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Electric Motors

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SECTION

3
Electric Motors

OUTLINE

Chapter 5 DC Motors
Chapter 6 AC Motors
Chapter 7 Servo Motors

T
he electric motor is the most common device used to perform the actuator func-
tion in an industrial control loop. It converts electrical energy into mechanical
power. The electric motor is the workhorse in both commercial and industrial ap-
plications. In the home, the furnace, refrigerator, washer, and dryer are all powered
by electric motors. They also drive manufacturing industry. It is estimated that
over 60 percent of all electrical power generated is used to supply industrial electric
motors. Because they are used so extensively, electric motors are an important area
of study in the field of industrial electronics.

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPTER

5
DC Motors
OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this chapter, you should be able to:
● Describe the operating principle of a DC motor.
● List the major components of a DC motor.
● Define the following terms:
Motor Action Holding Torque Full Load
Main Field Speed Regulation Overload
Commutation Armature Reaction Partial Load
Rotary Motion Neutral Plane No Load
Torque Force CEMF
● Make the following calculations for a DC motor:
Speed Regulation Work Horsepower
Torque Power Efficiency
● Describe the operation of the following DC motors and identify their characteristics:
Shunt Series Compound
● Reverse the direction of a DC motor.
● Choose the types of DC motors needed for specific applications.

INTRODUCTION
A direct current (DC) motor converts DC electrical energy into mechanical energy. As direct
current is used by the motor, it produces a mechanical rotary action at the motor shaft. The shaft
is physically coupled to a machine or other mechanical device to perform some type of work.
DC motors are highly versatile mechanisms. They are well suited for many industrial
applications. For example, they are used where accurate control of speed or position of the
load is required. They can be accelerated or decelerated quickly and smoothly, and their direc-
tion easily reversed. This makes them very useful in machine tool operations and in robotics.
They provide higher starting torque than other motor types. Because the DC battery is the
best portable power supply, DC motors are used for electric tools, carts, tow motors, and
other forms of mobile equipment. In this chapter, the operation and characteristics of the DC
motor are described.

5-1 Principles of Operation

The conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy is accomplished by a princi-
ple called motor action. There are two requirements for motor action to exist. The first
requirement is that there is a current flow through a conductor. As it does, a circular magnetic

field develops around the wire. These magnetic flux lines go in a direction described by the
left-hand rule shown in Figure 5-1. The thumb points in the direction of electron current flow.
IAU2708
The fingers point in the direction of the circular magnetic flux lines around the wire.
Motor Action

IAU13208
Fundamentals of a
DC Motor

FIGURE 5-1 The “left-hand rule,” showing the direction of

electron flow and the magnetic field around a conductor

The second requirement is that a force on the conductor develops. The force is produced
when the conducting wire is placed inside the magnetic field formed between two magnetic
poles, as shown in Figure 5-2. This magnetic field is referred to as the main field. The direc-
tion of the force depends upon the direction of current through the wire and the direction of
the flux lines between the poles.
Figure 5-2 illustrates this concept. The main field develops between two poles of either a
permanent magnet or an electromagnet. Normally, these flux lines are straight and go in a
north-to-south direction. However, when the conductor is placed between the poles, the lines
become distorted. On one side of the wire, the flux lines of the conductor combine with the
main field and become very concentrated. On the other side, the flux lines of the conductor and
the main field go in the opposite direction. The effect is that they cancel each other, making a
weak force. The side with the concentrated flux lines is elastic like rubber bands. Since they
are stretched, they tend to straighten out. Straightening exerts a force on the conductor and
pushes in the direction of the weak side until it moves out of the field. Figure 5-3 illustrates the
right-hand rule for motors. It shows the direction in which a conductor carrying current will be
moved in a magnetic field. The index finger points in the direction of the magnetic field lines
(north-to-south). The middle finger points in the direction of the current in the wire. The thumb
points in the direction of the wire movement. This is the fundamental principle of motor action.

FIGURE 5-2 Interaction of a conductor inside a magnetic

field causing movement of the wire FIGURE 5-3 The “right-hand rule”

5-2 Rotary Motion

A current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field tends to move at right angles to the field.
Once it moves out of the field, the force is reduced to zero and no further action takes place.
Since a motor produces a continuous rotary motion, it is necessary to make the current-
carrying conductor into a single loop of wire. Figure 5-4 shows the loop placed between two
magnetic poles. When the loop is connected to a DC supply, current flows from point A to
point B on one side of the loop, and from point C to point D on the other side of the loop; that
is, the current flows in opposite directions through the sides of the loop across from each
other. Therefore, one side is pushed upward and the other side is pushed downward. Because
the loop is designed to pivot on its axis, the combined force results in a twisting action called
torque.
This action is illustrated by the cross-sectional view in Figure 5-5. The indicates the
point at which current flows into the page. The dot indicates the point at which current flows
out of the page. The large arrows show the direction of each wire segment. The loop rotation
is counterclockwise (CCW). When it reaches a position perpendicular to the field, there is no
interaction of the magnetic fields. This is called the neutral plane. Due to inertia, the loop
continues to spin CCW. However, since the direction of current flow through the loop does
not change, the interaction between the conductor segments and the flux lines develops a
force in the opposite direction. Instead of continuing in the CCW direction, the loop stops and
then changes direction. An oscillating motion is produced until the armature settles at the
neutral plane.
A continuous rotation is achieved in Figure 5-6 by reversing the direction of current
through the loop the instant it passes through the neutral plane. The current change is
accomplished by a switching device called a commutator. Sometimes referred to as a
mechanical rectifier, the commutator is in the shape of a ring that is split into two seg-
ments. Each segment is connected to an end of the loop. The commutator and loop rotate
together and are referred to as the armature. A pair of carbon brushes supply current to
the armature windings. The brushes are sliding connectors that make contact with the
commutator segments as the armature rotates. Each brush is connected to a terminal of
the DC supply.
The drawings in Figure 5-7 illustrate how the switching action of the brushes and com-
mutator causes the armature to rotate one revolution. The direction of the flux lines in

FIGURE 5-5 Cross-sectional view of the loop

of wire inside the main field. The distortion
FIGURE 5-4 Direction of torque developed by a of this field creates the force that causes the
loop of wire rotation

FIGURE 5-6 Commutator and brush arrangement for a simple DC motor

FIGURE 5-7 The operation of a simple DC motor as it rotates 360 degrees

the main f ield is from the north pole to the south pole. The switching action is called
commutation.
1. In position 1, the current enters the loop through the negative brush and exits through
the positive brush. The torque developed causes the armature to rotate in a CCW
direction.
2. When the armature is in position 2, the brushes make contact with both commutator
segments. The armature loop shorts out and current flows from one brush to the
other through the commutator segments. The result is that no torque is produced.
However, inertia causes the armature to continue rotating past this position.
3. When the armature rotates past the neutral position in position 3, the sides of the
loop are in the opposite position from where they were in position 1. The switching
action of the commutator reverses the direction of current flow through the armature
loop. This causes current to flow into the armature segment closest to the south pole,
as it did in position 1. The torque developed causes the armature to continue rotating
in the CCW direction.
IAU13008
The Multi-Loop 4. In position 4, the armature is again in the neutral position. Since inertia carries the
Armature of a DC armature toward the position shown in position 1, the cycle is repeated.
Motor
The rotation of the armature continues in one direction because the commutation keeps
reversing the current direction through the loop. This way, the armature always interacts the
same way with the main field to maintain a continuous torque in one direction.
There are two disadvantages of using a motor with one armature loop. One problem
is starting the motor when the armature is in the neutral position. Since the armature loop
is shorted, no torque is developed to cause movement. To start, the armature must be physi-
cally moved out of the neutral position. The other disadvantage is that when the motor
runs, its speed is erratic because its torque is irregular. Maximum torque is produced when
the armature loop is parallel to the main field, and minimum when it is located in the neutral
plane.
Both problems are corrected by using a two-loop armature with four commutator segments,
as shown in Figure 5-8. The ends of the loop are connected to opposite segments of the com-
mutator, and the loops are electrically connected in parallel. When one loop is in the neutral po-
sition, the other is in the position of maximum torque. As the armature turns, the commutator
switches current to the loop that approaches the neutral plane. The disadvantage of this config-
uration is that during brief moments of the revolution only one loop is connected, while the
other rotates as dead weight. This situation occurs at the moment when commutation takes
place. The loop that is horizontal in the diagram creates the torque. The other loop is in the neu-
tral plane and is dead weight because there is no interaction of magnetic fields.
By connecting loops of the armature to adjacent commutator segments, this problem is cor-
rected. One commutator segment per loop is used instead of two segments per loop. Electrically,

FIGURE 5-8 A two-loop armature provides

self-starting and steadier and stronger torque

FIGURE 5-9 A four-loop armature that uses four

commutator segments

the armature is two series circuits connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 5-9. When current
flows through the brushes, all four loops carry the current and contribute to the torque.

5-3 Practical DC Motors

In a practical motor, more than four armature loops and commutator segments are used.
Since each conducting wire develops torque, a larger number of loops and commutator seg-
ments produce more turning force. Additional torque is also developed by adding more turns
to each armature loop. A further improvement is the use of more than one set of field poles.
Adding more poles makes it possible for an armature conductor to develop maximum torque
several times during a revolution.

5-4 Control of Field Flux

Magnetic flux lines have a tendency to repel each other, even if they run parallel. Figure 5-10(a)
shows how flux lines between two poles of a magnet bow away from each other. To eliminate
bowing, magnets curved at the ends of the poles are used, as shown in Figure 5-10(b). The
outer magnetic lines have a greater intensity. Therefore, the stronger flux lines force the other
lines inward so that they run straight between the poles.

FIGURE 5-10 Flux lines between poles

5-5 Counterelectromotive Force

As the armature conductors rotate, they cut through the main field. These conditions cause
an electromotive force, or EMF, to be induced into the armature coils in the same way in
IAU9908 which voltage is produced by a generator. The more rapidly the armature turns, the more
Counterelectromotive EMF it generates. The induced EMF opposes the EMF applied to the armature by the DC
Force

power source. For this reason, it is called a counterelectromotive force (CEMF), or back
EMF. To the power source, the CEMF appears as another power source connected series-
opposing. The CEMF does not supply an opposing current; however, it reduces the current
that flows through the armature. The CEMF cancels out a portion of the applied voltage, and
the difference between the two forms a net voltage that affects how much current flows
through the armature. The voltage applied by the DC source is always greater than the CEMF.
The amount of CEMF produced is not constant. It varies according to three factors:
1. The physical properties of the armature. These include the number of turns in
the coil, its diameter, and its length. The induced EMF increases as the size gets
larger.
2. The strength of the magnetic field supplied by the field poles. The induced EMF
increases as the flux becomes stronger.
3. The rotational speed of the armature. A rapidly moving conductor will induce more
CEMF than a slowly moving wire.

5-6 Armature Reaction

At the moment the switching action of the commutator takes place, the armature loop is at
a right angle to the field flux lines and midway between the pole pieces. This axis is called
IAU13108
the geometric neutral plane. Because the loop is not cutting flux lines, it will not generate
Armature Reaction a CEMF.
In practice, the actual neutral plane of the motor shifts from the geometric neutral plane,
as shown in Figure 5-11. The shift takes place because there are two magnetic fields between
the poles. One is the main field, and the other is the flux lines built up around the armature
conductors. Their interaction distorts the main field. The perpendicular neutral plane becomes
shifted in the direction opposite the armature rotation. This shifting of the neutral plane is
known as armature reaction. Armature reaction varies depending on the armature current
and speed of the motor. As more current is applied, the more rapidly the motor runs and the
larger the armature reaction becomes.

FIGURE 5-11 Shifted neutral plane due to

armature reaction

With the neutral plane shifted, commutation is disrupted because it no longer takes place
when the corresponding armature loop is perpendicular to the main field. Instead, the arma-
ture cuts through the tilted flux lines the moment the brushes make and break contact with
the commutator segments. As a result, EMF is induced into the loop, which causes arcing to
occur at the commutator segments that move under the brush. Sparking causes the brushes
and the commutator to pit, increasing the wear on both.

The arcing due to armature reaction adversely affects the motor in three ways:
1. It reduces torque.
2. It makes the motor less efficient.
3. The continuous sparking shortens the life of the brushes and damages the
commutator.

Interpoles
The effect of armature reaction is corrected using special windings called interpoles, some-
times called commutating poles. Shown in Figure 5-12(a), they are smaller poles placed
between the main poles. Interpole windings are connected in series with the armature wind-
ings. The magnetic fields formed around the interpoles oppose the magnetic field around the
armature coils and push back the distorted flux lines so that they are in a straight line between
the poles. Therefore, the neutral plane is shifted back to the original position, as shown in
Figure 5-12(b). Interpole windings are self-regulating, because they are in series with the
armature. If the armature current increases, so does the canceling effect of the interpoles.

FIGURE 5-12 Interpoles

Another method sometimes used to correct armature reaction is by using compensating

windings. These windings are embedded into the metal core of the main field poles and are
electrically connected in series with the armature conductors. Like the interpoles, their func-
tion is to cancel out the distorted effects of the armature field.

5-7 Motor Selection

DC motors are available in different sizes. The larger they are, the more power they have.
Motor manufacturers also produce models of DC motors that are designed to operate at dif-
ferent speeds. When selecting a motor for a particular application, the engineer should find
one that can supply the speed and mechanical power required by the load being driven.
The engineer must also make a selection based on the motor type that best fits an appli-
cation. There are several types of DC motors to choose from. Because they are wired differ-
ently, each type of motor has its own operating characteristic. Operational requirements
determine what type of motor to use.
Two characteristics used in this selection process are:
Speed Regulation. How much the motor speed will vary with a change in the mechani-
cal load.
Torque. How much torque is available when starting a motor, or how much it will vary
with a sudden change in load.
Each type of motor will operate differently when subjected to the various load conditions it
encounters.

Speed Regulation
A motor is designed to operate at full load. Full load is the maximum power it can provide to run
its rated mechanical load all of the time. It is possible for the motor to run above full load, but
not for a sustained period of time: It will overheat and likely become damaged. This situation
is called an overload condition. The overload condition becomes excessive if the motor stalls
because it is unable to move the load. If it stops, the current drawn from the power source is max-
imum and a circuit-protection device will deactivate the motor. When the physical load is
reduced from the full-load condition, this situation is called a partial-load condition. The motor
operates at no load when the physical load is disconnected from the motor shaft.
When the mechanical load connected to the motor is reduced, the motor speed will increase.
The amount it increases depends on the type of motor employed. The ability of a motor to
maintain its speed when the load is changed is called speed regulation. The speed regulation
of a motor is calculated by comparing its no-load speed to its full-load speed. It is usually
expressed as a percentage of its full-load speed by using the following formula:

No-Load Speed Full-Load Speed

Speed Regulation = 100
Full-Load Speed

t EXAMPLE 5-1 The no-load speed of a motor is 1800 RPM. When the rated load is connected to the shaft,
the speed drops to 1720 RPM. What is the speed regulation in percent?

Solution

1800 1720
100 = 4.65%
1720

s
An example of speed regulation is the operation of a hand drill that uses permanent
magnets to develop the main field. When the drill is turned on, it runs at no load. As the
drill bit cuts through the material, it slows down to the full-load condition. The amount it
slows down at full load compared to the no-load speed is its speed regulation value.
If the speed of the motor is relatively constant over its normal operating range, the motor
has good speed regulation. It will perform well as a constant-speed motor. A motor whose
speed varies greatly from no load to full load has poor speed regulation.

Torque
Force is a push or pull that can cause motion. When the forces on an object do not act through
a common point, there is a tendency to rotate. This twisting action that causes an object to
rotate is called torque. Torque causes a motor shaft to turn.
The load a motor is driving may rotate like a fan or a pump. It may also be a mechanism
that moves in a straight line, like a conveyor belt. Even though these mechanical loads move
differently, they are all powered by the turning action of a motor.
When a load is pushed or pulled in a straight line, the force that moves it is measured
in pounds. Torque, which is a combination of force and leverage, is measured in pound-feet
(lb-ft). The amount of torque a motor produces is calculated by multiplying the force it will
exert by the distance between the center of the shaft and the point where the force is being ap-
plied, as determined by the following formula:

F is the tangential magnetic force acting on the conducting armature, measured in pounds.
r is the radius in feet, measured from the axis of rotation to the point where the
force is applied.
T is the rotary action exerted by the motor shaft, measured in pound-feet (lb-ft).

When a load is connected to the shaft of the motor, it exerts a resistance, or opposing
torque, in the opposite direction from the one in which the motor turns. If the torque pro-
duced by the motor is greater than the counter torque of the load, the motor shaft will turn. If
the counter torque is greater than the torque produced by the motor, the shaft will not turn,
and may rotate backward if it is large enough. Even though the load does not move, torque is
still produced.
The magnitude of the torque produced by the motor is determined by the following factors:
● Strength of the main field, ␾.
● The strength of the armature field. This value is expressed by the value of the arma-
ture current, Ia.
● The physical construction of the motor, K. These include:
1. The active length of the conductors
2. The number of active conductors
3. The radius of the armature.

The physical properties of the motor are a fixed constant because they are left un-
changed. The torque of the motor can therefore be controlled by changing the magnetic
strengths of the main field and the armature field.
Figure 5-13 illustrates the concept of torque. It shows a motor turning a winch to lift a
weight of 100 pounds. To determine how much torque is required to lift the weight, the
radius of the winch drum is multiplied by the force exerted by the weight being lifted. If the
diameter of the winch drum is 3 feet, 150 pound-feet of torque is needed.
FIGURE 5-13 Winch
lifting a 100-pound
weight
Torque = Force Radius
=
= 150 lb-ft

t EXAMPLE 5-2 Find the torque required to produce a tangential force of 240 lb at the surface of a pulley 6 inches
in diameter.

Solution

T = F×r
= 240 × 3/12
= 60 lb-ft

s
Suppose the load in Figure 5-13 is doubled. The motor will respond to the change by
producing just enough torque to satisfy the demands of the new load. In this situation, the
motor will have to exert 300 pound-feet of torque. As long as the torque requirements of
the load are within the capabilities of the motor, it will always move the load.
The torque developed by the motor when driving its rated mechanical load is called the
rated load torque. This is a constant torque that drives the load at a steady speed.
When starting the motor from a dead stop, it takes more effort to get it started than to
keep it running. The same concept applies to starting a car. First gear is used when starting
to provide the extra torque needed to overcome the inertia of starting. Less torque is required
to keep the motor or car moving.
Electric motors are designed to supply the extra torque needed to start the load. The
starting torque of DC motors ranges from 150 to 500 percent of the rated load torque. Speed-
torque curves for different types of DC motors will be provided throughout the remainder of
the chapter.

Work
The primary function of a motor is to perform work. The motor does mechanical work when
it supplies a force to move a physical object across a distance. The force acting on the
object must overcome some resisting force. For example, work is done when the weight in
Figure 5-14 is pulled. Work is calculated by multiplying distance times force, as shown by
the following formula:
W = D⫻F
where, D = Distance in feet
F = Force in pounds
W = Work in foot-pounds
Work is not done unless the load is moved a distance.
The concept of work is illustrated in Figure 5-14. A motor exerts a torque to lift a 250-
pound weight a distance of 10 feet. Therefore, the motor performs 2500 foot-pounds of work.

Motor
250

10 feet

FIGURE 5-14 A motor lifting a 250-pound

weight a distance of 10 feet

If a small motor operates long enough, it will perform a lot of work. A powerful motor
will do the work quickly.

Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work. It describes how rapidly a particular amount of
work is accomplished and is calculated by the following formula:

Work
Power =
Time

where, Work is in foot-pounds

Time is in minutes
Power is in foot-pounds per minute

Suppose 5000 pounds of cargo is lifted by a winch to a height of 50 feet. The work re-
quired is 5000 ⫻ 50, or 250,000 foot-pounds. If the time it takes to raise the cargo is 2 min-
utes, the power required is:

Horsepower
Placed on the housing of a motor is a nameplate that provides relevant information for the
engineer or technician. It does not contain information about the torque the motor exerts or

the amount of work it will perform. Instead, it lists a power rating in units of horsepower that
the motor delivers to the load.
This information is useful in determining if the motor is large enough to drive the load.
When 33,000 pounds are moved 1 foot in 1 minute (or an equivalent combination), 1 horse-
power (hp) of work is performed. In the example of the cargo winch, the horsepower required
to raise the load is:

The combination of the speed at which the motor runs and the output torque it exerts de-
termines the horsepower it is capable of producing. In the example of the cargo winch, twice
the horsepower is required to move a load of twice the weight in 2 minutes, or the same
weight at twice the speed.
Suppose a pulley is connected to the end of a motor shaft that produces an output torque
of 10 lb-ft at a rate of 1000 RPM. The formula for determining the horsepower of a rotary
output is:

1000 RPM 62, 800

hp = = = 1.9 hp
33,000 33, 000

Kilowatt Rating of a Motor

Another rating of a motor is wattage. This value identifies the amount of power consumed by
the motor without overheating at its rated voltage and speed as it performs work. Power is
measured in units of watts; 1 watt equals 0.737 foot-pounds per second. If the horsepower
rating of the motor is known, its value can be converted to watts by multiplying it by 746,
since there are 746 watts to a horsepower. Until recently, motor power ratings were given ex-
clusively in hp. Now, more manufacturers are rating motors by kilowatts (kW).
The units of horsepower can be converted to kilowatts by the following formula:

PkW = hp × 0.746

t EXAMPLE 5-3 Determine the kW rating of a 11.42-hp motor.

Solution
PkW = 11.42 × 0.746
= 8.52 kW
s
Motor Efficiency
The mechanical output power of a motor used to drive a load is always less than the power
supplied to its input. A part of the energy supplied to the motor is dissipated into heat and is
therefore wasted.
The heat losses of motors consist of copper losses and mechanical losses. Examples of
both types of losses are as follows:
1. Copper losses
a. Armature I2R losses
b. Field losses
(1) Shunt field I2R losses

(2) Series field I2R losses

(3) Interpole field I2R losses
2. Mechanical losses
a. Iron losses
(1) Eddy-current
(2) Hysteresis
b. Friction losses
(1) Bearing friction
(2) Brush friction
(3) Windage (air friction)
These unavoidable losses are expressed as efficiency. The efficiency rating of a motor is
simply the ratio of the power produced by the output shaft to the power supplied by the
source. It is expressed in percentage by the formula:

Power Out
Percent Efficiency = 100
Power In

t EXAMPLE 5-4 Suppose the wattage consumed by the motor is 3.75 kW and it produces an output of 4.75 hp.
What is the efficiency of the motor?

Solution
1. Calculate the wattage at the output by multiplying
4.75 hp 746 = 3543.5 W
2. Use the efficiency formula:

3543.5 W
100 = 94.5%
3750 W
s

5-8 Interrelationships
The ultimate function of the motor is to drive a mechanical load. The energy required to run
the motor is drawn from the power source at almost the same rate at which mechanical power
is being used. Therefore, the rate of electrical power consumption is directly proportional to
the mechanical requirements of the load plus heat losses.
A change in the mechanical load has an effect on armature current, torque, speed, and
CEMF, all of which are related to one another. The armature current produces a magnetic
field around the armature. The interaction with the main field causes the armature to turn.
The rotating armature produces a CEMF. The CEMF regulates the armature current. At any
normal operating speed, the exact amount of CEMF produced will limit the armature current
to a value just sufficient to produce the torque required to drive the load.
The motor is also a self-regulating device. If the load varies, the speed changes, which af-
fects the CEMF. The new CEMF adjusts the armature current until the torque matches the load’s
new requirements. With all of the factors balanced, the motor is in a state of equilibrium.

5-9 Basic Motor Construction

Mechanically, all motors have two main parts or assemblies: the armature and the field poles.
The horsepower developed by a motor results from the reaction between the magnetic fields
IAU9508 created by these two parts.
Basic DC Electrical
Motor Construction

FIGURE 5-15 Parts of a DC motor

The main parts of a DC motor are shown in Figure 5-15. The field poles are core pieces
mounted inside a nonmoving, hollow, drum-shaped housing. These field pole pieces are ei-
ther permanent magnets or electromagnets. If interpoles are used, they are placed between
the main pole pieces. End covers (also called bells) that support bearings are placed at each
end of the housing. Together, all of these parts make up the field pole assembly. The housing
is made of steel, which conducts magnetic flux better than air and allows stronger magnetic
fields to be established. Its strength also physically supports the stresses that develop inside
the motor as it drives the load. The field pole assembly is also referred to as the stator.
The moving portion of the motor is the armature, which rotates inside the housing. It
consists of a cylindrical core made of sheet-steel laminations that are attached to the shaft.
The outer surface of the core has slots where the armature loops are placed. The armature
windings are soldered to the commutator, which is also mounted on the shaft. A fan attached
to the end of the shaft keeps the internal parts of the motor cool as the armature rotates. The
bearings mounted on the stator’s end plates support the shaft at both ends. The brushes are
pressed against the commutator by specially designed tension springs. The brushes and

springs are placed inside holders that mount to the stator housing. The armature assembly is
also called the rotor.
The flux produced by the field windings passes through the motor housing, field poles,
armature core, and any air gaps, all of which is known as the magnetic circuit of a motor.
Electric circuits of a DC motor are made up of the armature winding, commutator, brushes,
and field winding (if it is an electromagnet).

5-10 Motor Classifications

The most common way to classify DC motors is by describing how the flux lines of the
main field are supplied. For example, the motor described in Figure 5-7 uses a permanent
IAU11508 magnet.
The DC Motor In the other types of DC motors, the field is supplied by an electromagnet. The field
assembly consists of coils wrapped around laminated pole pieces that are mounted on the
inside of the drum housing. Therefore, these types of motors are often referred to as wound-
field motors. The power source that supplies the electromagnetic current for the armature is
also used for the field coils. The flux lines supplied by electromagnets are much stronger
than those of permanent magnets. Also, the field strength can be varied to achieve desired
results. There are three principal types of wound-field DC motors: shunt, series, and com-
pound. They are classified by how their field windings are connected to the DC supply in rela-
tion to the armature.

The Shunt Motor

The shunt motor, shown in Figure 5-16, gets its name from the fact that the field winding is
IAU13708 connected in parallel—or shunt—with the armature windings. This configuration provides
The DC Shunt Motor
an independent path for current flow through each coil. Because the two windings are in parallel,
the applied voltage connected to each of them is the same. The shunt field coil is wound with
many turns of fine wire. Therefore, the shunt field has a higher resistance than the armature
circuit and draws less current. Because the current is low, the field coil requires a large
number of turns to produce a magnetic field of sufficient strength.
The interaction between the magnetic fields of the shunt field coil and the armature
produces the torque that causes the motor shaft to rotate. The strength of the shunt field
with respect to the armature field will determine both the motor’s torque and the speed at
which it rotates. The stronger the magnetic fields, the greater the torque.
Since the shunt coil is connected across the fixed-line voltage terminals, its magnetic
field strength is constant. Even though the CEMF in the armature varies as the speed

FIGURE 5-16 DC shunt motor with the field connected in parallel with the
armature

changes, it has no effect on the field strength of the shunt coil. Therefore, the flux field does
not change significantly as the physical loading conditions vary. The speed of the motor is
mostly proportional to the applied voltage, as described in the formula below:

Speed = VA − (IA × RA)/KE × φ

where, VA = Applied Armature Voltage

IA = Armature Current
RA = Armature Resistance
KE = Motor Design Constants
φ = Field Flux
If we look closely at the formula and consider the motor, the copper resistance of the armature
is very small. So, relatively speaking, any amount of armature current, IA, multiplied by a
very small armature resistance, RA, is going to be a small number. KT represents the motor
design constants, which include (among other things) the number of turns of wire for the
field and armature windings, the size of the wires, and the magnetic air gap between the ar-
mature and the field. Since these variables are different from motor to motor, but not within
an individual motor, they will not affect the speed of an individual motor. Most shunt-field
motor systems maintain a constant voltage to the field, so the shunt field flux, φ, remains
constant. The result is that the speed of a shunt-field motor is mostly dependent on the ap-
plied voltage and represented in the following approximation formula:

VA
Speed ≈
KE × ␾

Another important concept to understand is that CEMF produced by the armature windings ro-
tating through the magnetic field is also proportional to the speed. If we consider that CEMF is
equal to VA − (IA × RA) under normal conditions then CEMF is a good measure and is propor-
tional to the speed of the motor. This principle is based on the assumption that CEMF is equal
to VA − (IA × RA) under normal operating conditions. Many DC motor speed-control systems
depend on monitoring CEMF of an armature as feedback to control the speed of the motor.
DC shunt-field motors have some ability to self-regulate their speed. Suppose that the
motor is operating in a no-load condition and changes to a loaded condition. When the phys-
ical load increases:

1. The motor begins to slow down.

2. The reduction in speed proportionally reduces the CEMF.
3. Since VA – CEMF increases, IA increases, which increases torque.
4. The increase in torque gives the motor the ability to approach its initial speed.
5. As it approaches its initial speed, CEMF increases and IA decreases.
6. However, CEMF will not be as high; motor speed will be slightly less; and IA will
be slightly higher.
If the physical load of the motor decreases or goes to a no-load condition, the chain of
events that occurs is as follows:

1. The previous extra armature current has enough torque to start an increase in the
motor speed.
2. As the motor speed increases, so does the CEMF.
3. As the CEMF increases, the armature current decreases.
4. The no-load torque-friction equilibrium is quickly reached at only a slightly greater
speed.
The no-load speed is slightly higher than the rated speed.

Since the speed regulation from no load to full load of the shunt motor does not exceed
12 percent, it is considered a constant-speed motor. Enough armature current is left over to
bring the motor speed almost back to where it was before the extra load was applied. Because
of these constant speed characteristics, DC shunt motors are used for applications requiring
exact control, such as numerical control machines.

Torque Characteristics of Shunt Motors

The amount of starting torque the motor produces determines how rapidly it accelerates. It
speeds up as long as the developed torque is more than the load’s resistance.
When the motor is turned on, the shaft is not rotating. Since the RPM is zero, there is
no CEMF. The net voltage equals the applied voltage, so the current flow through the armature
is as high as possible. At starting, all types of DC motors produce their maximum torque
because the interaction between the rotor and the stator magnetic fields is at the highest level.
Consider a shunt motor with an armature resistance of 5 ohms and 115 volts applied.
The armature current at zero speed (no CEMF) is equal to the applied voltage divided by
armature resistance.

The magnitude of torque for a shunt motor is illustrated by the torque formula:

The starting armature current is the highest of all DC motors because the opposition to
the supply current is primarily the armature resistance. Yet, the shunt type has the lowest
torque of all wound-field DC motors.
The reason for the low torque lies in the construction of the field coil. Its resistance is
very high because it has many turns of fine wire. Therefore, the field current and field
strength are very low. Since torque is proportional to armature current IA and field strength
φ, the resultant torque produced is relatively small. The starting torque of a shunt motor is
approximately 150 percent of its full-load torque rating.

Motor Speed Control in Shunt Motors

In many applications, the speed of the motor must be varied. The intentional control of shunt
motor speed is accomplished by three methods: field flux control, terminal voltage control,
and armature voltage control.

Field Flux Control The RPM of a DC shunt motor can be controlled beyond its rated base
speed by changing the strength of the main field flux. The field is varied by placing a rheostat
in series with the shunt field, as shown in Figure 5-17. When resistance is increased, the
speed goes up. Conversely, as resistance is reduced, the speed goes down. Therefore, the
shunt field acts as a magnetic brake on the armature.
Although it may seem more logical that a reduction in field flux will also reduce speed, the
opposite occurs. The speed of the motor actually increases because the reduced field flux causes the
CEMF in the armature circuit to decrease. We can recall from the previously described formula
FIGURE 5-17 Shunt field
rheostat added for speed VA − (IA × RA)
control Speed =
KE × φ

that the shunt field flux density (φ) inversely affects the motor speed. As the voltage to the
shunt field decreases, the current going through the field windings decreases, causing a
reduction in the magnetic field flux density. That decrease in flux density results in a higher
speed for the motor and less torque. Essentially, what is happening is:

1. The armature is spinning through few magnetic lines of force.

2. Therefore, less CEMF is developed.
3. With less CEMF, armature current begins to increase.
4. This increases the torque initially.
5. The motor is forced to spin more rapidly.
6. As the motor speed increases, so does CEMF, and reduces the armature current
again.
The end result is that the magnetic field is weaker, and the available torque is lower. There-
fore, the motor speed continues to rise until the torque and mechanical load balance.
This method of speed control is used only for applications that require a constant horse-
power in a partial-load condition. Other limitations of field flux control include relatively
low starting torque and poor speed regulation.

Terminal Voltage Control The RPM of a DC shunt motor can be controlled below normal
speed by varying the terminal voltage. This method is seldom used because a reduction in
speed is accompanied by a substantial loss of torque.

Armature Voltage Control When the field is connected to the same power supply as the
armature, it is called a self-excited DC shunt motor. It is also possible to connect separate
power supplies to the field coil and armature circuit, called a separately excited DC shunt
motor.
The preferred method of controlling the speed of a separately excited DC shunt motor is
by adjusting the armature voltage while maintaining a constant field voltage. This technique
is used to decrease the motor speed below its rated base speed. Speed regulation and starting
torque are generally not affected, except at the very lowest speeds.

Open Field Condition

If the field coil branch opens, the flux strength produced around it decreases to a level sup-
IAU13808 plied only by the residual magnetism of the iron core. This condition causes the CEMF in
The Shunt Motor the armature to drop drastically, and causes its current to rise to a very high level. The net
Open Field
voltage of the applied voltage minus the CEMF rises to a high level and with it, the arma-
ture current.
The armature will continue to rotate more rapidly and the CEMF will increase as the
applied armature current decreases toward that equilibrium point where the speed reaches
maximum. The armature current is then producing enough torque to overcome the friction
and other losses of the motor. However, this torque-friction equilibrium speed could be at a
very high speed of rotation, a speed high enough that centrifugal forces may cause the motor
to fly apart. This condition is called a runaway condition. For this reason, caution is advised.
Do not operate a shunt-field motor without power to the field winding. Some shunt-field
motor systems have a field-loss circuit for safety to disconnect power to the motor in the
event that the shunt field is lost.

Direction of Rotation
The direction that a shunt motor turns can be changed by reversing the leads of either the
field coil or the armature branch, but not both. However, if compensating windings or inter-
poles are used to counteract armature reaction, they are placed in series with the armature.
Therefore, the standard practice is to reverse the polarity of the armature leads.

The Series Motor

The series motor, shown in Figure 5-18, gets its name from the fact that the field winding is
IAU11608 connected in series with its armature. The field coil develops little resistance because it
Series Motors
is wound with few turns. The small resistance allows a high current to flow through the wind-
ings. The field coil is wound with a large gauge (size) wire to handle the current that passes
through the armature. Even though the coil has a small number of turns, the magnetic field
that forms around the windings develops an adequate torque because its flux lines are con-
centrated by the pole pieces, and because the current is high.

FIGURE 5-18 DC series motor with the field connected in series with the
armature

Since the field coil and armature are connected in series, the same current flows through
both coils. As the physical loading conditions change the speed, the CEMF causes the arma-
ture current to vary, affecting the magnetic field around each coil. Therefore, torque is pro-
portional to the square of the current, and speed is inversely proportional to current. These
conditions prevent the motor from maintaining a constant speed under changing load condi-
tions. Therefore, a DC series motor is classified as a poor speed-regulation machine.
Suppose the load the series motor is driving increases.
1. The motor will slow down.
2. Because the armature turns more slowly, it does not cut the field flux lines as rapidly,
and less CEMF will be induced.
3. A lower CEMF causes more current to flow through both the armature and field
windings, thus strengthening the magnetic flux.
4. The stronger field around the armature and field coils provides the torque necessary
to turn the increased load.
IAU12508 5. Equilibrium is reached when the given amount of CEMF generated limits the arma-
Series Motor
Runaway ture current to produce the right amount of torque for the load.
If the load is decreased, the same conditions occur in reverse order.
If the load coupled to a series motor is disconnected, it goes into a no-load condition
called runaway. In this situation, the motor will accelerate until it physically breaks apart.
For example, suppose a normally loaded motor is running. The current flow through the
armature and series coil develops a flux that produces just enough torque to turn the load.
1. At the moment the load is removed, the current flow is larger than that required by
the load. Therefore, the motor speed increases.
2. As the motor speed increases, the CEMF gets larger.
3. A greater CEMF causes the current through the armature and field to diminish. If the
resultant field strength reduction were directly proportional to the armature current, it

would decrease at the same rate at which the speed increased. Therefore, the CEMF would
stop increasing, the current would become constant, and the speed would stabilize.
4. However, because the series field coil has few turns of heavy wire, its flux strength
decreases more rapidly than the armature current decreases. This condition keeps
the CEMF from building as quickly as the speed increases.
5. The CEMF is unable to reduce armature current rapidly enough to stop the motor
from increasing its speed.
Even though the armature current continues to decrease, the torque it produces is enough to
accelerate the unloaded motor until it breaks apart.
Due to their runaway characteristics, series motors are not recommended for belt- or
chain-driven systems. A broken chain or belt could result in a no-load condition. It is unlikely
that small motors will break apart if unloaded because there is usually enough bearing and
brush friction to limit their speed.

Torque Characteristics of Series Motors

Series motors have the highest starting torque of DC motors. The reason for this is that when
power is first applied to the motor and it is not turning, there is no CEMF produced. The entire
applied voltage is across the series-connected armature and field windings. The current at
that instant is limited only by the DC resistance of the two windings. The result is that a high
current flows through the coils and produces strong magnetic fields. With strong magnetic
fields formed around both windings, the interaction between them creates a large amount of
force. The starting torque of a series motor is typically 350 to 500 percent of its full-load
torque rating.
The starting armature current is lower in the series motor than in the shunt motor because
it is opposed by two series coils. The opposition to the supply current is the armature coil and
the field coil. Consider a series motor with an armature resistance of 5 ohms, a field coil resist-
ance of 10 ohms, and 115 volts applied. The armature current at zero speed (no CEMF) is
equal to the applied voltage divided by the total resistance of the armature coil and field coil:

VA 115 V
IA = = = 7.67 A
RA + RF 5 + 10

The magnitude of torque for a series motor is illustrated by the torque formula:
T KT IA
Since the field strength also depends on armature current, the torque equation is rewritten:

T CT I A2
Motor Constant CT = .5
Armature Current = 7.67 A
T .5 7. 672
= 29.4 lb-ft

Note: CT is a new constant that combines KT with the ratio of field strength to armature current.
Compare this result to the torque calculation for shunt motors. The torque of the series motor
is greater than that of a shunt motor even though its starting armature current is less. Therefore,
one characteristic of a series DC motor is that it can provide a very high torque when starting, or
when a sudden heavy load is encountered, as with cranes and railway installations.

The Compound Motor

IAU13908
A compound motor, shown in Figure 5-19, has both a series field and a shunt field. Both the
DC Compound series and shunt coils contribute to the field flux and are wound around the same pole pieces.
Motors The series field coil is connected in series with the armature circuit. The shunt field coil is

FIGURE 5-19 DC compound motor with the field connected in both series and parallel with the
armature

connected in parallel with the armature circuit. There are two types of compound motors,
cumulative, and differential. Each one has different characteristics.

Cumulative Compound Motor

The series and shunt windings of the cumulative compound motor are connected so that their
magnetic fields have the same polarity, as shown in Figure 5-20(a). In this configuration, the
magnetic fields of both windings are additive (cumulative).
The series field has the most impact on the operation when the motor is first turned on.
Since the armature is not turning and producing a CEMF, a large amount of current flows
through the series coil and a strong field is established immediately. This provides a high
torque when starting, or when the load demand suddenly increases.
Suppose that the cumulative compound motor is operating in an under-load condition
when the physical load is increased. The motor slows down, the CEMF decreases, and the
armature and series field currents increase. However, since the armature is cutting the shunt
field that has a constant strength, the amount that the CEMF weakens is limited. When
enough current flows through the armature to create the necessary magnetic interaction
(between the armature, series, and shunt coils) to match the torque demand of the increased
load, the motor speed stops changing. The change in speed is more than that of a shunt
motor, but less than that of a series motor. The speed regulation of a cumulative compound
motor is about 25 percent.
If the cumulative compound motor encounters a no-load condition, the armature will
speed up. However, it does not have the runaway characteristics of the series motor because a
large enough CEMF is developed as the armature cuts through the series and shunt coil
fields. When the armature current decreases to a certain level, the torque decreases so that it
can no longer accelerate the motor, and the speed stabilizes.

Differential Compound Motor

The series and shunt windings of the differential compound motor are connected so that their
magnetic fields have opposite polarities, as shown in Figure 5-20(b). In this configuration,
the magnetic fields of both windings are opposite each other.
This configuration causes the series field to oppose the shunt field when a load is applied.
The resulting decrease of the field flux will make the CEMF decrease and the armature cur-
rent increase, causing the speed to stay relatively constant. Therefore, excellent speed regula-
tion can be provided by a differential compound motor. However, if overloaded, the series
field may become strong enough to override the shunt field, which causes the motor to stop
and sometimes to reverse itself. Therefore, differential compound motors should not be used
if it is likely that an overload condition will be encountered.

FIGURE 5-20 (a) A cumulative DC compound motor; (b) A differential DC

compound motor

Torque Characteristics of Compound Motors

The starting torque of the cumulative compound motor is approximately 300 to 400 percent
of its full-load rating, which is greater than that of the shunt motor but less than that of the
series motor. It is not as strong as the series motor because of the influence of both the series
field and the shunt field. The differential compound motor has less torque than either the
series motor or the shunt motor. Because the series and shunt magnetic fluxes cancel, its
overall field flux is weak.
If the physical load of a running cumulative compound motor is increased, its speed
will reduce slightly more than with a shunt motor. The speed stabilizes when the increase in
armature current causes an increase in torque to handle the added load. The speed of the dif-
ferential compound motor, however, may rise as the load is increased before it stabilizes.
Figure 5-21 shows the torque and speed characteristics of the three types of motors.
Compound motors are used in various industrial applications, such as freight elevators,
stamping presses, rolling mills, and metal shears.

Reversing DC Motors
IAU9708
Reversing the
Reversing the direction of rotation of wound-field DC motors is achieved by changing the
Rotation of DC direction of electron flow through the field (or fields) relative to the electron flow through
Motors the armature. Therefore, the direction of rotation cannot be changed by simply reversing the

FIGURE 5-21 Graph of torque produced versus armature speed with line voltage held constant

negative and positive leads of the DC power source that feeds the motor. Instead, either
the field windings or armature windings can be reversed, but not both. In a compound motor,
both the shunt and series field coils must be changed, or else the motor will be switched from
a cumulative to a differential configuration (or vice versa).
In industrial practice, to reverse the direction of motor rotation, it is standard to change
the armature connections. If the motor has compensating windings, they are considered a
part of the armature circuit. Therefore, current flow through them will also be reversed by
changing the armature connections.

5-11 Coil Terminal Identification

The electrical parts of a DC motor consist of different types of windings that are marked for
identification. The shunt field winding, which consists of many turns of fine wire with a re-
IAU9608 sistance between 100 and 500 ohms, is marked as F1 and F2. The series field winding, which
Labeling DC Motor consists of a few turns of a heavier gauge wire with a resistance of 1 to 5 ohms, is marked S1
Connections and S2. The armature winding, which has a very low resistance, is marked A1 and A2. If the
motor includes a commutating winding or interpole winding as part of the armature circuit,
it is marked C1 and C2.

Problems
1. The twisting effect of a DC motor called 7. When the motor speed increases, the CEMF in the armature
is produced primarily by the interaction of magnetic fields. (increases, decreases).
2. The main magnetic field in a motor comes from . 8. Armature reaction is corrected by , which is/are
a. the field coil c. the commutator and brushes used to shift the neutral plane back to the proper position.
b. the armature coil 9. Torque is produced by a motor when the load it is driving
3. Maximum field interaction occurs at the moment the arma- .
ture conductors are moving the main field. a. moves
a. in the same direction as b. at a right angle to b. does not move
4. Which of the following are functions of the brushes and c. either a or b
commutator? 10. Work is performed by a motor when the load it is driving
a. To provide a path for armature current flow moved a distance.
b. To connect and disconnect armature coils in sequence a. is
c. To provide a path for field current flow b. is not
5. T/F In a DC motor, there is a large inrush of current at c. either a or b
first, which then drops off as the armature begins to 11. A motor rated at 3⁄4 hp can also be rated at watts of
rotate, generating CEMF. output power.
6. T/F The interpoles are always connected in parallel with a. 384 c. 2.5
the armature. b. 559.5 d. 1.253

12. In an operating DC motor, the armature current depends on 21. A DC series motor has .
the applied voltage . a. low starting torque c. high starting torque
a. minus the CEMF c. both a and b b. low no-load speed d. zero speed at no-load
b. and the armature resistance 22. In a DC series motor, if the armature current is reduced to
13. In a DC motor, an increasing mechanical load . one-half of its full-load rating, the torque is .
a. increases armature current a. constant c. reduced
b. decreases armature current b. doubled d. increased
c. has no effect on armature current 23. A compound motor has .
14. T/F A shunt motor’s field winding has more resistance a. a higher starting torque than a DC motor
than the armature. b. a better constant speed rating than a shunt motor
15. A DC shunt motor has . c. a higher starting torque than a shunt motor
a. a high starting torque c. zero speed at no load d. no interpoles
b. a constant speed rating d. all of the above 24. When connecting a compound motor for operation, which
16. To change direction of a DC shunt motor with compensat- leads are wired in parallel with the power supply?
ing windings, you must interchange leads or . a. A1–A2 c. S1–S2
a. A1 and F1 d. F1 and F2 b. C1–C2 d. F1–F2
b. S1 and S2 e. F1 and C1 25. A differential compound motor has than a
c. C1 and C2 f. A1 and A2 cumulative compound motor.
17. When the load on a DC shunt motor is increased, its speed a. a higher starting torque c. more constant speed
will and the amount of torque developed will . b. a higher RPM at no load
a. increase, increase c. increase, decrease 26. A cumulative compound motor has than a
b. decrease, decrease d. decrease, increase differential compound motor.
18. A DC shunt motor operating at 240 V draws 4.5 A. It has an a. a higher starting torque b. a better speed regulation
output of 1 hp. Its efficiency is . 27. T/F Neither a series nor a compound motor can be
a. 69 c. 58 reversed simply by changing the input power leads.
b. 73 d. 43 28. The magnetic fields of the series and shunt motors of a
19. T/F A series DC motor should never be connected to a cumulative compound motor .
load by a belt or chain drive. a. are additive b. cancel
20. The series field winding of a DC series motor has
(low, high) resistance.

6
AC Motors

OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this chapter, you should be able to:
● Describe the principles of the alternating and rotating magnetic fields.
● List the different types of rotors and stators in AC motors.
● List the factors that determine the speed of an AC motor.
● Calculate the following for an AC motor:
Synchronous Speed Slip
● List the different types of AC motors and describe their operation.
● Identify the characteristics of each type of AC motor.
● Reverse the direction of an AC motor.
● Choose the type of AC motor needed for specific applications.
● List and describe the types of information provided on a typical motor nameplate.

INTRODUCTION
An alternating current (AC) motor converts AC electrical energy into mechanical energy,
producing a mechanical rotary action that performs some type of work. Because alternating
current is the standard power generated and distributed, AC motors are the most common
type of motors used in commercial and industrial applications.
Generators at power plants develop three-phase power, which is delivered to industrial
plants. Huge motors use the three-phase electricity to provide the mechanical power for many
types of production machinery, for example, pumps, cranes, and paper machines. Single-
phase power is also delivered from the three-phase distribution to industry, residential, and
small business customers. AC motors that use single-phase electricity typically produce less
horsepower than three-phase motors. They drive such things as furnaces, air conditioners,
washing machines, ovens, clocks, and fans.
There are many types of AC motors. Each one has different operating characteristics
that provide the speed and torque capabilities for specific applications. Their durability
enables them to operate 24 hours a day for many years without maintenance.

6-1 Fundamental Operation

Figure 6-1 shows a simplified diagram of an AC motor. It has two pole pieces with a permanent
magnet placed between them. The coil of wire that wraps around the pole pieces forms elec-
tromagnets. The electromagnets are stationary and are called the field poles or the stator.
The permanent magnet is free to turn and is called the rotor.

FIGURE 6-1 Fundamental AC motor

Alternating Field
The stator windings in Figure 6-1 are excited by AC power. The resultant field generated
between the poles alternates with the applied alternating power. As the rotor magnet interacts
with the poles of the stator, it pivots on its axis. The rotor will make one complete revolution
for each complete AC cycle applied to the stator, as shown in Figure 6-2(a)–(e).
(a) At time T0, no field is developed between the stator poles because there is no current.
(b) During time period T1, the positive alternation of AC voltage occurs. As the field builds
up around each stator piece, the polarities of the rotor ends closest to them are alike.
The rotor begins to turn because the like poles are repelled. After the rotor goes past a
quarter turn, it is attracted to the opposite poles of the stator. It continues to rotate until
the N and S poles of the rotor are aligned with the opposite poles of the stator.
(c) At time T2, the applied current is zero, and there is no field between the poles. Due
to inertia, the rotor continues to turn past 180 degrees.
(d) During time period T3, the AC current changes direction through the field coils. The
polarity of the stator magnetic poles is reversed and the rotor is again repelled.
(e) After the rotor goes past three quarters of a turn, the rotor ends are attracted to the
unlike stator poles. Also, the AC current and resultant field strength drops until it
reaches zero. The inertia carries the rotor past 360 degrees as it begins another rota-
tion and the next AC cycle is repeated.

Rotary Field
There are two disadvantages to the AC motor described in Figure 6-2. First, if the rotor was
exactly parallel to the stator’s flux lines, the magnetic repulsion would be equal and it proba-
bly would not rotate. It would start to turn only if the rotor was slightly offset.
Second, the rotor might not run in the desired direction. The direction it was offset from
the stator’s flux lines would determine the direction it turned.

FIGURE 6-2 One revolution of an AC motor with one cycle of AC

power applied

Both of these disadvantages are corrected by making the stator’s magnetic field rotate
instead of alternate, as shown in Figure 6-3. As the field poles revolve in a clockwise direc-
tion, they attract the opposite poles of the rotor. The result is that the rotor turns by follow-
ing the rotating field.

6-2 Stator Construction and Operation

Stator Construction
It is impractical to physically rotate the stator field poles, as illustrated in Figure 6-3. How-
ever, it is possible to rotate the fields electronically by applying two or three sine waves that

FIGURE 6-3 A rotating magnetic field of a stator

are out of phase with each other. In practice, AC power lines that supply the sine waves are
connected to the stator coils of the motor, primarily because they are stationary. These con-
nections between the coil leads and the AC lines are made inside a terminal box located on
the motor housing.

Two-Phase
Figure 6-4 uses a series of drawings to illustrate how two AC current sine waves that are
90 degrees out of phase cause a rotor to make one revolution. Phase 1 is supplied to the ver-
tical stator windings, and Phase 2 is supplied to the horizontal stator windings.
1. At time T0, Phase 1 produces a maximum vertical magnetic field, while Phase 2 pro-
duces no horizontal field. The rotor aligns itself vertically with the two energized
field poles.
2. At time T 1 , equal amounts of current flow through both vertical and horizontal
windings. A resultant flux develops between adjacent poles, which causes the rotor
to turn 45 degrees counterclockwise (CCW).
3. At time T2, no current flows through the vertical windings, while maximum current
flows through the horizontal coils. The rotor turns another 45 degrees CCW and
aligns itself between the horizontal poles.
4. At time T3, current flow decreases through the horizontal windings. Meanwhile, the
current flow through the vertical coils reverses direction. The resultant flux causes
the rotor to turn another 45 degrees CCW.
Between time periods T4 and T8, the process continues and the rotor turns as it follows
the rotating stator field. After the 360-degree rotation is completed, the next revolution will
begin in the same direction. The rate at which the magnetic field in the stator rotates is called
the synchronous speed.

FIGURE 6-4 Two sine waves used to create a rotating magnetic field

Three-Phase
Industrial factories commonly use three-phase power, in addition to single-phase volt-
ages. Three-phase AC power consists of three alternating currents of equal frequency and
amplitude, but each differing in phase from the others by one-third of a period. This charac-
teristic makes three-phase AC power ideal for developing rotating stator fields for motors.
The creation of a rotating stator field using three-phase power is illustrated in Figure 6-5.
The three phases of alternating current can be thought of as three different single-phase
power supplies. These three-phase currents reach maximum values at different times. Each
phase supplies one of three separate pairs of coils wound around stator poles. The phases are
designated as A, B, and C. Phase A supplies poles A1 and A2, Phase B supplies poles B1 and
B2, and Phase C serves poles C1 and C2. Each set of windings is equidistant from the others.
Because the three-phase currents are displaced in time by 120 electrical degrees, and the
three-phase windings are equally spaced 60 mechanical degrees apart, the resulting magnetic
field will rotate in space as though the poles are rotating mechanically.
Figure 6-5(a)–(f) illustrates the sequence of events that occurs during one 360-degree
rotation of the stator field with three-phase power supplied.
T1 Figure 6-5(a) shows the resultant magnetic field from all three currents during time
period T1. Because Phase A has the greatest amplitude, the greatest concentration
of magnetic flux lines is between stator poles A1 and A2.
T2 During time period T 2 , Phase C has the greatest magnitude, causing the field to
shift from poles A1 and A2 to poles C1 and C2.
T3 During time period T3, Phase B has the largest amplitude, and the field shifts another
60 degrees between poles B1 and B2.
T4 During time period T4, Phase A has the greatest amplitude, but current flow is in
the opposite direction than it was during time period T1. The field develops between
poles A1 and A2, but at the opposite polarity.
T5 During time period T 5 , the f ield develops between poles C 1 and C 2 , but in the
opposite direction than it was during time period T2.
T6 During time period T 6 , Phase B has the greatest amplitude and causes the stator
field to rotate another 60 degrees between poles B 1 and B 2 , but in the opposite
direction than it was during time period T3.
The changes in amplitude and direction of the current flow always occur in the
same order, and at the same time interval, to create the rotating field. The direction of
field rotation can be changed by reversing any two of the three-phase lines connected to
the coils.

FIGURE 6-5 Three-phase AC power: magnetic fields and waveform

Synchronous Speed
The instant power is applied to the motor, current flows through the stator coils. The stator’s
IAU13608 magnetic field begins to revolve at synchronous speed. Three factors determine the speed at
Synchronous Speed which the magnetic field rotates:
of an AC Motor
1. The frequency of the applied voltage
2. The number of stator poles per phase
3. Changing the inductance of the stator coils
IAU11208
RPM of AC Motors The higher the frequency, the more rapidly the motor runs. The more poles a motor has, the
more slowly it runs. The smallest number of poles possible in an AC motor is two.

One cycle of the applied voltage is required for each pair of poles to cause the rotor to
turn 360 degrees. For example, in a 2-pole motor (1 pair), the stator field makes 1 revolution
per cycle of 60 Hz power, or 3600 RPM. The formula for determining the synchronous speed
of the stator field is:

where,
N ⫽ RPM
P ⫽ Number of pole pairs (per phase)
f ⫽ Applied frequency
60 ⫽ Formula constant based on seconds per minute

t EXAMPLE 6-1 Find the synchronous speed of a 4-pole motor (2 pole pairs) with 60 Hz applied.

Solution

s
AC motors are wound for synchronous speeds, as shown in Table 6-1.

The reason the synchronous speed of a four-pole motor is half that of a two-pole motor
is described in Figure 6-6(a). The current from the AC source flows through all four coils

FIGURE 6-6 A four-pole stator: (a) With complementary poles placed 90 degrees apart;
(b) A multispeed control

simultaneously. Because the coils are wound around adjacent poles in the opposite direction,
complementary north and south poles are formed 90 degrees apart.
Suppose that during a positive alternation, windings A and C develop north poles
and windings B and D form south poles, as shown in Figure 6-6(a). As a reference, consider
the north pole at winding A. When the negative alternation occurs, the current through
the coils reverses and the polarity at each pole changes. Windings A and C develop south
poles and windings B and D form north poles. The effect is that the north pole at coil A
rotates 90 degrees clockwise to coil B. During the next alternation, currents reverse and the
north pole rotates clockwise to winding C. Every 180-degree alternation causes the field to
rotate 90 degrees. Therefore, it requires two cycles of AC power to rotate the stator field one
360-degree revolution. The rotor follows the field in an attempt to lock in on it. An AC motor
that can run at more than one fixed speed makes use of this principle. To change the speed, a
switch is moved to connect the stator windings to a different number of poles.
In addition to changing motor speed, the reason for having more than two stator poles in
a motor is to make the field stronger, causing the motor to run more smoothly.
The third method of varying the speed of a single-phase AC motor is by changing the
inductance of the motor windings. The schematic diagram in Figure 6-6(b) shows a three-speed
motor. The permanent main motor winding is located between the terminals marked Common and
High. When the rotary switch is changed from the High position to the Medium position, additional
coils are inserted. The increased inductive reactance reduces the current flow through the winding.
The result is that the magnetic field is reduced and the motor produces less torque, causing the
rotor to turn more slowly than the field, so its speed decreases. The torque and speed decrease
further by adding more turns when the rotary switch is changed to the low-speed position. This
type of speed control is generally used only to operate low-torque loads such as fans and blowers.

6-3 Types of AC Motors

There are two basic types of single-phase and three-phase AC motors, induction motors and
synchronous motors. They differ in the way the magnetic fields at their rotor poles are created.
IAU13408
Armature Action
of AC Motors
Rotor
If a permanent magnet were used as the rotor, it would turn as the magnetic field is rotated
around the stator. AC motors do not use permanent magnets for their rotors. Instead, they use
electromagnets. There are two methods of energizing the rotor so that it creates its own mag-
netic field. The first is to connect an electrical current to the rotor windings. This type of
rotor is used for AC synchronous motors. In the second method, the rotor is not connected to
any electrical source. Instead, it becomes an electromagnet through electromagnetic induction.
This type of rotor is used for AC induction motors.

Rotor Construction
Induction Motor Rotors
Electromagnetic induction results from the rotating magnetic flux of a stator inducing a volt-
age into the rotor. If the rotor has a complete electrical path, current will circulate through the
rotor and develop its own magnetic field around it. The stator and rotor magnetic fields inter-
act at right angles and cause the rotor to turn. For comparison, the stator can be described as
the primary of a transformer. The rotor can be compared to a secondary of a transformer.

Squirrel Cage Rotors

The induction motor with a squirrel cage rotor is the most common rotating electrical ma-
chine. The squirrel cage motor receives its name from the design of the rotor, which resem-
bles a cage used for squirrels, hamsters, and similar pets. Figure 6-7(a) shows the portion of
a squirrel cage rotor that carries current. Figure 6-7(b) shows the complete rotor with the
iron core in place. The “cage” portion is made of aluminum or brass bars, embedded just
FIGURE 6-7 A squirrel below the surface of the core. They are joined to conducting end rings that are placed at each
cage induction motor rotor end of the core. The end rings short-circuit the bars and provide a complete circuit path for

current to flow through, regardless of the rotor’s position. Note that a bar always forms a pair
with another bar directly opposite it in the rotor. Along with the end rings, these pairs resem-
ble the one-loop rotor that was described in Chapter 5.

Wound Rotors
Another type of rotor used by AC motors is the wound rotor. As its name implies, the rotor
is constructed using wound coils of wire in place of the conducting bars of the squirrel cage
motor. Current flows through the wound coils and creates a surrounding magnetic field. The
rotor turns as its magnetic field interacts with the stator field. The current that flows through
the rotor is either induced by the rotating stator field or is provided by an external DC power
source. The number of rotor poles must be the same as the number of stator poles. Each
winding terminates at slip rings that are mounted on the shaft of the motor. The currents are
carried by brushes that ride on the slip rings to an external connection. The brushes connect
either to a DC power source or to an external resistor bank (if the currents are induced). This
type of rotor is commonly used in three-phase motors.

Principles of Operation When the stator winding is energized by a two- or three-phase

supply, a rotating magnetic field develops at synchronous speed. As the field sweeps across
the rotor, an electromotive force (EMF) is induced in the conducting bars by transformer
action. The resultant current flows through the complete circuit loops consisting of the bars
and end rings. Because these loops are short circuits with very low resistance, the current
flow is high, producing a strong magnetic field. As the rotor and stator fields interact, motor
action is created and the rotor turns, as shown in Figure 6-8. Unlike a DC motor, which has a
IAU10108 stationary main field, the AC motor has a rotating field. Instead of the rotor turning 45
The Induction degrees until it is out of the main field, as in the DC motor, it follows the main rotating field.
Motor slip
However, though it will chase the main rotating field, it will never catch it.

Induction Motor Rotor Slip When the motor is turned on, the rotor is stationary and the
stator field rotates. At this time, the relative positions of the two are as different as possible;
maximum current is induced into the rotor, a strong magnetic field forms, and a large amount
IAU13508
The Torque of an
of starting torque develops. As the rotor approaches the synchronous speed of the stator
Induction Motor field, less current is induced in the motor, and the rotor exerts less torque.
The rotor of an induction motor cannot run at synchronous speed. If it were possible for
the rotor to attain the same speed as the rotating field, the flux lines of the stator could not be
cut by the rotor. There would be no EMF induced into the rotor and no rotor current. Because
its flux would be lost, there would be no torque developed to turn the rotor. However, this
Direction of
Direction of stationary condition is not possible because there will be friction and windage losses. To induce an
turning force magnetic field EMF, the rotor speed must be less than synchronous speed. This difference between rotor
speed and synchronous speed is called slip.
If no weighted load is connected to the rotor shaft, the rotor and the stator rotating mag-
netic fields will spin at nearly the same rate. A minimal induced voltage will produce a very
small amount of torque. In practical motors, the no-load slip is 2 to 10 percent. If a load is
N S added to the motor shaft or the load is increased, the rotor will slow down and the slippage
will increase. A larger amount of induced voltage will be developed and torque will increase.
As the load increases, the percentage of slip increases. The amount of slip is also affected by
the type of rotor bars used in the construction of the rotor.
Direction of The slip of an induction motor is expressed as the percentage of synchronous speed. The
turning force percentage of slip is determined by subtracting the speed of the rotor from the synchronous
Direction of speed, and dividing the difference by the synchronous speed. Take, for example, a two-phase
magnetic motor that has a synchronous speed of 3600 RPM and a rotor speed of 3450. The percent slip
field around
each loop
can be determined by using the following formula:
Synchronous Speed Rotor Speed
FIGURE 6-8 The inter- Percent Slip = 100
action of the rotor and Synchronous Speed
stator magnetic fields 150 RPM
creates motor action, 100
which causes the rotor 3600 RPM
to turn = 4.16 %

At a certain point when the load is great enough to cause the slip to become excessive,
an induction motor will reach a breakdown condition. This situation will develop when the
slip is somewhere between 10 and 30 percent, depending on the motor. When breakdown
occurs, the motor will suddenly stall because the rotor cannot slow down any more to pro-
duce enough torque. When a motor is stalled, it still produces torque. However, if it is stalled
or runs well below its rated speed for too long, it will draw excessive current, overheat, and
destroy the motor’s insulation. Most motors have overload protection, but the protection cannot
be totally relied upon.

Synchronous Motor Rotors

In a synchronous motor, the rotor poles are not produced by inductance. Instead, they are
formed by an electromagnetic coil that receives current from a source of direct current. The
current often is supplied by a controller located outside the motor. A rectifier inside the con-
troller takes AC line voltage and converts it to DC. Brushes and slip rings are used to make the
electrical connection between the controller’s output and the rotating rotor coils. When it is at
full speed, the rotor follows the stator’s magnetic field, so it runs at synchronous speed.

6-4 Single-Phase Induction Motors

Typically, single-phase commercial power is supplied to residential customers. Therefore,
two- or three-phase AC voltages cannot be used by motor stators to produce a rotating field.
IAU11008 To start a single-phase motor used in the home, some means must be provided for getting
Single-Phase Motors two phases from the standard single-phase AC source. One process of deriving two phases
from a single-phase source is phase-splitting. The two sets of independent out-of-phase mag-
netic fluxes develop the rotating magnetic field.
The process of phase-splitting is performed electrically inside the motor by the stator
circuitry. There are several popular types of single-phase AC motors:
IAU10908
Phase-Splitting of 1. Resistance-start induction-run motor
Single-Phase Motors
2. Capacitor-start induction-run motor
3. Shaded-pole motor
Their names are derived from the types of components used to split the primary supply sine
wave into a simulated secondary phase. These motors are discussed in the following text.
Single-phase motors are most often used for low-power applications (below 2 hp) and typi-
cally where three-phase power is not available.

6-5 Resistance-Start Induction-Run Motor

One of the most widely used types of single-phase motors is the resistance-start induction-
run motor. It has two separate windings connected in parallel to the power source, as shown
in Figure 6-9(a). One coil, called the main or run winding, has a comparatively low resist-
ance and a high inductance. The second coil, called the auxiliary or start winding, has a com-
paratively high resistance and lower inductance. To achieve the high value of resistance, the
start winding is made of fewer turns than the run winding with fine gauge wire. The motor
receives its name from the fact that the start winding is more resistive than the run winding.
When power is first applied, both windings are energized. Because the start winding
has low inductance and high resistance, the current flow through it will slightly lag the line
voltage. Since the run winding is more inductive, the current flow through it will appreciably
lag the applied voltage, as in any inductive circuit. The resultant two out-of-phase currents
resemble a two-phase power source. Ideally, the phase difference should be 90 degrees,
because maximum starting torque is developed in this situation. In practical motors, however,
the phase difference is much less. In the resistance-start motor, the phase difference is 35 to

40 degrees (Figure 6-9(b)). Nevertheless, the phase difference of the currents is enough to
create two magnetic fields that are out of phase to form an overall rotating magnetic field in
the stator. This condition applies torque to the rotor, thereby starting the motor.

FIGURE 6-9 The resistance-start split-phase motor

The rotating field in the stator is necessary only to start the rotor turning. Once the rotor
accelerates to about 80 percent of its normal speed, it is able to follow the alternating mag-
netic field created by the run winding. Since the field of the start winding is no longer re-
quired, it is removed from the circuit by a mechanical device called a centrifugal switch,
which is connected in series with the start winding. The centrifugal switch contains a set of
spring-loaded weights, which push a fiber washer against a movable switch contact. At start-
up, the contacts are closed, which electrically connects the start coil to the power source. As
the shaft accelerates, the centrifugal force causes the weights to overcome the force of the
springs. The washer retracts and the contacts open, which disconnects the start winding from
the circuit. It is necessary for the start winding to be disconnected because, if it is not, its
high resistance will generate enough heat to burn out the coil.

Operating Characteristics
The primary advantages of the resistance-start motor are that it is inexpensive, requires very
little maintenance, and has constant speed characteristics. The no-load current is usually 60
to 80 percent of the current drawn by the motor at full load. Most of the no-load current con-
sumed by the motor is used to produce the magnetic fields around the motor’s coils. Only a
small portion is used to overcome the mechanical friction and the copper and iron losses.
One disadvantage of a resistance-start induction-run motor is its low starting torque.
Two conditions cause this characteristic. The first is that the start windings are made up of
thin wire that has high resistance, which limits current and causes a relatively small magnetic
field to form. The second condition is that the main winding current lags behind the auxiliary
winding by a small amount, resulting in a weak rotating field. These conditions limit the start-
ing torque to only 150 to 200 percent of the motor’s rated running torque at full load.
Since the high starting current decreases almost instantly, this is not a major problem.
However, resistance-start motors larger than 1/3 hp are usually not approved by power com-
panies for applications that require frequent starting and stopping.
Another disadvantage of this type of motor is its noise. Because of the varying magni-
tude of the magnetic fields that cut the rotor, the torque developed under load is pulsating
and causes a 120-cycle vibration. This vibration can be reduced by using resilient rubber
mounting supports.
Resistance-start motors are most commonly manufactured in sizes from 1 / 30 hp to
1/2 hp. They are widely used to drive loads that are fairly easy to start, do not require revers-

ing, and do not need to be started and stopped frequently. For example, they are well suited
for small machines such as drill presses, oil burners, sump pumps, some washing machines,
and a number of other household appliances. These motors run on both 115 and 230 VAC.

6-6 Capacitor-Start Induction-Run Motor

Another type of split-phase motor is the capacitor-start motor. Like the resistance-start motor,
the capacitor-start motor has two windings: a start winding and a run winding. They are both
connected across the line, and both are in parallel. However, the capacitor-start motor has a low
reactance electrolytic capacitor in series with the start winding. The capacitor value ranges
from 150 to 180 ␮fd. To keep it at a reasonable size, an electrolytic type made for intermediate
duty is used. It is usually mounted in a metal casing located on top of the motor. A centrifugal
switch is connected in series with the capacitor and start windings, as shown in Figure 6-10(a).
The purpose of the capacitor is to produce a larger phase shift and a resultant starting torque
that is substantially higher than that of the resistance-start induction-run motor. When the motor
reaches 70 to 80 percent of full speed about 3 seconds after it begins to turn, the centrifugal
switch opens. This disconnects both the start winding and the capacitor from the circuit. The
capacitor-start motor differs from the resistance-start motor only during the starting period. After
the machine reaches its normal operating speed and the auxiliary winding is removed, their
performance becomes almost identical. Therefore, the combination of a high starting torque
with the constant RPM capabilities of the resistance-start motor gives the capacitor-start motor
the ability to maintain excellent speed regulation under a wide range of load conditions.
There are two ways in which the capacitor improves starting torque:
1. The capacitor causes the start-winding current to lead the applied voltage. Because
the run-winding current lags the applied voltage the same way it does in the resistance-
start motor, the phase shift between the currents of the two windings is nearly
90 degrees, as shown in Figure 6-10(b). Under this condition, the motor approaches
two-phase operation.
2. In a resistance-start motor, the number of turns in the auxiliary winding must be
kept low so that the current in the start winding is nearly in phase with the applied
voltage. The result is that during starting, the surge current is high and gives the
motor about 150 percent more than its rated base speed running torque.
During start-up with a capacitor-start motor, the reactance of the capacitor
cancels the inductive reactance of the start winding. This effect allows a high surge
current for a brief period of time, causing a large magnetic field to form around the
starting coil. The auxiliary coil of a capacitor-start motor has a greater number of
turns than the auxiliary coil of a resistance-start motor. Therefore, its coil has a
greater number of ampere-turns, which produces a larger rotating flux and a stronger
starting torque. Despite having a larger inductive reactance due to more coil turns,
the phase shift is kept close to 0 degrees because XC and XL cancel each other.
It is very important that the centrifugal switch operates properly. If the capacitor is kept
in the circuit too long, it will be damaged or its life shortened appreciably. Also, it should
not be used to start a motor more than eight times per hour; frequent starting can cause it to
overheat. It is important to use a replacement capacitor with a proper microfarad rating. If
the capacitor is too small, the starting current will be less than 90 degrees out of phase with
the run current. If the capacitor is too large, the starting current will be more than 90 degrees
out of phase with the run current. In both cases the torque will be reduced.

FIGURE 6-10 The capacitor-start induction-run motor

FIGURE 6-11 Capacitor-start, capacitor-run

single-phase AC motor

A capacitor-start motor has a starting torque that ranges from 225 to 400 percent of
its rated full-load running torque, or roughly 2.5 times greater than a resistance-start motor.
Capacitor-start motors are manufactured in both fractional and integral sizes, up to 7.5 hp.
They are well suited for applications that require relatively frequent starting and hard-to-start
loads, such as pumps, conveyors, and compressors used by refrigeration systems and air con-
ditioners. They also drive machine tools that require single-phase power.
The direction of rotation of a capacitor-start motor is changed by reversing the connec-
tions of either the main winding or the auxiliary winding, but not both. In practice, the start
winding circuit leads are interchanged.
Some larger capacitor-start motors use two capacitors in the start winding, as shown in
Figure 6-11. With this type of motor, called a capacitor-start capacitor-run motor, its start
winding is not disconnected from the line. One capacitor is larger than the other. The larger
one is used when the motor starts. When the motor reaches about 75 percent of its operating
speed, a centrifugal switch disconnects the start capacitor and connects the run capacitor.
The purpose of keeping the start winding connected is to maintain split-phase power. This
enables the motor to have excellent starting and running torque, good speed regulation, and a
power factor of nearly 100 percent at rated load, and causes it to run quietly and efficiently.
The capacitor-start capacitor-run motor is normally manufactured in sizes from 5 to
20 hp. Practical applications are oil burners, fans, and metal and woodworking machines that
run on single-phase power.

6-7 Shaded-Pole Motor

The shaded-pole motor is a type of induction motor that uses a squirrel cage rotor and a
main stator winding. However, it differs from other types of induction motors in the manner
in which it develops the required rotating field. Figure 6-12 shows that the stator poles are
divided into two parts. The smaller segment is called the shaded pole and is surrounded by a
metal ring called a shading coil. The larger segment is called the unshaded pole or main pole.
The shading coil forms a complete circuit and operates in the same manner as a transformer
with a shorted secondary winding. Its function is to delay the flux lines from passing through
the shaded pole until they are about 90 degrees behind the applied voltage.
The movement of flux around the stator poles is described by the following explanations
and shown in Figure 6-13:
1. Figure 6-13(a): When the current of the AC waveform increases from zero toward a
positive peak, the flux builds up throughout the stator pole. As the flux lines cut
through the shaded pole, an EMF is induced in the short-circuited ring, which causes
current to flow. The current develops flux lines around the conducting ring in the
direction shown by the curved arrows. Note that the ring coil flux and main pole
flux lines are in opposite directions within the inner area of the shaded pole. The
effect is that they cancel each other, which weakens the main pole flux lines that
FIGURE 6-12 Shaded- pass through the shaded pole. Some of the shaded pole flux is diverted, which causes
pole motor the bulk of the magnetism to pass through the unshaded side.

FIGURE 6-13 Shaded-pole motor flux

2. When the AC current reaches its peak value, the flux does not change. With a con-
stant flux strength, the shading coils will not be cut by moving flux lines. There will
be no flux lines developed around the ring to affect the main field because no EMF
is induced. At this time, the main pole flux lines will be distributed more uniformly
over the entire stator pole piece.
3. Figure 6-13(b): When the stator voltage decreases, the flux also decreases through
the stator pole. The flux lines cut through the ring coil in the opposite direction. The
induced EMF and resulting current reverse polarity and the flux lines around
the ring coil change direction, as shown by the curved arrows. The ring coil
and main pole flux lines are aligned in the same direction within the inner area of
the shaded pole. The effect is that they reinforce each other and tend to oppose
the decrease in flux. This delays the collapse of the stator pole flux lines that
pass through the shaded poles. Some of the main pole flux is diverted and concen-
trated through the shaded pole.
4. When the AC current passes through zero and increases toward the negative peak,
the flux lines in the stator pole change direction as the flux cycle is repeated. During
either alternation of the AC cycle, the resultant field moves in the direction from the
unshaded pole toward the shaded pole.

Figure 6-14 shows the effect of the shifting flux lines between two field poles during one
alternation of an AC cycle.
In the other AC motors described, the magnetic fields rotate. In the shaded-pole motor,
the field merely shifts across the pole face. As the flux lines shift, they cut the squirrel cage
rotor bars and induce an EMF. The resulting current creates a rotor flux that interacts with
the stator flux to develop the torque needed to turn the rotor.
The construction of shaded-pole induction motors is very simple. They have no auxil-
iary winding, no capacitor, and no centrifugal switch. They are mounted with cheap
sleeve bearings and are designed to have air pass over them for cooling. Therefore, they
are very inexpensive, rugged, require very little maintenance, and consume very little
electricity.
However, shaded-pole motors have several disadvantages. They are very small and ineffi-
cient. The smallest size, which produces 1/120 hp, operates at an efficiency of only 5 percent.
A motor of 1/20 hp is 35 percent efficient, and the starting torque is only 40 to 50 percent of

FIGURE 6-14 The movement of the overall magnetic field between two field
poles during one alternation of an AC cycle in a shaded-pole motor

full-load torque, though they handle overloading very well. Rotation is usually restricted to
one direction.
These types of motors are used for light load applications that require small output
horsepower, such as clocks, fans, blowers, pumps, toys, and other items that are inexpensive
to make and operate. The most frequent cause of failure is dry bearings.

6-8 Troubleshooting Split-Phase AC Motors

The most frequent cause of malfunction in capacitor-start motors is a defective capacitor. If
it opens, the start winding is disconnected, the motor begins to hum, and it will not start. If a
short exists, the current will become high and will either blow a circuit breaker or burn out
the start winding.
If a resistance-start motor does not turn when power is applied, give the rotor shaft a spin
by hand. If it runs, either the centrifugal switch or the start winding is open. An ohmmeter
can be used to check an open winding or a defective switch.

Thermal Protection
Some split-phase motors have built-in thermal overload protection. When a predetermined
temperature is reached, a thermal switch made of a bimetal strip opens. It protects the run
and start windings from overheating by removing them from the power source. The overheat-
ing can be caused by a lack of proper ventilation or an ambient temperature that is too high.
It is also caused by excessive current that results from either a motor load that is too high or
one that prevents rotation. Some thermal protection devices automatically reconnect the
motor to the line after the motor cools off. Other devices are reactivated by a reset button
mounted on the frame.

6-9 Universal Motors

A universal motor is usually categorized as an AC motor. It gets its name from its ability to
operate on either AC or DC voltage. Its construction, shown in Figure 6-15, is very similar
to a series-wound DC motor. The rotor is made of laminated iron wound with loops of wire.
A commutator segment is connected to the end of each loop. The stator is made of pole
pieces that are wound with wire. Brushes that connect to the stator ride on the commutator as
the rotor turns. The wound armature and the stator field are connected in series through the
brushes and commutator.
When a DC voltage is applied to a universal motor, the same current flows through the
stator and rotor coils. The magnetic fields around the winding interact and develop torque to
turn the rotor. The direction it turns is determined by the direction the current flows through
both sets of windings. When an AC voltage is applied, the direction of current will alternate.
FIGURE 6-15 The circuit
Since the current reverses in both the rotor and stator at the same time, the magnetic fields
for a universal motor,
around both windings also change simultaneously. The result is that the interaction of the two
similar to that of a series
DC motor fields causes the direction of the developed torque to remain the same. Therefore, the rotor
turns one way, regardless of which direction the applied current flows.
Since the universal motor is series wound, it has performance characteristics similar to a
DC motor.
● It has high starting torque.
● The no-load speed is very high, but not high enough to break apart.
● It has poor speed regulation when the load to which it is connected changes. To mini-
mize the effect of the load, most universal motors are designed to overcome this by
operating at a very high speed of 3500 RPM or greater. In a router application, for
example, the universal motor runs at 18,000 RPM.
There are three significant differences between the DC series motor and the universal
motor:
1. In a DC motor, the iron cores are made of solid iron. The universal motor uses lami-
nated iron to reduce energy loss from excessive heating due to eddy currents that are
created from magnetic fields constantly reversing direction.
2. In a universal motor, the magnitude of the fields will fluctuate at twice the line fre-
quency (120 times a second). This condition creates a reduction in output torque
compared to a DC motor, which has constant field strength. This reduction of output
power is partially compensated for by using more armature loops.
3. There is an excessive voltage drop across the series field windings of a DC series
motor due to the high inductive reactance that develops when an AC voltage is
applied. To minimize the voltage drop across the series coil of a universal motor, it
is wound with a small number of turns on a low reluctance core.
In a universal motor, a third set of coils called compensating windings is connected in
series with the rotor and stator. These windings perform two functions: They correct the neu-
tral plane position that is distorted by armature reaction, and they compensate for undesir-
able reactive voltages attributed to the inductance of the armature.
The speed of a universal motor is determined by the following factors:
● A change in the applied voltage. As the voltage increases, the current rises to create a
stronger magnetic field, which causes the speed to increase.
● A change in the load. As the physical load the motor is driving becomes harder to
turn, the speed decreases.
● A change in frequency of the power supply. As the frequency increases, inductive
reactance of the series coil rises, which causes current flow through both the field and
armature windings to decrease. The result is that the magnetic fields around them
become weaker, creating a weaker torque, and the motor slows down.

FIGURE 6-16 Methods used to control speed of a universal

motor: (a) Variable resistor (b) Tapping off various points
of a field coil

Two methods commonly used for speed control of the universal motor are as follows:
1. By inserting a variable resistor in series with the field coil and armature, as shown
in Figure 6-16(a), the voltage across them can be changed. An application example
is a sewing machine. Its speed is varied by a foot pedal, which contains a variable
resistor. Another example is a variable-speed hand drill. As the trigger is pulled, a
resistance in series with the motor is changed to vary the RPM.
2. By tapping a f ield coil at various points, as shown in Figure 6-16(b), different
inductive reactance values are developed. When the switch is set at the low-speed
position, the entire winding is used and the maximum inductive reactance forms and
causes minimum current to flow. At the high-speed position setting, the entire coil is
bypassed and the inductive reactance is reduced, causing a higher current to flow.
An application example of this principle is a blender. A different field pole connec-
tion is made for each speed position setting.
Universal motors are used in many portable applications that require high horsepower
for the size. A few examples are vacuum cleaners, polishers, hedge trimmers, circular saws,
and mixers. One of the most frequent malfunctions encountered with universal motors is
worn-out brushes. They typically require replacement after 300 to 1000 hours of use. Another
fault that develops is shorted armature windings, which occurs when excessive currents
break down the insulation of the armature wire when the motor is overloaded.
The direction of rotation can be reversed by changing the connections to either the field
coil or the armature, but not both. In actual practice, only the armature connections are
interchanged.

6-10 Three-Phase Motors

Most of the motors used in industry operate directly on three-phase power. Also called
polyphase motors, they have several advantages over single-phase motors. They are simpler
in construction, more efficient, and less likely to become defective. Also, by using three
phases, a more powerful machine can be built into a smaller frame.
There are three types of three-phase motors:
1. Induction motor
2. Wound-rotor motor
3. Synchronous motor

All three motors use the same basic design of the stator winding, but differ in the type of
rotor used. They are discussed in Sections 6-11, 6-12, and 6-13.

6-11 Induction Motor

Most industrial machines are powered by three-phase squirrel cage induction motors. These
motors are efficient, simple in construction, and require very little maintenance. When com-
IAU11808 pared with other types of motors, their physical size is small for a given horsepower rating.
The Three-Phase The wide usage of these motors results from their relatively low cost, rugged construction,
Motor Stator Field and good performance.
The basic construction of polyphase induction motor is much like that of the single-
phase counterpart. The rotor is a mass of laminated iron with embedded conductor bars and
end rings called a squirrel cage. The stator consists of a group of coils wound on pole cores
equally spaced inside the motor frame. A rotating field moves around the stator.
The concept of the rotating magnetic field is illustrated in Figure 6-17. There are six
pole cores 60 degrees apart. There are three sets of paired coils labeled A, B, and C. Each set
is connected to one phase of the three-phase power source. The coils in each pair are wound
around cores that are located opposite each other. Since current flows through one coil of a
pair from the outer to the inner connection, while current flows through the other coil from
the inner to the outer connection, the magnetic fields developed at the poles facing each
other are of different polarities. The diagram illustrates how a single resultant magnetic field
is created by combined currents that flow through the three pairs of stator coils. Seven differ-
ent time intervals are shown during one three-phase cycle.
T0 At this time, Phase B is at the peak of the positive alternation and the current
through the B coils is at a maximum value of 20 amps. Phases A and C are negative
and at an amplitude of −10 amps. Most of the strength of this field is produced by
the current flowing through the pair of B coils, which is at maximum strength. This
field is aided by the adjacent A and C fields. The resultant field is in the direction
shown by the inside arrow. It forms inside the pole pieces where the rotor is located.
T1 At time period T1, the current in Phase B decreases to +10 amps, Phase C reverses
direction to +10 amps, and Phase A increases to –20 amps. Most of the field is

FIGURE 6-17 The rotating field of a three-phase induction motor

produced by current flowing through the pair of A coils, which is at maximum

strength. The resultant field shown by the arrow rotates CCW.
T2 At time period T2, the current in Phase B reverses direction to −10 amps, Phase C
increases to a maximum value of +20 amps, and Phase A changes to −10 amps. The
resultant magnetic field rotates another 60 degrees CCW.
The remaining time periods illustrate that the resultant field continues to rotate CCW.
Note that for every 60-degree change in the AC waveform, the resultant field also rotates
60 degrees. If the frequency of the line voltage is a typical 60 Hz, the resultant field rotates
60 times a second, or 3600 revolutions per minute. This is the synchronous speed. By adding
another pair of windings to each phase of the AC applied voltage, four poles per phase are
used. Since a four-pole field will rotate at half the speed of a two-pole field, the stator field
will rotate at 1800 RPM. The same calculations are used as with single-phase induction
motors to determine speed, slip, and speed regulation.
The revolving field produced by the stator currents cuts the squirrel cage conducting
bars of the rotor. The induced voltages that cause currents to flow develop magnetic fields
around the bars. The interaction between the rotor and the stator fields produces a torque that
causes the rotor to turn in the same direction as the stator field movement. At starting, the
three-phase induction motor produces 100 to 275 percent of its rated full-load torque.
One favorable characteristic of a three-phase induction motor is that it is a constant-
speed machine with excellent speed regulation. Its behavior under load is similar to its
single-phase counterparts. When the load is increased, speed slightly decreases, which
causes the slip to increase. This action causes a greater EMF to be induced into the rotor. The
higher current increases the torque to accommodate the new load requirement and prevent
the speed from lowering further. If the load on the motor is increased beyond the full-load
rating of the machine, it becomes overloaded. At a certain point, the larger rotor current and
torque cannot prevent the motor from stalling. This condition is called pull-out torque. The
three-phase induction motor may be severely overloaded for short periods of time. However,
a prolonged overload will increase the temperature and damage the motor. The pull-out
torque of a three-phase motor is much greater than starting torque.
Sometimes, one of the motor’s stator leads connected to the three-phase power line
becomes open. This situation may result from a blown fuse or broken connection. A motor in
this condition is called single-phased. A polyphase motor will not start when it is single phased.
Instead, it will hum because the remaining stator currents set up an alternating magnetic field
instead of a rotating field. If the motor is running when the single-phase condition develops, it
will continue to rotate as a single-phase motor, but its performance will not be normal.
Three-phase induction motors are available in sizes that range from fractional to 50,000 hp,
or 37,000 kilowatts. Applications of these motors include large conveyor systems, large
pumps, and machine tools, all of which require good speed regulation.

6-12 Wound-Rotor Motor

The wound-rotor induction motor (WRIM) is another type of polyphase motor. Its rotor con-
sists of a set of three coils in place of the conducting bars of the squirrel cage rotor. The coils
IAU13308 are preformed and are placed in the slots of a laminated iron core. It has many of the same char-
Wound-Rotor Motors acteristics as the squirrel cage motor. For example, the stator of a wound-rotor motor is the
same as the stator of a squirrel cage motor. As the stator field rotates, it induces an alternating
voltage into the rotor windings just as it would in the squirrel cage’s shorting bars.
A squirrel cage motor’s rotor resistance is fixed. Therefore, its speed–torque characteris-
tics are fixed at full-load operation. Some motor applications require that the speed and
torque of an induction motor be varied. This is possible with a wound-rotor induction motor.
To perform these operations, certain design requirements must be met:
1. The rotor construction must be similar to that of the stator. It is wound for three-
phase power in a wye-connected configuration and must have the same number of
poles as the stator. The windings must be highly insulated. Since windings are used

instead of copper or aluminum bars, there will be a stronger interaction between the
stator and the rotor magnetic fields. The result is a greater amount of torque.
2. There must be a resistive network connected to the rotor windings made up of three
rheostat resistors, one for each wye coil leg. Since the rotor will be spinning and the
resistor network will be fixed, they must be connected by slip rings, as shown in
Figure 6-18. By varying the amount of resistance, the induced rotor currents and the
magnetic flux lines they create can be regulated. This feature allows for variable
speed and torque control.

Start-Up
During the start-up phase of the wound-rotor induction motor, the external resistance con-
nected to the rotor is set to the maximum value. This resistance limits the amount of rotor
current. It also causes the rotor to become more resistive and less inductive. Therefore, the
stator flux and rotor flux are more closely in phase with each other. This causes the flux
strengths of both fields to be at their maximum values during the peak of the alternation,
producing a large amount of torque. This starting torque can be made equal to the maximum
torque if a high starting torque is desired.
As the motor speed increases, the induced voltage will decrease because of less cutting
action between the rotor coils and the rotating stator field. The decrease in induced voltage
produces less current flow and a smaller torque. To provide maximum torque throughout the
acceleration range, the resistance is gradually reduced as the motor speeds up, either manu-
ally or automatically. Once the motor reaches operating speed, the external resistance is
reduced to zero and each rotor coil is short circuited. The rotor windings are then electrically
equivalent to a squirrel cage rotor. At full speed, the two types of motors have similar charac-
teristics. Since the maximum torque can be maintained throughout the acceleration period,
the wound-rotor motor is desirable when starting high-inertia loads.
Many power companies require that motors draw only a small amount of current when
they are started, to avoid voltage fluctuations or the flickering of lights. For this reason,
wound-rotor motors are often selected because they develop a starting torque of 150 percent

FIGURE 6-18 Wound-rotor motor system

of full-load torque with a starting current of 150 percent of full-load current. By comparison,
a squirrel cage motor draws 600 percent of full-load current to develop a starting torque of
150 percent of full-load torque.

Speed Control
Even though the squirrel cage motor has excellent speed regulation, its speed cannot be varied
without using complex electronic devices called AC drives. Wound-rotor motors also have excel-
lent speed regulation, along with superior speed control capabilities. The speed cannot be made
to run faster than synchronous speed, but can be slowed down by as much as 50 to 75 percent.
The greater the resistance inserted into the rotor circuit, the more slowly it will turn.
Speed control is made possible by the external resistor controller. If the resistance is
increased, the rotor current decreases. Since the stator current is proportional to rotor current
because of transformer action, it also decreases. The magnetic field strength of both coils
decreases, which causes the torque to decrease. As the rotor slows down, the slip increases,
and the induced voltage increases. The rotor current will increase until it is sufficient to
develop the torque necessary to turn the load at the slower speed.
The motor rotates at a slower speed, but with the same current and torque that it had
before the resistance was increased. Because this slip is greater, the induced slip frequency
is higher, which causes the rotor reactance to increase. The reactance is proportional to
resistance, which causes the power factor to remain constant.
To change the direction of a wound-rotor motor, interchange any two of the three stator
terminals. There will be no change in direction if the rotor terminals are interchanged
because the rotor is connected only to external resistors.
The wound-rotor induction motor has been largely replaced by solid-state AC drives for
varying speed control of AC motors. However, there are some applications where the AC
drives cannot be used. For example, WRIMs are used in applications where they are exposed
to sudden loads that bog down during the starting period, such as in a rock crusher. If the
motor is locked by being jammed against rock fragments, the slip shoots up, which causes a
surge of high rotor current. However, the heat does not build up inside the motor and destroy
the windings. Instead, most of the heat is dissipated by the external resistors.
Other applications of this motor are pulp chippers in paper mills, automobile crushers in
junkyards, hammer mills, and printing presses, where frequent and smooth starting, stop-
ping, and reversing of high-inertia loads and speed control are required.
The disadvantages of WRIMs compared to squirrel cage motors are as follows:
1. Decreased efficiency due to losses in the external resistance
2. Poorer speed regulation at low RPMs
3. Increased maintenance due to brushes and slip rings
4. Higher manufacturing cost because of insulated rotor windings, slip rings, and brushes

6-13 Synchronous Motor

The synchronous motor is the third type of polyphase motor. It gets its name from the term
synchronous speed, which describes the rotating speed of the stator’s magnetic field. Unlike
induction motors, which have to run at less than their synchronous speed, synchronous motor
IAU10208
Synchronous Motors rotors turn at the same RPM as the stator’s magnetic field. The synchronous motor performs
two primary functions: It converts AC electrical energy into mechanical power at accurate
speeds, and it performs power factor correction.
The stator windings of synchronous motors are excited with a three-phase voltage to
establish a rotating magnetic field. The most common type of synchronous motor has two
different rotor circuits. One circuit is a set of squirrel cage bars with shorting rings that
resemble those used by induction motors. They are called damper or amortisseur windings.
Instead of being embedded in the rotor core, the damper windings are locked on the outer
periphery of the pole core called the pole face. The other circuit contains coils that are wound

on laminated core bodies called salient poles. (The word salient means projecting out.)
Therefore, as the name implies, the pole pieces project outward from the shaft. Figure 6-19
shows the rotor of a synchronous motor with damper windings and salient poles. When the
motor approaches operating speed, direct current is fed to the coils through brushes and slip
rings mounted on the motor shaft. Each coil makes the salient pole become electromagnetic.
The number of rotor poles equals the number of stator coils.

Starting Synchronous Motors

To start a three-phase synchronous motor, a three-phase voltage is applied to the stator, while
no DC power is applied to the salient-pole windings. A rotating magnetic field revolves around
the stator and cuts across the rotor coils. Because the rotating magnetic field exerts opposing
forces on each of the salient poles, they cancel and there is no torque created by them.
The starting torque is provided by the amortisseur windings. Therefore, during the start-
FIGURE 6-19 The rotor up period, the synchronous motor operates as a squirrel cage induction motor. At the begin-
of a synchronous motor ning of the start-up period, the resultant rotor field lags behind the stator field by almost
180 degrees. As the motor speeds up, the field shifts until it is a little more than 90 degrees
behind the stator field.

Reaching Synchronous Speed

When the rotor has accelerated to a speed close to the synchronous speed of the stator field,
it is ready for synchronizing. Direct current is applied to the rotor and makes each salient
pole an electromagnet. Since each coil is wound in the opposite direction from the adjacent
coils, the adjacent poles around the rotor have different polarities. Each rotor pole of fixed
polarity is attracted to the rotating magnetic poles of the stator. At a certain point, there is
enough force to lock the rotor poles to the magnetic poles as they shift from one stator pole
to the next. The amount of force needed to pull the rotor into synchronization is called pull-
in torque. Because the rotor turns as quickly as the field rotates, there is no cutting action
between the stator field and amortisseur coils. This causes the current flow in the damper
winding to cease so that it no longer operates as a squirrel cage motor.
It is critical to have the DC power supply applied to the rotor at the precise moment at
which the rotor and stator fields are synchronized. If it is done too soon, the pull-in torque is
too low. The rotor will slip back and be attracted to the previous stator field. If it continues to
slip back, the motor jerks, which may shake it enough to cause damage. Programmable
industrial controllers are used to apply excitation current to the rotor coils at the proper
moment. Before programmable controllers existed, one person, usually a foreman, was
trained to perform this function.
Sometimes a Pony motor is used to help get the rotor up to synchronous speed, especially
when the rotor is heavily loaded. The Pony motor is a small DC motor mounted on the same
shaft as the synchronous motor, as shown in Figure 6-20. After its armature reaches synchronous
speed, the Pony motor becomes a DC generator. The DC output voltage supplies the excitation
current for the salient rotor poles through the brushes. Figure 6-21 shows the diagram of the
motor/generator circuit. The DC motor/generator is sometimes called an exciter. Excitation cur-
rent can also be supplied by a rectifier or a direct connection to a DC bus line.
When the motor runs at no load, the center of the rotor field is aligned with the center of the
stator field, as shown in Figure 6-22(a). This is known as torque angle. As the motor is loaded,
the angle increases, producing more torque. At full load, the torque angle is around 30 degrees,
as shown in Figure 6-22(b). The motor continues to turn at the same speed as before. At about
150 to 200 percent of full load, the motor becomes overloaded. The torque angle becomes too
great and the motor pulls out of synchronization, which is called pull-out torque. In this condi-
tion, the rotor slows down and lags behind the rotating stator field. A point is reached where the
flux link between the rotor and the stator is broken. This situation occurs when the rotor pole is
halfway between the stator pole to which it is attached and the one behind it. As the rotor speed
slips behind the rotating stator field, two conditions develop. First, it becomes an induction
motor again. However, the cage is intended for starting only. The motor will draw high current
and overheat if it does not pull into synchronous speed fairly quickly. The second condition that

FIGURE 6-20 The Pony FIGURE 6-21 The schematic diagram of a

motor connected to the motor/generator circuit
shaft of the synchronous
motor

develops is the rotor attempts to lock onto each stator field that passes. The motor may vibrate
enough to become damaged. The motor must be shut down immediately and the load reduced
before being restarted. Another factor that may cause these symptoms is defective components,
such as stator windings, rotor windings, brushes, or the rotor power supply.
Synchronous motors are durable, dependable, efficient, and insensitive to line voltage variations.
They are used in applications that require constant speed, such as pumps, or in applications that
require a rating that exceeds 1 hp per RPM. Because they do not have good starting torque, they
should not be used to run equipment that frequently starts and stops, such as conveyors. Another
important function of synchronous motors is power factor correction.

(Rotor and stator fields

are turning clockwise)

FIGURE 6-22 Rotor-stator position

Power Factor Correction

Most motors used in industrial plants are induction motors. The total power supplied to
ACE2903 induction motors consists of true power and reactive power. The actual work performed is pro-
Power Factor
duced by the true power supplied to the resistive components of the motor. The reactive power
produces the magnetic fields in the stator, rotor, and air gap. Therefore, induction motors run
with a lagging power factor. If the motors are lightly loaded, the power factor becomes low,
which implies that the reactive component is large. The power factor of the entire power distri-
ACE3303 bution system within the plant becomes low if several of these induction motors are connected
Power Factor to the same line.
Correction
There are several reasons why low power factors are undesirable. The voltage regulation
of generators, transformers, and supply lines becomes low. The current-carrying capabilities
of supply lines are reduced to a lower level than their rated values. For example, a system
can only supply 60 percent of rated power at 0.6 power factor. Power companies may assess
a penalty charge for industrial sites that run at a power factor below a certain value.

FIGURE 6-23 Synchronous motor used to

correct the power factor of other motors

The synchronous motor has the ability to improve the power factor when connected to the
same distribution lines as induction motors, as shown in Figure 6-23. The amount of power factor
correction is controlled by the amount of DC current applied to the rotor. An adjustment of the
rotor current causes the stator current to lead, lag, or be equal in phase with the applied voltage.
If the current supplied to the rotor is low, the motor is underexcited, and it will have a lagging
power factor like an induction motor, as shown in Figure 6-24(a). As current to the rotor is
increased, a counter electromotive force (CEMF) is induced into the stator. The CEMF causes
the applied voltage and incoming alternating current to be in phase. At a certain point, the rotor
is normally excited, and the power factor of the motor is at unity, as shown in Figure 6-24(b).
The current supplied to the motor is at its lowest level. If the rotor current is further increased,
the rotor becomes overexcited. The CEMF induced into the stator is so high that it causes the sta-
tor current to lead the applied voltage, just like a capacitor, as shown in Figure 6-24(c). In this
condition, the synchronous motor can supply reactive power to induction motors connected to
the same line. The overall power factor in the distribution system then approaches unity and true
power is consumed exclusively. To provide power factor correction, one synchronous motor is
used for every 6 to 10 induction motors. When the synchronous motor is used strictly for power
factor correction without a load connected, it is called a synchronous condenser. Newer designs
are efficient enough that they can perform other work while correcting power factor.

FIGURE 6-24 Field excitation in a synchronous motor

Power factor is also corrected by using capacitor banks connected to the supply lines and
by loading the induction motors as fully as possible.

6-14 Motor Nameplate

NEMA Standards
There are many manufacturers that make the different types of AC motors described in this
chapter. When producing a motor that will be used in the United States, manufacturers must
comply with certain standards. The regulation agency that establishes and enforces the
required specifications is the National Electrical Manufacturing Association, also known as
NEMA. These standards include:
● Electrical voltage and current ratings
● Dimensions of the mounting bolt holes
● Diameter of the motor shaft
● Distance between the center of the shaft and the mounting plate
Compliance to these standards ensures interchangeability between motors built by different
companies.

The Nameplate
Electric motors have a metal plate mounted on the housing. Its purpose is to provide perti-
nent information about the motor, especially if it becomes defective and needs to be replaced.
The data printed on the motor must comply with NEMA standards.
The sample in Figure 6-25 will be used as a reference to illustrate the types of informa-
tion on a typical nameplate.

FIGURE 6-25 Motor nameplate

Model (Number)
The model number identifies a motor that has specific operating characteristics. It is also a
reference tool when using a manufacturer’s catalog that has all the information available
about the motor. This number is particularly useful when returning a motor under warranty
or for finding an exact replacement.

HP (Horsepower)
This is the horsepower that the motor is designed to produce. If it is a fractional motor, such
as a half-horsepower motor, 0.5 will be printed on the plate. A replacement motor should
have the exact horsepower rating. In an emergency, a motor with a higher horsepower can be
used as a substitute, but because it would not run at full load, it would be inefficient.

RPM (Speed)
The speed of a motor is the RPM at which the shaft rotates. The number on the nameplate is
usually the nominal full-load speed. In this example, it is 3450 RPM. If it becomes over-
loaded, the motor will slow down to below the rated speed. When unloaded, it may run above
3450 RPM, but never higher than the synchronous speed of 3600 RPM. Common rated speeds
of AC motors are 1750, 1175, and 890 RPM.

V (Volts)
This is the voltage at which the motor is designed to operate. Common voltages for single-
phase motors are 115 and 230 volts. Common voltages for three-phase motors are 230 and
460 volts. Less common voltage ratings for motors are 208, 550, 660, and 2300 volts.
Motors are designed to operate within 10 percent of their rated voltages to compensate for
line losses. The sample in Figure 6-25 shows two voltages listed, which means this motor can
operate at 115 or 230 volts.

A (amps)
This value refers to how many amps the motor will draw from each phase when producing its
rated output power. The sample shows two amperage ratings. The higher value is the current
draw when connected to the lower voltage listed on the nameplate (115 volts). This informa-
tion is useful for determining the required size of the wires, brushes, and contactors through
which current from the supply lines flows.

Hz (Frequency)
This value specifies that the motor is designed to operate at a particular AC frequency. Most
motors in the United States run at 60 hertz. Outside the United States, especially in Western
Europe, 50 hertz is the common frequency used. Some motors cannot operate at a frequency
other than the one listed on its nameplate.

Duty (Duty Rating)

The abbreviation “CONT” in Figure 6-25 indicates that it is a continuous duty motor. Most
motors are designed for continuous output at their rated power, which means they can run
24 hours per day. However, some motors are designed for intermittent operation, which
means there is a certain amount of time they can run before they need to be shut down to
cool off before resuming operation. For example, a motor with the number 20 on the name-
plate, following the heading “Duty,” can operate for 20 minutes before it must be turned off.

Thermally Protected
Some motors have a mechanism that protects them by creating an electrical open if the tem-
perature rises above a particular level. The motor shuts off when this condition occurs. Some
motors have an automatic reset feature, which turns the motor back on after it cools off. The
letter M on the sample nameplate indicates that the reset mechanism must be reset manually
to resume its operation.

Type
Motors have design ratings designated by letters. The most common are the letters A, B, C,
and D. Each one is determined by the way the motor is wound, which affects the start and run
characteristics.

Type A Special
Type B Normal Starting Torque
Type C High Starting Torque
Type D High Starting Torque and High Slip (used for punch presses)

Type B will fulfill most industrial applications, so it is the most common.

SF (Service Factor)
This value indicates if a motor can operate above its rated horsepower. If it has an SF number
of 1.0, it cannot operate above the horsepower rating listed on the nameplate. If it has an SF
number of 1.25, for example, it can produce 1.25 times its rated horsepower without damage.
The drawback of running in this condition is that the efficiency and power factor of the motor
will be lower than when it runs at its rated horsepower.

PH (Phase)
This value indicates if the motor is a single-phase or a three-phase motor.

PF (Power Factor)
This value indicates the percentage of apparent power used by the motor. All motors have a
power factor, which is affected by their inductive load. A high PF number is desirable.

AMB (Ambient Temperature)

This value is the maximum temperature of the surrounding air within which a motor can
safely operate. If it is exposed to a higher temperature environment, it will overheat and
become damaged. The value on the sample nameplate is 40°C, or 104°F. A replacement
motor should not have an ambient temperature rating lower than the one it is replacing.

INS (Insulation Class)

Motors are constructed with wires that have insulation materials that can withstand different
temperatures. There are four common classes with different temperature ratings:
Class A 105°C
Class B 130°C
Class C 155°C
Class D 180°C

A motor can be replaced with either one that is in the same class or one with a higher tem-
perature rating.

HSG (Motor Enclosure)

This information indicates the ventilation requirements of the motor. Examples are as
follows:
Open to Air. This motor has an internal fan that pulls air from one end and pushes it
through the other end. The term “OPEN” on the sample nameplate indicates this
type of motor housing enclosure.
Open Drip-Proof. A vent is placed at the bottom to prevent drops of liquid or solids from
falling on the motor at an angle of not greater than 15° vertical.
Totally Enclosed. This motor is cooled by convection as an external fan blows air over its
housing, and it is used in dusty, dirty, and corrosive atmospheres.
EP—Explosion-Proof. This motor is used in hazardous environments that contain gas
vapors, coal dust, or alcohol. Its housing is made to be extra strong to prevent an
internal explosion from igniting a gas or vapor in the surrounding atmosphere.

Problems
1. Which components of a DC motor are not found in an AC 18. The shaded-pole motor is commonly -directional.
motor? a. uni b. bi
a. armature c. field windings 19. Motors that operate from either AC or DC power are called
b. brushes and d. fan assembly motors.
commutator 20. The speed of a universal motor can be controlled by .
2. Which of the two types of motor requires less maintenance? a. using a variable resistor
b. tapping a field coil at various points
a. DC b. AC c. either a or b
3. The stationary portion of the AC motor is called the 21. In actual practice, the leads are interchanged to reverse
and the rotating part is called the . the direction of a universal motor.
4. The speed of an AC motor depends on the a. field coil b. armature
of the power supply and the . 22. A three-phase induction motor uses a (smaller,
5. The RPM that the rotating field moves around the stator is larger) frame than a single-phase induction motor of equal
called . horsepower.
6. What is the RPM speed of a single-phase 12-pole AC motor 23. List two ways that a three-phase motor becomes single
operating from a 60-Hz power source? phased.
7. Calculate the percent slip of an induction motor that has 24. The direction of the wound-rotor induction motor can be
a synchronous speed of 3600 RPM and a rotor speed of reversed by interchanging of the three stator leads.
3400 RPM. a. one b. two c. three
8. T/F The rotor must turn at a slower RPM than the speed of 25. T/F During operation, if the resistance of a wound-rotor
the rotating synchronous field in the induction motor. motor is set to zero, it performs very much differently
9. A(n) must be established in a split-phase motor to than a squirrel cage motor.
produce the starting torque. 26. A(n) (increase/decrease) in the external
a. rotating field b. alternating field resistance of a wound-rotor motor causes an increase in
the rotor resistance and therefore a reduction in the rotor
10. To change the rotation of a split-phase AC motor, .
current and speed.
a. reverse the power leads
b. reverse the main and auxiliary windings with respect to 27. T/F The amortisseur windings of a synchronous motor
each other perform a similar function to the bars and shorting
c. both a and b rings of a squirrel cage induction motor.
28. A three-phase induction motor goes into a single-phase
11. Once the split-phase motor reaches percent of its
condition when power is disconnected from of its
synchronous speed, the centrifugal switch to the
stator leads.
windings.
a. one b. two
a. 45–50 f. connect
29. AC motors that turn at the same speed as the rotating
b. 75–80 g. disconnect
magnetic field are called motors.
c. 95–100 h. main
d. opens i. auxiliary 30. In a synchronous motor, the DC excitation is applied to the
e. closes (rotor’s, stator’s) magnetic field.
12. In a resistance-start motor, current in the auxiliary winding 31. In a synchronous motor, stator current will lead the applied
always (leads, lags) the current in the main voltage if the DC motor field is (overexcited,
winding. underexcited).
13. The capacitor-start AC motor has a capacitor in 32. List two favorable features of synchronous motors.
with the winding. 33. T/F A Duty Rating of 20 on the nameplate of a motor indi-
a. parallel/auxiliary c. parallel/main cates that it is designed to run continuously for
b. series/auxiliary d. series/main 24 hours a day.
14. The -start motor has the larger starting torque. 34. T/F A common voltage used to power a three-phase motor
a. resistance b. capacitor is 115 V.
15. The capacitor-start capacitor-run motor has how many 35. The A (amps) value on the nameplate for a three-phase motor
capacitors? indicates how much current will draw.
16. The -start motor is well suited for applications that a. the entire motor b. each phase
require frequent starting loads, such as a refrigerator.
a. resistance b. capacitor
17. The direction of the torque in a shaded-pole motor is toward
the .
a. main pole b. shaded pole

7
Servo Motors

OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this chapter, you should be able to:
● Describe the operation of the following servo motors:
Wound Armature PM Brushless DC Motor VR Stepper Motor
Motor PM Stepper Motor AC Servo Motor
Moving Coil Motor
● Define the following terms:
Servo Motor Stepping Rate
Holding Torque Step Angle
● List a practical application of the different types of servo motors.

INTRODUCTION
The traditional motors described in the two previous chapters are used in applications
requiring moderate to high power. Typically, they turn in one direction, and their speeds can
be varied only within a very limited range. When traditional motors are stopped, they usu-
ally coast until they no longer turn.
For motion control applications that require special performance characteristics such as
precise speed or accurate positioning in both directions, specialty motors are often more suit-
able than traditional motors. These nontraditional motors are often used as servo motors. This
term refers to any motor that uses a closed-loop feedback signal to monitor its velocity and
position, or that uses open-loop digital equipment to provide precise input command signals.
The servo motors described in this chapter are bidirectional position devices that typi-
cally operate between low and moderate power.

7-1 DC Servo Motors

DC servo motors are controlled by direct current command signals that are applied to coils,
which become electromagnets. The magnetic fields that form around the coils interact with
permanent magnets (PMs) and cause the rotating member of the motor to turn. These DC
servo motors are referred to as PM motors and are classified into two categories, depending
on how the permanent magnet is used. One type of PM motor uses a wound armature and
brushes like a conventional DC motor. The pole pieces, however, are permanent magnets
instead of electromagnets. This category includes the wound armature motor and the moving
coil motor. The other category of PM motors uses wound field coils and a permanent mag-
net rotor. This category includes brushless DC motors.
In the mid-1970s, the popularity of PM motors increased with the introduction of rare
earth magnets. Rare earth magnets have greater flux strength than the ferrite magnets they
replaced, which results in greater torque produced by the motor. PM motors are smaller and

lighter than wound field DC motors that produce the same amount of torque. They are often
used in applications that require portability and low maintenance requirements.

7-2 Wound Armature PM Motor

The wound armature PM motor is shown in Figure 7-1(a). It has permanent magnets in the
outside of the motor that function as the stator, and current-carrying conductors in the rotor.
It is similar in construction to a wound rotor motor. The armature contains wound coils that
are placed in the slots of an iron core. Brushes and commutator segments, located at the end of
the motor, switch the current as the armature turns so that the required magnetic field forms
around the rotor coils. The interaction between the magnetic flux lines of the rotor and stator
fields produces a continuous torque when a DC current is applied. The permanent magnets
that form the stator typically are in either a two-pole or a four-pole structure, although six or
more poles have been used.
Since permanent magnets are used for the pole pieces, the field flux remains constant. There
is no electromotive force (EMF) induced into the field poles to cause the flux strength to vary.
This gives the motor linear speed-torque characteristics similar to a conventional DC shunt
motor, as shown in the chart in Figure 7-1(b). The speed is varied by changing the armature
voltage. The direction is easily changed by reversing the current applied to the armature leads.

FIGURE 7-1 Wound armature PM motor

The wound armature PM motor does have some limitations. Because the current-carrying
rotor coils, which are heat-producing, are located at the inside of the housing, this motor is ther-
mally inefficient because the heat cannot readily escape. The result is that the motor cannot pro-
duce high torque for prolonged periods without overheating and becoming damaged. Also, the
brushes periodically need replacement because of wear as they ride along the commutator seg-
ments. PM motors are commonly used in office machines, printers, and disk drives. Larger PM
motors are used for manufacturing positioning equipment, such as an industrial robot.
To effectively operate in positioning applications, this motor must be controlled by a
closed-loop servo system that consists of a controller, an amplifier, and a position sensor
that operates as a feedback device.

7-3 Moving Coil Motor

The moving coil motor (MCM) is designed very differently from other types of motors. The
stator field is provided by eight pairs of permanent magnets that are on each side of the disk
and parallel to the motor shaft. These magnets are placed around the perimeter of the motor
housing. They are arranged so that they provide alternating magnetic fields as shown in
Figure 7-2. By fitting as many magnets as possible around the circumference of the motor,
the maximum number of stator flux lines is provided to produce the highest possible torque.

FIGURE 7-3 A thin disk

armature made of fiber-
FIGURE 7-2 Permanent magnets are glass with copper conduc-
arranged to produce alternate magnetic tors placed on each side
polarities

FIGURE 7-4 The interaction of magnetic fields creates the forces

that turn the motor

The armature, shown in Figure 7-3, is a thin disk made of fiberglass. Two layers of cop-
per conductors are formed on each side of the fiberglass in much the same way as in a
printed circuit. One layer, called the upper conductor, is placed on top of the other layer,
called the lower conductor. The conductor paths of each layer are arranged at 30-degree
angles to each other, as shown in Figure 7-4(a). The armature interacts with the permanent
magnet field to produce a force tangent to each magnetic pole, as shown in Figure 7-4(b).
Enough torque is provided to turn the armature.
The ends of the conductors are located at the center and at one side of the disk in the
shape of commutator segments. As the disk turns, brushes ride on the commutator to provide
direct current to the conductors, as shown in Figure 7-5. As current flows through the upper
and lower conductors, a resultant magnetic field is produced. Because the armature is in the
shape of a disk, it does not use iron. This provides two advantages. First, the disk is light, so
it has low inertia. This enables the armature to accelerate rapidly (from 0 to 3000 RPM in 1/6
of a revolution), stop quickly, and reverse direction easily. Second, the brush life is extended
because its armature’s low inductance does not cause arcing. Also, the large number of con-
ductors enables the MCM to run smoothly at speeds as low as 1 RPM, unlike conventional
DC motors, which tend to cog at low speeds.
The speed of the motor is varied by changing the amount of voltage supplied to the
armature. The voltage is in the form of DC pulses at a frequency of about 20 kHz. The average
voltage varies by changing the width of the pulses. The ratio of time the pulses are on to the
time they are off determines the amount of average voltage. For example, Figure 7-6 shows
that when the pulses are turned on longer, the average voltage will be higher.

Printed circuit
disk armature

Brushes
Magnets

FIGURE 7-5 Brushes ride on the commutator

located in the center of the disk to provide
direct current to the conductors

The highest voltage possible is 24 volts, which occurs when there are no pulses and the
voltage is a constant 24 volts DC. The rotor turns at its top speed, which is over 4000 RPM
for MCMs.

FIGURE 7-6 Square-wave pulses supplied to the armature

MCMs, also known as pancake motors, are used in applications that require high torque, fast
acceleration, and small size, such as tape transport systems and computer peripheral devices.

7-4 Brushless DC Motors

Brushless DC motors (BDCM) contain a powerful permanent magnet rotor and fixed stator
windings. The stationary stator windings are usually three-phase, which means that three
separate voltages are supplied to three different sets of windings.

The BDCM also contains a converter and a rotor position sensor. The converter is an
electronic commutator that changes direct current into pulsating DC voltages. The pulses are
applied to the stator windings to create a rotating magnetic field. This field attracts the per-
manent magnet rotor. As it follows the rotating field, the rotor turns. The rotor position sen-
sor provides feedback signals to the converter so that it switches current pulses through the
stator coils in the proper sequence and at the proper time.
The operation of a BDCM is illustrated in Figure 7-7. Three transistor switching devices
are connected to a DC power source. When a transistor is turned on, it supplies a phase cur-
rent to a stator field coil. When current flows through a coil, a south pole is created at the
end of the pole face. While SW2 is in the down position, no more than one transistor can be
turned on at any given moment. The north pole of the permanent magnet rotor aligns itself to
a stator pole that is energized.

FIGURE 7-7 BDCM with converter and sensor

A rotor position sensor that consists of a round disk with 120 degrees cut away is mounted
on the shaft. Three proximity position sensors (such as Hall-effect detectors) are mounted
120 degrees apart around the shaft, within sensing distance of the disk. Therefore, the disk is
always being sensed by two of the detectors. Each detector output is connected to a switching
transistor through a signal conditioning network. A detector that does not sense the disk causes
the emitter of the optocoupler to which it is connected to turn on. The receiver of the optocou-
pler sends a positive voltage to the base of the transistor to which it is connected and turns it
on. Figure 7-7 shows the north pole of the rotor aligned with stator pole 3. With the disk in the
position shown, sensor S1 turns on transistor Q1, causing current to flow through stator coil 1.
The south pole created at the pole face will attract the rotor and cause it to turn 120 degrees
clockwise. When the rotor aligns itself to stator pole 1, the disk will be turned so that it is
sensed by detectors S1 and S3. Detector S2 will then turn on transistor Q2 and cause current to
flow through stator coil 2. The rotor turns another 120 degrees clockwise as its north pole
aligns itself with stator pole 2. The disk also rotates, causing detector S3 to turn on transistor
Q3. This switching sequence continues as the motor shaft turns in the clockwise direction. If
the collector connections of the transistors are changed by switch SW1, the motor will reverse
direction. By moving switch SW2 upward, all three transistors turn on. The rotor stops and
remains stationary as long as SW2 is in the upward position. The rotor remains aligned to one
of the stator poles due to the magnetic attraction. The amount of force required to move the
rotor away from this held position is called holding torque.
There are several advantages of a BDCM over a wound-field DC motor that has brushes.
In wound-field motors, the brushes wear out after only about 2000 hours and have a top
speed of 4000 RPM. Since BDCMs have no brushes and commutator, they are virtually
maintenance-free, and some can operate at speeds up to 100,000 RPM. Also, as the surface
contact between the brushes and the commutator causes the electrical connections to open
and close, sparks develop. The arcing that takes place creates magnetic fields called noise,
which can cause interference problems in computer control equipment placed near the motor.
Because the BDCM does not use brushes, it has lower maintenance requirements and no
electrical noise problem. Also, the rotor of the BDCM weighs less and is smaller than a
brush-type DC motor. Therefore, its inertia is reduced, which allows the motor to accelerate
or reverse its direction more quickly. The rotor is lighter because brushes mounted to the
shaft are not required, and rare earth magnets, which are lighter than wound coils, are used.
Because the windings, which are the heat-generating element of the motor, are close to the
outside of the motor, the heat is readily dissipated. Therefore, it is able to handle heavier
continuous loads without exceeding temperature limitations. Also, since higher supply volt-
ages are used than those in conventional PM motors, they operate at higher speeds and
greater torque.
BDCMs are used to drive equipment that requires high speeds, high peak torque capacity,
and quick acceleration or deceleration. These characteristics make them well suited for servo
positioning applications, where quick and precise positioning movements are required. Appli-
cation examples include screen printing machinery, material handling equipment, and grinders.

7-5 Stepper Motors

All of the PM motors described so far in this chapter can be classified as continuous rotation
motors. When power is applied to the motor, the armature turns. When power is removed,
they coast to a stop and cannot be stopped at a desired position.
A stepper motor operates differently. In a stepper motor, the armature turns through a
specific number of degrees and then stops. It converts electronic digital signals into mechan-
ical motion in fixed increments. Each time an incoming pulse is applied to the motor, its
shaft turns or steps a specific angular distance. The shaft can be driven in either direction
and operated at low or very high stepping rates. Therefore, the stepper motor has the capabil-
ity of controlling the velocity, distance, and direction of a mechanical load. It also produces
a holding torque at standstill to prevent unwanted motion. A stepper motor is typically used
as an actuator in motion control applications that require accurate positioning.

FIGURE 7-8 Elements of a typical stepper motor system

One attractive feature of the stepper motor is that it responds to digital signals. There-
fore, it can be controlled by computers or a computer peripheral device. The elements that
make up a typical stepper motor system are shown in Figure 7-8. The function of each ele-
ment is as follows:

User Interface
The device used by the operator to communicate to the stepper motor system is called the user
interface. Data entered by this device are high-level commands, which include speed, acceler-
ation, distance, direction, and ramping routines. These devices include computers, program-
mable logic controllers, switch panels, thumbwheel switches, and handheld terminals.

Indexer
The primary function of the indexer is to convert the desired motion information entered into
the user interface device into move signals that are applied to a driver that powers the motor.
Indexers can include features such as data communication, I/O lines, memory for storing
motion programs, and encoder feedback for closed-loop positioning.

Driver
The driver converts the step input signals from the indexer into current pulses that power and
drive the motor. Depending on the driver that is selected, they produce signals that range
from low-power full- or half-stepping to high-performance microstepping.

Stepper Motor
The stepper motor converts the signals from the driver into fixed mechanical increments of
motion. The movements they make are very accurate and can be used in precision motion
applications without a closed loop to verify accuracy.

Encoder
For applications that require extreme accuracy, a measurement device that provides feedback
information is used, such as an incremental encoder. It verifies that the motor is in the de-
sired position specified by the indexer. If it is not, corrective action is taken. The feedback
information is sent by the measurement device to the indexer. Another function of the feed-
back device is to detect whether there is a stall condition.
Many types of stepper motors exist, of which the permanent magnet and the variable
reluctance (VR) motors are the most popular.

7-6 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

The operation of a stepper motor is based on the magnetic principle that like poles repel
and unlike poles attract. Its operation is illustrated by the simplif ied view of a stepper
motor in Figure 7-9. It is constructed of four electromagnets located 90 degrees apart in
the stator. An external transistor is connected to each of the coils. The function of the tran-
sistors is to electronically perform the switching (commutating) action that creates a mov-
ing magnetic f ield in the stator. Current is passed through a particular coil when the
transistor to which it is connected is turned on. When it is energized, the coiled wire is
wrapped so that its pole becomes magnetic north. A cylindrical rotor with six magnetic
teeth located 45 degrees apart is placed inside the four coils.

The rotor has no armature windings. Instead, each tooth is a permanent magnet. The
polarity of the rotor teeth alternate between north and south.
Figure 7-9 shows the motor when transistor A is turned on and stator coil A is energized.
The north pole created by the coil attracts the south pole of tooth (1), and they become phys-
ically aligned. As they do, the flux lines from stator pole face A pass through the rotor and
continue their path by entering the face of the stator pole directly opposite it through tooth (4).

FIGURE 7-9 Permanent magnet stepper motor

The reason why the flux lines pass through tooth (4) is because it is the only one aligned
with another stator pole face. Even though coil C is not energized by transistor C, the pole
still becomes magnetized because of the flux lines that pass through it. The result is that its
pole face becomes a south pole, which adds to the torque of the rotor as it attracts the north
pole of tooth (4). The flux lines complete the magnetic circuit through the frame of the
motor. Pole C is referred to as being a passive magnet because it is not magnetized by cur-
rent flowing through its own coil.
As a reference, the position of the rotor shown in Figure 7-9 will be considered
0 degrees and is indicated by the arrow pointing straight upward. To show how the rotor
turns, imagine that transistor A turns off and transistor B turns on simultaneously. Pole B of
the stator energizes and becomes a north pole, and pole D becomes a passive south pole.
The rotor turns clockwise until tooth (5) aligns with the north pole of stator B, and the north
pole of tooth (2) becomes aligned with pole D. The rotor stops after turning clockwise by
30 degrees.
The next step of the motor occurs when transistor B in the control circuit turns off and
transistor C simultaneously turns on. Pole C energizes and becomes a north pole, and pole A
becomes a passive south pole. The south pole of tooth (3) is attracted to and aligns with the
north stator pole C, and tooth (6) aligns with the passive south stator pole A. The rotor stops
after turning clockwise by another 30 degrees.

TABLE 7-1 Transistor Switching Sequence:

(a) To produce 30-degree clockwise rotor steps;
(b) To produce 30-degree counterclockwise rotor steps

Table 7-1(a) shows the sequence in which the transistors turn on to cause the steps that
take place during one complete clockwise revolution of the rotor. Reversing the switching
sequence of the transistor causes the rotor to turn in the counterclockwise (CCW) direction.
The sequence of steps that occur during one complete CCW rotation is shown in Table 7-1(b).

Half-Stepping
The step of the rotor’s rotation can be reduced from 30 degrees to smaller movements of
15 degrees by altering the switching sequence of the control circuit. Cutting the movements

TABLE 7-2 Switching Sequence to Produce

15-Degree Half-Steps

in half is called half-stepping. Table 7-2 shows how this is accomplished. Starting on line one,
transistor A energizes coil A and causes the rotor to be in the reference 0-degree position.
During the next step of the sequence, transistor A is turned off, and transistors C and D turn
on to energize coils C and D, thereby causing pole faces C and D to become active north poles.
A combined net magnetic north pole field is created in the middle of the space between stator
poles C and D. This causes the closest south pole rotor tooth (3), which is 15 degrees away, to
move into alignment. The result is that the rotor makes a 15-degree clockwise step. During
the next step in the sequence, transistors C and D turn off, and transistor B simultaneously
turns on and energizes coil B. Its pole face becomes a north pole and attracts the south pole of
rotor tooth (5) by turning another 15 degrees clockwise as it becomes aligned. The remainder
of the lines in Table 7-2 show the remaining transistor switching sequence that causes the
rotor to move until it turns 180 degrees. Notice that the sequence repeats at 120 degrees. The
sequence will occur three times during each 360-degree revolution.
In practice, there are multiple teeth with alternating north and south poles on the rotor.
There are also additional coil windings that alternate in the same sequence as the four-pole
stator shown in Figure 7-9. This allows for better stepping resolution.
The physical size and weight of a cylindrical-toothed rotor is relatively large; therefore,
it is more difficult to move, which causes the motor to react slowly. This limits the stepping
rate of the motor. To overcome potential inertia problems, some PM stepper motors use a
flat disk rotor instead, which weighs 60 percent less than the cylinder type.
The flat disk rotor is shown in Figure 7-10. It is supported on a nonmagnetic hub and
placed inside two C-shaped electromagnetic cores. The outer edge of the disk is composed
of tiny individual magnets. The magnets are evenly spaced and are polarized with alternat-
ing north and south poles. Although the C-shaped electromagnets appear to be placed across
from each other, they actually are offset from each other by half a rotor pole. Each electro-
magnet is energized by a different phase.
As one electromagnet is energized, the rotor aligns itself to the magnetic field it produces.
Next, the first phase is turned off and the second electromagnet is energized. The disk will turn
one-half of a half rotor pole to align itself to the magnetic field produced by the second phase.
The rotor continues to turn by simultaneously de-energizing one coil and energizing the other.

FIGURE 7-10 Disk-type permanent magnet stepper motor

A typical rotor has 100 magnets of equal size. Therefore, the angular distance between
poles around the outside portion of the 360-degree disk is 3.6 degrees. Each time the disk
rotates when the C-shaped electromagnet is energized, it moves one-half the distance of the
magnetic pole segments, or 1.8 degrees.

7-7 Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

The variable reluctance (VR) stepper motor uses electromagnetic stator poles. Its rotor is
in the shape of a disk with teeth and slots around the outer edge. The soft-iron rotor is
IAU14208
unmagnetized.
The VR Stepper The operation of a VR stepper motor is illustrated in Figure 7-11. It uses six sets of stator
Motor windings to form six pole pairs. The poles in each pair are located directly across from each
other and are energized at the same time because their coils are connected in series. Because
the coils are wound in the opposite direction, the poles in each pair will always have different
polarity. There are 12 stator poles that are equally spaced apart by 30 degrees. The rotor has
eight teeth that are equally spaced at 45-degree intervals. Therefore, the alignment of the sta-
tor and rotor is different by 15 degrees (45° ⫺ 30° = 15°). When the rotor rotates one step, it
moves 15 degrees.
Figure 7-11(a) shows that the teeth on the rotor will align themselves with the flux lines
created by the north and south poles of coils A and A′ when they are energized. Note that the
teeth are not lined up under the unenergized stator poles. To step the rotor 15 degrees CCW,
coils A and A′ are de-energized and coils B and B′ are energized. The teeth closest to the
B coils will align themselves with the flux lines of both B poles. The rotor turns because it is
made of soft iron, which has a very low reluctance rating. The magnetic flux passes through
the iron much more readily than through air. The difference of reluctance between iron and
air creates a force that causes the rotor to turn so that the flux lines can pass through the iron
teeth rather than the air slots between them. The next 15-degree step is made by de-energizing
the B and B′ coils and energizing the C and C′ coils. This action continues by repeatedly
energizing the coil pairs in the sequence of A, B, and C. Therefore, it takes 24 steps to turn
the rotor a full 360 degrees. The more rapid the sequence, the faster the rotor turns. The VR
stepper motor can run as high as 100,000 RPM. The number of signal changes determines
the distance the rotor travels. By reversing the sequence, the rotor will rotate in a clockwise
direction. By using the pulse width modulation (PWM) method, the torque of the motor can
be controlled by varying the width of the pulses.
In practice, there are multiple teeth on the stator. There are also eight coil windings that
alternate in the same sequence as the four-pole stator, as shown in Figure 7-11(e). There are
50 teeth machined into the rotor. Each pulse moves the rotor a distance of 1/4 tooth. Since it
takes four steps to advance the width of one tooth and the adjacent space between the teeth, it
takes 200 steps to complete one revolution. The step angle (also resolution) can be computed by
dividing 360 degrees by 200 steps: 360/200 = 1.8 degrees.

FIGURE 7-11 VR stepper motor: (a–d) Four step positions;

(e) High-resolution VR stepper motor

Because the rotors of VR stepper motors do not have to be magnetized, they can be small
and light. The rotor’s small size gives it low inertia, so it can respond quickly to control
signal changes. Applications include variable-speed fans, blowers, and hazardous environ-
ments where the conditions are very hot.
The name variable reluctance (VR) stepper motor is derived from the principle of its
operation. When the rotor turns and a tooth aligns with a stator coil, it moves to a position
that minimizes the magnetic reluctance of the overall flux.

Stepper Motor Terminology

Two important terms relating to stepper motors are stepping rate and step angle. Stepping
rate is the maximum number of steps the motor can make in a second. The number of
degrees per arc that the motor moves per step is called step angle. The step angle is deter-
mined by the number of rotor teeth and stator poles used.

The actual speed of the rotor depends on the step angle and stepping rate. It can be cal-
culated by using the following formula:

Y×S Where, n = Speed in RPM

n=
6 Y = Step angles in degrees
S = Steps per second
6 = A formula constant

Microstepping
There are some undesirable characteristics associated with stepper motors. At low speeds,
IAU14508 the motor jerks as it steps, which can cause rough running in the mechanical mechanism to
Using the Microstep-
ping Technique for
which it is attached. If a smooth operation is required at low speed, the motor speed is kept
Stepper Motors high and a gear reduction transmission is connected between the motor and the load. Another
drawback of the stepper motor is limited resolution. Some applications may require accurate
positioning under 1 degree.
A technique that overcomes low speed and resolution problems is microstepping. Instead
of square waves energizing the stator coils that cause the rotor to start and stop as it turns, sim-
ulated sine waves created by small steps are used instead. Figure 7-12(a) shows conventional

Phase A
Phase B

(a)

Full steps
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Microsteps 0 125 250 375 500 625 750 875

(b)

Microstep

Position

full-step

Time

FIGURE 7-12 Microstepping vs. full-step systems

half-step signals that cause a stepper motor to move from one position to the next. Stator
coils are either fully turned on or completely turned off to produce motion. Figure 7-12(b)
shows the microstepping technique using two sine waves. The current is increased in one
phase while the current in the other phase gradually decreases. The sine waves are created
by a varying voltage that increments or decrements in small steps called microsteps, shown
in Figure 7-12(c). Figure 7-13(a) is used to show the concept of the microstepping tech-
nique. Similar to half-steps described earlier, two adjacent stator field poles are energized at
the same time. However, with microstepping, their coils are driven with different voltage
levels that change gradually. The current through one coil increases while the current
through the other one decreases.
The motor shown in Figure 7-13 is capable of making fine microstep movements
between poles A and B instead of one full step. When pole A is energized by 5 volts and
pole B is de-energized by 0 volts, the rotor is aligned with stator A. During the next
microstep, pole A is reduced to 4 volts, and 1 volt is applied to pole B. A resultant south
pole forms that causes the north pole of the rotor to align with it 1⁄5 of a step between the
poles. When the voltage at coil A reduces to 3 volts and coil B increases to 2 volts, the rotor
makes another movement 2⁄5 of a step toward pole B. Figure 7-13(b) shows the voltage for
poles A and B to get 5 microsteps between each full step. In actual applications, there are as
many as 125 microsteps to each full step in a conventional stepper motor. These signals are
developed by a microprocessor located in the drive circuitry. These sinusoidal signals cause
the rotor to move smoothly without jerking, and accurate positioning is attained if the cur-
rents are held at intermittent values. Resolution of 20,000 to 50,000 steps per revolution is
common.
The stepper motor is typically used in an open-loop system. Position is determined
by counting pulses. For critical applications, the system can be modified into a closed-loop
configuration by using an encoder to verify the position. Stepper motors are used in
many practical applications such as printers, CD players, floppy disks, and X-Y positioning
tables.

FIGURE 7-13 Microstepping

7-8 AC Servo Motors

AC servo motors are controlled by AC command signals that are applied to coils, which
become electromagnets. The magnetic fields that form around the coils interact with other
electromagnets and cause the rotating member of the motor to turn.

AC Brushless Servo Motor

Recall that in a single-phase induction motor, two separate stator windings are energized by
two AC voltages that are 90 degrees out of phase. One phase, called the main phase, is taken
directly from the AC supply. The other phase, called the auxiliary phase, is tapped off
the supply source and is shifted 90 degrees by a capacitor or inductor. These types of motors
are sometimes referred to as split-phase motors. The purpose of the two phases is to create a
resultant magnetic field that rotates around the rotor. As the field rotates, a voltage is
induced into the rotor, causing it to turn due to the magnetic interaction between the rotor
and the stator fields.
The AC brushless servo motor operates on the same principle as the single-phase induc-
tion motor. Both motor types have squirrel cage rotors and two sets of stator windings that
are energized by two AC voltages that are 90 degrees out of phase. Instead of using a capaci-
tor or inductor to develop the auxiliary phase, the AC servo motor uses an electronic circuit
to perform this function. This circuit, shown in Figure 7-14, is referred to as an AC servo
drive amplifier.
The AC line source supplies power to the main winding. It also provides power to
the servo drive amplifier. A feedback signal from a transducer is used to indicate the actual
position. Another input of the amplif ier is a command signal that indicates the desired
position. The difference between the measured feedback signal and the command signal
creates an error signal. This error signal (Ve) is used to control the firing angles of phase-
shift circuits, such as those that are powered by a triac. By firing the triac at different points
during each alternation, the RMS value supplied to the amplifier output, labeled Va, can be
varied.
When the difference between the actual and the desired position is great, output Va will
be large. The strong magnetic field fed to the auxiliary winding will cause the servo motor to
run at a high speed. As the difference between the actual position and the desired position is
reduced, the Ve also decreases. Therefore, the magnetic field in the auxiliary winding weak-
ens and makes the motor run more slowly. When the object is in the desired position, Va goes
to zero, there is no magnetic field from the auxiliary winding, and the motor stops. Even

FIGURE 7-14 AC brushless servo motor

though the voltage supplied to the main winding does not change, the motor will not turn be-
cause there is no rotating magnetic field due to the single-phase condition.
Recall that it is possible for some split-phase motors to continue turning when single
phased. To prevent rotation under this condition, the rotor of the servo motor has high-
resistance conducting bars.

Problems

1. T/F The difference between the two classifications of PM 14. In a variable reluctance motor, if the salient poles are
motors is whether the rotor and field are made of 15 degrees apart and the rotor poles are 20 degrees apart,
permanent magnets or coils. the step angle is degrees.
2. The speed of a wound armature PM motor is varied by a. 5 c. 20
changing the current applied to the . b. 15 d. 35
a. armature b. stator 15. The maximum number of steps a stepper motor can make in
3. List three applications of a wound armature PM motor. a second is called .
4. The speed at which a moving coil motor runs is controlled 16. The number of degrees a stepper motor turns per step is
by varying the . called .
a. amplitude of the DC voltage applied to the armature 17. The speed at which a stepper motor turns is increased by
b. width of the pulses applied to the armature applied to the stator.
5. List two applications of MCM. a. increasing the stepper rate applied to the stator
6. T/F BDCM usually use three-phase power. b. increasing the voltage
c. both a and b
7. The direction a BDCM turns can be reversed by
switching two of the three connections to the of the 18. A stepper motor with twice the step angle of a second
transistor. stepper motor will turn at the RPM if the stepper rate
a. base b. collector applied to both is the same.
a. half b. twice
8. The amount of force required to move the rotor of the
BDCM away from the held position is called 19. Microstepping is achieved by .
. a. gradually increasing the voltage applied to one coil
while decreasing the voltage at a second coil
9. A motor converts electronic digital signals into
b. simultaneously applying simulated sine waves that are
fixed increments of positional movement.
out of phase to different coils
10. T/F The operation of a variable reluctance motor is c. both a and b
based on the ease with which flux lines pass through
20. In an AC servo motor, the phase-shifted voltage is supplied
soft iron.
to the winding.
11. If the stator’s magnetic field of the VR stepper motor moves a. main b. auxiliary
clockwise, the rotor turns .
21. The speed of an AC servo motor is changed by varying the
a. clockwise b. counterclockwise
voltage applied to .
12. The stepper motor is typically used in a(n) a. the main winding c. none of the above
(open, closed)-loop system. b. the auxiliary winding
13. A stepper motor that operates at a step angle of 12 degrees
will rotate at what RPM if it has a stepping rate of
360?

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