration, which is also 𝜏
An illustration using the digital bit pattern
1011 of the broadening of light pulses as
they are transmitted along the fiber: (a)
fiber input (b) fiber output at a distance 𝐿1 ;
(c) fiber output at a distance 𝐿2 > 𝐿1

Figure 20:
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Dispersion
 A more accurate estimate of the maximum bit rate for an optical channel with
dispersion is assuming that the output is of Gaussian shape with an rms width of 𝜎
 Unlike equation (42), this analysis allows for the existence of a certain amount of
signal overlap on the channel, whilst avoiding any SNR penalty which occurs when
intersymbol interference becomes pronounced.
 In this case the maximum bit rate is given by
0.2
𝐵𝑇 (max) = 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠/𝑠 (43)
𝜎
Example 12: A multiple graded index fiber exhibits total pulse broadening of 0.1μs over
a distance of 15 km. Estimate
a) The maximum possible bandwidth on the link assuming no intersymbol interference
b) The pulse dispersion per unit length c) the bandwidth-length product for the fiber
Solution:
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Dispersion
a) The maximum possible optical bandwidth, which is equivalent to the maximum possible bit rate (for
return to zero pulses) assuming no ISI is obtained as-
1 1
𝐵𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 𝐵𝑇 = = = 5𝑀𝐻𝑧
2𝜏 2 × 0.1 × 10−6
b) The dispersion per unit length is obtained by dividing the total dispersion by the total length of the
fiber
0.1 × 10−6
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 6.67𝑛𝑠/𝑘𝑚
15
c) The bandwidth-length product is obtained in two ways. Firstly by simply multiplying the maximum
bandwidth for the fiber by its length i.e.
𝐵𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝐿 = 5𝑀𝐻𝑧 × 15𝑘𝑚 = 75𝑀𝐻𝑍
Alternatively, it may obtained from the dispersion per unit length as
1 1
𝐵𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝐿 = = = 75𝑀𝐻𝑧
2 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 × 6.67 × 10−9

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Dispersive Mechanisms
These include:
a) Material dispersion
b) Waveguide dispersion
c) Intermodal dispersion
d) Profile dispersion
Intermodal dispersion
 Intermodal or chromatic dispersion occurs as a result of finite linewidth of the optical
source. Since optical sources do not emit just a single frequency but a band of frequencies, then
there may be propagation delay differences between the different spectral components of the
transmitted signal.
 This causes broadening of each transmitted mode and hence intermodal dispersion.
 The delay differences may be caused by dispersive properties of the waveguide material
(material dispersion) and also guidance effects within the fiber structure (waveguide
dispersion).
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Dispersive Mechanisms
Material dispersion
Pulse broadening results from the different group velocities of the various spectral
components launched into the fiber from the optical source. It occurs when the
phase velocity of the plane wave propagation in the dielectric medium varies
nonlinearly with wavelength.
The group delay is given by
𝑑𝛽 1 𝑑𝑛1
𝜏𝑔 = = 𝑛1 − 𝜆 (44)
𝑑𝜔 𝑐 𝑑𝜆

Where 𝜏𝑔 is the group delay in the fiber which is the reciprocal of group velocity 𝑣𝑔
𝑛1 -n is the refractive index of the core, 𝑐 is speed of light in free space and  is the
wavelength of the propagating wave.
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