1.

Subatomic particles are the basic building blocks of atoms, and they
include protons, neutrons, and electrons. Each has distinct
characteristics:
*Protons**
- **Charge:** +1 elementary charge (+1e)
- **Mass:** Approximately 1 atomic mass unit (amu) or 1.67 × 10⁻²⁷
kg
- **Location:** Nucleus of an atom
- **Characteristics:** Protons determine the atomic number of an
element, which defines the element’s identity. They contribute
significantly to the atom’s mass.
- Neutrons**
- **Charge:** 0 (neutral)
- **Mass:** Slightly more than a proton, approximately 1 amu or 1.67
× 10⁻²⁷ kg
- **Location:** Nucleus of an atom
- **Characteristics:** Neutrons contribute to the mass of the atom
and affect its stability. Different numbers of neutrons result in
different isotopes of the same element.
- *Electrons**
- **Charge:** -1 elementary charge (-1e)
- **Mass:** Approximately 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg (about 1/1836 of a
proton’s mass)
- **Location:** Electron cloud surrounding the nucleus
- **Characteristics:** Electrons determine the chemical properties of
an atom and participate in chemical bonding. They occupy various
energy levels or orbitals around the nucleus.
These particles together form the structure of an atom, with protons and
neutrons making up the dense nucleus and electrons occupying the
surrounding space.

2. Nuclide symbolism is written as:

AXZ
Where:
- A (mass number) is the total number of nucleons (protons + neutrons)
- Z (atomic number) is the number of protons (defines the element)
- X (symbol) represents the element (e.g., H, C, O)
Example: ⁴2He
- A = 4 (mass number)
- Z = 2 (atomic number)
- X = He (symbol)
Here’s a breakdown of the components:
- Mass number (A): 4
- Number of protons: 2
- Number of neutrons: 2
- Atomic number (Z): 2
 - Number of protons: 2
- Symbol (X): He - Represents the element Helium
### 3. Classify the Nuclides on the Basis of:
#### (i) Their N/Z Value
Nuclides can be classified based on the neutron-to-proton (N/Z) ratio,
which affects their stability:

1. **N/Z ≈ 1**:
- **Description**: Nuclides with an N/Z ratio close to 1 are typically
stable and are found among lighter elements.
- **Example**: (Carbon-12)
- Neutrons (N): 6
- Protons (Z): 6
- N/Z = 6/6 = 1

2. **N/Z > 1**:

- **Description**: As elements become heavier, a higher number of
neutrons is required to balance the electrostatic repulsion between
protons. This means a higher N/Z ratio.
- **Example**: (Uranium-238)
- Neutrons (N): 146
- Protons (Z): 92
- N/Z = 146/92 ≈ 1.59

3. **N/Z < 1**:

- **Description**: These nuclides have more protons than neutrons and
are generally unstable, often undergoing decay to reach a more stable
state.
- **Example**: (Helium-3)
- Neutrons (N): 1
- Protons (Z): 2
- N/Z = ½ = 0.5

#### (ii) Stability

Nuclides can also be classified based on their stability, which is influenced
by their N/Z ratio and other factors:

1. **Stable Nuclides**:
- **Description**: These nuclides do not undergo radioactive decay and
are found in a band of stability.
- **Example**: (Carbon-12)
- N = 6, Z = 6
- Stable with N/Z = 1

2. **Radioactive Nuclides**:
- **Description**: These nuclides are unstable and undergo radioactive
decay to achieve a more stable configuration.
 - **Example**: \(Carbon-14)
- Neutrons (N): 8
- Protons (Z): 6
- N/Z = 8/6 ≈ 1.33
- Undergoes beta decay to (Nitrogen-14)

3. **Magic Numbers**:
- **Description**: Nuclides with proton or neutron numbers equal to
certain “magic numbers” (2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126) are exceptionally
stable due to their closed-shell configurations.
- **Example**: (Lead-208)
- Neutrons (N): 126
- Protons (Z): 82
- Both numbers are magic numbers, making it highly stable.

### 4. What Do You Understand by Nuclear Forces?

Nuclear forces, also known as the strong nuclear force, are fundamental
interactions that bind protons and neutrons (collectively called nucleons)
within an atomic nucleus. These forces are essential for the stability of the
nucleus, counteracting the electrostatic repulsion between positively
charged protons.

#### Elaboration on Nuclear Forces:

1. **Nature of Nuclear Forces**:

- **Short Range**: Nuclear forces operate over very short distances,
typically within 1-2 femtometers (1 femtometer = \(10^{-15}\) meters).
- **Strong**: These forces are among the strongest in nature,
significantly stronger than electromagnetic and gravitational forces at the
nuclear scale.

. **Properties of Nuclear Forces**:

- **Attractive Force**: At intermediate distances, nuclear forces are
strongly attractive, pulling nucleons together.
- **Repulsive Core**: At very short distances (less than about 0.7
femtometers), nuclear forces become repulsive, preventing nucleons from
collapsing into each other.
- **Charge Independence**: The force is almost the same between any
pair of nucleons (proton-proton, neutron-neutron, and proton-neutron),
though there are slight differences due to the charge.
- **Spin Dependence**: Nuclear forces depend on the spins of the
interacting nucleons, with parallel spins often resulting in a stronger force.
- **Saturation**: Each nucleon interacts only with its immediate
neighbors, not with all nucleons in the nucleus, leading to the property of
saturation.
### 6. How Nuclear Forces Act Between Nucleons
Nuclear forces act between nucleons (protons and neutrons) to hold the
atomic nucleus together. These forces are a manifestation of the strong
nuclear interaction. Here is how they operate:

1. **Short Range**: Nuclear forces are effective only at very short

distances, typically within 1-2 femtometers (fm). Beyond this range, the
force drops off rapidly.
2. **Meson Exchange**: The strong nuclear force can be described by the
exchange of virtual mesons (primarily pions) between nucleons. This
exchange creates an attractive force that binds the nucleons together.
3. **Yukawa Potential**: Hideki Yukawa proposed that the potential energy
due to nuclear forces decreases exponentially with distance, reflecting the
short-range nature of these forces.
4. **Charge Independence**: Nuclear forces are nearly the same between
proton-proton, neutron-neutron, and proton-neutron pairs, with slight
differences due to electromagnetic forces between protons.
5. **Spin Dependence**: The nuclear force is stronger when the spins of
the nucleons are aligned.
6. **Saturation**: Each nucleon interacts only with its nearest neighbors,
leading to the property of saturation in nuclear forces.

Explain Nuclear Binding Energy

Nuclear binding energy is the energy required to disassemble a nucleus
into its individual protons and neutrons. It is a measure of the stability of
the nucleus.

- **Mass Defect**: The mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of the
masses of its constituent protons and neutrons. This difference is called
the mass defect.
- **Energy Equivalent**: According to Einstein’s equation \(E = mc^2\),
the mass defect corresponds to the binding energy.
- **Binding Energy Per Nucleon**: This is the binding energy divided by the
number of nucleons. Higher binding energy per nucleon indicates a more
stable nucleus.

### 8. Numerical on Nuclear Binding Energy

Calculate the nuclear binding energy for Helium-4 (\( ^4_2He \)):
### 9. Discuss the Nuclear Energy Binding Curve
The nuclear binding energy curve plots the binding energy per nucleon
against the mass number (A). Key features include:

1. **Light Nuclei**: For light elements (A < 56), the binding energy per
nucleon increases with increasing mass number, indicating greater
stability.
2. **Peak at Iron-56**: The curve peaks at iron-56, which has the highest
binding energy per nucleon, making it the most stable nucleus.
3. **Heavy Nuclei**: For elements heavier than iron, the binding energy
per nucleon decreases, indicating that these nuclei are less stable and
more likely to undergo fission.

### 10. Discuss the Stability of Nucleus

(i) Number of Neutrons and Protons
- 1.Even-Even Nuclei**: Nuclei with even numbers of both protons and
neutrons are generally more stable due to pairing energy.
- 2.Odd-Odd Nuclei**: Nuclei with odd numbers of both protons and
neutrons are less stable.
- 3.Magic Numbers**: Nuclei with proton or neutron numbers equal to
magic numbers (2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126) are particularly stable due to
closed-shell configurations.

(ii) N/Z Ratio

- 1.Optimal N/Z Ratio**: For light elements (Z < 20), stability is found when
N ≈ Z. For heavier elements, a higher N/Z ratio is needed to counteract
the electrostatic repulsion between protons.
2. Deviation from Optimal Ratio**: If the N/Z ratio deviates too much from
the optimal value, the nucleus becomes unstable and undergoes
radioactive decay to achieve a more stable state.

### 11. Define Radioactivity and Radioactive

Elements
**Radioactivity**: The spontaneous emission of particles or radiation
(alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays) from the nucleus of an
unstable atom. This process occurs as the unstable nucleus seeks a more
stable configuration.

**Radioactive Elements**: Elements that have no stable isotopes and thus

naturally undergo radioactive decay. Examples include uranium (U),
thorium (Th), and radium (Ra).

###12. Explain Different Types of Radioactive

Decays with Examples
1. Alpha Decay (α-decay)
- **Description**: Emission of an alpha particle (2 protons and 2 neutrons).
The nucleus loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons, decreasing its atomic number
by 2 and mass number by 4.
- **Example**:
Uranium-238 decays to thorium-234 by emitting an alpha particle.

# 2. Beta Decay (β-decay)

(I). Beta Minus Decay (β⁻-decay)**:
- **Description**: A neutron is converted into a proton, an electron, and
an antineutrino. The nucleus gains one proton.
- **Example**:
- Carbon-14 decays to nitrogen-14 by emitting a beta particle (electron)
and an antineutrino.
- (II)*Beta Plus Decay (β⁺-decay)**:
- **Description**: A proton is converted into a neutron, a positron, and a
neutrino. The nucleus loses one proton.
- **Example**:

- Carbon-11 decays to boron-11 by emitting a positron and a

neutrino.

#### 3. Gamma Decay (γ-decay)

- **Description**: Emission of gamma rays (high-energy photons) from an
excited nucleus as it transitions to a lower energy state. There is no
change in the number of protons or neutrons.
- **Example**:
An excited cobalt-60 nucleus emits a gamma photon to reach a lower
energy state.

#### 4. Positron Emission (β⁺-decay)

- **Description**: Similar to beta plus decay, a proton is converted into a
neutron, a positron, and a neutrino.
- **Example**:

- Fluorine-18 decays to oxygen-18 by emitting a positron and a

neutrino.

#### 5. Electron Capture

- **Description**: A proton in the nucleus captures an orbital electron and
converts into a neutron, emitting a neutrino.
- **Example**:

- Potassium-40 captures an electron and converts to argon-40.

These decay processes are the means by which unstable nuclei release
excess energy and transform into more stable configurations.
### 13. What Do You Understand by Nucleus Decay
Scheme?
A nucleus decay scheme (or decay diagram) represents the sequence of
radioactive decays that a particular isotope undergoes until it reaches a
stable state. It illustrates the types of radiation emitted (alpha, beta,
gamma) and the resulting daughter nuclei at each step of the decay
process. Decay schemes often include the energy levels of the parent and
daughter nuclei and the energy of the emitted particles.

### 14. What Are the Characteristics of

Radioactive Decay?
- **Random Process**: The exact moment when a particular nucleus will
decay is unpredictable, though the probability of decay can be described
statistically.
- **Exponential Decay**: The number of undecayed nuclei decreases
exponentially over time, characterized by the decay constant.
- **Types of Emissions**: Radioactive decay can emit alpha particles, beta
particles (electrons or positrons), gamma rays, or neutrons.
- **Energy Release**: The decay process releases energy, which can be
carried by the emitted particles or released as gamma radiation.
- **Transformation**: The parent nucleus transforms into a different
nucleus, which may also be radioactive, continuing the decay process until
a stable isotope is formed.

### 15. Write a Note on Decay Constant

### 16. Derive the First Order Rate Law:
### 17. Explain Half-Life Period and Mean Life
- **Half-Life Period (\( T_{1/2} \))**: The half-life is the time
required for half of the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay. It
is a characteristic property of each radioactive isotope. The
relationship between half-life and decay constant is:

- **Mean Life (tau )**: The mean life is the average lifetime of a
radioactive nucleus before it decays. It is the reciprocal of the
decay constant:

### 18. What Are Different Units of Radioactivity?

- **Becquerel (Bq)**: The SI unit of radioactivity, defined as one decay per
second.
- **Curie (Ci)**: An older unit of radioactivity, defined as 3.7 × 10¹⁰ decays
per second.
- **Rutherford (Rd)**: An obsolete unit of radioactivity, equal to 10⁶ decays
per second.

### 19. What Is Nuclear Fission and Its Process?

**Nuclear Fission**: Nuclear fission is the process by which a heavy atomic
nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei, along with the release of a
significant amount of energy, neutrons, and gamma radiation.

**Process**:
1. **Neutron Absorption**: A heavy nucleus (e.g., uranium-235) absorbs a
neutron.
2. **Formation of Unstable Nucleus**: The nucleus becomes highly
unstable.
3. **Splitting**: The unstable nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei (fission
fragments), along with additional neutrons and energy.
4. **Chain Reaction**: The emitted neutrons may induce further fission in
other nuclei, leading to a self-sustaining chain reaction.

### 20. Explain Fission Fragments and Their Mass

Distribution
Fission fragments are the smaller nuclei produced by the splitting of a
heavy nucleus during fission. They are typically radioactive and decay
further, emitting beta and gamma radiation.
**Mass Distribution**: The mass distribution of fission fragments is not
uniform. It often results in two nuclei of unequal mass, typically with one
being slightly heavier than the other. The distribution shows peaks around
certain mass numbers, commonly near 95 and 140 for uranium-235
fission.

### 21. Explain Fission Energy

The energy released during nuclear fission comes from the conversion of
mass into energy, as described by Einstein’s equation \( E = mc^2 \). The
binding energy per nucleon is higher in the fission fragments than in the
original heavy nucleus, leading to a release of energy. For uranium-235,
the energy released per fission event is approximately 200 MeV,
distributed among kinetic energy of the fragments, released neutrons, and
gamma radiation.

### 22. What Are the Characteristics of Nuclear

Fission?
- **High Energy Release**: Fission releases a large amount of energy
compared to chemical reactions.
- **Chain Reaction**: The process can sustain itself through a chain
reaction, where emitted neutrons induce further fissions.
- **Production of Neutrons**: Fission of heavy nuclei typically releases 2-3
neutrons per event.
- **Fission Fragments**: The resulting nuclei (fission fragments) are usually
radioactive and undergo further decay.
- **Mass Distribution**: The mass distribution of fission fragments is
typically asymmetric, with two peaks in the distribution.
- **Radioactive Waste**: Fission produces radioactive waste, including the
fission fragments and activation products.
- **Neutron Moderation**: In reactors, neutrons may need to be slowed
down (moderated) to sustain the chain reaction efficiently.

### 23. Calculate the Magnitude of Fission Energy Released When 1kg
of \( ^{235}U \) is Completely Fissioned
Given:- Energy released per fission: 200 MeV
- Mass of \( ^{235}U \): 1 k-
Atomic mass of \( ^{235}U \): 235 u
- Avogadro’s number :
24. Short Note on Natural Uranium Reactor

A Natural Uranium Reactor is a type of nuclear reactor that uses natural

uranium (0.7% 235U) as fuel and a moderator (such as graphite or heavy
water) to slow down neutrons. These reactors are simple in design and
operate on a thermal neutron spectrum.

Characteristics:

- Fuel: Natural uranium (0.7% 235U)

- Moderator: Graphite or heavy water
- Coolant: Water or gas
- Reactor design: Homogeneous or heterogeneous
- Neutron energy spectrum: Thermal

Advantages:

- Simple design
- Low fuel enrichment requirements
- High fuel burnup
- Low risk of nuclear weapons proliferation

Disadvantages:

- Lower power density compared to enriched uranium reactors

- Requires a larger reactor core
- Limited fuel options

Examples:

- Chicago Pile-1 (first nuclear reactor)

- Hanford B Reactor (first large-scale nuclear reactor)
 - Magnox (UK) and UNGG (France) reactors

Natural Uranium Reactors were the first generation of nuclear reactors and
played a significant role in the development of nuclear energy. However,
they have largely been replaced by more efficient and powerful reactor
uranium.
designs that use enriched
### 25. Conditions Where Neutrons Are Lost
During a Nuclear Fission Reaction
Neutrons can be lost in a nuclear fission reaction due to:

Neutrons are lost during a nuclear fission reaction due to various processes,
including:

Neutron absorption by the fuel itself: Fuel atoms can absorb neutrons, reducing
the number of neutrons available for fission.

Neutron escape from the reactor core: Neutrons can escape the reactor core
through the coolant, moderator, or reactor walls.

Neutron absorption by the moderator: The moderator (e.g., water, graphite) can
absorb neutrons, reducing their energy and making them less effective for
fission.

Neutron absorption by the coolant: The coolant (e.g., water, gas) can absorb
neutrons, reducing their energy and making them less effective for fission.

Neutron absorption by impurities or poisons: Impurities or poisons (e.g., boron,

cadmium) in the fuel, moderator, or coolant can absorb neutrons, reducing the
reaction rate.

Neutron leakage: Neutrons can leak out of the reactor through the surroundings,
reducing the reaction rate.

###These losses reduce the number of neutrons available for fission,

decreasing the reaction rate and reactor power. To minimize these losses, reactor
designers use techniques like:

- Using a high-density fuel

- Optimizing the moderator and coolant materials

- Reducing impurities and poisons

- Using neutron reflectors or blankets

- Designing the reactor geometry to minimize leakage

By understanding and managing these neutron losses, nuclear engineers can

optimize reactor performance and safety.

### 26. Characteristic Factors to Classify Reactors

Reactors are classified based on:
- **Fuel Type**: Natural uranium, enriched uranium, plutonium.
 - **Moderator**: Water, heavy water, graphite.
- **Coolant**: Water, heavy water, gas (CO2, helium), liquid metals
(sodium).
- **Configuration**: Homogeneous (fuel and moderator mixed) or
heterogeneous (fuel and moderator separate).
- **Purpose**: Power generation, research, breeding, naval propulsion.

### 27. Types of Reactors

(a) Natural Uranium, Ordinary Water or Graphite Reactor

- **Description**: Uses natural uranium as fuel and water or graphite as a

moderator.
- **Example**: Magnox reactors use graphite as a moderator and CO2 as a
coolant.

(b) Natural Uranium, Heavy Water Homogeneous Reactor

- **Description**: Uses heavy water (D2O) both as a moderator and as a coolant,

with natural uranium fuel.

- **Example**: CANDU reactors.

#### (c) Enriched Uranium Graphite Reactor

- **Description**: Uses enriched uranium fuel and graphite as a moderator.

- **Example**: RBMK reactors.

#### (d) Natural Uranium Heterogeneous Reactor

- **Description**: Natural uranium fuel is separate from the moderator.

- **Example**: Early nuclear reactors like the Chicago Pile-1.

#### (e) Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)

- **Description**: Uses natural uranium fuel and heavy water as both a

coolant and a moderator. The heavy water is kept under high pressure to
prevent boiling at high temperatures.
- **Example**: CANDU reactors.

### 28. Breeder Reactor

A breeder reactor is a type of nuclear fission reactor that generates more
fuel than it consumes, by breeding plutonium (or other fissile materials)
from non-fissile materials. This is achieved by using liquid metal (such as
sodium) as a coolant and operating on a fast neutron spectrum.

Principle:
 - The reactor core is surrounded by a blanket of non-fissile material (e.g.,
uranium-238).
- Neutrons released by fission in the core react with the blanket material to
produce plutonium-239.
- The plutonium-239 is then used as fuel in the reactor core.

Characteristics:

- Uses liquid metal coolant (e.g., sodium)

- Operates on a fast neutron spectrum
- Breeds plutonium from non-fissile materials
- Has a high fuel conversion ratio (FCR)
- Can be designed to operate in a self-sustaining mode

Types:

- Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR)

- Gas-cooled Fast Breeder Reactor (GCFBR)
- Lead-cooled Fast Breeder Reactor (LCFBR)

Advantages:

- Can generate more fuel than it consumes

. Can reduce the amount of waste generated

- Can utilize non-fissile materials

Disadvantages:

- Requires advanced technology and materials

- Has a high capital cost
- Presents proliferation risks

Examples:

- The Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) in India

The Monju reactor in Japan

-Breeder reactors offer a promising solution for sustainable nuclear energy

production, but their development and deployment have been slow due to
technical and proliferation concerns.

### 29. Salient Features of the Fast Breeder Test Reactor at Kalpakkam,
Madras
 - **Location**: Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR),
Kalpakkam, India.
- **Fuel**: Mixed oxide (MOX) of plutonium and uranium.
- **Coolant**: Liquid sodium.
- **Capacity**: 40 MW (thermal), 13.5 MW (electric).
- **Purpose**: Demonstration of fast breeder technology, research and
development in breeder reactor technology, and production of plutonium-
239.

### 30. Nuclear Fusion and Stellar Energy

**Nuclear Fusion**: Fusion is the process where two light
atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing
energy. This is the process that powers the sun and other stars.
**Stellar Energy**: Stars generate energy through nuclear
fusion reactions in their cores, primarily converting hydrogen
into helium.

#### Mechanisms for Fusion Reactions

**Proton-Proton Chain**:

**Carbon-Nitrogen Cycle**:

### 31. Radioactive Radiations Interaction with

Matter
#### Primary Effects and Radiation Track

When radioactive radiation interacts with matter, it can

produce various primary effects depending on the type of
radiation:

1. **Ionization**: Radiation can ionize atoms and

molecules by removing electrons, creating ions and free
radicals.

2. **Excitation**: Radiation can excite electrons to higher

energy levels within atoms and molecules, which may
subsequently lead to ionization or emission of light
(fluorescence).

3. **Scattering**: Radiation can be scattered by

interactions with atomic nuclei or electrons in the
material, altering its path and energy.

#### Radiation Track

The path or trajectory of radiation as it travels through

matter is called its radiation track. The characteristics of
the track depend on the type of radiation:

- **Alpha Particles**: Heavy and positively charged,

they ionize matter heavily in a short distance,
typically a few centimeters in air. They have a high
linear energy transfer (LET) and create dense
ionization tracks.

- **Beta Particles**: Lighter and negatively or

positively charged, beta particles can penetrate
deeper into materials than alpha particles but still
 interact significantly through ionization and
excitation.

- **Gamma Rays**: Electromagnetic radiation,

gamma rays interact primarily through Compton
scattering and photoelectric effect, producing
sparse ionization along their path.

- **Neutrons**: Neutrons interact primarily through

scattering and nuclear reactions, creating recoil
nuclei and secondary radiation when they collide
with atomic nuclei.

### 32. Units Used for Radiation Energy

Radiation energy can be expressed in several units

depending on the context:

- **Electron Volts (eV)**: Commonly used in nuclear

physics and radiation detection to measure the
energy of particles or photons.

- **Gray (Gy)**: A unit of absorbed radiation dose,

where 1 Gray equals 1 joule of energy deposited
per kilogram of absorbing material.

- **Rad**: An older unit of absorbed radiation dose,

where 1 Rad equals 0.01 Gray.

- **Sievert (Sv)**: A unit of equivalent dose that

takes into account the biological effectiveness of
different types of radiation. It is used to assess
radiation exposure risks to humans.
### 33. Dosimetry and Fricke’s Dosimeter

**Dosimetry** refers to the measurement and assessment

of radiation doses received by individuals or materials. It
involves techniques and instruments to quantify radiation
exposure accurately.

**Fricke’s Dosimeter** is a type of chemical dosimeter

used to measure ionizing radiation doses, particularly
gamma rays and X-rays. It operates based on the principle
of radiation-induced oxidation of ferrous ions (Fe2+) to
ferric ions (Fe3+), which can be measured
spectrophotometrically.

### 34. Processes Involved in the Radiolysis of

Water

**Radiolysis of Water** refers to the decomposition of

water molecules induced by ionizing radiation:

1. **Ionization**: Radiation (e.g., gamma rays) ionizes

water molecules, producing reactive species such as
hydrated electrons (e^-), hydrogen radicals (H·),
hydroxyl radicals (OH·), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).

2. **Reaction Mechanisms**:
- **Hydration**: Water molecules capture electrons to
form hydrated electrons (e^-aq).
- **Radical Formation**: Hydrated electrons, hydrogen
radicals, and hydroxyl radicals are highly reactive and can
initiate various chemical reactions.
- **Hydrogen Peroxide Formation**: Two hydroxyl
radicals can combine to form hydrogen peroxide, which is
stable and can further react in biological systems.
### 35. Radiolysis of Aqueous Solution (Fricke
Dosimeter Solution)

**Fricke Dosimeter Solution** is typically a solution of

ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) in sulfuric acid. Here’s how it works
and how radiation chemical yield is calculated:

1. **Radiation Chemical Yield**: This refers to the number

of molecules or moles of a specific product formed per
unit absorbed dose of radiation.

2. **Process**:
- **Radiation Exposure**: Ionizing radiation (e.g.,
gamma rays) interacts with the solution, oxidizing Fe2+
ions to Fe3+ ions.
- **Measurement**: The concentration of Fe3+ ions
formed is measured spectrophotometrically.
- **Calculation**: Radiation chemical yield is calculated
by dividing the concentration of Fe3+ ions (or other
products) formed by the absorbed dose of radiation in
Gray (Gy).

Fricke dosimeters are calibrated by measuring the

absorbance or concentration change of Fe3+ ions post-
irradiation, allowing for accurate determination of
absorbed dose.

These topics encompass the fundamental interactions of

radiation with matter, dosimetry principles, and specific
applications such as the Fricke dosimeter in radiation
measurements.