13th Edition

Conference Proceedings
13 March 2024, online event
14 - 15 March 2024, in Florence

Edited by
1 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education
2 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
PROCEEDINGS

NEW PERSPECTIVES IN SCIENCE

EDUCATION
13th Edition

13 March 2024, Online Event

14-15 March 2024, in Florence

FILODIRITTO
INTERNATIONAL
3 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Log in to find out all the titles of our catalogue

Follow Filodiritto Publisher on Facebook to learn about our new products

DOI: 10.26352/I314_2384-9509
ISBN 979-12-80225-58-0
ISSN 2384-9509

First Edition March 2024

© Copyright 2022 Filodiritto Publisher

filodirittoeditore.com
inFOROmatica srl, Via Castiglione, 81, 40124 Bologna (Italy)
inforomatica.it
tel. 051 9843125 - Fax 051 9843529 - [email protected]

Translation, total or partial adaptation, reproduction by any means (including films,

microfilms, photocopies), as well as electronic storage, are reserved for all the countries.
Photocopies for personal use of the reader can be made in the 15% limits for each volume
upon payment to SIAE of the expected compensation as per the Art.68, commi 4 and 5, of
the law 22 April 1941 n. 633. Photocopies used for purposes of professional, economic or
commercial nature, or however for different needs from personal ones, can be carried out
only after express authorization issued by CLEA Redi, Centro Licenze e Autorizzazione
per le Riproduzioni Editoriali, Corso di Porta Romana, 108 - 20122 Milano.
e-mail: [email protected], sito web: www.clearedi.org
4 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Publication Ethics and Malpractice Statement

The New Perspectives in Science Education Proceedings, edited by Pixel and published
by Filodiritto Editore, is a collection of international peer reviewed Conference Proceedings
committed to upholding the highest standards of publication ethics. In order to provide
readers with Proceedings of highest quality we state the following principles of Publication
Ethics and Malpractice Statement.

1) Editorial Board
Pixel, the Chief Editor, coordinates the Editorial Board whose members are recognized
experts in the field of innovation in science education. The Editorial Board members are
the experts involved in New Perspectives in Science Education Conference Scientific
Committee. The full names and affiliations of the members of the Editorial Board/Scientific
Committee are provided in the related section of the Conference Web Site. The Editorial
Office is based at Pixel, Via Luigi Lanzi 12, I-50134 Firenze, Italy.
Email: [email protected]

2) Authors and Authors responsibilities

Authors are obliged to participate in the papers’ peer review process, responding to the
reviewers’ feedback and making the requested corrections, retractions, modifications
and/or integrations.
All authors must have significantly contributed to the research work for the paper’s
production providing real and authentic data.
Authors must have written original papers and are aware that it is forbidden to republish
the same paper.
Authors must provide the list of references and disclose all sources of financial support.
Fees required for manuscript processing and publishing are stated on the Conference
Registration page.

3) Peer-review process
Pixel, as the Chief Editor, ensures a fair double peer-review of the submitted papers for
publication.
Peer-review is defined as obtaining advice on individual papers from reviewers’ expert in
the field.
Papers submitted to New Perspectives in Science Education Proceedings go through, first
of all, an internal review and if they meet the basic requirements, they are sent out for
review by experts in the field, who are members of New Perspectives in Science Education
Scientific Committee. The Peer reviewers evaluate and give advice on the papers.
The paper review process is clearly described below.
The reviewers evaluate the submitted papers objectively and present their opinions on the
works in the Review Form. Reviewers evaluate papers based on content without regard to
ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship, religious belief or political philosophy
of the authors. A reviewer who feels unqualified to review the research reported in a
manuscript notify the Editor and excluses herself/himself from the review process.
The Chief Editor strives to prevent any potential conflict of interests between the author
and the reviewers. Reviewers should identify relevant published work that has not been
cited by the authors. If a reviewer finds any substantial similarity or overlap between the
submitted manuscript and any other published works, she/he should inform the Chief
Editor. Private information or ideas obtained through reviewing the paper must be kept
confidential by the reviewers and not used for personal advantage. Papers received for
review must be treated as confidential documents. Without any authorization by the Chief
Editor, the information of the submitted paper must not be shown to, or discussed with,
others.

4) Publication ethics
The Reviewers must report to the Chief Editor any identified plagiarism, research
fabrication, falsification and improper use of humans or animals in research. The Chief
Editor strives not to allow any misconduct.

In the event that there is documented misconduct the following sanctions will be applied:
• Immediate rejection of the infringing paper.
• Immediate rejection of every other paper submitted to in New Perspectives in Science
Education Proceedings by any of the authors of the infringing paper.
• Prohibition against all of the authors for any new submissions to New Perspectives in
5 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Science Education Proceedings, either individually or in combination with other authors of

the infringing manuscript, as well as in combination with any other authors. This prohibition
will be imposed for a minimum of three years.
• Prohibition against all of the authors from serving on the Editorial Board (Scientific
Committee) of New Perspectives in Science Education Proceedings.

In cases where the violations of the above policies are found to be particularly outrageous,
the Chief Editor reserves the right to impose additional sanctions beyond those described
above.
Guidelines for retracting articles are the following:
• Retracting article will be considered if there is clear evidence that the findings are
unreliable, either as a result of misconduct, honest error, plagiarism, or if the paper reports
unethical research.
• The main purpose of retractions is to correct the literature and ensure its integrity.
• Notices of retraction will be promptly published on the online version of the
Proceedings available on New Perspectives in Science Education Conference website and
linked to the retracted article, accurately stating the information of the retracted article and
the reason(s) for retraction.
• Articles may be retracted by their author(s) or by the Chief Editor (Pixel). The Chief
Editor has the final decision about retracting articles. The Chief Editor will retract
publications even if all or some of the authors refuse to retract the publication themselves
in case of unethical behaviour.
• Authors who wish to enquire about publication of a correction for their article, or who
have serious concern that they believe may warrant retraction, should contact the Chief
Editor.

5) Copyright and Access

Copyright and licensing information is clearly described in New Perspectives in Science
Education website at Release for Publication.
The electronic version of the Conference Proceedings will be shared to all the registered
participants who paid the registration fee.

6) Archiving
New Perspectives in Science Education Proceedings books are digitally archived on
Google Scholar and Academia.edu

7) Ownership and management

New Perspectives in Science Education Proceedings are managed and edited by Pixel and
published by Filodiritto Editore.

8) Website
New Perspectives in Science Education Conference website demonstrates that care has
been taken to ensure high ethical and professional standards. It does not contain any
misleading information, including any attempt to mimic another journal/publisher’s site.

9) Publishing schedule
New Perspectives in Science Education Conference Proceedings are published yearly.

10) Name of journal

The proceedings’ name New Perspectives in Science Education is unique and cannot be
easily confused with another journal. These proceedings have ISSN code from CNR.
6 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

INDEX

Biomedical Science Education 12

Case/Problem-Based Learning in a Flipped Classroom and Under a Learning

Contract as Didactic Tools for Collaborative Learning of Metabolic Regulation 13
Miguel Ángel Medina, Fernanda Suárez, Francisco José Alonso-Carrión

Popularization Strategies in Public Health Discourse: A Corpus-based

Analysis in Portuguese and Chinese 18
Huanqi Sun, Katrin Herget, João Paulo Silvestre

Design of Inquiry-based Laboratory Projects for an Active Learning of

(Bio)Chemistry, Focused on Problem Solving in a Professional Setting 24
Ángel Luis García-Ponce, José Antonio Torres Vargas, Aurelio Moya-García,
Melissa García Caballero, Ana R. Quesada

Chemistry Education 30

Designing the Periodic Table Solitaire Mobile App 31

María José Cano-Iglesias, María del Mar López-Fernández, José Manuel
Hierrezuelo-Osorio, Antonio Joaquín Franco-Mariscal

Building the Conceptual Profile of Chemical Analysis: The Sociocultural Domain 38

Maria Mavridi, Katerina Salta, Dionysios Koulougliotis

An Investigation into the Pedagogy that Maltese Chemistry Teachers Adopt at

Secondary School Level 44
James Borg

The Impact of a M.Sc. Programme on the Career Paths of Postgraduate Students 49

Katerina Paschalidou, Katerina Salta

Bridging the Gap between School and University by a Laboratory Course on

Functional Surfaces 57
Philipp Lanfermann, Christoph Weidmann, Thomas Waitz

Cyclic Voltammetry in Chemistry Classes 64

Vivian Keune, Erhard Irmer, Thomas Waitz

Transparent Inorganic Metal Oxide Solar Cells in Chemistry Class 71

Edwin Bogdan, Jan Fleischer, Thomas Waitz

Nanomedicine: A Digital Learning Module for Chemistry Education 78

Antonia Fruntke, Nicolai ter Horst, Timm Wilke

Situational Interest in Medical Contexts for Chemistry Education: Construction of

a Survey Instrument 83
Elisabeth Dietel, Timm Wilke

Adapted Primary Literature about CO2 Reduction Reaction – Chemists’

Research Approach to Protect the Climate 91
Philipp Lanfermann, Marc Schrader, Thomas Waitz, Mona Christin Maaß

“The Complementary Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid” – Adapting the Crick

and Watson Paper for Science Education 100
Hilko Aljets, Florian Heisig, Thomas Waitz

University of Malta Courses with Intermediate / Advanced Chemistry as a

Requirement and/or Option: An Analysis of Students’ Choices 107
Edward Thake, Martin Musumeci
7 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Variation of the Synthesis for Influencing the Optical Properties of Carbon

Quantum Dots 115
Malte Petersen, Timm Wilke

Experimental Escape Games with Digital Enrichment - An Innovative Format in

Science Education 119
Isabel Rubner, David Ditter, David Weiser, Sarah Lukas

Calculation Tasks’ E-learning Methodology Creation and Application for Lower

Chemistry Secondary Education 124
Andrejs Zaicenko, Mihails Gorskis, Martin Bilek

Curriculum Development 130

Integrating Artistic Research into German University of Applied Sciences

Curricula: A New Paradigm in Science Education 131
Tobias Schmohl, Sebastian Grobler

Educational Strategies 137

Disorders of Verbal Fluency in Individuals with Cognitive Dysfunctions from

a Neuropsycholinguistic Perspective 138
Monika Betyna-Białek

What Can Educational Case Studies Reveal About How Teachers Implement
The Model of Educational Reconstruction in Biology Instruction? 141
Martin Jáč

The Energy Blackout in Debate. An Activity to Develop Argumentation in

Pre-Service Primary Teachers 145
José Manuel Hierrezuelo-Osorio, María José Cano-Iglesias, María del Mar
López-Fernández, Antonio Joaquín Franco-Mariscal

Go Extinct! The Educational Game for Learning about Invertebrates 151

María del Mar López-Fernández, José Manuel Hierrezuelo-Osorio.
María José Cano-Iglesias, Antonio Joaquín Franco-Mariscal

Active Learning for Circular Economy Businesses, Fostering a Sustainable

Mindset 157
Sabrina Fontanella, Giovanna Attanasio, Luca Fraccascia, Fabio Nonino,
Cinzia Battistella

Vermicomposting: an Idea to Work Science and Mathematics in Primary

Education 166
Hugo Castanheira, Patrícia Morgado, Raquel Pereira, Ana A. Cruz,
Ricardo Machado

Using Visual Notetaking to Promote Participatory Equity in a Science and Math

Methods Course 171
Michael R. Taber, Kristin Stanec

Activating the Student's Prior Knowledge in the Learning of Third Newton Law
trough a P.O.E. (“Predict-Observe-Explain”) Strategy 175
Juan Sabin

Educational Tourism in Bulgaria: New Research Project 181

Sonya Spasova, Svetoslava Dimitrova
8 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Is There a Place for Regular Mid-Semester Assessments in Higher Education? 185

Zsófia Frányó, Péter Tasi, Boglárka Szijártó, Barbara Kardos

The Potential of Virtual Reality for Teaching and Learning Purposes 193
Anna Bekeeva, Elena Notina, Irina Bykova

Engineering Education 197

Exploring Changes in Students’ Understanding the Basic Concepts of Data

Analysis in Introductory Laboratory Course “Search for Physics Laws” 198
Oksana Lozovenko, Dominik Giel

Open Source Gamified Remote Labs in Photonics Education 202

Johannes Kretzschmar, Clara Henkel, Christian Helgert, Thomas Pertsch

Novel Approach for Teaching AI in Entry Level Education 208

Samuel Kübler, Christian Bildhauer-Buggle, Thomas Schiepp

Smart Building Engineering: Challenges and Opportunities of an Interdisciplinary 215

Course Concept for Engineers in the Field of Technical Building Equipment
Lina Schulze-Buxloh, Rolf Groß

Enhancing Student Engagement 219

Situational Interest in Geology Learning: What Learning Strategies Promote

Student Interest in Geological Topics? 220
Jitka Kopecká

Extra Curricula Activities 227

Let's Go Out! Popular Outdoor Education - Limiting Factors Versus Positives 228
Dagmar Vašutová, Irena Vrbová

Regarding Collaborative Efforts among Universities, High Schools and Boards

of Education to Develop Scientific Skills 236
Mika Tsuyukubo, Masayuki Takahashi, Mariko Haraguchi, Naoko Yamada,
Takuya Mochida

Preschool and Primary Education 243

The Level of Scientific Literacy Among Primary School Pupils: Preliminary

Results 244
Petr Kovarik, Romana Adamkova, Milan Kubiatko

Heritage and Computational Thinking: Intersections for Meaningful Learning in

Primary School 251
Cristina Maia, Paula Quadros-Flores, Dárida Fernandes, António Flores

The Teachers' Action for Health – Teachers’ First Aid Intervention in Emergency
Cases at School 258
Irina Gheorghiu, Loredana Danaila, Alexandra Hanu, Claudia Dinu, Ovidiu Ursa,
Stefan Colibaba

How Much Students in Primary School Know about Waste Sorting?

(Pilot Research) 263
Igor Dobrača

Science and Environment 267

Accessible and Enriched Community-Engaged Learning: A Botanical Virtual

Classroom Field Trip 268
Poh Tan, David Zandvliet
9 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Creating Field Experiences to Promote Scientific Learning 273

Melissa Caspary, Diane Boothe

CO2 Monitoring to Enhance Digital and Green Competences in VET 277

Mariaconcetta Canino, Enrico Cozzani, Francesco Marucci, Gabriela Carrara,
Stefania Marzocchi, Stefano Zampolli, Francesco Suriano

Sustainable and Healthy Nutrition - How Do Young People Eat? 284

Julia Holzer, Doris Elster

The Crystal Lake's Mystery: Interactive Eco-Crime Game for Learning about
Environmental Sustainability 292
Denise Galante, Michela Tassistro, Armida Torreggiani

Science and Society 297

Librarians in Bulgaria and the Trends in the Information Environment 298

Elena Popova, Tania Todorova

Misconceptions about Current Biotechnology in Society: What to Focus-On

in School and Lifelong Education? 302
Michaela Horniaková

“Expli’CIT”: A New Serious Game to Strengthen Science-Society Dialogue

Making Explicit Research Processes 307
Juliette Anglade, Pierre-Luc Marchal, Jonas Durand, Annick Brun-Jacob,
Pascale Frey-Klett

The Post-Pandemic Takeaways on STEM Literacy 312

Nikolaos Fotou, Marina Constantinou

Concept of a Public Outreach Project on PCET Reactions 317

Christoph Weidmann, Larissa Hahn, Pascal Klein, Thomas Waitz

Fostering Citizenship: Systematic Refutation of False Information in Social Media

by Senior Pre-University Physics Students Using a Pedagogical Tool 322
Süleyman Turşucu, Maxime Jonker

Science Teaching Models 327

Conceptions of Inquiry-based Learning in High School Biology in Japan and

China 328
Jiamin He, Kenichi Goto

Problem Solving Processes in Science Education: Integrating the

Representational Pluralism Perspective 337
Alexandre Hagan, Patrice Potvin, Michel Bélanger

Special Needs 340

The Self-Management of Home Therapy: When Creativity and the Art of Doing
Become Conditions to Be Amazed 341
Sabrina Grigolo, Carla Bena

STEM Education 345

STEM Engaging Teaching and Learning for the Heart in Bioscience Education 346
Marina BA Minoli

The Impact of the Curriculum on the Teaching of Integrated Learning (Inquiry)

Time the Effects of Changing Attitudes and Developing 'STEAM Education Skills' 350
Kenichi Goto, Mika Tsuyukubo, Yorikazu Nouchi, Katsuji Ito, Hiroshi Iida,
Tomoko Yoshida, Yoriko Ikuta, Katsuko Sanai
10 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The Power of Science Outreach-Conscious Teachers 353

Veronica McCauley, Kevin Davison

Using Folding Back as a Pedagogical Design Tool Under the Lens of the
Van Hiele Model with Preservice Teachers 357
Alberto Arnal-Bailera, Víctor Manero

Sorting Materials Using Programmable Lego© Robot: An Educational Activity to

Promote Sustainability among Youngsters 363
Andrea Ienco, Bruno Tiribilli, Chiara D’Errico, Armida Torreggiani, Valentina
Biasini, Sabrina Gualtieri, Pietro Galizia

Exploring the Digital Landscape of STEAM Learning Discourse: Insights from

GPT-4 based Twitter Data Analysis 369
Sherif Abdelhamid, Elijah Bass

Laboratory Teaching Proposal on the Characteristics of an RC Circuit 375

Ninfa Radicella

PBL Application to STEAM Education Incorporating Sustainability and Gender

Equality Axes: STEAM-ACTIVE Project Implementation in University and
High School 380
Kristina Zuza, Ane Portillo-Blanco, Edurne Iturbe-Zabalo, José Gutierrez-
Berraondo, Spiros Sirmakessis, Lorenzo Trombetti, Simona Zoncheddu,
Linda Barelli

Experiences and Struggles of Female STEM Students: Insights from a

Women-Only STEM Program 388
Sandra Klatt, Martha King, Ulrike Busolt

Student Assessment 396

Senac University Center Leveling Program – An Experience that Integrates

Knowledge and Creativity 397
Luciana Mara Ribeiro

Students After the Pandemic: What Are the Differences in their Achievement
Motivation and Metacognitive Skills? 401
Patricia Morales Bueno, Rosario Santos Rodas

Exploring the Development of Questioning Inquiry Skill in Secondary School

Students via Physics Inquiry-Based Learning Experiments 405
Vasileios Gkagkas, Euripides Hatzikraniotis

Student Conceptions 412

Reflecting on School through the Voice of Children 413

Dárida Fernandes, Catarina Ribeiro, Paula Quadros-Flores, Ana Luísa Pinto

Teacher Professional Development 421

Comparison of Mathematical Activities with Preservice Teachers: Manipulatives

Vs. Paper and Pencil 422
Alberto Arnal-Bailera, Mónica Arnal-Palacián

Integrated STEM Professional Development: Utilizing Best Practices in an

Online Format 429
Sarah Haines, Sumreen Asim, Jeanna Wieselmann, Deepika Menon

Embracing Multidisciplinarity: Exploring Challenges and Identities of Teachers

in the Subject Integrated Sciences 433
Jasper Cirkel, Stefan Halverscheid, Susanne Schneider
11 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Experiences with the Teacher Training Avatar Program and the Usefulness of
the Program as Seen in the Discussion 439
Hijiri Okinaka, Kenichi Goto

A Reflective Perspective on the Initial Training in Science for Primary School

Teachers at CRMEFs in Morocco 446
Fatima Zahra El Ouahabi, Rachid Drissi El Bouzaidi, Abdellah Chaiba

Authors 451
12 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Biomedical Science Education

13 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Case/Problem-Based Learning in a Flipped Classroom and

Under a Learning Contract as Didactic Tools for Collaborative
Learning of Metabolic Regulation

Miguel Ángel Medina1, Fernanda Suárez2, Francisco José Alonso-Carrión3

University of Málaga, Spain1,2,3

Abstract

It is a widely shared desire among most teachers of subjects in the area of biochemistry to achieve
a relevant transfer of relevant knowledge to their students through an effective teaching-learning
process. Many undergraduate students in biology, biochemistry and biomedical sciences find
metabolism particularly difficult to learn. The very extensive contents of metabolic biochemistry
and the need to integrate them in a way that gives them full biological meaning are essential
causes of this difficulty appreciated by students. The transition from the traditional educational
model focused on teaching to the EHEA (European Higher Education Area) model focused on
learning and the acquisition of competencies by the student implies a change in the educational
paradigm that makes it necessary to complement lectures with active methodologies that
enhance the central role of the student in the learning process. Collaborative learning strategies
can contribute to facilitate students' learning of metabolism, its regulation, and its biological
integration. Among the active methodologies, case-, problem- and project-based learning
methods, often developed under the "inverted" classroom model, stand out. These
methodological tools and teaching strategies have been tested by the members of this
educational innovation team as voluntary activities of continuous assessment under a learning
contract in the framework of two subjects focused on metabolism and its regulation, in the second
year of the Biology and Biochemistry Degrees at the University of Malaga. This communication
will discuss these strategies, analyze their implementation and provide evidence of their impact
on the teaching-learning process.

Keywords: Case/problem-based learning; flipped classroom; learning contract; metabolic regulation;

collaborative learning

1. The Metabolic Biochemistry and Metabolic Regulation Courses in the Grades in Biology
and Biochemistry at the University of Málaga (Spain)

In the Biology and Biochemistry degrees at the University of Malaga, topics related to metabolism
are studied in the mandatory subjects: Biochemistry II and Regulation of Metabolism,
respectively. Both subjects have a theoretical-practical teaching load corresponding to 6
European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) and are taught in the second year
(2nd semester) of both degrees. The subject Regulation of Metabolism focuses on advanced
aspects of regulation and integration of metabolic processes previously presented (1 st semester)
to students in the subject “Fundamentals of Biochemistry". On the other hand, Biochemistry II,
deals with fundamental aspects of Bioenergetics and Metabolic Biochemistry. In both subjects,
the main objective is to provide students an integrated vision of metabolism, its regulation,
evolutionary plasticity, and adaptation to different physiological and pathological conditions.

2. Our Educational Innovation Project PIE22-118

The aims of our Educational Innovation Project PIE22-118 can be summarized as follows: 1) To
improve the results of our students in terms of scores. 2) To increase their skills in: scientific
information finding, scientific data management and understanding, science communication, and
studying and working in small collaborative groups. 3) To analyze the effectiveness of the flipped
learning pedagogical model in terms of student performance and learning with respect to the use
of traditional master classes. This strategy will be applied only to selected metabolic topics. 4) All
scheduled group activities will be carried out after signing a Learning Contract between the
teacher and his students. In addition, formative evaluation criteria will be specially taken into
account in the final grade of the students.
14 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

3. Case/Problem-Based Learning

The use of problem-based learning (PBL) was pioneered by Barrows and Tamblyn at the medical
school at McMaster University in Hamilton in the 1960s [1]. PBL is a student-centered pedagogy
in which groups of students learn about a subject through the experience of solving an open-
ended problem. Through PBL, students not only strengthen their teamwork, communication, and
research skills, but they also sharpen their critical thinking and problem-solving abilities essential
for life-long learning. The role of the tutor in the PBL is to facilitate learning by supporting, guiding,
and monitoring the learning process, acting as a falicitator [2]. Thus, PBL represents a paradigm
shift from traditional teaching and learning philosophy [3], which is more often lecture-based, and
responds to some basic principles of contructivist inspiration. Although the PBL approaches had
their origin and greatest development in the area of health science [4], they have been extended
to other natural and social sciences [5, 6]. PBL can be used as a powerful strategy of collaborative
learning. However, the lack of a sufficient number of cases or projects to be applied to teaching
by means of this methodology is a fact, accentuated in the case of one of the most complex topics
of study for the student of Biochemistry such as the regulation of the metabolism and its
integration [7]. This encourages not only collaboration in increasing the scarce teaching resources
available to the educational community, but also the application of some of the guidelines of
educational research focused on design with implementation and evaluation to be carried out
withuniversity science students, through case studies [7-11]

4. Flipped Classroom

Flipped learning (FL) is a pedagogical model that encompasses a set of teaching methodologies
that have the following points in common: a) The information to be learned by the student is taken
out of the classroom (Individual Space) and transmitted by the teacher online as links to
documents, presentations, videos, podcasts, etc. b) Class time (Goup space), instead of the
traditional master classes, is dedicated to discussing what the students have not understood well,
working on cases, projects and problems, collaborative work, etc. (active and inductive learning).
All this takes place under the supervision and guidance of the teacher. The different strategies of
FL differ, fundamentally, in the type of online communication before classes; in the way in which
it encourages and checks the student's previous study, and in the tasks or specific activities that
are carried out in the classes. With the FL model, not only the use of time and space in the
classroom and outside is reversed, but also the role of teachers and students in the classroom is
altered. In traditional classes the teacher is the protagonist, he or she is placed on the stand
looking at the students and explains the lesson while they attend, take notes and occasionally
ask questions. In reverse teaching, on the other hand, the students are the main protagonists,
they work actively while the teacher observes how they do it, helping them when they have
problems or when they are asked to do so. FL can be much more pedagogically effective than
traditional master classes. Some of its strengths are: a) It stimulates the students' continuous
study, avoiding the typical last minute binges. b) It makes it easier for all students to understand
the information, since they can access it as many times as they want. c) It allows class time to be
spent on activities led by the students without slowing down the pace of progress with the syllabus,
since it is transmitted online. d) It allows the realization of formative evaluation activities and
metacognitive reflection during class time. e) The tasks are done and corrected during the class,
thus facilitating the management of the teacher's feedback on the work products of their students.
The main weakness of the inverse model is that it gives more work to teachers, especially: a) In
the preparation and design of the materials to be transmitted to their students. b) In the
preparation of pre-study verification questionnaires, and the analysis of the students' answers. c)
In the redesign of classes to respond to difficulties and to carry out new activities. The first well-
documented model of a flipped classroom was carried out in 2007 by the chemistry teachers of
Woodland Park High School in Colorado (USA), Aaron Sams and Jonathan Bergman [12]. Before
that date, methods had been developed to check the previous study of the students using reverse
methodology. Of these methods the Peer Instruction, the Just-in-Time-Teaching, and the Team
Based Learning stand out [13-15]. Currently, there are many combined flipped learning
methodologies that can be applied [17,18]. The interest in FL methodologies is growing day by
day, as indicated by the almost 50,000 educators from all over the world already registered at the
Flipped Learning Community Network. In the specific case of Biochemistry and Metabolism, the
work done by Professor Brent Stockwell is especially noteworthy. Since he joined the Columbia
Center for New Media Teaching and Learning (CCNMTL) in the summer of 2013, he has been
teaching Biochemistry with inverted class methodology.
15 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

5. The Learning Contract

A Learning Contract (LC) [19,20] is a negociated agreement signed between a learner and a
teacher, lecture or staff adviser that an activity will be undertaken in order to achieve a specific
learning goal. During the execution time of the contract, the student works autonomously, since
he is responsible for his learning process. The teacher will be a guide, support and counselor
when the student needs it. With the LC, a series of rights and duties of both the teacher and the
student are established and discussed. And both must commit to them and comply with what is
established and agreed upon. This type of contract have many benefits, among them, they
encourage learners to take more responsability for their own learning needs, and to use their
existing skills and experiences as basis for new learning. In our case, only students who sign the
contract can enroll in the project.

6. Collaborative Learning

Collaborative learning (CL) refers to an instruction method in which learners at various

performance levels work together in small groups toward a common goal. According to Panitz, T.
[21], collaboration is a philosophy of interaction and personal lifestyle where individuals are
responsible for their actions including learning, respecting members’ abilities and their
contributions. CL is grounded on social constructivism, which considers learning a social process
that is built not only with the teacher, but also with peers, the context and meaning of what is
learned. This learning approach not only favors the academic performance of students but also
allows them to acquire important transversal competences that are very useful in their
professional development. An efficient collaborative learning approach is characterized by the
following five features [22]: a) Positive interdependence. b) Individual and group accountability,
to avoid free-rider effects [23]. c) Promotive interactions. d) Appropriate use of social skills. e)
Group processing, with critical self-evaluation of the work carried out within the group. In the
specific case of the learning-teaching of Biochemistry, the opinion of teachers and students in
relation to the implementation of collaborative learning methodologies is, in general, very positive
[24-28].

7. Implementation of the Educational Innovation Project PIE22-118

Each year, a relevant part of the syllabus has been worked out using this course-based
undergraduate research experience approach. With a flipped-learning strategy, volunteer
students signing a learning contract were challenged to collaboratively solve a selection of guided
problems/cases (the PBL of the year) in groups of 3-4 students. Four progress sessions were
programmed throughout the semester to stimulates groups to contrast and share their doubts and
their responses to the problems/cases. At the end of the course, each group had to submit a final
report.

8. First Results of the Educational Innovation Project PIE22-118

Our previous Educational Innovation Projects PIE15-163, PIE17-145, and PIE19-057 yielded a
remarkable scientific production, with a number or communications to science education
conferences, several chapters of books, a PhD Thesis [29], and two articles published in science
education journals included in Journal Citation Reports [30,31]. In the first year of implementation,
PIE22-118 has yielded promising results yielding three communications to international scientific
meetings [32-34]. A first manuscript will be submitted soon.
The impact of the implementation of our project on our students can be summarized as follows:
• In the first year of implementation of the project PIE22-118 38 volunteer students were
enrolled.
• Up to an 84% of the volunteers enrolled in the project attended the final examination, as
compared with only a 42% of the rest of students attending the final examination.
• A 66% of the students that took part in the project and attended the final examination
passed the course, to be compared with only a 20% of success among students not
enrolled in the project that attended the final examination.
• The results of a satisfaction poll reveal that most of the enrolled students were satisfied
with the experience.
• We also carried out polls on the perception of the course by the students at the beginning
and the end of the course. We are currently analyzing them.
16 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

9. Acknowledgements

We thank all our colleagues at the Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry their
support to this initiative. We tank all our students enrolled to the activities under learning contract
within the fame of our Innovative Education Projects PIE15-163, PIE17-145, PIE19-057 and
PIE22-118. This work was supported by funds granted to PIE122-118, University of Málaga,
Spain.

REFERENCES

[1] Barrows, Howard S. "Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief

overview". New Directions for Teaching and Learning. 1996 (68): 3–12, 1996
[2] Schmidt, Henk G; Rotgans, Jerome I; Yew, Elaine HJ. "The process of problem-based
learning: What works and why". Medical Education. 45 (8): 792–806, 2011
[3] Hung, Woei. "Theory to reality: A few issues in implementing problem-based
learning". Educational Technology Research and Development. 59 (4): 529–552, 2011
[4] Dolmans, D.H.J.M., Loyens S.M.M., Marcq, H., Gijbels, D. "Deep and surface learning
in problem-based learning: a review of the literature", Advances in Health Sciences
Education, vol. 21, pp. 1087– 1112, 2016
[5] Ward, J.D., Lee, C.L. "A review of problem-based learning", Journal of Family and
Consumer Sciences Education, vol. 20, pp. 16-26, 2002
[6] Tsai, C.W., Chiang, Y.C. "Research trends in problem-based learning (PBL) research
in elearning and online education environments: A review of publications in SSCI-
indexed journals from 2004 to 2012", British Journal of Educational Technology, vol. 44,
pp. 185-190, 2013
[7] Megías, A., Oñaderra, M. "ABP-4 orientado al aprendizaje e integración del
metabolismo. Charlas de gimnasio", Reduca (Biología). Serie Bioquímica y Biología
Molecular, vol. 6, pp. 48-57, 2013
[8] Collins, A., Joseph, D., Bielaczyc, K. "Design research: Theoretical and methodological
issues", Journal of the Learning Sciences, vol. 13, pp. 15-42, 2004
[9] Méheut, M., D. Psillos. "Teaching-Learning sequences: aims and tools for science
education research", International Journal of Science Education, vol. 26, pp. 515-535,
2004
[10] Rianudo, M.C., Donolo, D. "Estudios de diseño. Una perspectiva prometedora en la
investigación educativa", RED-Revista de Educación a Distancia, vol. 22, pp. 2-29,
2010
[11] Simons, H. "El estudio de caso: Teoría y práctica" (in Spanish), Madrid, Morata, 2011
[12] Bergmann, J., Sams, A. "Dale la vuelta a tu clase" (in Spanish), 3rd ed. Madrid,
Santillana, 2016.
[13] Mazur, E. "Peer instruction: a user's manual". Upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall,
1997
[14] Novak, G., Gavrin, A., Christian, W., Patterson, E. "Just-in-time-teaching: blending
active learning with web technology". Upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall, 1999
[15] Michaelsen, A.L.K., Knight, A.B., Fink, L.D. "Team-based learning: a transformative use
of small group in college", Stylus Pb., 2004
[16] Medina, J.L. "La docencia universitaria mediante el enfoque de aula invertida" (in
Spanish), Barcelona, Octaedro, 2016
[17] Prieto, A. "Flipped learning. Aplicar el modelo de aprendizaje inverso" (in Spanish),
Madrid, Narcea, 2017
[18] Talbert, R. “Flipped learning. A guide for higher education faculty”, Sterlin, Virginia,
Stilus Publishing, LLC, 2017
[19] Anderson, G., Boud, D., Sampson, J. “Learning contracts. A practical guide”. London:
Routledge Falmer, 1966
[20] Stephenson, J. and Laycock, M. “Using learning contracts in Higher Education”.
London, Routledge Falmer, 2002
[21] Panitz, T. (1996). “A Definition of Collaborative vs Cooperative Learning”. Deliberations,
London Metropolitan University, UK. Retrieved Jan. 9, 2024, from:
http://www.londonmet.ac.uk/deliberations/collaborative-learning/panitz-paper.cfm
[22] Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., Holubec, E.J. "El aprendizaje cooperativo en el aula" (in
Spanish), Barcelona, Paidós Ibérica, 1999
[23] Kerr, N.L., Bruun, S.E. "Dispensability of member effort and group motivation losses:
free-rider effects ", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 44, pp. 78-94,
1983
17 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[24] Magnarelli, G., Quintana, M. M., García, L., Cabrera, L., Ruiz, L. " El trabajo en
pequeños grupos facilita la enseñanza-aprendizaje de Bioquímica", Revista Brasileira
de Educaçao Médica, vol.33, pp. 374-381, 2009
[25] Peters, A. "Teaching biochemistry at a minority-serving institution: an evaluation of the
role of collaborative learning as a tool for science mastery", Journal of Chemical
Education, vol. 82, pp. 571-574, 2005
[26] Gilmer, P. J. "Transforming university biochemistry teaching using collaborative learning
and technology ", Heidelberg, Springer, 2010
[27] Fernández, M.L., Alap, A., Artolozaga, M.J., Calvo, L.A. Centeno, C., Gómez, G.,
Granados, K., Madrigal, M., Murillo, A.G., Pinto, A., Quesada, S., Salas, E., Somarribas,
L.F., Vindas, L.A., Campos, D. "Aprendizaje cooperativo en un curso de Bioquímica:
Opinión de los estudiantes y efecto en su rendimiento académico", Actualidades
Investigativas en Educación, vol. 12, pp. 1- 26, 2012
[28] Souza-Júnior, A.A., Silva, A.P., Silva, T.A., Andrade, G.P.V. "A proposal of collaborative
education for biochemistry and cell biology teaching", Journal of Biochemistry
Education, vol. 13, 2015
[29] García-Ponce, A.L. “Diseño, aplicación y evaluación de recursos didácticos que faciliten
el aprendizaje de la Bioquímica por parte del alumnado universitario de ciencias”,
Universidad de Málaga, Spain, 2022
[30] García-Ponce, A.L., Martínez-Poveda, B., Blanco.López, A., Quesada, A.R., Suárez,
F., Alonso-Carrión, F.J., Medina, M.A. “A problem-/case-based learning approach as a
useful tool for studying glycogen metabolism and its regulation”. Biochem Mol Biol Educ,
vol. 49, pp. 236-241, 2021
[31] Medina, M.A., García-Ponce, A.L., Blanco-López, A., Quesada, A.R., Urdiales, J.L.,
Fajardo, I., Suárez, F., Alonso-Carrión, F.J. “Turning around cycles: an approach based
on selected problems/cases to stimulate collaborative learning about Krebs and his four
metabolic cycles”. J Chem Educ, vol. 99, pp. 2270-2276, 2022
[32] Medina, M.A., García-Ponce, A.L., Blanco-López, A., Quesada, A.R., Urdiales, J.L.,
Fajardo, I., Suárez, F., Alonso-Carrión, F.J. “Contrato de aprendizaje, aula invertida y
aprendizaje basado en casos/problemas como herramientas didácticas para el
aprendizaje colaborativo del metabolismo y su regulación”. Oral communication to the
44th Congress of the Spanish Society of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Málaga,
Spain, 2022
[33] Medina, M.A., Suárez, F., Alonso-Carrión, F.J. “Selected problems/cases to stimulate
collaborative learning regarding the dynamic flexibility of metabolism”. Communication
(panel) to the 47th FEBS Congress, Tours, France, 2023
[34] Medina, M.A., Suárez, F., Alonso-Carrión, F.J. “Use of a teaching-learning experience
to stimulate collaborative learning of metabolism based on selected problems/cases”.
Communication (panel in the format of a global virtual symposium) to the ACS Spring
2024 Meeting, New Orleans (Hybrid), USA, 2024
18 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Popularization Strategies in Public Health Discourse: A

Corpus-based Analysis in Portuguese and Chinese

Huanqi Sun1, Katrin Herget2, João Paulo Silvestre3

University of Aveiro, PhD candidate, Centre for Languages, Literatures and Cultures,
Portugal1
University of Aveiro, Centre for Languages, Literatures and Cultures, Portugal2,3

Abstract

An increasing number of laypeople are turning to the vast information available on the Internet to
self-educate in public health matters. For instance, they seek advice from experts in specific
subject areas to understand how Covid-19 spreads or to clarify uncertainties about physiological
reactions during pregnancy. Additionally, they actively engage in information exchange through
magazines, websites, journalists, and other platforms on relevant topics. All of these efforts reflect
laypeople's attempts to break down barriers in expert-layperson communication. In this context,
the cultivation of scientific literacy emerges as a crucial skill, enabling individuals to critically
assess scientific information and make informed decisions.
The vertical structure of medical discourse in Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) primarily
distinguishes between internal communication and external discourse. External discourse, which
is patient-oriented, involves doctor-patient interactions and communication with a broader
audience [1]. The objective of discourse popularization is to ensure that scientific information
becomes accessible to a wider audience. Therefore, it is imperative to adjust the language used
based on the level of popularization required [2].
This paper explores strategies for popularizing scientific discourse in the field of public health in
both Portuguese and Chinese, highlighting effective ways to enhance scientific literacy in these
language communities. The corpus analysis is carried out using the corpus manager and text
analysis tool, Sketch Engine [3].

Keywords: Public health, discourse, popularization, comparable corpora, strategies

1. Introduction

In tandem with societal advancement, an increasing diversity of food choices has become widely
available. The promotion of guidelines for healthy eating is of practical importance to the public.
For example, informative advice on food selection, strategies for preventing diseases through
sensible dietary choices, and considerations for dietary restrictions during illness, among others.
The complexity of food choices and fast-paced modern life underline the importance of clear
guidance on healthy eating. This information empowers people to make informed choices,
preventing long-term health problems. This paper aims to examine discourse strategies in science
popularization texts, with a specific focus on analysing the utilization of discourse markers.
Discourse markers (DMs) are pragmatically defined as linguistic elements that serve a connective
function in constructing texts [4]. The study is designed to analyze paraphrastic reformulation
markers in popular science texts in both Portuguese and Chinese. To accomplish this, we will
investigate reformulation as a strategy employed in the process of science popularization.
The definition of reformulation aims to repair formulation problems and guarantee
intercomprehension, focusing on cases of self-reformulation: “Reformulation is a meta-discursive
operation whereby the speaker reworks an utterance (or part of it) with the intention of making
their discourse more intelligible, reducing any risk of misunderstanding on the part of the
interlocutor” [5] (p. 2694) [own translation].
Reformulation is one of the strategies of science popularization, which is considered a form of
simplification [1]. In an attempt to systematize reformulation markers, the authors consider
reformulation as an interpretative process, serving to paraphrase, complete, or correct [6] (pp.
320-321). Two types of reformulations can be distinguished: paraphrastic (relationship of
equivalence between the source utterance and the reformulated utterance) and non-paraphrastic
(correction or rectification) [7]. In this paper, we analyse paraphrastic reformulation markers.
19 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2. Reformulation Markers

Research on discourse markers (DM) emerged in the mid-20th century. DM have the function of
organising the textual structure, signalling either a return to what has been said in order to clarify
or summarise it, or a planning strategy. Based on previous studies ([4], [5] [6], [8] and [9]), we
propose an analysis of paraphrastic markers of reformulation (marking of an equivalence
relation). When the speaker rephrases a fragment of his or her speech, he or she introduces a
clarification that makes what was said earlier more precise. The most common markers for
signalling this type of reformulation include expressions that are summarized in the table below:

Reformulation markers in Chinese Reformulation markers in

Portuguese

即 -
Pinyin (PY): (jí)
Literal translation (LT): i.e.
PT: nomeadamente
ENG: namely
换 言 之 (huàn yán zhī) -
LT: change words it
PT: por outras palavras
ENG: in other words
换句话说/换句话讲 (huàn jù huà ou seja
shuō / huàn jù huà jiǎnɡ)
LT: change sentence words noutros termos, dito de outro
explain／change sentence words modo, por outras palavras
explain
ENG: in other words
也就是说/这就是说 isto é
(yě jiù shì shuō / zhè jiù shì shuō)
LT: also that's it yes explain／this
that's it yes explain
ENG: that is to say
这(就)意味着 quer dizer
(zhè (jiù) yì wèi zhe)
LT: this (that's) mean taste with
ENG: meaning／that is
Table 1. Most common paraphrastic markers of reformulation

In the Chinese language, reformulation markers 换句话说/换句话讲 (huàn jù huà shuō / huàn jù
huà jiǎnɡ) (in. in other words) corresponds to pt. ou seja, noutros termos, dito de outro modo, por
outras palavras.

3. Method

For the present study, we compiled two corpora, each consisting of thirty popular science texts in
both Portuguese and Chinese, specifically in the field of Health Sciences with a focus on well-
being and diets. Both corpora will be analyzed using the Sketch Engine tool. The investigation of
the selected articles in both languages will involve: firstly, identifying paraphrastic reformulation
markers; secondly, determining the overall frequency of reformulation markers; and thirdly,
analyzing the function of these reformulation markers based on context.
We compiled two comparable corpora, with a focus on ensuring comparability based on criteria
such as chosen topics and text length. This preliminary analysis aims to compare Chinese and
Portuguese texts, identifying similarities and differences in the use of reformulation markers. We
have integrated both qualitative and quantitative analyses to provide a more comprehensive
approach to data examination. To identify the texts in the analysis, numbers are used to present
and distinguish the articles. For example, Portuguese texts are labelled as PT1, PT2, PT3, and
Chinese texts are labelled as CH1, CH2, CH3, and so forth. Since in Portuguese there is no
equivalent for the Chinese reformulation markers 即(jí) (namely, i.e.) and 换言之 (huàn yán zhī)
(to put it differently), as shown in Table 1, we focused our analysis on the following markers: ou
seja, noutros termos, dito de outro modo, por outras palavras, isto é, quer dizer and its
corresponding Chinese equivalents.
20 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

As far as corpus compilation is concerned, we gathered Portuguese popular science texts from
free online magazines, such as Revista Saúde and Revista Prevenir. However, our search for
accessible Chinese popular science texts on Google proved challenging due to limited open-
access resources. Consequently, we adopted an alternative approach to search for texts. We
obtained permission from the "文献云图书馆" (Literature Cloud Library), a website containing
numerous Chinese academic papers, as well as texts from magazines and journals. Additionally,
we searched for texts in Chinese libraries, such as "大众医学" (Popular Medicine). Furthermore,
segments of texts containing reformulation markers in both Portuguese and Chinese from these
sources were extracted and compiled into a corpus.
The popular science texts in the Portuguese language were collected from the following sources:
the website of the Portuguese pharmacies, from which we obtained access to Revista Saúda [10]
(12 texts) in the health field, covering topics such as Cancer Prevention and Considerations for
Diabetics, as well as subfields, like well-being and diets. Additionally, texts were sourced from
Revista Prevenir (6 texts) [11]; Vida Ativa (1 text) [12]; Saúda e Bem Estar (2 texts) [13]; Visão
Saúde (1 text) [14]; Viver Saudável (2 texts) [15]; Agroportal (1 text) [16]; Saúde Actual (5 texts,
available in print) [17]. The magazines are generally available in open access, except for Revista
Actual. In the Chinese language popular science texts were sourced from the website of the "文
献云图书馆" (Literature Cloud Library) (36 texts) [18] and "大众医学" (Popular Medicine (4 texts,
available in print) [19]. The collected texts in both languages cover the period from 2016 to 2023.

4. Results and Discussion

In the following, we present and discuss results obtained from both the Chinese and Portuguese
corpora.

5. Analysis of Reformulation Markers

Upon analyzing the frequencies of reformulation markers using the Concordance function of the
Sketch Engine tool, the following data were obtained:

Corpus PT Corpus CH Frequen

cy
ou seja noutros isto é quer dizer
termos,
ditos de
outro
modo,
por
outras
palavras
换句话说 (huàn jù huà 也 就 是 说 这(就)意 味 (zhè
shuō) (yě jiù shì (jiù ) yì wèi zhe)
LT: change sentence shuō)
words explain／change LT: also,
sentence words explain that's it yes
explain／
this that's it
yes explain
PT20 4 0 0 0
PT1, PT3 3 0 0 0
PT2, PT15, PT19, PT23, 2 0 0 0
PT26, PT29, PT30
PT4, PT5, PT6, PT7, PT8, CH8，CH9， 1 0 0 0
PT9, PT10, PT11, PT12, CH10，CH1，
PT14, PT16, PT17, PT18, CH12，CH13，
PT21, PT22, PT24, PT25,
CH15，CH17，
PT27, PT28
CH18, CH19,
CH22, CH23,
CH24, CH25,
CH27, CH28
PT13 1 0 1 0
PT18 CH1, CH2, CH3, 0 1 0
CH4, CH5, CH6,
CH7, CH14,
CH16, CH21,
CH26, CH30
CH29 0 3
21 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

CH20 0 2

Table 2. Frequency of reformulation markers in both corpora

According to the Table 2, the analyzed corpora did not contain reformulation markers 这(就)意味
着 (zhè (jiù) yì wèi zhe, quer dizer). In the Portuguese corpus, no instances of noutros termos,
dito de outro modo, por outras palavras were found. The reformulation marker ou seja revealed
44 occurrences, significantly surpassing the occurrences of isto é, which totalled only 1.In the
Chinese corpus, the reformulation markers
也就是说 (yě jiù shì shuō) (isto é) and 换句话说 (huàn jù huà shuō) (ou seja) appeared almost
equally, with 17 and 16 occurrences, respectively. There were no instances of 换句话讲 (huàn jù
huà jiǎnɡ) or 这就是说 (zhè jiù shì shuō) in the Chinese corpus.

5.1 Analysis of Reformulation Markers: ou seja (huàn jù huà shuō) and isto é (yě jiù shì
shuō)

The discourse markers isto é and ou seja share a similar meaning, translating into English as that
is or in other words. However, they are employed in slightly distinct contexts in the Portuguese
language. Considering the length of the paper, we selectively analyze text fragments in both
languages, with reformulation markers in text highlighted in bold.

PT13: (...) É nos vasos por onde circula o sangue que se vão dar os principais efeitos das
substâncias tóxicas que o tabaco contém, danificando o endotélio vascular, isto é, a fina camada
celular que reveste o interior dos vasosÉ suspender totalmente o tabaco e moderar o consumo
de álcool. Se isso for feito antes de serem estabelecidas lesões irreversíveis, pode haver
melhoria das queixas. Ou seja, quanto mais cedo se deixar o vício do tabaco e o abuso do álcool,
melhores são as perspectivas de recuperação, não só sexuais, como do sistema cardiovascular
e de outros sistemas. In segment PT13, isto é is employed to elucidate the medical term endotélio
vascular, ensuring enhanced reader comprehension by providing a simplified explanation. And
ou seja is employed to reiterate the positive health effects of quitting smoking and limiting alcohol
consumption. It emphasizes various facets of this information, offering a different perspective on
a prior statement to enhance comprehension. This suggests a deliberate rephrasing or
reorganization of words to better convey the author's intention. Overall, both expressions are used
in the text to ensure that the reader's understanding of the previous statement is more accurate
and comprehensive.

PT20: (...) O colesterol faz parte da membrana celular, se existir falta de colesterol, quando
renova as suas células, estas podem apresentar rigidez na membrana e como tal as trocas
celulares ficarão comprometidas. Pesquisas recentes indicam que o colesterol pode atuar como
antioxidante, ou seja, protege as células contra efeitos nocivos dos radicais livres. (...) Quanto
mais adipócitos encher mais vai aumentar de volume e peso, ou seja, engordar! Isto é o que
acontece quando você faz exercício e os seus músculos necessitam de energia. É por isso que
o exercício intenso emagrece! Durante o exercício acontece um processo chamado glicogénese,
ou seja, a glicose é transformada em glicogénio para ser utilizado como combustível. Se o
glicogénio começa a baixar, o organismo inicia um outro processo, a neoglicogénese, ou seja,
vai às reservas buscar estes triglicéridos e utiliza as moléculas de gordura como energia e o
glicerol como glicose, deste modo volta a haver energia e você fica mais magro.
The first ou seja is used as a rephrasing and explanation of the preceding text to emphasise the
antioxidant role of cholesterol. It further clarifies the role of cholesterol and makes it easier for the
reader to understand its role in cell protection. Additionally, ou seja introduces new insights from
recent research about the antioxidant properties of cholesterol, ensuring a more comprehensive
understanding for the reader. The second ou seja is used as a rephrasing of the previous text to
emphasise the relationship between fat cell filling and weight gain. It provides a more detailed
and visual explanation to ensure that the reader has a clearer understanding of the mechanisms
of weight gain. The third ou seja is used to explain the glicogénese process mentioned earlier, in
order to summarise and emphasise the nature of the process. It ensures that the reader
understands the mechanism by which glucose is converted into liver glycogen during exercise.
The fourth ou seja is used to explain the process of neoglicogénese mentioned earlier to provide
a more detailed description. It emphasises how the body uses fat reserves to produce energy
when glycogen is low, and promotes a fuller understanding of the physiological process of weight
loss. Isto é clarifies the previous statement, detailing the process of filling adipocytes and its
relationship with weight gain.
22 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

CH23: (...) It can be seen that the culprit of hyperlipidaemia is improper diet, and the key to
preventing and controlling hyperlipidaemia is also diet, 换句话说 (huàn jù huà shuō, in other
words), improper diet will lead to hyperlipidaemia [own translation]. [The function of 换句话说 is
reformulation and simplification of the last sentence]
In this context, the use of huàn jù huà shuō (in other words) is to summarise and emphasise the
preceding text in a more concise and straightforward way, which is also a form of reformulation.
The author uses 换 句 话 说 (huàn jù huà shuō) to emphasise that the main cause of
hyperlipidaemia is improper diet and puts the key to preventing hyperlipidaemia on diet. This style
of presentation helps to highlight the direct effect of diet on hyperlipidaemia and conveys complex
information to the reader in a clearer way.

CH14: (...) However, during the production of infant formula, the manufacturer will make regular
"breastfeeding adjustments" to goat's milk or cow's milk, which includes adjusting the ratio of
whey and casein proteins in the raw materials so that it reaches the ratio of proteins in breastmilk.
也就是说 (yě jiù shì shuō), both cow's milk and goat's milk have protein ratios that are closer to
breast milk, but are ultimately adjusted to be close to breast milk, and the difference is very small,
so there is no such thing as goat's milk formula being closer to breast milk [own translation].
[explanation of breastfeeding adjustments]
Through the phrase 也就是说 (yě jiù shì shuō), the author emphasises that during the production
of infant formula, the protein ratio of both cow's milk and goat's milk will be adjusted to be close
to that of breast milk, so that readers will understand that the difference between goat's milk
powder and cow's milk powder in terms of protein composition is very small. This helps to correct
possible misconceptions and gives the reader a fuller understanding of the process of preparing
speciality milk and infant formula.

5.2 Some Other Results

Many Chinese reformulation markers, such as 换 句 话 说 (huàn jù huà shuō, ou seja), are
prominently present in the first paragraphs of popular science texts. Specifically, these markers
are notably featured in texts CH11, CH12, CH13, CH22, CH23, CH24, CH27, and CH28.
Similarly, the reformulation markers 也就是说 (yě jiù shì shuō, isto é) are prevalent in the opening
paragraphs of various popular science texts, including those in CH1, CH2, CH3, CH20, CH21,
CH26, and CH30. However, in the Portuguese corpus, instances of the reformulation marker ou
seja only appear in the first paragraph in texts PT2, PT6 and PT30. Perhaps this phenomenon is
something worth exploring in future studies.

6. Conclusions

The discourse marker ou seja not only serves the function of reformulation: on the one hand, ou
seja is usually employed to rephrase or express something in a different way to enhance
understanding and be used for discourse strategies that imply a reformulation of the speech.
Nevertheless, it can also be used to introduce new information for clarification purposes, as the
pragmatic distinction is not always easy to establish. The discourse marker isto é is used to offer
additional clarification or explanation of a preceding statement. This technique enhances logical
coherence and overall text readability. In summary, the utilization of isto é / yě jiù shì shuō in
these contexts aims to improve clarity, ensuring that the reader precisely grasps the author's
intended message. Moreover, studying reformulation markers contributes to a better
understanding of popular science texts and enhances scientific literacy. This study, albeit small,
provides insight into paraphrastic reformulation markers in Portuguese and Chinese texts in the
field of Health Sciences. For more details and results regarding the functions of ou seja and isto
é, further analysis of additional texts may be necessary in the future.

REFERENCES

[1] Brand, C. (2008). Lexical processes in scientific discourse popularisation: a corpus-

linguistic study of the SARS coverage. Peter Lang, pp.27-28.
[2] López Orellana, M. (2012). Popularising scientific discourse. Quaderns de Filologia.
Estudis lingüístics. Vol. XVII (2012), pp. 83-96.
[3] Kilgarriff, A., Baisa, V., Bušta, J., Jakubíček, M., Kovář, V., Michelfeit, J., Rychlý, P., &
Suchomel, V. (2014). The Sketch Engine: ten years on. Lexicography, 1, pp. 7-36.
[4] Hong, W., & Yunfeng, G. (2004). 重构性话语标记语的英汉对比分析 (A Comparative
English-Chinese Analysis of Reconstructive Discourse Markers). Journal of Zuoling
College, (012), pp. 160-162.
23 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[5] Lopes, A. C. M. & Carrilho, E. (2020). Discurso e Marcadores Discursivos. In E. B. Paiva

Raposo et al. (orgs.) Gramática do Português. (pp. 2667-2730). Vol. III. Lisboa: Fundação
Calouste Gulbenkian.
[6] Gülich E. & Kotschi. T (1983). Les marqueurs de la reformulation paraphrastique. In J.
Moeschler Ed). Connecteurs pragmatiques et structure du discours. Cahiers de
linguistique française, Univ. de Genève, pp. 305-351.
[7] Rossari, C. (1984). Les opérations de reformulation. Peter Lang.
[8] Shulin, Y. (2012). 现代汉语话语标记研究 (A Study of Discourse Markers in Modern
Chinese). China Social Science Press. ISBN: 7516118109, 9787516118108
[9] Xiao, R. (2010). Idioms, word clusters, and reformulation markers in translational
Chinese: Can "translation universals" survive in Mandarin? In The International
Symposium on Using Corpora in Contrastive and Translation Studies. Ormskirk: Edge
Hill University, pp.1-40.
[10] https://www.revistasauda.pt/Revistas/Revista_Sauda/Pages/default.aspx
[11] https://www.prevenir.pt/
[12] https://www.vidaativa.pt/
[13] https://saudebemestar.com.pt/
[14] https://visao.pt/visaosaude/
[15] https://www.viversaudavel.pt/
[16] https://www.agroportal.pt/
[17] https://saudeactual.pt/wp/
[18] http://wen.xstsg.top
[19] https://www.popumed.com/
24 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Design of Inquiry-based Laboratory Projects for an Active

Learning of (Bio)Chemistry, Focused-On Problem Solving in a
Professional Setting

Ángel Luis García-Ponce1, José Antonio Torres Vargas2, Aurelio Moya-García3,

Melissa García Caballero4, Ana R. Quesada5

Universidad de Málaga, Andalucía Tech, Málaga, Spain1,2,3,4,5

Abstract

Being aware that a change was needed in the style of laboratory teaching at our university our
Educational Innovation Group TR4BIOCHEM (PIE22-067) is interested in the design and
implementation of new inquiry-based laboratory activities, applicable to different subjects of the
last courses of the degrees of the Faculty of Sciences. In this way, the learning process of
disciplines such as biochemistry and analytical chemistry is transformed through a competency-
based approach, making students to get more actively involved in their learning process, with the
instructor as a mere "facilitator". Thus, many of these students have to face for the first-time issues
that are common in a professional setting, such as the acquisition of reagents and materials, the
assessment of the necessary instruments and equipment, the adaptation and scaling of
experimental protocols, and the analysis of costs and operational feasibility, among others. This
new approach motivates the students’ interest, who being in the final phase of their studies, are
particularly concerned about their upcoming incorporation into an increasingly demanding job
market. This communication will present our experience from the last years at University of
Malaga in the design and implementation of new teaching resources in which the hands-on
laboratory work is just a part of a more complete sequence of learning activities.

Keywords: Problem-based learning, Laboratory experiments, Laboratory instruction, Hands-on learning,

Bioanalytical chemistry, Undergraduate

1. Changing the Style of Laboratory Teaching Towards Inquiry-Based Laboratory Projects

Paradoxically, laboratory practices in science laboratories at the university level largely ignore the
principles of the scientific method. Often considered as a mere support to theoretical classes,
their main objective is the development of certain technical skills and a very superficial applied
knowledge of the subject by students. In addition, the much criticized "cookbook" style of
expository instruction, is still highly widespread in the practical teaching laboratories of many
universities, probably because it maximizes the number of students who can perform the activity,
minimizing cost, time invested and instructor involvement [1].
In contrast to these classical approaches, inquiry-based teaching arises as a way to reformulate
the work that the students carry out in the laboratories, moving toward a more cross-disciplinary
learning. Inquiry-based laboratory projects make students, as scientists do, formulate questions,
discuss protocols, take and analyse data, and draw conclusions [2].
Many Spanish universities develop educational innovation projects in order to improve their
teaching-learning processes. University of Malaga (UMA) is not an exception, and within these
programs our Educational Innovation Group TR4BIOCHEM (PIE22-067) has been working for
several years in the implementation of new inquiry-based biochemistry laboratory experiments,
focused to last course-chemistry and biochemistry undergraduate students. Three of these
approaches are presented in the next sections of this chapter.

2. Transforming a Classical Laboratory Practice of Enzymatic Analysis into a More

Ambitious Learning Experience

The enzymatic determination of glucose by means of the coupled reactions of glucose oxidase
and peroxidase [3] is an affordable classical laboratory practice, carried out by many science
university students worldwide to learn how enzymes can be used as analytical chemistry tools
(Figure 1).
25 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 1. Scheme of the enzymatic reactions used for the determination of glucose
GOD= Glucose oxidase; POD = Peroxidase

This classical “cookbook” laboratory practice has been used for decades to teach enzymatic
analysis to chemistry, biology and biochemistry undergraduate students at the UMA. According
to the students’ results and inspired by the commentaries from teachers and students over many
years, we decided to transform this practical experiment into a more complete learning experience
in which students could take a more active role. On one hand, the choice of carbonated beverages
as problem solutions helps to raise the interest of students in knowing the glucose content of
those beverages they consume. On the other hand, this experience is now presented as a way
to compare different analytical methods, due to the kinetic characteristic of the glucose oxidase-
peroxidase coupled enzymes system.
The kinetic constants of glucose oxidase allow the mentioned enzymatic reactions to be used in
two different enzymatic analysis methods, the end-point and the kinetic one. The fact that they
can be carried out in a single reaction mixture, shortens and decreases the costs of the
experimental work, so that both methods can be performed by students in a 3-4 hours session.
This is especially interesting from a biochemical and a pedagogical point of view, because it
allows a critical discussion of the advantages and drawbacks of each method, providing students
with some training in choosing which is the most suitable method, according to specific purposes.
As mentioned, the choice of carbonated soft-drinks as problem solutions increases the interest of
the students in the analyses, since many of them are regular consumers of these drinks and are
concerned about the impact of their sugar-content on their health. In addition, comparison of the
results obtained with coloured (cola refreshments) and uncoloured (tonic water) sodas is used to
illustrate how the appearance of interferences may do a given analytical method unsuitable for a
specific practical problem, providing students with some training in how to choose the best
solution to a given experimental problem. Finally, the learning activities are designed to make
students search for information in the literature, and to do calculation in the laboratory.
The learning activities of the practical project (fully described in [4]), include:
1. Introductory lecture in the classroom where the enzymatic analysis theoretical principles are
explained by the teacher.
2. Students homework, aimed to make students think in what they will do in the laboratory and
how they will do it, by answering some specific questions regarding the “tricky points” along the
protocol. It also includes some numerical problems, specially buffers and enzymes solution
calculations, in order to improve the students’ numeric abilities. This homework is corrected by
the instructor and returned before the laboratory session, so that students can use it as the
experimental protocol.
3. Laboratory session. The previous learning activities help to minimize the laboratory time and
resources, sometimes scarce and highly demanded at our institution. In this way, students can
directly go through the different steps of the practical protocol in a short period of time (3-4 hours),
collecting the experimental results they will use to elaborate the final report.
4. Final report, where students have to critically evaluate the convenience of one protocol against
the other in terms of sensitivity, selectivity, repeatability, accuracy, interferences and time
consumed. They need to search in the available bibliography in order to propose the use of
alternative methods, and discuss their pros and cons for the measure of glucose concentrations
in soft-drinks and other samples.
The above-described new learning experience is now firmly established at our university, being
used every year to teach enzymatic analysis to undergraduate Biochemistry (3rd year) and
Chemistry (4th year). The achievement of the Learning Goals by those students is very
satisfactory. This has been evaluated by using an assessment test, composed by some multiple
26 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

choice and short open-questions, before the introductory classroom lesson, and repeating this
test after students have delivered their full report [4].
The students’ perception of this laboratory protocol, has been evaluated by means of a Likert
questionnaire, complemented with some other open answered questions. Our results indicate
that this practical project, as a whole, is positively perceived by both, future biochemists and
chemists, who have suggested that other practical lessons could be readapted according to this
learning procedure.

3. Comparing Two Different Educational Approaches to The Experimental Teaching of a

Luminometric-Based Analytical Method

Even though luminometry, the process of measuring light, is becoming increasingly used in many
experimental and health sciences laboratories, the practical laboratory experiences that could be
used to illustrate the applications of this technique are still scarce. Trying to overcome this
shortage in the formation of our chemistry and biochemistry undergraduate students, we
developed a new practical experiment based in the measurement of the light emitted in the
enzymatic reaction catalysed by luciferase (Figure 2).
The bioluminescence phenomenon is easily recognized in some animals, such as fireflies, which
emit light for the recognition and attraction of their partner in mating. This light is the result of a
chemical reaction catalysed by the enzyme luciferase (EC 1.13.12.7), which requires the
presence of the luciferin substrate and ATP as a cofactor.

Figure 2. Luciferase-catalyzed enzymatic reaction

Since ATP is present in all life forms, its detection in drinking water is indicative of the presence
of microbial contaminations. The correlation between the ATP concentration, measured by the
luciferase reaction, and bacterial content is the basis for the development of some rapid methods
to detect microbial contamination in drinking or stored water, skipping the long delays required by
traditional microbiological methods [5]. The luminometric measurement of ATP for the detection
of bacterial contamination in water is the basis of the new laboratory experiment implemented at
the UMA with the objective of teaching to chemistry and biochemistry undergraduate students the
use of bioluminescence in analytical chemistry. We have successfully carried it out in two different
formats, a short protocol and a full PBL experience. The contextualization derived from the use
of drinking water as problem samples greatly increased the students’ interest.
Our results, described in [6] show that detection of microbial contamination in water by measuring
ATP concentration with luciferase is a useful tool for teaching the use of bioluminescence to
science undergraduate students. Whether as a short protocol carried out in a single laboratory
session, or as a long PBL experience, the students' achievement of the learning objectives was
very satisfactory. These learning goals included the correct use of the scientific literature, the
application of luminometry to a real-world problem, the use of a luminometer, and the
familiarization of the principles and applications of bioluminescence. Those objectives are related
to some foundational scientific competencies that characterize the Process of Science included
in the Bioskills Guide [7], such as evaluation and use of scientific information, critical thinking or
data interpretation. The core competency Quantitative Reasoning, including the performance of
basic calculations, drawing of graphs and data presentation was also worked by students who
27 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

had to set a calibration curve, establish the application range of a method, and interpolate their
experimental data in order to get the ATP concentration of several water samples.
In addition, the learning goals for the PBL approach, included others derived from the more active
role played by students in their learning process, aimed to make them undertake authentic real-
world tasks, similar to those that they would find in their professional future. Among others, they
developed some competencies for interacting and communicating the research results related to
the Communication and Collaboration core competency, since they had to work in groups of 4-5
components, present their results to a diverse audience, write a scientific journal-quality report
and summarize their conclusions in an “executive report” that could be understood by non-
experts. With respect to skills of relevance to their future job performance, many of these students
faced for the first-time common issues for a professional, such as the acquisition of reagents and
materials, the assessment of the necessary instruments and equipment, the adaptation and
scaling of experimental protocols, or the analysis of costs and operational feasibility, among
others [6].
In conclusion, the luminometric measurement of the ATP concentration in water is a useful tool
that can be used to work on different competencies, depending on the format employed, in terms
of the student’s engagement. Between the two extreme examples here mentioned, either as a
short protocol or as a PBL, different intermediate options could be used by educators to adapt
this laboratory experiment to their course schedule and to meet the learning objectives to be
achieved.

4. Developing a New CURE Aimed to Illustrate the Early Stages of Drug Discovery

The process of drug discovery is one of the topics covered within the subject "Pharmacological
Biochemistry", in the 4th year-biochemistry grade at the UMA. Focused on the blind screening of
enzyme inhibitors, as one of the most widely used strategies in pharmacology for the discovery
of new drugs, this topic includes aspects that refer to both the in vitro identification of new
inhibitors of a target enzyme by enzymatic analysis and in silico studies.
As a practical tool to teach this topic, we are currently working on the development of a new
course-based undergraduate research experience (CURE), intended to be a hands-on
introduction to the early stages of the drug discovery process [8]. After a theoretical introduction
in the classroom by the instructor on the bases of the drug discovery process and the strategies
for a blind screening of enzyme inhibitors, students work in groups of 4-5, facing a situation that
resembles a real scenario found in the area of medicinal chemistry. Under the guidance of the
responsible teacher, in the role of facilitator, the groups work as independent pharmaceutical
laboratories that receive a letter stating the objective "To find new acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
as drug candidates for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease". Guided by this challenging driving
question, students are involved in a meaningful learning process focused on proposing solutions
and carrying them out in a practical way, both in vitro and in silico.
After searching for information in the bibliographic databases, students propose solutions to the
driving question and design protocols to carry them out. The experimental development includes
a bibliographic search on the Alzheimer's disease and current therapies, the use of
acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in the treatment of patients, and the possible enzymatic assays
that could be used for the identification of new inhibitors of this enzyme. They select the Ellman’s
procedure, based on the acetylthiocholine hydrolysis, reaction of the resulting thiocholine with
5,5'-dithiobis-2-nitrobenzoic acid (DTNB) and formation of the yellow 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoic acid
(TNB) anion [9] (Figure 3). With respect to the enzyme used in this in vitro screening, cost and
commercial availability considerations make T. californica acetylcholinesterase the best choice.
28 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 3. Ellman’s method, used for the in vitro detection of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors

In a first report, groups summarize their findings, explaining what reagents and instrumentation
are needed to carry out the in vitro screening for inhibitors of this enzyme. During the laboratory
activities phase, students design the experimental protocol, make calculations of how the
reagents are prepared, optimize the experimental protocols in the laboratory and finally perform
the screening test. As a result of this process, they identify an inhibitor of the enzymatic activity
of the acetylcholinesterase among a group of unlabelled compounds provided by the instructor.
Once the in vitro part of this CURE is performed, groups begin with the in silico studies. In an
introductory lecture in the classroom, the rational of the drug design using computational
techniques is explained by the teacher. This helps students to get familiar with the informatics
tools of statistical computing language R (PyMol, a molecular visualization software, and Bio3D,
a software for the modelling and analysis of the structures). Then groups, working autonomously,
proceed in the accomplishment of the following tasks [8]:
1. Workflow and scheme of the working hypothesis.
2. Modelling and representation of the acetylcholine binding site in the acetylcholinesterase from
T. californica.
3. Modelling and representation of the binding site in T. californica acetylcholinesterase of the
inhibitor they have found in the in vitro blind screening.
4. Modelling and representation of the structural alignment of T. californica acetylcholinesterase,
used in the in vitro blind screening, and human acetylcholinesterase, which is the real target of
the new drug.
5. Prediction of the inhibitory activity on the human enzyme of the potential new drug, based on
the interaction of the inhibitor with H. sapiens acetylcholinesterase.
At the end of the CURE, students prepare both a final report and an oral presentation about the
different stages of the project and the results obtained.
Although we are still working in the optimization of this CURE, our results indicate that it can
contribute to make students develop skills related to the treatment of information and digital
competence by using open-source big data applications, the learning to learn competence, or the
competence in autonomy and personal initiative. Many of these skills have an intrinsic relationship
with the future development of students as professionals in technical, scientific or academic
positions. Preliminary results indicate that the implementation of this experience is very
satisfactory, in terms of academic performance and students’ perception.

5. Final Conclusions

Our experience indicates that although inquiry-based approaches usually require more effort and
time to develop, they are usually perceived very positively by students, who become more actively
involved in their learning process and find this type of research experience very rewarding. In
addition, these didactic resources are characterized by the promotion of some integrated inquiry
tasks which require the use of transversal knowledge that, without being strictly in the field of
biochemistry, result in a more integrated and complete training of the students. The choice of
topics of study that are related to aspects of real life or the daily professional practice, has
increased the students’ interest and motivation. As for teachers, they have also found these
experiences to be demanding, but satisfactory in terms of the students’ achievement.
29 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Students appreciate having the opportunity to apply concepts in a real-world context, and consider
that these laboratory experiments can prepare them to face a future professional scenario. In this
sense, gamification provides a plus of interest to students, who gain confidence in their capability
to apply their knowledge to solve problems in a professional setting. At a time when graduate
employability is a key issue for higher education, as new graduates face a highly competitive and
rapidly changing employment landscape, a shift from more traditional teaching systems to other
thought-provoking learning approaches may help to promote those skills and attributes, most
valued by employers.

6. Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the University of Malaga funds granted to the educational innovation
projects PIE17-065, PIE19-086, & PIE22-067 (Educational Innovation Group TR4BIOCHEM).
The commentaries and help of the University of Malaga biochemist and chemist undergraduate
students in performing experiments and collecting data is greatly appreciated.

REFERENCES

[1] Domin, D.S. “A Review of Laboratory Instruction Styles”, J. Chem. Educ. 1999, 76: 543-
547.
[2] Rönnebeck, S., Bernholt, S., Ropohl, M. “Searching for a common ground – A literature
review of empirical research on scientific inquiry activities”, Stud. Sci. Educ. 2016, 52:2,
161-197.
[3] Huggett, A.S.G., Nixon, D.A. “Use of Glucose Oxidase, Peroxidase, and o-Dianisidine in
Determination of Blood and Urinary Glucose”, Lancet 1957, 270 (6991), 368–370.
[4] García-Ponce, A.L., Martínez-Poveda, B., Blanco-López, A., Medina, M.A., Quesada,
A.R. “Not all has been said about glucose oxidase/peroxidase: New pedagogical uses for
a classical and robust undergraduate laboratory experiment”, Biochem. Mol. Biol. Educ.
2019, 47(3):341-347.
[5] Hammes F, Goldschmidt F, Vital M, Wang Y, Egli T. “Measurement and interpretation of
microbial adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) in aquatic environments” Water Res. 2010;
44(13):3915-23.
[6] García-Ponce, A.L., Torres-Vargas, J.A., García-Caballero, M., Medina, M.A., Blanco-
López, A., Quesada, A.R. “Bringing light to science undergraduate students: A successful
laboratory experiment illustrating the principles and applications of bioluminescence”, J.
Chem. Educ., 2021, 98(7), 2419-29.
[7] Clemmons, A.W., Timbrook, J., Herron, J.C, Crowe, A.J. “BioSkills Guide: Development
and National Validation of a Tool for Interpreting the Vision and Change Core
Competencies”, CBE—Life Sci. Educ., 2020 19:4.
[8] García-Caballero, M., Moya-García, A., Torres-Vargas, J.A., García-Ponce, Á.L,
Quesada, A.R. “A course-based undergraduate research experience to illustrate the early
stages of the drug discovery process”, Biochem. Mol. Biol. Educ. 2022, 50(5):437-439.
[9] Ellman, G.L., Courtney, K.D., Andres, V., Featherstone R.M. “A new and rapid
colorimetric determination of acetylcholinesterase activity”, Biochem. Pharmacol.,
1961;7:88–90.
30 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Chemistry Education
31 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Designing the Periodic Table Solitaire Mobile App

María José Cano-Iglesias1, María del Mar López-Fernández2, José Manuel

Hierrezuelo-Osorio3, Antonio Joaquín Franco-Mariscal4

University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain1,2,3,4

Abstract

The use of mobile applications in science education provides a series of benefits that enhance
the learning experience and the understanding of scientific knowledge. Among these, interactivity,
motivation, feedback, and personalized learning stand out. As part of a digital transition research
project, mobile applications are being developed to enhance science teaching and learning. This
study presents the design of the mobile app "Periodic Table Solitaire", whose objective is to
familiarize users with the chemical elements of the Periodic Table, its structure, the families it
comprises, and their relevance to daily life. This topic was chosen because the Periodic Table is
an essential tool in chemistry, providing an organizational structure for chemical elements, aiding
in understanding their properties, relationships, and behaviors. Various studies support that
learning the Periodic Table through games yields educational benefits. "Periodic Table Solitaire"
has been developed for Android using the Unity game engine and programmed in C#. The game's
goal is to arrange all the cards into eight separate stacks, each corresponding to a family of the
main groups (s and p-blocks) of the Periodic Table. The game features 43 cards, each
representing the name and symbol of the chemical element, atomic number, group number, and
an everyday object containing it (e.g., carbon in a pencil lead). All cards from the same family
have a frame of the same color. Initially, the top of the screen displays eight spots for each family
and a stack of covered cards. At the bottom of the screen, the cards are organized into six
columns with one face-up card at the top of each column and one or more face-down cards below
them. The player must move the cards between stacks and spaces to arrange them in ascending
order by their atomic number. If the desired move is not possible, the player can uncover some
of the face-down cards at the top of the screen. The game features various difficulty levels, each
offering less information about the chemical element as the player progresses.

Keywords: Mobile app, Educational Game, Chemistry, Periodic Table, Solitaire Game

1. Introduction

The Periodic Table stands as a cornerstone in the realm of chemistry and broader scientific
pursuits [1]. It serves as a comprehensive framework, organizing essential information about
chemical elements, easing the prediction of their properties and interconnections [2], and laying
the groundwork for a nuanced understanding and application of chemistry across diverse
domains.
Despite its pivotal role, the understanding of the periodic table often poses challenges for certain
students [3]. A primary hurdle arises from the wealth of information associated with each chemical
element, encompassing aspects like name, chemical symbol, atomic number, atomic mass, and
specific properties. This abundance of data can be daunting to memorize and prove challenging
to retain. Additional complexities are related to technical language, interpreting specific
symbolism, and comprehending its intricate organization. Students may also grapple with the dual
concept of a chemical element: one conceived abstractly as a type of atom, and the other
understood as a real substance present in everyday life and/or laboratory settings [4], [5].
The complexity of the subject matter can result in an initial lack of interest among certain students.
Consequently, the manner in which the Periodic Table is introduced in the classroom or the
materials utilized for its study holds significant sway over students' ease of comprehension [6].
An educational approach that integrates interactivity and practical applications, connecting the
Periodic Table to students' daily lives, has the potential to alleviate these challenges. In this
context, existing literature encompasses studies that establish a correlation between enhanced
learning of chemical elements and their application in everyday settings, such as within a
household [7], in food [8], or in the components of a car [9].
Different reports predict a surge in the use and integration of devices and applications within the
educational landscape, marking a quality-driven shift with an innovative essence. The Horizon
Report [10], a collaborative effort by global specialists aimed at identifying and delineating
32 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

emerging and disruptive technologies impacting teaching, learning, and research, notably
underscored Mobile Learning in its ninth edition [11]. Within the educational domain, the adoption
of digital technologies stands as a catalyst for innovation for both educators and students,
elevating educational standards as they endeavor to reshape curricula, methodologies, and
modes of knowledge dissemination, ushering in fresh alternatives for teaching and learning.
The integration of mobile applications with a gamified approach holds the potential to be an ideal
resource for learning the Periodic Table, as it combines the advantages of technology with those
of educational games. The use of mobile applications in science education provides a series of
benefits that enhance the learning experience and the understanding of scientific knowledge.
Among these, interactivity, motivation, feedback, and personalized learning stand out [12].
Gamification, on the other hand, focuses on the use of game design elements in non-game
contexts [13], [14]. It enhances motivation by presenting content in a 'wrapper' (the game) that
captures students' attention and encourages them to invest time in the proposed activities [15].
Other advantages of using games include promoting active, cooperative, and competitive
learning, as well as fostering creativity and imagination. Additionally, they help build relationships
with peers, addressing emotions, self-control, or task concentration, aspects that enhance the
classroom environment. The use of educational games promotes the development of critical
thinking and generates positive perceptions towards science, thereby contributing to improved
learning [16].
Previous contributions to mobile applications for learning the Periodic Table include the work of
Ewais et al. [17] and Franco-Mariscal et al. [18], among others. Ewais et al. [17] show the potential
adoption of mobile learning technology in teaching a chemistry course, facilitating students'
understanding of the Periodic Table, chemical element properties, and their interactions.
Moreover, their study highlights the feasibility of integrating the proposed mobile application into
the elementary school chemistry curriculum. Conversely, Franco-Mariscal et al.'s [18] mobile
application, Elemental Home, encourages Periodic Table learning by identifying chemical
elements within various everyday objects found in a typical household.
In this context, this work is situated within the research project R&D&i TED2021-130102B-I00
funded by the Government of Spain. The project aims to develop mobile applications based on
gamification (serious games) to enhance the digital transition in science education. This paper
specifically introduces the design of the mobile application Periodic Table Solitaire, a product of
this overarching project.

2. Design of the Mobile Application

This section describes the design of the mobile application, focusing on the objective and target
audience, the application's interface, card design, game rules, levels of learning, and the tools
employed for the application's development.

2.1. Objective and Target Audience

The mobile application Periodic Table Solitaire is a serious game designed for teaching and
learning chemistry across all educational levels. Its primary objective is to facilitate the
understanding of the families of chemical elements in the Periodic Table, while also illustrating
the relationship between chemical elements and daily life.
The game is based on the rules of the classic solitaire card game and involves forming the eight
main s and p-block families on the Periodic Table: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, boron
family, carbon group, nitrogen group, chalcogens, halogens, and noble gases.
The target audience for the game includes students in the early chemistry courses at both non-
university and university levels, as well as in-service or pre-service teachers at these educational
levels. Additionally, the game is suitable for anyone with an interest in chemistry. The game
language is Spanish.

2.2. Application Interface

The mobile application consists of two interfaces: a first access interface and a second main
interface. Upon registration, users access the first interface, which comprises five buttons (figure
1). The first three buttons allow the player to choose the game level as beginner, intermediate, or
advanced. This interface also includes a tutorial button with game instructions and another button
providing information about the application's development and acknowledgments.
33 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 1. Access Interface of the Periodic Table Solitaire Game

Once the game level is selected, users access the main interface of the application (figure 2). As
depicted, it consists of a game board, cards, foundations, a card deck, and various buttons,
elements that we will describe in detail shortly.

Figure 2. Main interface of the application for the intermediate level

• Game board: Displayed in green, this is the central area where the game unfolds, comprising
six columns of cards.
• Cards: The fundamental elements of the game, arranged in six columns on the board. The
objective is to organize them in ascending sequences based on the families of chemical
elements across eight upper areas known as foundations. Each column has a varying number
of cards, with only the first card visible. The first column has one card, the second has two,
the third has three, and so forth up to the sixth column.
• Foundations: Eight areas located at the top of the screen where the player must strategically
organize the cards by chemical families in ascending order. Winning the game is achieved
when all cards are successfully moved to these foundations.
• Card deck: Deck positioned in the bottom left corner, with all cards except the top one hidden.
This deck is utilized to introduce new cards onto the board.
• Buttons: Two buttons in the bottom left corner of the interface empower players to seek hints
or initiate a new game. The hint button grants access to a Periodic Table, allowing players to
consult the placement of chemical elements within each family.
• Scoring and moves: Upon completion, the player's elapsed time for completing the game is
showcased, along with a comparison against other players' times. Additionally, players can
monitor the number of moves executed during the game at the bottom right of the screen.
34 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2.3. Card Design

The game features 43 cards, each representing an element displaying its name, chemical symbol,
atomic number, and an object or material from everyday life where it is found. Additionally, the
family to which the element belongs is represented by a color-coded frame. When the cards are
stacked, only the chemical symbol, atomic number, and the family's color frame are visible.
Figure 3 illustrates several cards. For instance, the card for the element fluorine showcases the
position and meaning of the information presented on each card.

Figure 3. Examples of cards from the Periodic Table Solitaire game

Table 1 compiles, for each family of elements included in the game, the materials or objects from
everyday life that represent each of the elements.

Table 1. Objects and materials in which each chemical element is found

Family 1 (Alkali metals) (red frame) Family 2 (Alkaline earth metals) (green frame)
Lithium Batteries Beriyllium Wristwatch spring
Sodium Streetlight Magnesium Racing bicycle
Potassium Fertilizer Calcium Milk
Rubidium Fireworks Strontium Fireworks
Caesium Photoelectric cell of an Barium Rat poison
elevator Radium Radioactive element
Francium Radioactive element
Family 3 (Boron family) (blue frame) Family 4 (Carbon group) (yellow frame)
Boron Tennis racket Carbon Diamond
Aluminium Window frame Silicon Glass bottle
Gallium Computer memory Germanium Wide-angle lens for cameras
Indium Solar panel Tin Nail polish
Thallium Insecticide Lead Car battery
Family 5 (Nitrogen group) (pink frame) Family 6 (Chalcogens) (orange frame)
Nitrogen Ammonia Oxygen Combustion
Phosphorus Matchstick Sulphur Vulcanization of tire rubber
Arsenic Pellets (for shotguns) Selenium Antidandruff shampo
Antimony Credit card chip Tellurium Vulcanization of tire rubber
Bismuth Fire extinguisher Polonium Radioactive element
Family 7 (Halogens) (violet frame) Family 8 (Noble gases) (brown frame)
Fluorine Toothpaste Helium Fair balloon gas
Chlorine Salt Neon Neon bulb
Bromine Photographic film Argon Incandescent bulb gas
Iodine Clams Krypton Fluorescent lamp gas
Astatine Radioactive element Xenon Projector
Radon Radioactive gas entering
homes thorugh ground materials
35 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2.4. Game Rules

The player must form the different families in the foundation area. To achieve this, it is required
to complete the families following the ascending order of the atomic numbers of the elements,
arranging all the elements consecutively. Thus, if at the beginning of the game, any of the visible
cards is the first element of any of the families (lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
fluorine, or helium), it must be moved to the foundation area.
Figure 4 illustrates the arrangement of the cards at a specific moment in a game. Let's observe
how the formation of the alkaline earth metals family (beryllium-magnesium-calcium-strontium-
barium-radium) takes place in the third foundation area. At this moment, we have the second
element of this family (magnesium) in this position, which means that directly below this card is
beryllium, being the first element of the same family. In this situation, it would not be viable to
place strontium, just revealed in the deck, on top of magnesium, as it is not the immediately
following element in the family, and the prior presence of calcium is required. For the same
reason, radium (in the fifth column) cannot be placed on magnesium, so cards need to continue
to be drawn from the deck to complete this family.

Figure 4. Example of a game to illustrate the rules of the game at the initial level

The cards from the six columns and those uncovered from the deck, when movements are not
possible, can be moved among the six piles following these two rules:
(1) Cards must belong to the same family.
(2) A card can only be placed on another if it has a lower atomic number, not necessarily the
immediately preceding one.
For instance, figure 4 shows how the player has made different strategic moves to position sodium
(Z = 11) on top of rubidium (Z = 37) in the third column, and the latter on top of francium (Z = 87).
This arrangement is feasible because they meet the requirement of belonging to the same family
(alkali metals), and moreover, the element placed on top has a lower atomic number. As seen,
the rules allow placing them in these columns with an order that does not correspond to the
complete sequence of that family (lithium-sodium-potassium-rubidium-cesium-francium).
Furthermore, within the six columns, the movement of several cards at once to another column is
allowed. For instance, if in one column there were cesium (Z = 55) and in another column the
combination rubidium (Z = 37) and sodium (Z = 11) (outermost card), it would be allowed to move
the rubidium and sodium cards onto caesium, resulting in the arrangement Cs-Rb-Na.

2.5. Levels of Learning

The game features three difficulty levels, each offering less information about the chemical
element as the player progresses.
• Initial level: The cards display information such as the name of the element, its chemical
symbol, the atomic number, the everyday life object it is found in, and the color frame
representing the family.
• Intermediate level: The cards present the same information as in the initial level, except for
the atomic number (see figure 2).
• Advanced level: The cards display the name of the element, its symbol, and the everyday
life object. The atomic number is not visible, and the family to which they belong is not
identified, as all cards have the same gray color frame.
36 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The levels are unlocked once the previous levels have been successfully completed, and they
remain available at all times.

2.6. Tools for Application Development

The application has been designed for Android mobile devices and has been developed with the
collaboration of a team that includes researchers in science education (the authors of this work),
a programmer, and a graphic designer. In the initial phase, the game was developed as a
prototype, meaning without sound or animations, which would require the use of specialized tools
for such tasks.
The game engine used was Unity, created by Unity Technology, which employs OpenGL for the
Windows operating system. Unity was chosen for its versatility and user-friendly interface. Unity
allows the creation of both 2D and 3D games and requires basic programming knowledge.
The development environment for programming its components, features, and mechanics
incorporated into the game was done using the C# programming language and PHP for
connecting to the database.
The images used for the cards were created by a graphic designer using the Sketchbook
program.

3. Final Considerations

This work introduces the design of a prototype for the game Periodic Table Solitaire, with the
primary goal of enhancing students' knowledge about the chemical elements found in the Periodic
Table. The emphasis is placed on comprehending their categorization into various element
families, thereby facilitating a deeper understanding of patterns related to physical and chemical
properties, the number of electrons in the valence shell, oxidation states, electronic configuration,
and more. Additionally, the application aims to forge connections between the presence of
chemical elements in everyday life, offering concrete examples of objects and materials where
these elements play pivotal roles. The overarching objective is to cultivate awareness regarding
the profound importance of chemistry in our daily lives.
The application has been meticulously designed, aligning with the key characteristic of a serious
game, where the educational content takes precedence over entertainment, which assumes a
secondary role. The design ensures that both fundamental components and game mechanics
actively engage students in chemical concepts, fostering a learning experience where players
acquire knowledge through practical application as they progress through the game.

4. Acknowledgements

This work is part of the TED2021-130102B-I00 project entitled 'Digital and Ecological Transition
in Science Education through Disruptive Technologies for the Digitalization of Educational Games
and their Evaluation with E-Rubrics', funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by the
European Union 'NextGenerationEU'/PRTR.

REFERENCES

[1] Scerri, E. R. (2007). The Periodic Table. Its Story and Its Significance. Oxford University
Press.
[2] Scerri, E. R., & Worrall, J. (2001). Prediction and the Periodic Table. Studies in History
and Philosophy of Science Part A, 32(3), 407-452. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0039-
3681(01)00023-1
[3] Franco-Mariscal, A. J., Oliva-Martínez, J. M., & Gil, M. L. A. (2016). Understanding the
idea of chemical elements and their periodic classification in Spanish students aged 16-
18 years. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 14(5), 885-906.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-014-9614-1
[4] McNaught, A. D., & Wilkinson, A. (1997). IUPAC. Compendium of chemical terminology.
Blackwell Scientific Publications.
[5] Schmidt, H. J. (2000). Should chemistry lessons be more intellectually challenging?
Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 1(1), 17–26.
[6] Linares, R. (2004). Elemento, átomo y sustancia simple. Una reflexión a partir de la
enseñanza de la Tabla Periódica en los cursos generales de Química [Element, atom
and simple substance. A reflection from the teaching of the Periodic Table in the general
courses Chemistry] (Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis). Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona.
[7] Franco-Mariscal, A. J., España-Ramos, E., & Blanco-López, A. (2018). Teaching
students about chemical elements using daily-life contexts. In O. E. Finlayson, E.
37 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

McLoughlin, S. Erduran, & P. Childs (Eds.) (2018). Electronic Proceedings of the ESERA
2017 Conference. Research, Practice and Collaboration in Science Education (pp. 710-
718). Dublin City University.
[8] Franco-Mariscal, A. J. (2018). Discovering the chemical elements in food. Journal of
Chemical Education, 95(3), 403-409.
[9] Franco-Mariscal, A. J. (2015). Exploring the Everyday Context of Chemical Elements:
Discovering the Elements of Car Components. Journal of Chemical Education, 92(10),
1672-1677.
[10] Horizon Report (2021). Educause Horizon Report 2021: Teaching and Learning.
Educause.
[11] Michael, D., & Chen, S. (2006). Serious games. Games that educate, train and inform.
Course Technology, CENGAGE Learning.
[12] Tavares, R., Marques, R., & Pedro, L. (2021). Mobile App for Science Education:
Designing the Learning Approach. Education Sciences, 11, 79.
[13] Deterding, S., Dixon, D., Khaled, R., & Nacke, L. (2011). Gamification: Toward a
definition. Proceedings of CHIï 2011. Gamification workshop. Vancouver.
[14] Stieglitz, S., Lattemann, C., Robra-Bissantz, S., Zarnekow, R., & Brockmann, T. (Eds.)
(2017). Gamification. Using Game Elements in Serious Contexts. Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45557-0
[15] Alsawaier, R. S. (2018). The effect of gamification on motivation and engagement.
International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 35(1), 56-79.
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJILT-02-2017-0009
[16] Franco-Mariscal, A.J., Oliva, J.M., Blanco, A., & España, E. (2016). A game-based
approach to learning the idea of chemical elements and their periodic classification.
Journal of Chemical Education, 93, 1173-1190.
[17] Ewais, A., Hodrob, R., Maree, M. & Jaradat, S. (2021). Mobile Learning Application for
Helping Pupils in Learning Chemistry. International Association of Online Engineering.
Retrieved January 27, 2024 from https://www.learntechlib.org/p/218696/.
[18] Franco-Mariscal, A.J., Cano-Iglesias, M.J., & Cebrián-Robles, D. (2024). Diseño del
videojuego educativo Elemental Home sobre los elementos químicos en una casa.
[Design of the educational videogame Elemental Home about the chemical elements in
a house]. In: Lecturas emergentes en los campos de la ciencia, tecnología y técnica.
ISBN: 978-3-631-91613-1. Peter Lang.
38 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Building the Conceptual Profile of Chemical Analysis:

The Sociocultural Domain

Maria Mavridi1, Katerina Salta2, Dionysios Koulougliotis3

Ionian University, Greece1,3

National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece2

Abstract

The conceptual profile framework is based on the assumption that people exhibit various modes
of thinking that are used in various contexts. Chemical analysis is a central concept of chemistry
and is characterized by a worthwhile polysemy, which is observed in both scientific and everyday
language, such as the one employed in science classrooms. The purpose of this study is the
development of the conceptual profile of chemical analysis, as a tool for characterizing the
heterogeneity of students’ ways of speaking and, therefore, thinking about it. The conceptual
profile is composed of several zones. Each zone represents a specific way of thinking about the
given concept and emerges from the study of this concept in different genetic domains. In the
present study, the concept of chemical analysis is explored within the sociocultural genetic
domain via examination of relevant secondary historical and epistemological literature. As a
result, the following six conceptual profile zones which are related to the foundations of the
concept of chemical analysis are proposed: chemical analysis as (a) everyday practices, (b)
alchemist analysis, (c) empirical techniques, (d) classical analysis, (e) classical instrumental
analysis and (f) a contemporary tool for society. Refinement and enrichment of the above
proposed zones will follow by studying the ontogenetic and microgenetic domains of chemical
analysis.

Keywords: conceptual profile, chemical analysis, sociocultural domain

1. Introduction

Scientific thinking is one of the key objectives of education in the 21st century worldwide [1,2,3].
As far as chemistry is concerned, chemical thinking is defined as the set of theoretical concepts
and experimental procedures of chemistry that are developed and applied in order to achieve the
main purposes of the discipline, i.e., synthesis, analysis and transformation [4]. Much of the
research on chemical thinking has detected a great heterogeneity in students’ ways of thinking
about various chemical concepts [5,6,7,8,9], which can be very challenging for chemistry teaching
and learning [10]. The conceptual profile framework is a methodological tool that can help
teachers gain awareness of the different ways of thinking and speaking in science classrooms
and via which students enrich their thinking with more scientific ideas [11,12,13,14].
Given the above, the purpose of this study is the development of the conceptual profile of
chemical analysis, which is a central concept in chemistry [4] and refers to the determination of
the qualitative and quantitative chemical composition of materials and chemical substances [15].
At first, we will present the main foundations of the conceptual profile theoretical framework as
developed by its pioneers. Then, we will describe the methodology of our work, followed by the
presentation and discussion of the results reached, namely the description of the six zones of the
proposed conceptual profile and their commitments.

2. Theoretical Framework

The conceptual profile framework is based on the assumption that people exhibit various modes
of thinking that are used in various contexts [12]. Conceptual profiles are used as a tool of
characterizing the heterogeneity of thinking in a classroom [16] and are composed of several
zones. Each zone represents a specific way of thinking about a given concept and emerges from
the study of this concept in different genetic domains (sociocultural, ontogenetic and
microgenetic) [12]. Each particular way of thinking is determined by ontological, epistemological
and axiological commitments that one has about its meaning [16] and characterized by a specific
way of speaking about the concept [14,17].
The main foundations of the conceptual profile framework are the following: (a) for a given concept
heterogeneity in thinking is found in the population, (b) for a given concept heterogeneity in
39 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

thinking is found in an individual, (c) as far as data analysis is concerned, modes of thinking and
modes of speaking are considered as equivalent [12,14].
More specifically, individuals have their own conceptual profiles for different concepts, which are
characterized by the different weight each zone has. These differences depend on the individual's
experience, which offers more or less opportunities to apply each zone in appropriate contexts.
Different individuals may exhibit similar zones and ways of thinking and speaking due to their
exposure in similar sociocultural environments [11].
Moreover, someone may possess two or more differents meanings for the same concept, which
are evaluated and used in appropriate contexts. After all, science itself is not a homogeneous
form of knowledge and can provide different ways of perceiving the same phenomenon [18],
which may coexist in a person and be used in different contexts. In addition, countless scientific
words are used in everyday language and therefore have several meanings that are not always
consistent with scientific understanding [11]. These different ways of thinking are often related to
common sense [16].
As far as educational practice is concerned, conceptual learning aims at enriching students’
conceptual profiles and at making them aware of their possession. By enriching students’
conceptual profiles and especially by promoting their learning of scientific ways of thinking the
relative importance of each zone changes [11]. Then, in a metacognitive process, teachers help
students become aware of distinct ways of thinking and the values or criteria that can guide the
choice of perspectives to address specific problems [19].
Conceptual profiles have been developed for scientific concepts such as life [11], thermal physics
[20] and energy [17,21], matter (atoms, molecules) [11], substance [13,22], chemical bonds [23],
chemical change [24], equilibrium [14] and chemistry in general [25]. Based on our literature
research, the conceptual profile of chemical analysis has not been developed yet and,
additionally, it has been many years since alternative means of assessing students'
understanding of chemical analysis were considered as necessary [26].

3. Methodology

As mentioned above, each zone of a conceptual profile represents a specific way of thinking about
the given concept and emerges from the study of this concept in different genetic domains:
sociocultural, ontogenetic and microgenetic. The sociocultural domain can be explored through
sources of secondary literature on the history of science and epistemological research on the
concept, the ontogenetic domain is examined by literature on the alternative conceptions as well
as teaching and learning and the microgenetic domain is studied by primary data collection [12].
In the present study, the concept of chemical analysis was explored within the sociocultural
genetic domain via examination of (a) secondary literature on the history of science, which
provides an understanding of the difficulties and changes in the way of thinking about the concept
as well as the effects of these changes and (b) epistemological and philosophical sources and
textbooks, which are particularly useful for understanding the attribution of the concept meaning
[11,14,16]. From the entire secondary historical and epistemological literature, the following
sources are indicatively mentioned: books about history and epistemology of Chemistry [History
of Chemistry [27], A short history of Chemistry [28], Mendeleev's dream – the quest for the
elements [29] and studies on the evolution of Analytical Chemistry [26,30,31]. Some dictionaries
were also used (The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [32], Dictionary of Standard Modern
Greek [33]) as well as Analytical Chemistry textbooks such as the Fundamentals of Analytical
Chemistry [15].
The different ideas and definitions of analysis were grouped into categories in a dialogic way [11]
based on how analysis is perceived. For each different way of thinking, the ontological,
epistemological and axiological commitments were identified, which distinguish it from other ways
of thinking, with the following questions, as suggested in the study of Orduña Picón, Sevian &
Mortimer (pg. 11) [13]:
1. The ontological question: What kind of entities/processes does an individual commit to believe
exist to make sense about what chemical analysis is?
2. The epistemological question: What is the basis on which a person justifies her/his belief that
particular entities/processes exist to make sense about what chemical analysis is? and
3. The axiological question: What evaluative–affective judgments do an individual make to
construct her/his relationships with entities/process to make sense about what chemical analysis
is?
In a subsequent stage of the research, the conceptual profile of chemical analysis will be enriched
with data from the ontogenetic and microgenetic domains, so that the existence of expanded
categories will be validated and analysis will be refined, on condition that there is a constant
dialogic interaction between data from each domain in order to avoid bias [13]. The ontological,
epistemological and axiological commitments of each zone will also be reviewed.
40 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4. Results and Discussion

The qualitative analysis of the sources listed in the Methods section, resulted to the identification
of a total of six zones, which comprise the conceptual profile of chemical analysis within the
sociocultural domain. These zones are listed in Table 1 accompanied by their identified
corresponding ontological, epistemological and axiological commitments.
The main historical and epistemological findings within the sociocultural genetic domain which
explain and justify each way of thinking (conceptual profile zone) are subsequently discussed.

Table 1. Conceptual profile of chemical analysis.

Zone Commitments
1. Everyday Ontological: simple practices of isolation and separation of substances
practices Epistemological: direct observation - use of senses, instinct, skill,
practice, experience, independently of theory
Axiological: use for daily and professional needs
2. Alchemist Ontological: simple practices of isolation, separation and purity control of
analysis substances
Epistemological: direct observation - use of senses, instinct, skill,
practice, experience, modifying or independently of theory
Axiological: metaphysical - mystical - supernatural - philosophical
background, profit, fraud, suspicions
3. Empirical Ontological: simple experiments - titrimetric and gravimetric techniques
techniques Epistemological: direct observation - use of senses, instinct, skill,
practice, experience, little use of theory
Axiological: logical thinking, precision, generalizations, breakdown of
events into components
4. Classical Ontological: titrimetric and gravimetric techniques
analysis Epistemological: experiments based on physical and chemical properties
(reactions), integrated into a comprehensive theoretical framework and
published in scientific journals
Axiological: systematic analysis, similarities – differences and grouping,
repeatability, verification, errors, comprehensible records and results,
accuracy of the analysis and reduction of analysis time
5. Classical Ontological: instrumental techniques (isolated instruments in the
instrumental laboratory)
analysis Epistemological: experiments based on physicochemical properties,
comparison of the signal of samples and standards
Axiological: reduction of cost and time of analysis, non-destructive
methods, low detection limits
6. Contemporary Ontological: instrumental techniques (coupled instruments in the
tool for society laboratory or in field work)
Epistemological: development of chemometrics and other related
scientific fields
Axiological: socio-economic dimension and R&D, specialization,
collaboration, minimization of error, larger numbers of data and
multidimensional information, lower detection limits, reduction of cost –
time of analysis, reliability, automation, sensitivity, selectivity and
optimization

4.1 Chemical Analysis as Everyday Practices

When chemical analysis is perceived as everyday practices, individuals consider simple analytical
practices (isolation, separation) based on direct observation (use of senses) [27,28,29]. As such,
the purpose of analysis is to meet daily and professional needs related to metals and ceramics,
therefore what matters is not the method itself but its use and results. Instinct, skills, practice and
experience are very much required and experimental practices are developed independently of
theoretical ideas [27]. Analysis is often characterized as “art” [28] and is not anticipated as science
while methods are not recorded and they are passed down orally from generation to generation
instead [27]. Chemical analysis is not necessarily carried out in a specific and organized space
(i.e., laboratory). Ontological, epistemological and axiological commitments of this way of thinking
are presented in Table 1.
41 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4.2 Chemical Analysis as Alchemist Analysis

Similar to the zone of “everyday practices”, alchemist analysis refers to simple analytical practices
(isolation, separation, purity control) based on direct observation (use of senses) [27,28,29].
However, its commitments are different (Table 1) since the purpose of alchemist analysis is the
creation of the elixir of immortality, the pursuit of the philosopher’s stone and the conversion of all
metals into gold [27,29]. This way of thinking is largely based on by a metaphysical, mystical,
supernatural and philosophical background [27,28]. Instinct, skills, practice and experience are
very much required, experiments are not usually based on theory or theory is modified to fit
experimental results [27]. Quite often alchemists are associated with fraud for profit and deception
[28,29] and common people are suspicious of them [27]. While there is a strong symbolism in the
records of methods, at the same time technology is utilized and rudimentary laboratories are
created [29].

4.3 Chemical Analysis as Empirical Techniques

As suggested in Table 1, empirical techniques include simple experiments based on direct

observation (use of senses) and titrimetric and gravimetric techniques [27,28,29]. As such,
chemical analysis aims at the determination of the composition and the concentration of specific
analytes with different properties [31]. Although there is evidence of the development of the
scientific method (logical thinking, accuracy, generalizations and breakdown of events into
components) and experiments are recorded, there is a lack of a comprehensive theoretical
framework [27,29] while instinct, skills, practice and experience are still of great importance [31].
Experiments are mostly conducted in laboratories [27].

4.4 Chemical Analysis as Classical Analysis

Titrimetric and gravimetric techniques based on different physical properties (colour, odour,
solubility etc.) and chemical reactions (oxidation/reduction, thermal decomposition, acid/base
reactions, double replacement) constitute classical analysis [26] and they are carried out in
laboratories [15]. As such, chemical analysis aims at the determination of the composition of a
sample (qualitative analysis) and the concentration of specific analytes with different properties
(quantitative analysis) [15,31]. As shown in Table 1, the employed methods are destructive but
they have become more systematic, accurate and repeatable [29] while at the same time
awareness of errors has been developed [27]. Experiments are integrated into the comprehensive
theoretical framework of Chemistry as a distinct scientific area and published in scientific
societies’ journals [29].

4.5 Chemical Analysis as Classical Instrumental Analysis

Chemical analysis as classical instrumental analysis involves instrumental techniques based on

the theoretical principles of (physical) chemistry as well as the comparison of the signal of
samples with the signal of a standard [15,27,31] and carried out in laboratories using isolated
instruments [31]. As such, chemical analysis aims at the determination of the composition of a
sample (qualitative analysis) and the concentration of specific analytes with similar or different
physicochemical properties (quantitative analysis) [15,31]. As shown in Table 1, methods are non-
destructive and characterized by lower detection limits as well as lower cost and less analysis
time [27].

4.6 Chemical Analysis as a Contemporary Tool for Society

As suggested in Table 1, when chemical analysis is perceived as a contemporary tool for society,
the purpose of chemical analysis is to solve analytical problems arising from society, economy
and R&D, to minimize analytical error and to obtain larger numbers of data as well as
multidimensional information about analytes with similar or different or properties [31]. The
analysis is based on chemometrics, other scientific fields (physics, mathematics, informatics,
etc.), nanotechnology and robotics [27,31]. Also, in addition to the use of mainly coupled
instruments in the laboratory, field work is carried out. Methods are characterized by
specialization, collaboration, lower detection limits, reliability, sensitivity, selectivity and
optimization [31].
42 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

5. Conclusions

Based on the study of the sociocultural genetic domain of the concept of chemical analysis and,
more specifically, on secondary historical and epistemological literature as well as on the
ontological, epistemological and axiological commitments of the different ways of thinking and
speaking, the following six conceptual profile zones are proposed: chemical analysis as (a)
everyday practices, (b) alchemist analysis, (c) empirical techniques, (d) classical analysis, (e)
classical instrumental analysis and (f) a contemporary tool for society.
Refinement and enrichment of the above proposed zones will follow by studying the ontogenetic
and genetic domain of chemical analysis [14,16]. The identified zones may then constitute the
basis for probing students’ thinking regarding chemical analysis.

Acknowledgements

This work is part of the Ph.D. thesis research project of the first author (M.M.), conducted at Ionian
University, and it was funded by a pre-doctoral fellowship (assigned to M.M.) administered by the
Hellenic Foundation for Research & Innovation (H.F.R.I. – ELIDEK).

REFERENCES

[1] National Research Council - NRC (2013). Next Generation Science Standards: For States,
By States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
[2] Fischer, F., Kollar, I., Ufer, S., Sodian, B., Hussmann, H., Pekrun, R. et al. (2014). Scientific
Reasoning and Argumentation: Advancing an Interdisciplinary Research Agenda in
Education. Frontline Learning Research, 2(3), 28-45.
[3] Zhou, S., Han, J., Koenig, K., Raplinger, A., Pi, Y., Li, D. et al. (2016). Assessment of
scientific reasoning: The effects of task context, data, and design on student reasoning in
control of variables. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 19, 175-187.
[4] Sevian, H., & Talanquer, V. (2014). Rethinking chemistry: A learning progression on
chemical thinking. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 15(1), 10-23.
[5] Talanquer, V. (2013). How do students’ reason about chemical substances and reactions?
In G. Tsaparlis, & H. Sevian, (Eds.) Concepts of Matter in Science Education (pp. 331-346).
Springer, Dordrecht.
[6] Yan, F., & Talanquer, V. (2015). Students’ ideas about how and why chemical reactions
happen: mapping the conceptual landscape. International Journal of Science Education,
37(18), 3066-3092.
[7] Cooper, M., Kouyoumdjian, H., & Underwood, S. M. (2016). Investigating students’
reasoning about acid–base reactions. Journal of Chemical Education, 93(10), 1703-1712.
[8] Moon, A., Stanford, C., Cole, R., & Towns, M. (2017). Analysis of inquiry materials to explain
complexity of chemical reasoning in physical chemistry students’ argumentation. Journal of
Research in Science Teaching, 54(10), 1322-1346.
[9] Caspari, I., Kranz, D., & Graulich, N. (2018). Resolving the complexity of organic chemistry
students' reasoning through the lens of a mechanistic framework. Chemistry Education
Research and Practice, 19(4), 1117-1141.
[10] Talanquer, V. (2019). Assessing for Chemical Thinking. In: Schultz M., Schmid S., Lawrie G.
(eds) Research and Practice in Chemistry Education (pp. 123-133). Springer, Singapore.
[11] Mortimer, E. F., Scott, P., & El-Hani, C. N. (2012). The heterogeneity of discourse in science
classrooms: The conceptual profile approach. Second international handbook of science
education, 231-246.
[12] Mortimer, E. F., El-Hani, C. N., Sepulveda, C., do Amaral, E. M. R., Coutinho, F. Â., &
Rodrigues e Silva, F. A. (2014). Methodological grounds of the conceptual profile research
program. In Conceptual Profiles: A Theory of Teaching and Learning Scientific
Concepts (pp. 67-100). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.
[13] Orduña Picón, R., Sevian, H., & Mortimer, E. F. (2020). Conceptual profile of substance:
Representing heterogeneity of thinking in chemistry classrooms. Science &
Education, 29(5), 1317-1360.
[14] da Silva Costa, M. B., & dos Santos, B. F. (2022). The conceptual profile of equilibrium and
its contributions to the teaching of chemical equilibrium. Chemistry Education Research and
Practice, 23(1), 226-239.
[15] Skoog, D. A., Holler, F. J., & Crouch, S. R. (2007). Instrumental analysis (Vol. 47). Belmont:
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
[16] Mortimer, E. F., Scott, P., do Amaral, E. M. R., & El-Hani, C. N. (2014). Conceptual profiles:
Theoretical-methodological bases of a research program. In Conceptual Profiles: A Theory
of Teaching and Learning Scientific Concepts (pp. 3-33). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.
43 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[17] Aguiar, O., Sevian, H., & El-Hani, C. N. (2018). Teaching about energy: Application of the
conceptual profile theory to overcome the encapsulation of school science
knowledge. Science & Education, 27, 863-893.
[18] Mortimer, E. F., & Amaral, L. O. F. (2013). Contributions of the Sociocultural Domain to Build
a Conceptual Profile Model for Molecule and Molecular Structure. In Conceptual Profiles: A
Theory of Teaching and Learning Scientific Concepts (pp. 103-114). Dordrecht: Springer
Netherlands.
[19] El-Hani, C. N., da Silva-Filho, W. J., & Mortimer, E. F. (2013). The epistemological grounds
of the conceptual profile theory. In Conceptual profiles: A theory of teaching and learning
scientific concepts (pp. 35-65). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.
[20] Aguiar Jr, O. G. (2013). The implications of the conceptual profile in science teaching: an
example from a teaching sequence in thermal physics. In Conceptual Profiles: A theory of
teaching and learning Scientific Concepts (pp. 235-259). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.
[21] do Amaral, E. M. R., Mortimer, E. F., & Scott, P. (2013). A Conceptual Profile of Entropy and
Spontaneity: Characterising Modes of Thinking and Ways of Speaking in the Classroom.
In Conceptual Profiles: A Theory of Teaching and Learning Scientific Concepts (pp. 201-
234). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.
[22] do Amaral, E. M. R., da Silva, J. R. R. T., & Sabino, J. D. (2018). Analysing processes of
conceptualization for students in lessons on substance from the emergence of conceptual
profile zones. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 19(4), 1010-1028.
[23] Baltieri, R. S., Bego, A. M., & Cebim, M. A. (2021). Why the covalent bond is such a complex
concept: a conceptual profile proposal. International Journal of Science Education, 43(12),
2007-2024.
[24] Solsona, N. R., Izquierdo, M., & De Jong, O. (2003). Exploring the development of students'
conceptual profiles of chemical change. International journal of science education, 25(1), 3-
12.
[25] Freire, M., Talanquer, V., & Amaral, E. (2019). Conceptual profile of chemistry: a framework
for enriching thinking and action in chemistry education. International journal of science
education, 41(5), 674-692.
[26] Tan, K. C. D., Goh, N. K., Chia, L. S., & Treagust, D. F. (2002). Development and application
of a two‐tier multiple choice diagnostic instrument to assess high school students'
understanding of inorganic chemistry qualitative analysis. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 39(4), 283-301.
[27] Leicester, H. M. (1971). The historical background of chemistry. Courier Corporation.
[28] Partington, J. R. (1989). A short history of chemistry. Courier Corporation.
[29] Strathern, P. (2000). Mendeleyev's dream: the quest for the elements. Macmillan.
[30] Thompson, M. (1999). A natural history of analytical methods. Analyst, 124(7), 991-991.
[31] Karayannis, M. I., & Efstathiou, C. E. (2012). Significant steps in the evolution of analytical
chemistry - Is the today’s analytical chemistry only chemistry? Talanta, 102, 7-15.
[32] Margolis, E., & Laurence, S. (2006). Concepts. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford
encyclopedia of philosophy (Fall 2008 ed.). Retrieved July 24, 2021,
from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/concepts/
[33] Dictionary of Standard Modern Greek. (n.d.). Centre for the Greek Language.
https://www.greek-
language.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/tools/lexica/triantafyllides/search.html?lq=%CE%B1
%CE%BD%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B7
44 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

An Investigation into the Pedagogy that Maltese Chemistry

Teachers Adopt at Secondary School Level

James Borg

Saint Thomas More College Middle & Secondary School Żejtun, Malta

Abstract

This paper reviews the study carried out by Borg (2021) [1] which addresses an underexplored
area of science education in Malta - the perspective of local secondary school educators on
chemistry teaching. The study investigated the different pedagogical approaches used by Maltese
Chemistry teachers at the secondary school level. Additionally, their views and attitudes towards
teaching the subject were explored, including the opportunities and challenges encountered in
the classroom. Student-centred (SC) pedagogies have been repeatedly linked with deeper
learning and an improved interest in science. For example, Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) actively
engages students in the thinking and learning process through real-life tasks and problems. The
Context-Based Approach (CBA) uses a real-life context as the starting point for the topic or lesson
to orientate and motivate students and goes beyond providing examples as illustrations or
applications [2]. These teaching methods do not only develop students' understanding but also
enhance students' attitudes towards science [3]. As in other European countries, the chemistry
curriculum and the pedagogical approaches used in the chemistry classroom in Malta are mainly
traditional and limited to knowledge transmission [1],[4]. Moreover, the current chemistry syllabus
at the secondary level (SEC) is abstract; one that promotes memorization and is not pertinent to
students' everyday lives [1],[4]. A mixed methods research design was adopted during the study.
An online survey and semi-structured individual interviews carried out with five different teachers
from different schools were used to generate data. Results demonstrated that the teachers'
methods of instruction are significantly influenced by their personal beliefs on teaching chemistry,
as well as on how their pedagogical approaches affect their students' learning. Although the
collected data showed evidence of teachers' knowledge and use of SC pedagogies, it was
revealed that teacher-centred approaches remain widely used in the Maltese chemistry
classroom. The Chemistry teachers were particularly concerned about the abstract and content-
laden SEC Chemistry syllabus and the issue of assessment, where Malta's examination system
mainly encourages educators to teach to the test.

Keywords: chemistry, secondary school, teachers, pedagogical approaches

1. Introduction

Student-centred (SC) pedagogies have been repeatedly linked with deeper learning and an
improved interest in science. However, several reports claim that chemistry curricula and
pedagogies adopted in the chemistry classroom in Malta and other European countries are often
traditional [5],[6]. These curricula tend to put content first and applications a poor second [7]. They
are packed with knowledge that students need to learn, limiting the time available for practical
work and for a deep “understanding of the process and nature of science” [9]. Moreover, research
has shown that chemistry teaching is often perceived as ‘‘unpopular and irrelevant in the eyes of
students’’ and ‘‘does not promote higher- order cognitive skills’’. The pedagogy adopted ‘‘is not
changing, because chemistry teachers are afraid of change and need guidance’’ [7].
Malta’s current chemistry syllabus at the Secondary Education Certificate level (SEC) is
presented as a ‘‘rather fragmented body of knowledge that is abstract, encourages memorization
and is irrelevant to students’ everyday lives’’ [1],[4]. It mainly targets students who need to be
prepared for further specialisation in chemistry. The content and pedagogy associated with such
curricula are criticised since they fail to engage and inspire learners with further study of the
subject [5]. The concerned stakeholders have often expressed the need for curriculum reform that
provides “chemistry students and teachers with time and space to engage with the subject,
encourages SC learning and includes practical work as an integral part of the programme”. [4].
45 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The Maltese National Curriculum Framework, NCF) [8] published in 2012 was a breath of fresh
air. It led to the development of the Learning Outcomes Framework (LOF) for the different subjects
studied at compulsory school level. This includes a new program for chemistry which
recommends the use of IBL and emphasises the need to render chemistry relevant to students’
lives.
Other local studies revealed that Maltese chemistry teachers tend to favour teacher-centred (TC)
pedagogies and activities that restrict exploration [6],[9]. Moreover, despite the reported
advantages of the use of SC approaches, in a study about Maltese chemistry teachers’ views on
the use of the Context-Based Approach (CBA), teachers expressed concerns such as the lack of
examples of real-life applications or contexts, and constraints due to time and assessment, with
the biggest challenge being the fear that students may learn less than they do through traditional
teaching and will then perform less well in examinations. [10]

2. Research Questions

This paper presents the study carried out by Borg (2021) which investigated the different
pedagogical approaches used by Maltese chemistry teachers at the secondary school level [1].
Additionally, their views and attitudes towards teaching the subject were explored, including the
opportunities and challenges encountered in the chemistry classroom.
The main research questions behind this study were:

• What pedagogical approaches do secondary school Maltese Chemistry teachers adopt

in their classrooms?
• What are the benefits and challenges (or limitations) faced by these teachers when
teaching chemistry?

3. Methodology

The study utilised a mixed-methods approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative data
to ensure increased validity and reliability of the findings (triangulation of data) [15]. An online
survey coupled with online semi-structured individual interviews were the two main study tools
adopted.

3.1 Data Collection

At the time of study, the survey was distributed to a total of 65 chemistry teachers teaching in
various secondary state and non-state schools in Malta and Gozo. A total of 41 responses were
collected, yielding a margin of error of 9% at a 95% confidence level. Convenience sampling was
used to invite teachers for the online interviews and a total of five interviewees from different
schools were recruited as described in Table 1. These teachers were assigned pseudonyms (as
codes) so as not to divulge their real identity. The number in parentheses represents the
respective interviewees’ years of teaching experience. The interviews were audio-recorded, and
transcripts were prepared soon after the interviews. Thematic analysis of the transcripts provided
insight into teachers’ views in relation to the research questions.

Table 1. Description of the interviewees

Interview Teacher Secondary School Years of Teaching

Number (Pseudonym/Code) Experience
1 CES (20) Co-Ed State 20

2 CES (12) Co-Ed State 12

3 BC (4) Church (Boys) 4

4 GC (7) Church (Girls) 7

5 CEI (6) Co-Ed Independent 6

46 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4. Results and Discussion

4.1 Teachers’ Pedagogical Approaches in the Chemistry Classroom

From the survey results, Figure 1 shows that the same number of teachers (14.6%) always adopt
the traditional (lecture) method and IBL whereas slightly more teachers (19.5%) stated that they
use the CB approach. 41.4% of teachers always or often’ resort to traditional teaching in the
classroom while a staggering 51.2% prefer IBL rather than traditional pedagogy. Hence, IBL is
the most popular pedagogy used by the sample population. An equal number of teachers (9.8%)
claimed that they never use the traditional method and PjBL. PjBL is the least popular SC
pedagogy implemented in the chemistry classroom.

45 41,5 41,5
39
40 36,6
34,1 34,1
35
29,3
Percentage (%)

30 26,8
25 19,5
20 14,6 14,6 14,6 14
15 9,8 9,8
10 7,3 7,3
4,9
5 0 0
0
Traditional lecture IBL (Inquiry-Based CBL (Context-Based PjBL (Project-Based
method Learning) Learning) Learning)

Always Often Sometimes Rarely Never

Figure 1. Teachers’ responses to four different pedagogical approaches

From the interviews, CES (12) said that she often gives students an open-ended question (IBL)
or a context (CBL) so that they would be able to ask questions and come up with the chemical
concept, for instance she introduces her lessons with a question followed by a brief class
discussion. She remarked that her teaching methods often correlate with the topic she is teaching.
CEI (6) mentioned that since she has small classes, she adopts different pedagogical methods.
She also emphasised that students learn best when the teacher ‘’creates a positive learning
environment’’. Given her mixed-ability classes, GC (7) claimed that she sometimes performs
adaptive teaching, to meet the needs of the learner.

On the other hand, BC (4) preferred using the traditional (lecture) method where often he
‘‘explains a chemical concept and drills it with students to ensure their understanding’’. BC(4)
stated that he is aware that the lecture method and ‘parrot-fashion’ learning are ‘‘not ideal
approaches’’; however, he remarked that the SEC Chemistry examination mainly tests recall and
almost all the topics are abstract or theoretical, so he mentioned that ‘‘it does not make sense to
waste time on an influx of SC activities in class’’ CES(20) and BC(4) remarked that they
sometimes teach the chemistry topics ‘Separation techniques’ and ‘Non-metals’ by using the
jigsaw method (a cooperative learning strategy) or are simply assigned for students to read at
home. BC (4) stated that each topic in chemistry is unique and therefore ‘‘the teacher must reflect
and decide well before adopting a specific pedagogy’’.

4.2 The Criteria Teachers Consider When Adopting Their Teaching Methods

CES (20) stated that her teaching methods are influenced by the topic being covered in class,
including student difficulties or misconceptions. CEI (6) and CES (12) use students’ academic
performance as a guide when adopting particular teaching methods. CEI (6) added that
‘‘sometimes students are not yet ready for certain teaching methods given their intellectual ability.
CES (12) and GC (7) mentioned that student learning styles can also affect the pedagogy adopted
in the classroom. BC (4) claimed that, when learning chemistry, ‘‘what works for one student might
not work for another’’, so the first thing that he does at the beginning of the scholastic year is to
analyse what may work for every learner.
47 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4.3 Teachers’ Views on the Benefits of Teaching Chemistry

All the interviewees mentioned the advantages of an established positive learning environment.
GC (7) stated that her students’ constant participation and attention during the lessons boost her
teaching. CES (12) also claimed that when transmitting the passion for the subject to her pupils
and ‘‘seeing the spark in their eyes is a reward itself’’; or when the bell rings and students want
to continue with the chemistry lesson. BC (4) said that he appreciates when students thank him
after the lessons, as for him, ‘‘this kind gesture is priceless mainly because students are
appreciating the teacher’s efforts’’. CEI (6) mentioned that she loves when her students get that
‘‘eureka’’ moment implying that they have finally understood something. CEI (6) added that she
appreciates her students’ interest when they research more information at home and then
bombard her with questions the next day.

4.4 Teachers’ Views on the Challenges or Limitations Faced When Teaching Chemistry

From the survey results, Figure 2 shows that ‘disengaged learners’ and ‘students who do not
complete their assigned work or revise content’ are the main challenges faced by 61% of
teachers. These are followed by ‘students lacking prior knowledge or skills’ with 56.1% of the
sample population significantly affected. Other challenges such as mixed-ability students and
student misconceptions or difficulties significantly affect 46.3% and 34.1% of the sample
population, respectively. Absenteeism is the least consequential limitation, as 61% of teachers
claimed that they are ‘minimally' affected by absent learners. An equal number of teachers
(19.5%) are significantly and unaffected by absenteeism.

Figure 2. Teachers’ responses to the extent of some challenges when teaching chemistry

All the interviewees agreed that the current chemistry syllabus is too long and described it as
“repetitive, not student-friendly and comparable to a crash course’’, where chemistry students do
not find it meaningful. The teachers were highly concerned with the available time frame they
have for revision after finishing the chemistry syllabus on time before the SEC examination.
Besides this, the interviewees also stated that a good number of lessons are lost throughout the
scholastic year due to school activities and holidays. They claim that ‘this is why a good chemistry
teacher must plan and be flexible in his/her teaching methods’’. When asked about their use of
SC pedagogies, all the interviewees agreed that ‘‘it is impossible to completely shift to these
teaching methods in the chemistry classroom’’. They claimed that the current syllabus
‘‘encourages one to adopt a didactic pedagogy but pedagogical approaches such as IBL and the
CBA must not be neglected’’.

5. Conclusion

The survey results revealed that most Maltese chemistry teachers prefer IBL rather than
traditional pedagogy, which produced an interesting find to this study in contrast to other local
studies [6] [9] [10]. Moreover, the interviews exposed that local chemistry teachers believe in the
48 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

benefits of adopting SC pedagogies, like the increase in relevance of the subject to the students’
everyday lives and the suitability for students with different abilities. However, the interviews also
revealed that chemistry teachers should not entirely change their teaching methods which are
working and giving reasonable examination results. These comments are understandable in an
education system which is rather examination-oriented and with high-stakes examinations
dominating much of what is done at school. The teachers’ own experience of learning the subject
has a strong influence on how they choose to teach it.

REFERENCES

[1] Borg, J. An investigation into the pedagogy that Maltese teachers adopt to teach
Chemistry (Master's dissertation). (2021).
[2] de Jong, O. Making Chemistry Meaningful: Conditions for Successful Context Based
Teaching. Educacion Quimica. 17, 215-221. (2006).
[3] Bennett, J., Lubben, F., & Hogarth, S. Bringing science to life: A synthesis of the research
evidence on the effects of context‐based and STS approaches to science teaching.
Science education, 91(3), 347-370. (2007).
[4] Farrugia, J., Mizzi, D., Zahra, G. & Zarb, D. Changing the Chemistry Curriculum at
Secondary Level: Opportunities and Challenges. In: Conference Proceedings. New
Perspectives in Science Education: 6th Edition, Florence, Italy (pp. 104-109). (2017).
[5] Osborne, J., & Dillon, J. Science education in Europe: Critical reflections (Vol. 13).
London: The Nuffield Foundation. (2008).
[6] Promoting Inquiry-Based Learning in Mathematics and Science Education across Europe
(PRIMAS) (2011). Report about the Survey on Inquiry-Based Learning and Teaching in
the European Partner Countries. European Union: Seventh Framework Programme.
[7] Holbrook, J. Making Chemistry Teaching Relevant. Chemical Education International,
6(1). (2005).
[8] Ministry of Education and Employment (MEE). A National Curriculum Framework for all.
Malta: Salesian Press. (2012)
[9] Vella Bondin, A. Nested epistemologies: secondary school science teachers’ views of
nature of science, teaching and learning and implications for practice (Master's thesis,
University of Malta). (2016).
[10] Bonello, K. The context-based approach in the Chemistry classroom: teachers’ views and
attitudes (Master's thesis, University of Malta). (2016).
[11] Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. Research Methods in Education (7th ed.). New York:
Routledge. (2011).
49 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The Impact of a M.Sc. Programme on the Career Paths of

Postgraduate Students

Katerina Paschalidou1, Katerina Salta2

National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece1,2

Abstract

The research study can provide important information for curriculum quality. A paradigm of
curriculum evaluation describes the quality of an educational program as transformative. The
present study concerns a three-semester Inter-Institutional Master of Science program in
Chemistry Education, Information and Communication Technology and Education for Sustainable
Development that is organized by the Department of Chemistry at the National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. The program aims at the professional development of postgraduate students
and educates them in: (a) chemistry education research, (b) development new methods of
teaching and assessment in chemistry, (c) connections between chemistry and chemical
technology in everyday life, (d) development of education material using information and
communication technologies, and (e) adoption of sustainable development goals in the teaching
of chemistry. The present study describes an alumni online survey that assesses postgraduates’
perceptions about the impact of the program on their career paths based on the transformative
paradigm. Seventy (70) postgraduates from 2001 to 2022 responded. Although the low response
rate of alumni which was mainly due to bad contact information, it has been suggested that the
differences of the response rates do not affect the representativeness of the results. Overall, the
program received positive feedback.

Keywords: Curriculum Evaluation, Professional Development, transformative quality

1 Introduction

The relationship between higher education and the labor market has been the focus of
educational reforms in many countries, especially after the economic crisis [1-3]. In this context,
attention has been paid to the role of universities to educate students suited for different
professional positions. It is frequently a subject for evaluation to what extent the graduates
achieve the desirable skills. To answer this question, a quality evaluation focusing on learning
outcomes has become increasingly important in the field of accreditation of institutes of higher
education by several stakeholders as students, employers of graduates, and alumni. The last
group, the alumni, is often overlooked when it comes to assessing learning outcomes [4].
Alumni research is a relatively new area of educational research. In the USA a large increase of
this type of research began in the end of twenty century [4, 5]. Compared to the USA, Europe is
falling behind even further when it comes to alumni research. Thus, the scientific community has
a lot to learn in terms of curriculum development and the evaluation of learning outcomes by
alumni research [4]. Particularly, the master’s degree education is an interesting case, as it has
been expanded globally during the 20th century, and it has been related with social and economic
changes [6]. Despite of this expansion, few studies have been conducted to examine the relation
between master’s degree graduates and their labour market outcomes [4, 7, 8].
To address some of the gaps of previous research, we use the master program "Chemistry
Education, Information and Communication Technology and Education for Sustainable
Development" (ChEd-ICT-ESD) as a case study to investigate whether holding a master’s degree
has significant impact on labour market outcomes in terms of the career paths. It is expected that
this study, even though mainly centered on a postgraduate program for chemistry teachers in
secondary education, may contribute to the development of knowledge for a deepened
understanding about the impact of the masters’ programs on alumni career paths. Furthermore,
this study aims to better understand the role of masters’ programs, which could be helpful for the
development of policies and educative strategies to improve science education not only in Greece
but in a wider international perspective.
Therefore, the following research questions guided this study: (1) does a Master program affect
the labour market outcomes in terms of postgraduates (alumni) career paths? (2) Does gender
and career changes of postgraduates (alumni) affect their perceptions about the impact of master
program on their professional development and their professional practices?
50 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2. Theoretical Framework

The quality of an educational program is often described as transformative [9]. However, the
notions of quality and transformation and their interrelationships are not clearly defined. Quality
is perceived as external, and separate from everyday work [10], which relates to the bureaucracy
[11], by the academic community. From the students’ viewpoint quality is understood as passing
examinations [12] or something valuable and meaningful [10]. An explanation for this polysemy
is the complexity of higher education as its different components, such as teaching and research,
have different requirements for quality [13]. On the other hand, while transformation is usually
associated with change and the process of reform, it has both positive and negative aspects. This
complexity of quality and transformation as separate concepts makes the application of “quality
as transformation” to higher education more difficult.
The curricula of teacher education need periodic transformations to respond to the evolution of
educational research and national objectives. Teachers’ perceptions relate to their competency
in their subject matter play a decisive role in the success of any transformation [14]. The
postgraduates' career paths, an outcome of post graduate education, have been viewed as an
overlap of quality and transformation [10].
The description of career paths for chemistry education postgraduates (alumni) reflects the limited
dispensable information [15, 16]. Internationally, some limited data on the career paths of
university graduates and postgraduates are available [17, 18]. However, these data were not
related to chemistry education degree programs, and the job prospects in Greece may differ from
other countries. Therefore, the current research investigating the perceptions of postgraduates
(alumni) about the quality of Master of Science program in “Chemistry Education, Information and
Communication Technology and Education for Sustainable Development” (ChEd-ICT-ESD) that
is organized by the Department of Chemistry at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
(NKUA) in terms of their career paths after completing their programs may offer useful data for a
transformation process.

3. Method

3.1 The Context

The context of the current study is a three-semester Inter-Institutional Master of Science program
in “Chemistry Education, Information and Communication Technology and Education for
Sustainable Development” (ChEd-ICT-ESD) that is organized by the Department of Chemistry at
the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. The program aims at the professional
development of postgraduate students and educates them in: (a) chemistry education research,
(b) development new methods of teaching and assessment in chemistry, (c) connections between
chemistry and chemical technology in everyday life, (d) development of education material using
information and communication technologies, and (e) adoption of sustainable development goals
in the teaching of chemistry.

3.2 The Participants

The participants of this study were 70 responders, which had graduated in the period 2001-2022.
Participation in the study was voluntary, without any kind of incentive given to participants.

3.3 The Instrument

The data used in the study were collected through a questionnaire, which comprised three major
parts. The first part asked for demographic information including gender and graduation year. The
second part gathered information about responders’ career paths after their graduation. The third
part based on the 2-item ten-point linear scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 10 (has a definitive
role, to maximum degree) to capture respondents’ perceptions concerning the impact of the
master program both on their professional development and their practices. (Appendix).
Questions were developed by the study team.

3.4 The Procedure

In this study, a brief (~10 min) one-time online survey was conducted to capture data on the
career paths of postgraduate students of Master of Science program in “ChEd-ICT-ESD”. The
survey was built upon the Google forms and was aligned with the “Code on Ethics and Good
Practice” of NKUA. The survey was active from November to December 2022. A link to the
51 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

questionnaire was e-mailed to postgraduates, whose e-mails were available from the Chemistry
Department Administrative Office.

3.5 Data Analysis

We used two methods of data analysis. SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), version
28.0.1.1 was used for the statistical analysis of quantitative data. Moreover, a content analysis
was used for the questions that had an open format.

4. Results and discussion

Our results are presented following the three major parts of questionnaire described in the Method
section.

4.1 First Part

According to the demographic data, there were 41 females and 20 males out of 70 respondents
(Fig.1). The graduation year distribution depicted that most of participants have been graduated
in 2015 and one participant has been graduated in 2003, one in 2005, one in 2008 and one in
2017 (Fig.2)
Frequencies

Fig.1. Gender distribution

Frequencies

Fig. 2. Graduation year distribution

4.2 Second Part

The frequency distribution of the Question 3 (Appendix) scores depicted that most participants
have not been continued their studies after their graduation.
52 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 1. Frequency of the Question 3 scores

Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent
Undergraduate studies in another subject 2 2,9 2,9
Another master program 5 7,1 10,0
PhD at Chemistry Department 10 14,3 24,3
PhD at another Department 3 4,3 28,6
NO 50 71,4 100,0
Total 70 100,0

Thirteen participants continued their studies in a PhD program (either at Chemistry Department
or at another Department), five in another master program, and two did undergraduate studies in
another subject (Table 1).

Table 2. Frequency of the Question 4 scores (Job position before graduation)

Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Art Event coordinator 1 1,4 1,4
Dean in office at the Pedagogical Insti 1 1,4 2,9
Non-Governmental Organizations 1 1,4 4,3
Private lessons 4 5,7 10,0
Private sector 5 7,1 17,1
Project Manager 1 1,4 18,6
Research Institute 1 1,4 20,0
Secondary education in a private school 2 2,9 22,9
Secondary education in a public school 23 32,9 55,7
Secondary education in tutoring schools 27 38,6 94,3
Unemployed 4 5,7 100,0
Total 70 100,0

Table 3. Frequency of the Question 5 scores (Job position after graduation)

Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent
Dean in office at the Pedagogical Insti 1 1,4 1,4
Educational consultant - educational pr 1 1,4 2,9
Head of Science laboratories 1 1,4 4,3
Hellenic Center for Marine Research 1 1,4 5,7
Management responsibility (e.g. School 5 7,1 12,9
National Organization for Medicines 1 1,4 14,3
Non-formal education 1 1,4 15,7
Non-Governmental Organizations 1 1,4 17,1
Private sector 7 10,0 27,2
Research Institute 1 1,4 28,6
Science Laboratory Center (Director) 1 1,4 30,0
Scientific support custome training 1 1,4 31,5
Secondary education in a private school 5 7,1 38,6
Secondary education in a public school 30 42,9 81,5
Secondary education in tutoring schools 11 15,7 97,2
Unemployed 2 2,8 100,0
Total 70 100,0
53 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

By a content analysis of the “other” choice's description (questions 3 and 4) were enriched the
job positions of postgraduates as shown in Tables 3 and 4. Table 3 presents that before their
graduation most postgraduates (38,6%) were employed in secondary education in tutoring
schools, and these that were employed in secondary education in a public school followed
(32,9%). After graduation (Table 4), the percent of postgraduates that were employed in
secondary education in a public school has been increased (42,9%) with simultaneously
decreasing of the percentage of postgraduates that were employed in secondary education in
tutoring schools (15,7%).

Table 4. Frequency of the Career Changes Scores

Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent
They did not change job position 32 45,7 45,7
They changed job position 38 54,3 100,0
Total 70 100,0

Comparing the participants' answers to questions 4 and 5, we created the variable “career
changes”. Most participants (54,3%) changed their job positions after their graduation (Table 4).

4.3 Third Part

Table 5. Descriptive values for variables “Professional Development” and “Professional Practices”
Std.
N Range Min. Max. Mean Deviation Variance
Professional 70 9 1 10 7,56 2,224 4,946
Development
Professional Practices 70 7 3 10 8,41 1,724 2,971

The analysis of the 2-item ten-point linear scale questions includes descriptive statistics
presented in Table 5. Although the mean for the scale Professional Development was found to
be 7,56, the mean for the scale Professional Practices was found to be 8,41. These results show
that postgraduates were more positive about the impact of ChEd-ICT-ESD studies on the way
they carry out their duties.

Table 6. Paired Samples t-test

Paired Differences t df Significance

Std. One- Two-

Std. Error Sided Sided
Mean Deviation Mean p p
Professional -0,857 2,527 0,302 -2,838 69 0,003 0,006
Development –
Professional Practices

A paired Samples t-test resulted that the more positive postgraduates’ perceptions about the
impact of ChEd-ICT-ESD studies on the way they carry out their duties is statistically significant.

Table 7. Independent Samples t-test (gender)

Levene's Test Independent Samples t-test
for Equality of
Variances
Mean
F Sig. t df Sig. Difference
Professional Development 1,061 0,307 -1,075 68 0,143 -0,579
Professional Practices 1,485 0,227 -1,126 68 0,132 -0,470

Examination of effect of gender on postgraduates’ perceptions about their “Professional

Development” and “Professional Practices” resulted to no significant difference for both variables
(Table 7).
54 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 8. Independent Samples t-test (career changes)

Levene's Test Independent Samples t-test
for Equality of
Variances
Mean
F Sig. t df Sig. Difference
Professional Development 2,418 0,125 -3,197 68 0,001 -1,602
Professional Practices 0,045 0,832 -0,590 68 0,279 -0,245

On the other hand, examination of effect of career changes on postgraduates’ perceptions about
their “Professional Development” and “Professional Practices” resulted to a significant effect of
career changes on “Professional Development” variable (Table 8).

Table 9. Group Statistics

Std.
Career Changes N Mean Deviation
Professional They did not change job position 32 6,69 2,468
Development They changed job position 38 8,29 1,707

The participants, which changed job position, possessed higher mean score (Table 9).

5. Conclusions

Based on this study there is an effect of the master program "Chemistry Education, Information
and Communication Technology and Education for Sustainable Development" (ChEd-ICT-ESD)
on the labour market outcomes in terms of postgraduates (alumni) career paths.
The postgraduates have more positive perceptions about the impact of their ChEd-ICT-ESD
studies on the way they carry out their duties than on their professional development.
The career changes of postgraduates (alumni) affect only their perceptions about the impact of
the master program on their professional development.
Our results can have policy implications at the national and institutional levels in terms of
qualification frameworks of chemistry teachers, curricula, and institutional support for their career
development based on ChEd-ICT-ESD master program. Although quality is a positive concept
generally, it is "catastrophic" when it involves external audits and measurement by state-imposed
standards [19]. A new approach, which places more emphasis on understanding the essential
quality of a program, informed by research, to ensure improvement of the learning will make a
substantial contribution to the debate about quality evaluation [20]. Maybe the quality evaluation
needs to be research-based like this study.
Although the weak point of this research is the low response rate of alumni which was mainly due
to bad contact information, Lambert and Miller (2014) suggest that the differences of the response
rates do not affect the representativeness of the results [21].

6. Appendix

6.1 First Part

Question 1: Gender
Female 1
Male 2

Question 2: Graduation year

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
55 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022

6.2 Second Part

Question 3: After graduating from ChEd-ICT-ESD you continued your studies

Undergraduate studies in another subject 1
Another master programme 2
PhD at Chemistry Department 3
PhD at another Department 4
NO 5

Question 4: Job position before graduation.

Secondary education in a public school
Secondary education in a private school
Secondary education in tutoring schools
Higher education
Science Laboratory Center (Director)
Educational consultant - educational project
coordinator
Management responsibility (e.g., School Director)
Other Detail description

Question 5: Job position obtained after graduation.

Secondary education in a public school
Secondary education in a private school
Secondary education in tutoring schools
Higher education
Science Laboratory Center (Director)
Educational consultant - educational project
coordinator
Management responsibility (e.g., School Director)
Other Detail description

6.3 Third Part

Question 6: The ChEd-ICT-ESD degree helped you in your professional development.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Not at all Has a definitive role

Question 7: The knowledge you acquired during ChEd-ICT-ESD studies affect the way you
carry out your duties.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Not at To maximum degree
all
56 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

REFERENCES

[1] Assaad, R., Krafft, C., & Salehi-Isfahani, D. “Does the type of higher education affect labor
market outcomes? Evidence from Egypt and Jordan”, Higher Education, 2018, 75, 945-
995.
[2] Bol, T., Ciocca Eller, C., Van De Werfhorst, H. G., & DiPrete, T. A. “School-to-work
linkages, educational mismatches, and labor market outcomes”, American Sociological
Review, 2019, 84(2), 275-307.
[3] Salas-Velasco, M. “Mapping the (mis) match of university degrees in the graduate labor
market”, Journal for Labour Market Research, 2021, 55(1), 1-23.
[4] Saunders-Smits, G., & de Graaff, E. “Assessment of curriculum quality through alumni
research”, European Journal of Engineering Education, 2012, 37(2), 133-142.
[5] Evans, D. L. “Attributes of engineering graduates and their impact on curriculum design”,
Journal of Engineering Education, 1993, 82(4), 203 – 211.
[6] Lee, S. J., Kim, S., & Jung, J. “The effects of a Master’s Degree on wage and job
satisfaction in massified higher education: The case of South Korea”, Higher Education
Policy, 2020, 33, 637-665.
[7] Pombo, L., & Costa, N. “The impact of biology/geology school teachers’ masters courses
on the improvement of science education quality in Portugal”, Research in Science &
Technological Education, 2009, 27(1), 31-44.
[8] Saunders-Smits, G. N., Bossen, R. H., & De Winter, J. C. F. “From curriculum to career:
Analysing the contribution of Delft University’s Robotics MSc program to the career path
of its alumni”, Proceedings of the SEFI Conference, Dublin, Ireland, September 2023.
[9] Melrose, M. “Exploring paradigms of curriculum evaluation and concepts of quality”,
Quality in Higher Education, 1998, 4(1), 37-43.
[10] Cheng, M. “Quality as transformation: educational metamorphosis”, Quality in Higher
Education, 2014, 20(3), 272-289.
[11] Newton, J. “Views from below: academics coping with quality”, Quality in Higher
Education, 2002, 8(1), pp. 39–61.
[12] Cheng, M. “Transforming the learner’ versus ‘passing the exam’? Understanding the gap
between academic and student definitions of teaching quality”, Quality in Higher
Education, 2011, 17(1), pp. 3–17.
[13] Sahney, S., Banwet, D.K. & Karunes, S. “Conceptualising total quality management in
higher education”, TQM Magazine, 2004, 16(2), 145–159.
[14] Kahveci, A. “Exploring chemistry teacher candidates’ profile characteristics, teaching
attitudes and beliefs, and chemistry conceptions”, Chemistry Education Research and
Practice, 2009, 10(2), 109-120.
[15] Aksela, M. “Evidence-based teacher education: Becoming a lifelong research-oriented
chemistry teacher?”, Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 2010, 11(2), 84-91.
[16] Hofstein, A., Carmi, M., & Ben-Zvi, R. “The development of leadership among chemistry
teachers in Israel”, International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 2003, 1,
39-65.
[17] Denton, M., Borrego, M., & Knight, D. B. “US postdoctoral careers in life sciences, physical
sciences and engineering: Government, industry, and academia”, Plos one, 2022, 17(2),
e0263185.
[18] Kindsiko, E., & Baruch, Y. “Careers of PhD graduates: The role of chance events and how
to manage them”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 2019, 112, 122-140.
[19] Bloland H.G. “Beyond All Reason: Living with Ideology in the University”, The Journal of
Higher Education, 2004, 75(6), 709-712
[20] Harvey, L., & Newton, J. “Transforming quality evaluation: moving on”, In Quality
assurance in higher education: Trends in regulation, translation and transformation”,
Dordrecht, Springer Netherlands, 2007, 225-245.
[21] Lambert, A. D., & Miller, A. L. “Lower Response Rates on Alumni Surveys Might Not Mean
Lower Response Representativeness”, Educational Research Quarterly, 2014, 37(3), 40-
53.
57 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Bridging the Gap between School and University by a

Laboratory Course on Functional Surfaces

Philipp Lanfermann1, Christoph Weidmann2, Thomas Waitz3

Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Department of

Chemistry Education, Tammannstrasse 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany1,2,3

Abstract

The modification of surfaces for a specific change of material properties is a field of intense
research, whereby the type of property change can be very diverse. Prominent examples are
compact oxide layers that increase the corrosion resistance or generate colorful surfaces by
interference effects. Additionally, porous surface layers enable the utilization of semiconductor or
intercalation properties of the materials through major surface enlargement in order to make them
applicable for solar cells or battery technologies. We developed a science camp held at the XLAB
– Göttingen Experimental Laboratory for Young People providing school students with an
experimental insight into this topic and the opportunity to explore the fascinating field of functional
surfaces. The camp includes for example the functionalization of titanium through anodic
oxidation, characterization by SEM at university facilities and experiments on novel battery
technologies. Additionally, solar cells using titanium dioxide as semiconducting material are built
and compared to silicon-based cells and novel perovskite solar cells developed by a collaborative
research center at University of Göttingen (CRC 1073). We describe the concept of the camp and
present an evaluation focusing on the learning progress of the participants on selected topics like
semiconductor effects, mechanisms of oxide growth during anodic oxidation of titanium and the
working principles of lithium or sodium-ion batteries.

Keywords: surfaces, nano structures, functionalization, science camp

1. Introduction

Various university research projects are concerned with the development of alternatives or
successors to established technologies in the field of renewable energies. Examples include the
development of new types of solar cells or battery technologies. Many of these technologies are
also based on the modification of surfaces in order to either improve the desired effects or enable
them in the first place. Students are surrounded by these technologies in their everyday lives;
however, the question arises as to what extent they are aware of their working principles. For this
reason, an experimental camp was developed to introduce students to this subject area through
a variety of experiments, which will be described in this article. In addition, an evaluation is
presented to determine the prior knowledge of the participating students about selected aspects
of these technologies and whether the camp leads to a measurable increase in knowledge.

2. Camp

The developed camp being held at the XLAB – Göttingen Experimental Laboratory for Young
People is titled “Nanostructured Surfaces” and is set in the context of sustainable energy
conversion and storage. In this camp, the participating students investigate various questions in
this subject area, supported by scientific lectures and fascinating experiments. These issues
include the development of new types of solar cells, the working principles of lithium-ion batteries
and the sodium-ion battery as a more sustainable alternative as well as the electrocatalytic
reduction of carbon dioxide. In this camp, titanium dioxide is used as a model substance that is
both relevant in research and can be utilized in all of these subject areas. This substance can be
generated by students themselves in the laboratory using a facile experimental setup through the
anodic oxidation of titanium [1, 2]. Depending on the design of the experimental conditions, anodic
oxidation can lead to the formation of compact or porous titanium dioxide layers. The former show
interesting colour effects depending on the thickness of the oxide layer (Fig. 1A), while the latter
are suitable for the aforementioned applications due to their greatly increased surface area (Fig.
1B/C), e.g., as semiconductors for solar cell technology (Fig. 1D) or as electrode material.
58 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig. 1. A: Colored titanium sheet with titanium dioxide layer of varying thickness; B/C: Scanning electron
microscope images of porous titanium dioxide layer; D: Constructed dye-sensitized solar cell using the
porous titanium dioxide; E: Students testing their self-built solar cell.

The camp days are divided into thematic blocks, which always begin with an introductory lecture
to provide the pupils with a subject-specific background to the respective topic. Experiments are
then carried out independently by the students, who record their observations and initial
interpretations before finally discussing them in a plenary session. An instructional script and
supporting lab supervisors provide assistance while performing the experiments (Fig. 1 E). The
days of the week are roughly divided into the various subject areas, with the first day focusing on
the production and properties of compact and several porous titanium dioxide layers, while the
following days are devoted to the application areas of these produced porous oxide layers (see
Table 1). The camp concludes on the last day with a presentation prepared by the participants
themselves, in which they give the group a rough overview of the insights they have obtained
during the week.

Table 1. Schedule of the camp.

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Greeting and Introductory Introductory Introductory Preparation of
Orientation lecture lecture lecture presentations
Introductory Examination of Construction of Construction Delivering the
lecture porous layers a dye-sensitized and comparison presentation and
with the solar cell with of lithium-ion final discussion
scanning porous titanium batteries and
electron dioxide and sodium-ion
microscope powdered batteries
titanium dioxide
Preparation of Introductory Introductory Lecture about
compact and lecture lecture perovskite solar
porous titanium cell research in
dioxide layers the CRC 1073
Various Photocatalytic Reduction of
experiments on decomposition of carbon dioxide
the properties of methylene blue using titanium
the coatings on porous dioxide
created, such as titanium dioxide composite
hydrophilicity or and construction electrodes
corrosion of a gas sensor
resistance
59 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

3. Evaluation

An evaluation was carried out to assess the learning progress of the students participating in the
camp. For this purpose, the 16 students were asked a total of 9 subject-specific comprehension
questions that corresponded with the chemical and physical topics covered at the camp. The
evaluation was conducted in a pre/post-test design, with the relevant questions for the respective
day being tested before and after each camp day. The questions were multiple choice, each with
three possible answers (A, B, C) and an “I don’t know” option (D). It was communicated to the
students before the start of the evaluation that if they were unable to make an educated guess,
they should choose the “I don’t know” option instead of guessing. The questions were formulated
in such a way that they could be answered after listening to the daily presentation and completing
the experiments.

3.1 Mechanisms of Oxide Growth During Anodic Oxidation of Titanium

Three of the multiple-choice questions (see table 2 and figure 2) addressed the principles of the
anodic oxidation of titanium, focusing on the mechanisms of the formation of compact titanium
dioxide layers. Answering the first question requires a basic understanding of the terms
“anode/cathode” and their relationship to the site of oxidation and reduction, as well as
recognizing that titanium dioxide is oxidized titanium. Despite the advanced grade level of the
students, only 33% were able to answer this question correctly in the pre-test. This initially seems
low but is in line with studies on this topic by Marohn [3], which show a similar level of confusion
regarding this subject matter. The response pattern for the second question is distributed similarly
to the first question, although in this case the low number of correct answers in the pre-test is not
surprising, as the concept in question is not directly found in the school curricula. Both questions
were answered entirely correct after our intervention; this situation is different for the last question
of the topic block. While the correct answer was barely selected in both the pre- and post-test, a
strong increase was observed for the incorrect answer option A. We suspect that this is a
consequence of frequently emphasizing in the lecture and laboratory course that the compact
oxide layers formed are on a nanometer scale, furthermore the term “thin” was often used. At the
same time, the phenomenon of ion migration though solids, is typically not discussed at school
and therefore might seem strange and unintuitive to the students.

Table 2. Questions and possible answers relating to the mechanism of anodic oxidation of titanium. The
correct answers are highlighted in green.
Q1) The illustration depicts a cell for the electrolysis of an aqueous oxalate solution with
titanium electrodes. The electrolysis produces titanium dioxide. Which statement is
correct?
A) The titanium dioxide B) The titanium dioxide layer C) A titanium dioxide layer
layer is formed at the is formed at the cathode. forms on both electrodes.
anode.

Q2) Which statement about the layer thickness of the titanium dioxide formed is correct?
A) As long as electrical B) The layer thickness C) The layer thickness
voltage is applied, the layer depends on the level of depends on the
continues to grow. applied voltage. concentration of the
electrolyte.

Q3) A current flows until the final layer thickness of the titanium dioxide is reached.
However, titanium dioxide is an electrical insulator. Why does the electrolysis not stop
immediately after the formation of a thin layer of titanium dioxide?
A) The layer thickness of B) Ions formed during C) As soon as the titanium
the titanium dioxide is very electrolysis are able to dioxide has started to grow,
thin, so electrons can still migrate through the titanium it can continue to grow
pass through the layer. dioxide layer. voluntarily for a short time
without any further
influence.
60 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

100

RESPONSE FREQUENCY IN PERCENT

80

60

40

20

0
1 Pre 1 Post 2 Pre 2 Post 3 Pre 3 Post
QUESTIONS

A B C D

Fig. 2. Response frequency of questions 1 to 3 for both the pre- and post-test.

3.2 Areas of Application for Nanoporous Titanium Dioxide

Four of the multiple-choice questions (see table 3 and figure 3) covered different areas of
application for nanoporous titanium dioxide. The fourth question concerned itself with the
mechanism of photocatalytic decomposition of a model dye on the nanoporous titanium dioxide
surface. Although this is a phenomenon that also plays a role in the students’ everyday lives (e.g.,
in “self-cleaning” wall paints), only a quarter of the respondents were able to give a correct answer
in the pre-test. Almost 40 % opted for answer A instead, which may be due to an association of
the phenomenon with the lock-and-key principle known from biology class. After the intervention,
this question was answered almost entirely correct.
Interestingly, for question 5, almost no change in response behavior was observed between pre-
and post-test, although this phenomenon was not only discussed in the lecture but was also
investigated directly in the laboratory during an experiment by the students themselves. We
suspect that this is related to the multimeters used in the experiments. These had a resistance
measuring range that started at 50 megohms. At room temperature, it was possible that the
resistance of the samples was higher than this limit. Accordingly, the measuring device initially
displayed an infinite resistance for some of the students, and it was only when the temperature
was increased that a resistance could be measured, which then steadily decreased. Although this
peculiarity of the measuring devices was already pointed out during the experiment, its effect still
seems to have remained anchored in the minds of some students. To counter this misconception,
this aspect was discussed again in the lecture the next day.
Question 6 was already answered correctly by 61% in the pre-test, which increased to 100% after
the intervention. The remaining incorrect answers were mostly concentrated in the answer that
silicon is indispensable for the construction of solar cells. This is not surprising, as the students
(according to their own statements) were not familiar with other types of solar cells such as dye
solar or perovskite solar cells but had only ever encountered silicon-based cells in their daily life.
The classic misconception that thermal energy is also converted into electrical energy (answer A)
could not be found in our test group [4].
The last question in this topic block again dealt with the location of oxidation and reduction during
an electrolysis and its relationship to the terms: anode and cathode. There was a similar response
behavior in the pre- and post-test as in question 1, although this question had already been asked
and clarified in the presentation and experiments a few days earlier. However, it must be
considered that this question was formulated in a more complex way and several distractors were
included. For example, it must be recognized that the nature of the electrodes does not change
the potential site of oxidation and reduction and the conversion of carbon dioxide to formic acid
must be understood as a reduction of the carbon atom.
61 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 3. Questions and possible answers relating to areas of application for nanoporous titanium dioxide.
The correct answers are highlighted in green.
Q4) Nanoporous titanium dioxide surfaces or titanium dioxide nanoparticles are able to
decolorize a dye solution when exposed to UV light. What is the mechanism behind this
phenomenon?
A) The dye can adsorb on B) When exposed to UV C) UV radiation creates
the nanosurface of the light, H3O+ ions form on the radicals on the nanosurface,
titanium dioxide. This spatial nano surface, which greatly which are then able to
proximity enables the reduce the pH value of the attack the covalent bonds of
covalent bonds of the dye solution. The dye is not acid- the dye molecules.
molecules to be cleaved stable and therefore
after activation of the decolorizes.
titanium dioxide with UV
light.

Q5) Which statement regarding the electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is correct?

A) The electrical B) The electrical conductivity C) The electrical
conductivity increases decreases continuously as conductivity rises sharply
continuously as the the temperature rises. when a material-specific
temperature rises. temperature is exceeded.

Q6) Which of these statements about solar cells is correct?

A) In addition to light B) Silicon as a C) Solar cells cannot utilize
energy, a solar cell also semiconductor material is an the entire spectrum of
converts thermal energy indispensable component of incident sunlight.
into electrical energy. every solar cell.

Q7) The electrolysis of an aqueous solution with the introduction of carbon dioxide (CO 2)
can produce formic acid (COOH). This can take place using tin electrodes as well as
titanium dioxide composite electrodes as cathodes, whereby graphite or platinum can be
used as anodes. Which of the following statements is correct?
A) When using the titanium B) When using the titanium C) In both cases, formic
dioxide composite dioxide composite electrode, acid is formed at the
electrode, the formic acid is the formic acid is formed at cathode.
formed at the cathode, the anode, when using the tin
when using the tin electrode, it is formed at the
electrode, it is formed at the cathode.
anode.

100
RESPONSE FREQUENCY IN PERCENT

80

60

40

20

0
4 Pre 4 Post 5 Pre 5 Post 6 Pre 6 Post 7 Pre 7 Post
QUESTIONS

A B C D

Fig. 3. Response frequency of questions 4 to 7 for both the pre- and post-test.
62 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

3.3 Working Principles of Lithium and Sodium-Ion Batteries

The last two questions (see table 4 and figure 4) focussed on the working principles of lithium and
sodium-ion batteries. Without having a deeper understanding of the reactions occurring in a
lithium-ion battery, it is easy to assume that lithium in such batteries is oxidized and reduced
during the charging and discharging process. The answer pattern for question 8 in the pre-test
shows that this misconception is also present in our test group, representing 56 % of given
answers. This is contrasted with only 25 % of students correctly answering that lithium is present
as a cation in both the charged and discharged battery state. We are happy to report that our
intervention was able to correct this almost entirely. The last question of our evaluation addressed
potential differences between sodium-ion batteries and lithium-ion batteries. To answer correctly,
one must recognize that the higher atomic mass of sodium compared to lithium results in a lower
maximum gravimetric energy density of the battery type. As can be seen from the answer pattern,
most students already seem to be aware of this before the experimental day. Accordingly, no
large increase was observed between the pre- and post-test.

Table 4. Questions and possible answers relating to the working principles of lithium or sodium-ion
batteries. The correct answers are highlighted in green.
Q8) Which statement about the working principles of lithium-ion batteries is correct?
A) Lithium is reduced and B) Lithium is present as a C) Lithium is present in both
oxidized in a lithium-ion cation in both charged and charged and discharged
battery during the charging discharged batteries. batteries in metallic form as
and discharging process. an electrode.

Q9) Sodium-ion batteries are based on the same functional principle as lithium-ion
batteries, but replace lithium with sodium. Which statement is false?
A) In principle, sodium-ion B) Sodium-ion batteries are C) In principle, sodium-ion
batteries deliver a lower cell lighter than comparable batteries can be produced
voltage than lithium-ion lithium-ion batteries and in a more environmentally
batteries. therefore have high friendly way than lithium-ion
application potential in the batteries.
mobile sector (smartphones,
electromobility).

100
RESPONSE FREQUENCY IN PERCENT

80

60

40

20

0
8 Pre 8 Post 9 Pre 9 Post
QUESTIONS

A B C D

Fig. 4. Response frequency of questions 8 and 9 for both the pre- and post-test.

4. Summary

Overall, the evaluation showed that several typical misconceptions from the literature were also
present in our test group, despite the advanced grade level of the pupils. The link between the
terms “anode and cathode” and the location of oxidation and reduction can be highlighted here
as a particularly widespread misconception among the test group. Our intervention through the
lectures, guided experiments and answered questions was able to effectively remedy most of
63 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

these misconceptions, as is demonstrated by the high frequency of correct answers in the post-
test questionnaire.

REFERENCES

[1] Lanfermann, P., Weidmann, C., Maaß, M. C., Waitz, S., Schönberger, T. & Waitz, T.
“Electrochemical Surface Modification of Titanium in Chemistry Class”, Conference
Proceedings. New Perspectives in Science Education: 11 th Conference Edition, Filodiritto
Publisher, 2022, 92-97.
[2] Lanfermann, P., Weidmann, C., Waitz, S., Maaß, M. C. & Waitz, T. “Preparation of nano
titanium dioxide coatings by anodic oxidation: beautifully colorful and functional”,
CHEMKON, Wiley, 2022, 29(8), 225-233.
[3] Marohn, A. “Falschvorstellungen von Schülern in der Elektrochemie – eine empirische
Untersuchung“, Dortmund University, Dissertation, 1999.
[4] Kishore, P. & Kisiel, J. “Exploring high school students’ perceptions of solar energy and
solar cells”, International Journal of Environmental & Science Education, 2013, 8, 521-534.
64 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Cyclic Voltammetry in Chemistry Classes

Vivian Keune1, Erhard Irmer2, Thomas Waitz1

University of Göttingen, Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry

Education, Germany1
University of Göttingen, XLAB-Experimental laboratory for young people, Germany2

Abstract

Voltammetric methods have become an indispensable part of chemical research. Cyclic

voltammetry (CV), in particular, is considered the most important method in the field of
voltammetry [1]. Researchers use CV to determine redox properties, the number of electrons
transferred or the reversibility of the reaction. CV also reveals information on the thermodynamics
and kinetics of reactions as well as on underlying reaction mechanisms. Despite their great
importance and diverse applications, voltammetric methods are rarely taught in school and
teacher training courses. Likewise, previous literature and experiments mainly address graduate
students and PhD candidates [2].
In this contribution, we present simple models and experiments to demonstrate that CV can easily
be connected to the donor-acceptor principle and is well suited for repetition, application,
consolidation and extension of relevant concepts of chemistry. Furthermore, the method offers
the special opportunity not only to recognize the initial and final state of a redox process, but also
to follow the course of electron transfer.
Our models and experiments help to make CV accessible to undergraduates and students at high
school or school labs, providing a more detailed understanding of redox processes and the ability
to observe them experimentally. In detail, we present teaching and learning materials students
can use to investigate the reversibility of electrochemical reactions, using iron complexes and
ascorbic acid. Additional experiments cover the determination of concentrations, redox potentials
and the identification of chemical species. These topics are typically part of high school curricula
and can be deepened in a more illustrative way by CV measurements. Finally, we present a first
evaluation using CV materials in a teacher education lab course.

Keywords: cyclic voltammetry, donor-acceptor principle, model experiments

1. Introduction

As early as the 1980s, not long after its development in the 1960s, cyclic voltammetry was
described as the "spectroscopy of the electrochemist" due to its great importance to chemistry
[3]. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) is now firmly established in research and is considered the most
important method in the field of voltammetry [1]. The method makes it possible to record
characteristic curves (cyclic voltammograms (CVG)) for redox processes. The course of the
reaction, the associated redox potentials and the reversibility of the reactions can be retrieved
from these curves. This information is of great interest to several fields of research: e.g., in
analytical chemistry for the identification of substances, in electrochemistry for the development
of sensors or for testing electrode properties in electrochemical cells.
Despite its great scientific significance, CV plays practically no role in school lessons. This is
mainly due to a lack of educational introductory literature and simple experiments, both for schools
and for student teachers.
In order to close this gap, first educational literature has been published in recent years [1] [2] [4];
however, this literature is mainly addressed at university scholars. The suggestions and
experiments presented here go one step further and should also enable students at secondary
schools or student laboratories to use CV. In order to ensure an accessible introduction to the
method, we advocate an experimental approach to the method.
65 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2. An Educational Approach to Cyclic Voltammetry

2.1 Electrochemical Fundamentals and Educational Reduction

The term "cyclic voltammetry" already describes important features of the measurement method:
a voltage is applied to an electrochemical cell; unlike in electrolysis, this voltage is changed
cyclically (Fig. 2., left diagram). If a chemical reaction takes place in the electrochemical cell at a
certain applied voltage, a resulting current is measured. The current/voltage values are recorded
as curves.
In contrast to other electrochemical methods such as electrolysis, which use only a working
electrode and a counter electrode, CV also requires a reference electrode [2].
A silver/silver chloride electrode with a stable potential is often used for this purpose. Only with
this additional electrode, the potential difference to the working electrode can be determined;
however, it is not involved in any reaction [5]. The use of a reference electrode can be compared
to the standard hydrogen electrode and is therefore easy to understand.
Applying a potential to the working electrode during a measurement immediately results in a
reduction or oxidation of the electrochemically active substance in the test solution. As a
consequence, an electrochemical double layer forms on the surface of the working electrode. The
solution should not be stirred to avoid disruption of the processes within the double layer. This
means that diffusion is the only process to occur in the bulk solution.
The position of the redox equilibrium at the electrode can be calculated using the Nernst equation
[2]:
If at the beginning of the measurement the applied potential E is significantly smaller than the
redox potential Eref of the redox couple in the solution (red/ox), there is a significantly greater
concentration of the reduced species c(red) than that of the oxidized species c(ox) at the
electrode. This means that there is hardly any mass transfer and practically no current. Only when
the applied potential approaches the value of the redox potential Eref, the equilibrium of the redox
reaction shifts to the side of the oxidized species. The transfer of electrons to the working
electrode is indicated by an increasing current (cf. Fig.1.).

Fig.1. Model of the processes at the electrode when the applied potential is increased (left) and resulting
current (right).

Since the solution is not stirred, the layer of oxidized species increasingly covers the electrode
and the reaction is slowed down as less reduced species can diffuse to the electrode. This causes
the current to drop again, resulting in the characteristic peak of a CVG (Fig.2., right diagram).
When the direction of the voltage advance is reversed, i.e., the potential is continuously reduced
again, a reverse reaction takes place: the oxidized species that was formed before switching the
potential is now reduced. As a result, a current flow again, now in the opposite direction and a
second peak is measured in the opposite direction to the previous one [2]. A deeper consideration
of the transfer processes is not necessary for a first interpretation of the curves measured.
66 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig.2. Course of the applied potential (left) and resulting cyclic voltammogram (right).

As this overview shows, CV has many similarities with methods familiar from school (e.g.,
electrolysis setups, recording current-voltage curves). It is also relatively easy to interpret the CV
curves with knowledge from science lessons (Nernst equation, electrochemical double layer,
diffusion).
The use of a reference electrode and a potentiostat is the main new element compared to familiar
methods. However, it is not necessary to understand the exact mode of operation of a
potentiostat. To understand why using a potentiostat is essential, it is sufficient to describe it as a
device that sets the voltage change and registers the corresponding current values.
The exact mathematical relationships (e.g., for diffusion processes) are also not necessary for
understanding and interpreting the measurement curves. Basic "the more ..., the more ..."
relationships can easily be obtained from simple experiments (cf. chapter 3) and are sufficient to
explain the observations.

2.2 Use of CV at Secondary Schools

Despite providing highly informative measurement results, CV has so far played virtually no role
in science lessons. This can be explained by various factors: In order to ensure a uniform, precise
rise and fall in voltage and the recording of the associated current, a considerable amount of
equipment used to be required. In addition, the measuring arrangement with three electrodes was
complicated and the set-up and handling was too time-consuming for teaching purposes. In
addition, the costs of these devices and materials used to be too high for most schools.
Recent potentiostats, however, can be easily connected to a computer via Bluetooth. They are
now only about the size of a lunch box and are significantly cheaper than they were a few years
ago (cf. Fig.3., left). In addition, new computer programs for recording and evaluating the
measurement data are beginner-friendly and easy to use.
Also, more advanced electrodes have been developed: Microelectrodes (screen-printed
electrodes), in which all three electrodes are "printed" on a thin ceramic plate, are being used
more and more frequently in research nowadays (cf. Fig.3. right). Due to the low material
consumption during production, they are inexpensive to purchase (a few euros per electrode;
graphite electrodes are particularly inexpensive). In many cases, they can be reused for several
experiments.
The arrangement of the electrodes on the plate is compact and clear, making it easier for students
to understand compared to the relatively complicated set-up of an apparatus with three
macroelectrodes. The set-up and dismantling time for experiments is also drastically reduced by
using screen-printed electrodes [4].

Fig.3. Measurement set-up (left) and structure of a screen-printed electrode

with a drop of test solution (right).
67 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

To simplify experimental set-ups, experimental tool kits have become commercially available. In
addition to the potentiostat, they contain all the necessary equipment such as cables, screen-
printed electrodes, reaction vessels and analysis software. However, the price of these kits
remains relatively high at several thousand euros.
As opposed to the acquisition costs, however, the costs of the experiments are quite low:
Microelectrodes usually only require a single drop of electrolyte (cf. Fig.3. right) and can be used
in very small vessels. This offers considerable savings in chemicals.
Another positive factor is the low time effort of the measurements: Depending on the selected
voltage range, a measurement often only takes a few seconds to minutes. Accordingly, no time
is wasted on technical handling but students can focus on the interpretation of the results.
Overall, CV measurements are easy to perform and provide precise results with little effort: The
electrode arrangement is accessible, the voltage change and current registration are performed
precisely by the potentiostat and the measurement software takes care of the recording.
The purchase of multiple experiment kits or potentiostats is not realistic for a school due to the
financial factors described above. However, schools might consider to purchase a single unit that
can be used by small learning groups such as school-based clubs or advanced courses.
It is also conceivable that CV devices could be purchased by extracurricular learning locations or
universities; through experimental programs, they can be made available to a large number of
pupils.

2.3 Connection with Curricular Key Concepts

In order to justify the use of CV for pupils or in teacher training, there has to be a link between
standard topics in chemistry lessons and the skills promoted by working with the measurement
method. It is therefore of great importance that the measurement method, the new experiments
and the knowledge gained by using CV enable repetition, application, consolidation or expansion
of familiar school topics and preliminary knowledge. These factors can be memorized with the
mnemonic RACE [6].
Most obviously, CV can improve pupils’ understanding of the donor-acceptor principle. This
fundamental principle of chemistry is an integral part of school curricula. However, different
explanatory models for redox reactions that pupils encounter throughout the years (oxygen
transfer, electron transfer, change in oxidation numbers), can lead to misconceptions and
confusion of models. Studies have also shown that many pupils have problems to describe and
interpret the process of electron transfer. On learning about redox reactions, pupils tend to be
uncertain as to where electrons come from and where they are transferred to [7].
At this point, CV can be very helpful to clearly understand processes at the particle level:
If a reaction takes place at a certain potential, electrons migrate from the electrode to the
substance in the solution (electron acceptance, reduction of the substance) or from the substance
to the electrode (electron release, oxidation of the substance). However, these electron transfers
are not only recognizable by comparing educts and products, but are also directly visible as a
current increase in the CVG. Differentiation between electron acceptance and release is
facilitated by spatial separation between the processes in the diagram: Oxidations are always
visible as a maximum, reductions as a minimum of the measurement curve.
The biggest asset of the method is therefore that the electron flow in a redox reaction can be
observed directly in a resulting diagram and not just as the initial and final state of a reaction.
In addition to this important topic of electron transfer, there are many other school topics to which
CV can be linked based on the RACE model (cf. Tab.1.).

Tab.1. Integration of CV into topics taught in chemistry classes.

repetition application consolidation extension
Description of redox Identification of Diffusion processes, Three-electrode
reactions as electron unknown substances comparison of systems,
transfer reactions, based on their redox electrolysis and CV, electron transfer at
electrochemical behavior, comparison of phase boundaries,
series, determination of electrode potentials scientific
potential and voltage, electrode potentials, and standard measurement
electrolysis, determination of electrode potentials, methods, …
Faraday's 1st law, concentrations, ... …
Nernst equation, ...

It is also possible to integrate CV into physical or mathematical topics, e.g. repetition of the
concepts of current and voltage, electric circuits, Ohm's law and logarithmic curves using the
Nernst equation.
68 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

3. Experiments on Cyclic Voltammetry

The experiments presented here are designed as basic introductory experiments to the
measurement method and have already been tested in university courses and with high school
students. A direct experimental introduction appears to be the best way to understand the method,
as pupils can directly gain theoretical knowledge on CV from the experiments and measured
curves.
All measurements were performed with the "µStat 400" potentiostat and the "DropView 8400"
software from Metrohm using "Screen-printed Carbon Electrodes" type 110 from Metrohm.

3.1 Experiment 1: Measurement of a Reversibly Oxidable Substance

To prepare an electrolyte solution for all three experiments, dissolve about 0.5 g of potassium
chloride in 60 mL of demineralized water. For the first experiment, dissolve 0.1 g of potassium
ferricyanide (GHS07, GHS09) in 20 mL of this electrolyte solution. A measurement is then carried
out on a screen-printed carbon electrode starting at +1.2 volts, descending to -0.5 volts and
returning to +1.2 volts, at a scan rate of 50 mV/s. The curve obtained is shown in Fig.4 (blue).
The ferricyanide ions are reduced to ferrocyanide ions at the working electrode as soon as the
applied potential is low enough. This reaction can be observed as a downward reduction peak.
When the potential is switched and the voltage is increased back to +1.2 volts, the ferrocyanide
ions are oxidized back to ferricyanide ions.
The oxidation and reduction peaks of the CVG are approximately the same size and their
potentials are close together, indicating a reversible redox reaction.

3.2 Experiment 2: Effect of Concentration on Cyclic Voltammograms

The remaining potassium ferricyanide solution from the first experiment has a concentration of 15
mmol/L. Dilute 10 mL of this solution with the prepared electrolyte solution in a 1:1 ratio. Dilute 10
mL of the resulting solution in a 1:1 ratio, again. Repeat the measurement of the newly prepared
solutions with the settings from experiment 1, resulting in two additional CVGs. These curves are
shown in green and red in Fig.4.

Fig.4. Cyclic voltammogram of potassium ferricyanide at different concentrations (15 mmol/L: blue curve;
7,5 mmol/L: red curve; 3,75 mmol/L: green curve).

The CVGs obtained show that although the heights of the peaks change depending on the
concentration, their position remains practically constant. This is easy to understand for students,
as they have learnt that the reduction or oxidation is dependent on the redox potential of the
substance. To determine this potential, the mean of the potentials of the oxidation and reduction
peak needs to be calculated [2]. The measurement in Fig.4. results in an electrode potential of
approximately
Eref = (0 volts + 0.3 volts)/2 = 0.15 volts compared to the silver/silver chloride reference electrode.
To convert this electrode potential to a standard potential, the potential value of the reference
electrode (approx. 0.22 volts) must be added to the determined value. The resulting value of 0.37
volts agrees with the literature value of the standard potential (0.36 volts) [5].
69 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The CVG in Fig.4. also shows that the height of the peaks is proportional to the concentration of
the solutions. This allows to determine unknown concentrations by comparative measurements
and calibration lines from CV measurements. These findings are used, for example, in analytics
or in the construction of sensors.

3.3 Experiment 3: Ascorbic Acid as a Nonreversible Redox Reagent

For experiment 3, dissolve 0.1 g of ascorbic acid in 20 mL of the electrolyte solution.

Subsequently, two consecutive measurements are carried out in the range from -0.3 to +1.2 volts
at a scan rate of 50 mV/s.
A clear oxidation peak at around +0.65 volts can be observed in both scans. However, the peak
of the second scan is lower than that of the first (cf. Fig.5.). The occurrence of the oxidation peaks
can be attributed to the oxidation of ascorbic acid in the solution: The ascorbic acid molecule is
present in the solution deprotonated and is reversibly oxidized to a radical by the applied potential.
During this oxidation, a proton and an electron are released. The resulting radical is then
irreversibly oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid, releasing a second electron (cf. Fig.6.). As this
second oxidation step is irreversible, the dehydroascorbic acid cannot be reduced back to
ascorbic acid [8]. Therefore, no reduction peak can be observed.

Fig.5. Two consecutive measurements of an ascorbic acid solution (blue curve: first measurement; green
curve: second measurement, immediately after the first measurement).

This also explains the lower peak height during the second scan: After the first scan, a layer of
dehydroascorbic acid is present on the electrode surface. The layer cannot be oxidized again and
diffuses away from the electrode only slowly. For this reason, the scan carried out immediately
after the first only shows a low concentration of ascorbic acid on the electrode surface (low peak
height). If the electrode is left to rest for a few minutes and another measurement is carried out,
a higher peak can be observed again.

Fig.6. Oxidation mechanism of ascorbic acid.

70 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4. Results of First Tests of the Experiments in a Teacher Education Lab Course

In 2023, the designed experiments were tested and evaluated in a teacher education lab course
at the University of Göttingen. First, the students read a short information text on the basics of the
measurement method (comparable to chapter 2.1). This text did not cover concrete instructions
for the set-up of the measuring apparatus or a technical introduction to the measuring program.
Rather, this information was shared while experimenting.
The order of the experiments from chapter 3 proved to be favourable due to its steady increase
in difficulty to interpret the curves.
The students described the simultaneous introduction and discussion of theoretical and practical
aspects of the measurement method as quite uncomplicated and easy to understand. In addition,
the instruction with parallel execution of the experiments only took about 2 hours and no long
preparatory work was necessary.
The students particularly appreciated the fact that CV allowed them to directly perceive and
"experience" the course of redox processes. Many of them had experienced electrochemistry as
a very theoretical field lacking clarity about the exact processes. The use of a modern measuring
method and the detective-like interpretation of the peaks was described as motivating and as an
interesting insight into current research. The short measurement time and simple digital data
analysis were also conceived positively.
The students could well imagine to use CV in combination with teaching units on energy storage
or complex chemistry. Even to include CVGs into their classes without taking own measurements
seemed conceivable to the participants, as the curves illustrate oxidation and reduction processes
very clearly.
These experiments show that prospective teachers are very interested in modern measurement
methods which demonstrate basic processes in chemistry clearer than before. Without a
comprehensive practical introduction on the method and sufficient practice, however, the students
admitted that they would not have felt confident enough to use it in school. These statements
strongly emphasize the importance of didactically designed experiments and simple,
understandable introductions to the measurement method.
With this in mind, the next step is to find further experiments which use cyclic voltammetry for
repetition, application, consolidation and extension of central topics in secondary education.

REFERENCES

[1] Compton, R. G. & Banks, C. E. (2018): Understanding Voltammetry. Third Edition. World
Scientific Publishing Europe, London.
[2] Elgrishi, N., Rountree, K. J., McCarthy, B. D., Rountree, E. S., Eisenhart, T. T. & Dempsey,
J. L. (2018). A Practical Beginner’s Guide to Cyclic Voltammetry. J. Chem. Educ. 95(2),
197-206. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00361.
[3] Heinze, J. (1984): Cyclic Voltammetry – “Electrochemical Spectroscopy”. New Analytical
Methods 23(11), 831-847. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.198408313.
[4] Aristov, N. & Habekost, A. (2015): Cyclic Voltammetry – A Versatile Electrochemical
Method Investigating Electron Transfer Processes. World Journal of Chemical Education
3(5), 115-119. https://doi.org/10.12691/WJCE-3-5-2.
[5] Atkins, P. & Paula, J. D. (2006): Atkins’ Physical Chemistry. Eighth Edition. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
[6] Keune, V., Waitz, T. & Irmer, E. (2022): Photodegradation of Riboflavin – Model
Experiments on Photo Processes in Chemistry Class. New Perspectives in Science
Education. Conference Proceedings, 86-91.
[7] Barke, H.-D. (2006): Chemiedidaktik. Diagnose und Korrektur von Schülervorstellungen.
Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
[8] Hu, I.F. & Kuwana, T. (1986): Oxidative mechanism of ascorbic acid at glassy carbon
electrodes. Analytical Chemistry 58(14), 3235-3239. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac00127a069.
71 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Transparent Inorganic Metal Oxide Solar Cells in Chemistry

Class
Edwin Bogdan1, Jan Fleischer2, Thomas Waitz3

Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Department of

Chemistry Education, Germany1,2,3

Abstract

Due to the increasing challenges related to climate crisis and energy supply, the development of
renewable energy sources is a major field of research and important for sustainable
developments. In this context, solar cells play an important role and are already widely applied
based on silicon. Nevertheless, silicon solar cells exhibit disadvantages such as a high energy
demand in production and the requirement of highly pure raw material [1]. For these reasons, the
working principle of silicon solar cells can only be discussed theoretically in chemistry classes,
but their production under school conditions is not possible. Because of the disadvantages related
to silicon solar cells, alternative solar cells like Grätzel cells [2] and perovskite solar cells [3] have
already been subject in scientific research and can - in contrast to silicon solar cells - be easily
built within a school lesson [4-5]. Furthermore, pure inorganic solar cells based on combined thin
films of p- and n-semiconducting oxides of titanium and nickel have come into interest of
researchers [6]. Being optically transparent and durable, their future integration as a photovoltaic
active layer in windows is discussed, deposited by physical techniques like sputtering. For
educational purposes, we developed a process to replace sputtering by facile sol-gel-syntheses
which can be easily implemented in schools: After preparing a particle dispersion, thin films of
two semiconducting metal oxides creating a heterojunction are applied on conductively coated
glasses (FTO) with a self-built spin-coater assembled using low-cost components. In our
contribution, we present experiments as well as teaching and learning materials covering topics
from chemistry (sol-gel-synthesis) and physics (semiconductors) for upper secondary classes.

Keywords: solar cells, sol-gel-chemistry, renewable energies, education for sustainable development,
curricular innovations

1. Introduction

An annual world energy consumption of approx. 630 EJ [7] and the challenges of climate crisis
underline the need of renewable energy sources. Regarding the energy amount, most renewable
energy can be obtained from solar radiation on earth, which is approx. 725000 EJ [7] per year.
Hence, solar energy can make an important contribution to the reduction of fossil energies and
carbon dioxide emission. The large amount of space occupied by conventional solar cells and the
high energy requirements during production necessitate research into new types of solar cells
which can be used on areas that previously seemed unsuitable for solar cells. In this context, UV-
light-harvesting transparent solar cells which have the potential to be applied as windows have
been investigated [6]. Large cities have more window areas than roof areas, which makes the
use of solar cells in windows appear interesting. The topic offers points of reference for education
for sustainable development (ESD), and the consideration of real-life feasibility also has the
potential to be used for discussion scenarios in lessons.
Transparent solar cells can be fabricated from p- and n-semiconducting metal oxides, for example
titanium(IV)-oxide and nickel(II)-oxide. Creating a pn-heterojunction between two intrinsically
doped semiconductive metal oxides, these solar cells are similar to silicon solar cells which
consist of p- and n-doped silicon and can serve as a illustrative model. For school purposes, the
technique of sputtering applied in [6] is replaced by sol-gel-process. After describing basic
principles of metal oxide solar cells and sol-gel-chemistry, the fabrication and investigation of a
solar cell made of titanium(IV)-oxide and nickel(II)-oxide as well as educational perspectives are
presented in this paper.
72 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2. Theoretical Background

2.1 Working Principle of a Metal Oxide Solar Cell (MOSC)

Conventional silicon solar cells generally contain silicon doped with heteroatoms like boron (3
valence electrons, p-type semiconductor) or phosphorus (5 valence electrons, n-type
semiconductor). In MOSCs, two different metal oxides are combined, e.g., titanium(IV)-oxide and
nickel(II)-oxide. Titanium(IV)-oxide (TiO2) mainly contains titanium atoms with the oxidation state
of +IV, but is a non-stochiometric oxide with small amounts of titanium atoms having the oxidation
state of +III. Taking this fact into account, the chemical formula of TiO2 can also be written as
TiO2-x. [8] The resulting excess of electrons leads to n-doping. Nickel(II)-oxide (NiO) also contains
nickel atoms with an oxidation state of +III leading to an intrinsic p-doping (NiOx).
Due to the combination of different n-doped and a p-doped semiconductors, a depletion layer is
formed (pn-heterojunction). UV irradiation with enough energy is able to overcome the band gap
and causes the formation of electron-hole-pairs (excitons). Electric current flows if the electric
circuit is closed (figure 1) [6].

Figure 1. Working principle of a MOSC with titanium(IV)-oxide as n-type semiconductor and nickel(II)-
oxide as p-type semiconductor.

2.2 Sol-Gel-Process

The sol-gel-process is a common method to synthesize thin films of metal oxides. The term “sol”
refers to a dispersion of particles formed by small precursor molecules. In many cases, the sol is
prepared by the hydrolysis of a metal alkoxide forming hydroxy groups. In the following, the
precursor molecules condense forming dispersed sol particles [10]. To increase wettability and
stability of the sol, additives such as ethylene glycol or 2-aminoethanol are sometimes added.
Figure 2a shows the sol-gel-process using the example of titanium(IV)-oxide. After preparation,
the sol is applied on a FTO glass. Various coating techniques can be used for this purpose. In
spin coating, the rotation of a plate distributes the sol evenly and forms a gel layer which becomes
solid during subsequent temperature treatment (figure 2b). In this paper, we use spin coaters
assembled from PC fans and 3D-printed covers (figure 2c) [11].
73 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 2: Elements of the sol-gel-process forming titanium(IV)-oxide (a: hydrolysis of the precursor
titanium(IV)-isopropoxide, condensation and formation of sol particles, b: spin-coating technique; c: low-
cost spin coater assembled from a PC fan with 3D-printed cover).

3. Experimental Section

3.1 Preparation of Titanium and Nickel Oxides by Sol-Gel-Technique

Equipment: snap-cap vial, beaker (25 mL), Eppendorf pipette, pipette (10 mL), spatula, heating
plate (ceramic, temperature range up to 500 °C), magnetic stirrer, double-sided adhesive tape,
adhesive tape, FTO glass (e.g., Sigma Aldrich), spin-coater (see figure 2c), multimeter

Chemicals: water, ethanol (anhydrous, GHS 02/07), propan-2-ol (GHS 02/07), hydrochloric acid
solution (w = 37%, GHS 05/07), 2-aminoethanol (GHS 05/07), ethylene glycol (GHS 07/08),
titanium(IV)-isopropoxide (GHS 02/07), nickel(II)-acetate tetrahydrate (GHS 07/08/09)

Safety Instruction: Work with nickel salts should be conducted under a fume hood wearing nitrile
gloves.

Procedure: The titanium(IV)-oxide sol is prepared in a snap-cap vial. Anhydrous ethanol

(250 µl) is mixed with hydrochloric acid solution (25 µl, c = 0.1 mol/L, ethanolic). Subsequently,
titanium(IV)-isopropoxide (25 µl) is added, and the solution is stirred to mix the sol. The sol has
to be used within 10 min.
The nickel(II)-oxide sol is prepared in a beaker (25 mL). A mixture of propan-2-ol (10 mL) and
2-aminoethanol (0.3 mL) is stirred with nickel(II)-acetate tetrahydrate (1.07 g). Afterwards,
ethylene glycol (0.2 mL) is added. The sol is usable after a resting period of 24 h and is storable
for up to 1 month.
The metal oxide thin films are prepared according to the following steps:
1. A FTO-glass (3 cm x 3.5 cm) is cleaned with deionized water and ethanol. After drying, the
conducting side is determined using a multimeter.
2. The FTO-glass is placed on the benchtop with the conductive side facing up. About 20% of
the conducting surface is covered with adhesive tape. The titanium(IV)-oxide sol (100 µl) is
applied on the surface and gently distributed evenly across the surface to receive a
homogenous film.
3. The FTO-glass is attached in the middle of the spin-coater with double-sided adhesive tape
and the spin-coating process is started (approx. 25 s)
4. After spin-coating, the FTO-glass is carefully removed from the spin-coater, and all adhesive
tapes are removed. Subsequently, it is placed on the heating plate and heated at 500 °C for
20 min.
5. After cooling, the process is repeated with the nickel(II)-oxide sol, starting from step 2. The
coated FTO glass is needed for the fabrication of the solar cell in 3.2.

Results: After applying the titanium(IV)-oxide sol and tempering on the heating plate, a thin film
can be observed which appears slightly colored in the backlight (figure 3). This observation is
repeated after the second layer has been applied.
74 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 3. Interference effects of titanium(IV)-oxide layer (Note: To improve visibility, the titanium(IV)-layer
was deposited on a silicon wafer).

Interpretation: Due to hydrolysis and condensation reactions and subsequent tempering, thin
films of titanium(IV)-oxide and nickel(II)-oxide are formed. Interference effects on the thin layers
are responsible for the color impression.

Characterization of layers: To investigate layer composition, small pieces of a silicon wafer were
coated with the titanium(IV)-oxide sol and the nickel(II)-oxide sol. After spin-coating, they were
tempered at 500 °C for 20 min.
Subsequently, X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurement was performed using a Bruker D8 Advance
XRD with CuKα radiation (λ = 154 pm). Figure 4 shows XRD reflexes compared to literature [12-
13].
According to [14], thin films prepared by sol-gel-process have a thickness of several hundred
nanometers, which we were able to confirm for titanium dioxide by means of SEM. In addition,
the observed interference effects can be explained by a layer thickness in this range.

Figure 4. Characterization of metal oxide layers (XRD spectra of of titanium(IV)-oxide layer and nickel(II)-
oxide layer).

3.2 Fabrication and Investigation of a Transparent Solar Cell

Equipment: coated FTO glass (see 3.1), FTO glass (approx. 3 cm x 3.5 cm), binder clips,
transparent adhesive tape, UV LED (λ = 365 nm, e.g., LG Innotek UV SM-LED 3535), cables,
crocodile clamps multimeter

Chemicals: water, ethanol (GHS 02/07)

Safety Instruction: Take care not to look into the UV LED. If necessary, special UV safety
goggles can be worn.

Procedure: Another FTO-glass (3 cm x 3.5 cm) is cleaned with deionized water and ethanol.
After drying, the conducting side is determined using a multimeter. The conductive side is placed
on top of the coated FTO-glass and secured by wrapping with transparent adhesive tape. Binder
clips are added to stabilize the solar cell. The solar cell is connected to a multimeter using cables
75 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

and crocodile clamps and illuminated with the UV LED (distance approx. 1 cm). Open-circuit
voltage (UOC) and short-circuit current (ISC) are measured, respectively. Figure 5 shows the
assembly of the MOSC and the experimental setup.

Figure 5. Assembly of the MOSC and experimental setup (a: parts of the solar cell [binder clips, coated
FTO glass, uncoated FTO glass, from left to right], b: transparency of the solar cell,
c: experimental setup).

Results: When illuminating the cell with the UV LED, an increase of open-circuit voltage UOC and
short-circuit current ISC can be measured. The measured short-circuit current ISC is approx. 20 µA
and the open-circuit voltage UOC is approx. 490 mV.

Interpretation: The photons emitted by the UV LED have enough energy to induce a photovoltaic
effect in the solar cell, i.e., the formation of excitons. Due to the electric circuit closed in this setup,
an electric current is able to flow.

4. Educational Perspectives

4.1 General Aspects

The topic of MOSCs offers various opportunities to connect with K-12 chemistry and physics. In
this context, metal oxide solar cells represent a new solar cell type accessible at schools and line
up next to perovskite solar cells and Grätzel cells which have already been didactically
developed.[2][3] One advantage of metal oxide solar cells is their similarity to conventional silicon
solar cells having too large demands of energy and purity of materials for an assembly in a simple
hands-on experiment. Hence, they only serve as a didactic black box. Characteristics of
semiconductors and the general working principle of solar cells can be repeated and deepened
using the example of metal oxide solar cells. As a possible link to chemical aspects, the topic of
oxidation numbers taught in schools can be applied here because it is useful to explain how the
metal oxides serve as p- and n-semiconductors. The similarities to n- and p-doped silicon
described above then become clear. Possible changes of band gaps due to the formation of a
heterojunction are disregarded, which can be interpreted as a educational reduction. The
transparency of the solar cell can serve as proof for the students that only light in the UV range is
absorbed.
As an outlook on further research, the application of other metal oxides for MOSCs is a possible
topic. For example, zinc(II)-oxide is a n-type semiconductor and copper(II)-oxide a p-type
semiconductor. In our tests, MOSCs with these metal oxides delivered a lower output in
comparison to MOSCs with titanium(IV)-oxide and nickel(II)-oxide. In addition, it is also possible
to coat two metal oxides onto several FTO glasses. In this scenario, students test different
semiconductor combinations and experience that only a solar cell consisting of p-type and n-type
semiconductor is functional. Otherwise, neither photovoltage nor photocurrent can be measured.
In addition, a possible combination of e.g., titanium(IV)-oxide and copper(II)-oxide has the
potential to minimize safety risks.
76 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

To enhance the performance of the MOSC described in 3.2, carbon powder can be distributed on
the coated FTO glass before placing the second FTO glass. This significantly improves the
performance of the cell, but leads to a loss of optical transparency. Due to its increased power,
this solar cell is able to charge a small capacitor (e.g., C = 0.1 F, t = 30 min) that can be used to
operate a wing motor for a few seconds.
Furthermore, MOSCs as a new type of solar cells can make an important contribution to education
for sustainable development (ESD), which is subject of the following section.

4.2 ESD Aspects

ESD brings sustainability aspects into chemistry education and offers various opportunities to
debate on transparent MOSCs. According to [15], ESD consists of three perspectives: economic,
ecological and social perspective. Students assess MOSCs as a new technology and evaluate
whether the application of MOSCs as photovoltaic windows makes sense in terms of economy,
ecology and social aspects. One possible point is that transparent solar cells only absorb light in
the UV range. Hence, they use a comparatively small proportion of the sunlight. To examine this,
students compare the absorption spectrum of a transparent MOSC with the solar spectrum.
Additionally, the solar cell can be irradiated with light of different wavelengths applying
monochromator filters, which reveals that e.g., green and red light do not have enough energy to
induce a photovoltaic effect. In contrast to this point, photovoltaic windows offer the potential to
open up areas previously unsuitable for solar cells because large amount of space used by
conventional silicon solar cells is already perceived as a problem by some people (social aspect).
Especially in cities, photovoltaic windows can open up large areas for use. Furthermore, costs of
production (economic aspect), recycling aspects and toxicity of MOSCs (ecological aspects) can
be discussed. One possible scenario for a chemistry lesson dealing with photovoltaic windows is
a panel discussion.

5. Conclusion

In conclusion, MOSCs emerge as a viable alternative to existing solar cells such as Grätzel cells
or perovskite solar cells, especially for integration into chemistry classes. MOSCs can be built
using the sol-gel-process and spin-coating technique, making the process straightforward and
comprehensible for students. This approach requires minimal quantities of readily available
chemicals and consumes only little time. From an educational perspective, it offers opportunities
for comparing the functional principles with silicon solar cells in semiconductor physics, exploring
oxidation states, evaluating the transparency and possible real-life feasibility of transparent solar
cells connected to ESD aspects.

Acknowledgement

We thank Christoph Weidmann for support in the laboratory and XRD measurements.

REFERENCES

[1] Klugmann-Radziemska, E. (2023). Environmental Assessment of Solar Cell Materials.

Ecol. Chem. Eng. S, 30(1), 23–35. https://doi.org/ 10.2478/eces-2023-0002
[2] O'Regan, B., & Grätzel, M. (1991). A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-
sensitized colloidal TiO2 films. Nature, 353(6346), 737–740.
https://doi.org/10.1038/353737a0
[3] Kim, J. Y., Lee, J.-W., Jung, H. S., Shin, H., & Park, N.-G. (2020). High-Efficiency
Perovskite Solar Cells. Chem. Rev., 120(15), 7867–7918.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00107
[4] Siemsen, F., Bunk, A., Fischer, K., Korneck, F., Engel, H., & Roux, D. (1998). Solar
energy from spinach and toothpaste: fabrication of a solar cell in schools. Eur. J. Phys.,
19(1), 51–58. https://doi.org/10.1088/0143-0807/19/1/008
[5] Cherrette, V. L., Hutcherson, C. J., Barnett, J. L., & So, M. C. (2018). Fabrication and
Characterization of Perovskite Solar Cells: An Integrated Laboratory Experience. J.
Chem. Educ., 95(4), 631–635. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00299
[6] Nguyen, T. T., Patel, M., & Kim, J. (2020). All-inorganic metal oxide transparent solar
cells. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 217, 110708.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2020.110708
[7] Perez, M., & Perez, R. (2022). Update 2022 – A fundamental look at supply side energy
reserves for the planet. Solar Energy Advances, 2, 100014.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seja.2022.100014
77 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[8] Bak, T., Nowotny, J., & Nowotny, M. K. (2006). Defect disorder of titanium dioxide. J.
Phys. Chem. B, 110(43), 21560–21567. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp063700k
[9] Islam, R., Chen, G., Ramesh, P., Suh, J., Fuchigami, N., Lee, D., Littau, K. A.,
Weiner, K., Collins, R. T., & Saraswat, K. C. (2017). Investigation of the Changes in
Electronic Properties of Nickel Oxide (NiOx) Due to UV/Ozone Treatment. ACS Appl.
Mater. Interfaces, 9(20), 17201–17207. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b01629
[10] Schneller, T. (2009). Simple Alkoxide Based Precursor Systems. In T. Schneller, R.
Waser, M. Kosec, & D. Payne (Eds.), Chemical Solution Deposition of Functional Oxide
Thin Films (pp. 3–28). Springer.
[11] [11] Lanfermann, P., Waitz, T., & Christin Maaß, M. (2023). Approaching Tandem Solar
Cells in Chemistry Classes. World J. Chem. Educ., 11(3), 60–64.
https://doi.org/10.12691/wjce-11-3-7
[12] [12] AL-Harbi, L. M., El-Mossalamy, E. H., Arafa, H. M., Al-Owais, A., & Shah, M. A.
(2011). TiO2 Nanoparticles with Tetra-pad Shape Prepared by an Economical and Safe
Route at very Low Temperature. Mod. Appl. Sci., 5(3).
https://doi.org/10.5539/mas.v5n3p130
[13] [13] Srivastava, N., & Srivastava, P. C. (2010). Realizing NiO nanocrystals from a simple
chemical method. Bull. Mater. Sci., 33(6), 653–656. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12034-011-
0142-0
[14] [14] Yu, J., Zhao, X., & Zhao, Q. (2000). Effect of film thickness on the grain size and
photocatalytic activity of the sol-gel derived nanometer TiO2 thin films. J. Mater. Sci.
Lett., 19(12), 1015–1017. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006705316651
[15] [15] Burmeister, M., Rauch, F., & Eilks, I. (2012). Education for Sustainable Development
(ESD) and chemistry education. Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 13(2), 59–68.
https://doi.org/10.1039/C1RP90060A
78 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Nanomedicine: A Digital Learning Module for Chemistry

Education

Antonia Fruntke1, Nicolai ter Horst2, Timm Wilke1*

Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Institute for Chemistry,

Chemistry Education, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany1
Friedrich Schiller Universität Jena, Institute for Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry,
Chemistry Education, 07743 Jena, Germany2

Abstract

The awarding of the Nobel Prizes in Chemistry and Medicine in 2023 is closely related to
nanotechnology. Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman received the prize in the medical field for
fundamental research on mRNA vaccines against Covid-19, where the mRNA is encapsulated in
lipid nanoparticles to prevent premature degradation by enzymes [1]. With this in mind, we present
a way to convey this topic in chemistry education for schools and student labs. For this, we use
the innovative method of a digital differentiation grid [2], and for the specific context, we focus on
nanomedicine, or more precisely: targeted drug delivery. Conventional pharmaceutical drug
systems usually have a systemic effect and cause severe side effects throughout the body due
to the high doses applied. However, at the site of infection, the dose is often insufficient for
successful treatment. This problem can be solved by using targeted drug delivery systems (DDS).
Similar to mRNA vaccines, the active pharmaceutical ingredients are wrapped in nanoparticles
and protected, thus preventing early release. The active ingredient is only released at the required
location induced by pre-defined stimuli, such as pH or temperature. Within the learning module,
various experiments and exercises about DDS are conducted, allowing students to gain insight
into this current research topic [3]. The structure is based on a differentiation grid, enabling the
topic to be approached individually depending on learning requirements [2]. Moreover, we use
iPads and eBooks that include further digital elements to enhance students' motivation and
engagement with the topic.

Keywords: nanotechnology, nanomedicine, medicine, drug delivery

1. Introduction

The application of drugs in the form of nanoparticulate drug delivery systems (DDS) offers a great
potential for targeted and personalized treatment for a wide range of diseases, such as sepsis or
tumor diseases. By loading polymer nanoparticles with active pharmaceutical ingredients (API)
and releasing them in a targeted manner at the diseased organ or tissue in response to stimuli,
the required dose and bioavailability can be optimized. Overall, in contrast to systemic drugs,
there are fewer side effects and complications, while the treatment is more efficient [4,5].
Based on a series of best-practice experiments for chemistry lessons on the topic of DDS, in
which students experimentally follow the complete process, from polymer synthesis, formulation
and loading to targeted release, this publication presents a further developed digital learning
module on the topic of nanomedicine.
The aim is to enable pupils with different learning requirements to take an independent look at
this innovative subject area. Tablets support the learning module and enable additional interactive
tasks and aids. First tests of the learning module show positive trends.

2. Series of Experiments as the Central Element of the Learning Module

The basis for the differentiation matrix is a previously developed three-part test series by Fruntke,
Behnke, Stafast et al [3,6] (Figure 1).
79 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 1. Overview of the test series on the topic of drug delivery systems [3].

In a first step, the students independently synthesize the polymer poly-δ-valerolactone (PδVL),
which is a simple polyester. The experiment only takes a few minutes and is easy to follow
visually. The colorless, liquid monomer δ-valerolactone (δVL) reacts by adding the initiator
ethanol and the catalyst 1,5,7-triazabicyclo [4.4.0] dec-5-ene (TBD) in a ring-opening
polymerization to the white, wax-like polymer PδVL.
In the second step, the synthesized hydrophobic PδVL is used as a starting material for
nanoprecipitation to formulate the particles. For this purpose, the polymer is dissolved in the
solvent acetone and then injected into water (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Formulation of the polymeric nanoparticles [6].

It is important to ensure that the solvent is miscible with water. The fluorescent dye Nile red is
used to load the particles instead of an API.
This can also be dissolved in acetone and added to the polymer solution before injection. Due to
the low boiling point of acetone, the solvent evaporates at room temperature. The process is
faster by stirring and slightly heating the sample to 50 °C. The hydrophobic polymer forms the
nanoparticles in the water and the dye, which is also hydrophobic, is encapsulated.
Finally, in the third step of the test series, the focus is placed on the release as a result of
increasing the pH value. Alkaline ester hydrolysis follows by adding sodium hydroxide solution.
80 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

As a result, the particles are degraded, and the encapsulated Nile red dye is released. This can
be observed optically due to the bad solubility of Nile red in water [6].

3. Development of a Digital Differentiation Matrix

In order to enable pupils of different abilities to familiarize themselves with the topic of DDS, the
newly developed approach of digitally differentiated learning modules was applied. This approach
has already received a positive response in other research projects [7]. The aim is to get pupils
interested in the innovative topic of nanomedicine in a variety of ways. The learning module is
designed for upper secondary schools.
A 3x3 differentiation matrix [8] builds the basis of the learning module. It contains fields of varying
thematic and cognitive complexity. Students can decide by themselves which field they work
within the matrix. The stations in the lab are set up in multiple ways for this purpose.
Similar to a coordinate system, the matrix is divided into x-axis and y-axis. On the x-axis, the
complexity increases thematically. That means that aspects of the topic, that are easier to
understand are on the left, while the more complex aspects can be found on the right. The y-axis
is based on the first stages of Bloom's learning taxonomy, to which fields were constructed
accordingly [9]: Knowing, understanding, and applying. Thus, the overall complexity increases
from field A1 (easiest) to C3 (most difficult). Within the fields, a distinction is made between two
main formats: experiments and task fields. The first are based on the series of experiments
described, while the tasks involve working on theoretical aspects by using digital materials. The
students work on the module in pairs.
To give students an overview of their individual progress in the completed learning fields, the
differentiation matrix is provided as a kind of content overview embedded in e-books. Each
student is provided with an iPad for this purpose. The individual fields can then be accessed via
the matrix, which takes the students to the linked material including tasks, instructions and help
cards. A sample solution for independent checking is also included.

3.1 Implementation of the Differentiation Matrix Using the Example of Nanomedicine

The learning module covers various basic aspects for students about nanomedicine / DDS. Three
subject areas are listed along the y-axis. In column A "Nanoparticles in medicine", basic contents
are presented. In topic field B, the focus is on the background and the methods of preparation of
polymer nanoparticles. The C fields deal with the loading and targeted release of API.
The following content is included in the individual subject areas:
Subject area A:
A1: Definition and size of nanoparticles.
A2: Transport of API using DDS.
A3: In this station, the students can become doctors themselves. They should select
suitable DDS and justify which one is possible for treatment.
Subject area B:
B1: Polymers, their production and their everyday use.
B2: Experimental station: At this station, students can synthesize a suitable
polymer for a DDS and check the properties.
B3: Experimental station: At this station, nanoparticles are synthesized from the
polymer.
Subject area C:
C1: Nanoprecipitation method for the formation of nanoparticles is explained in more
detail.
C2: Experimental station: Formulation of a DDS: Use of the nanoprecipitation
method, loading with the dye (instead of API) Nile red.
C3: Experimental station: Investigation of the degradation of nanoparticles and pH-
sensitive release.
Figure 3 shows an overview of the matrix.
81 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 3. Overview of differentiation matrix on the topic of nanomedicine [2].

The aim is for students to work on at least four fields within a three-hour school lab course.

3.2 Experience in Practical Implementation

The learning module was piloted with pupils (N=20) in a laboratory course and with teachers
(N=20) in two teacher training courses. (Figure 3).

Figure 4. Piloting of the learning module. left: in a student laboratory course, right: within a teacher training
course.

The feedback so far has been predominantly positive, while a more detailed evaluation is still
pending. The integration of the series of experiments into the digitally differentiated learning
module is described as purposeful and multifaceted. The various insights into the different areas
of DDS are emphasized. The students describe the range of interactive aids and learning videos
as very helpful.
The availability of a WiFi signal and tablets in the classroom set should be mentioned as technical
requirements. The materials required essentially correspond to typical school equipment; the
chemicals δ-valerolactone and Nile red are commercially and widely available at low cost.

REFERENCES

[1] Nobel Prize organization. "Nobel Prizes 2023", https://www.nobelprize.org/all-nobel-

prizes-2023/ (last access 2023-10-10).
[2] Fruntke, A., Horst, N. ter, Bley, C., Blümbott, B., Behnke, M., M. Stafast, L., Vollrath, A.,
S. Schubert, U., Wilke, T. "Nanomedicine in Chemistry Education: Development of a
Digital Learning Module with Real Life Experiments", WJCE, 2023, 11/3, 97–103.
[3] Fruntke, A., Behnke, M., Stafast, L. M., Träder, T., Dietel, E., Vollrath, A., Weber, C.,
Schubert, U. S., Wilke, T. "Targeted Drug Delivery: Synthesis of Smart Nanocarriers for
School Chemistry Education", J. Chem. Educ., 2023, 100/2, 751–759.
[4] Sung, Y. K., Kim, S. W. "Recent advances in polymeric drug delivery systems.
Biomaterials research", 2020, 24, 12.
[5] Englert, C., Brendel, J. C., Majdanski, T. C., Yildirim, T., Schubert, S., Gottschaldt, M.,
Windhab, N., Schubert, U. S. "Pharmapolymers in the 21st century: Synthetic polymers
in drug delivery applications", Progr. in Polym.Sci., 2018, 87, 107–164.
82 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[6] Fruntke, A., Behnke, M., Dietel, E., Vollrath, A., Schubert, U. S., Wilke, T. "Nanomedicine
in chemistry education: Targeted drug delivery with polymer nanoparticles", CHEMKON,
2024.
[7] ter Horst, N., Wilke, T., "Digital and difficulty-differentiated Learning Modules in a Student
Laboratory Context: A Pilot Study. New Perspectives in Science Education", Filodiritto
Publisher, 2023.
[8] Sasse, A., & Schulzeck, U. “Inklusiven Unterricht planen, gestalten und reflektieren: Die
Differenzierungsmatrix in Theorie und Praxis“, Bad Heilbrunn, Stuttgart: Verlag Julius
Klinkhardt; UTB GmbH, 2021.
[9] Bloom, B. S. "Taxonomy of educational objectives. The classification of educational
goals", Longman, London, 1979.
83 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Situational Interest in Medical Contexts for Chemistry

Education: Construction of a Survey Instrument
Elisabeth Dietel1,2, Timm Wilke2

Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Institute for Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry,

Chemistry Education Department, Germany1
Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Institute for Chemistry,
Chemistry Education Department, Germany2

Abstract

Interest is an important asset for students’ learning success and achievement. Even though
teachers mostly cannot influence their students’ individual interests, they can use interesting
topics to stimulate situational interest in learning situations as a first step of interest genesis [1].
Creating contexts is one promising way to enhance personal relevance and everyday relations
as triggers for situational interest. Using insights from different interest studies [2,3], medicine
could represent a unique intersection of topics that seem interesting for young people of all
gender. Besides their interestingness, medical aspects offer great overlaps with important
curriculum contents in chemistry education. Despite the long-known potential of medicine as an
interesting topic, it has only punctually been pursued further for usage in chemistry lessons away
from few university level courses.
In this article, we present the process to narrow down the rather broad topic of “medicine” for
chemistry education to create special medical contexts appropriate for different school levels,
namely “breaking and healing bones”, “blood circulation” and “wound dressings and closure”.
Further, we address the above-mentioned research gap by constructing a survey instrument for
measuring situational interest in selected medical aspects that are directly connected with
curriculum contents. All three contexts are joint together as the bigger theme “injury, blood and
wounds”. For measuring students’ interest structures, we designed an online questionnaire based
on studies concerning the interestingness of learning contexts in chemistry education [4] and
consisting of three different parts: (1) analyzing individual interest in chemistry, (2) introducing
students to our medical contexts using self-made videos, and (3) measuring the interestingness
and the familiarity of the presented context as well as analyzing potential interest in learning using
these contexts. Having analyzed the data from the pilot study of our questionnaire, we draw first
conclusions on how interesting our contexts are for students and how to optimize the instrument
for the main survey.

Keywords: medicine, situational interest, context-based learning, situated expectancy-value theory

1. Introduction

Whether it is concerning the structure and function of our body, its injuries or how it is healed and
maintained healthy – medical topics are highly relevant to the daily lives of students. Several
studies have already shown that medicine is an interesting subject area for all genders [2,3]. It
has been well established that interest positively influences various factors of learning, e.g.
motivation, involvement, attention, and performance [5]. According to the Situated Expectancy-
Value Theory (SEVT) by Eccles et al. [6], the interestingness, usefulness, and relevance of tasks
predict performance-related behaviour. Unfortunately, however, subjects such as chemistry and
physics are often considered abstract, dry and useless by students [7], which contributes - even
more than in other subjects - to a loss of interest over time at school, especially among girls.
Medicine therefore opens a wide range of opportunities to design gender-equitable and
interesting learning environments. One of the origins for the rather negative perception of
chemistry may be an unfavourable choice of contexts in which the learning content is taught,
especially if students gain the impression that the learning content is barely relevant for their
personal lives [8]. Even if medicine and chemistry appear to be clearly separate subject areas at
first glance, most medical backgrounds can be seen as the interplay of complex biochemical
reactions and physical phenomena. At the same time, there are connections to other important
areas of research such as technology or pharmaceutics. The project presented is therefore
84 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

dedicated to the question of how a promising field such as medicine, which is universally
perceived as interesting and relevant, can be transformed into contexts for chemistry lessons. We
do not only aim to examine approaches for the design of three specific medical contexts, but also
explain how we plan to construct a survey instrument for measuring the situational interest in the
contexts.

2. Theoretical Background

Fields of interest differentiate during adolescence as a normal development away from universal
childhood curiosity towards individual dispositions which is accompanied by a general average
decline in interest in individual school subjects, as most subjects no longer meet the individualized
wishes of students [9]. However, the decline in interest in the natural sciences of chemistry and
physics is particularly severe, especially among girls [7]. This is a problem that needs to be
addressed regarding the declining number of first-year students in Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) and the lack of women in scientific research [10]. It is not
possible for school education to directly influence individual interests. According to the model of
Hidi et al. (see Fig. 1), the development of interest begins with the awakening of situational
interest, which is ideally retained and can possibly eventually develop into a permanent
disposition [1]. But even without full internalization, situational interest is of particular importance
for learning, as it has a positive effect on motivation, attention, involvement, and ultimately also
performance by increasing the subjective task value (STV) [5,6].

Fig. 1. Four-Phase Model of Interest Development [1].

Interest itself can be considered regarding different conceptualizations and theories. Fig. 2
illustrates the most important theories and relations used for this framework. Emphasizing the
educational-psychological approach and therefore the Person-Object-Theory of Interest, both the
stable tendency to interact with an object and a current activity can contribute to the psychological
state of being interested in something [11]. Interest is divided into emotional-related and value-
related valences [12]. The value-related component plays a key role in designing learning
environments, as interest and STV are predictive for achievement-related behaviour within the
SEVT [6]. Accordingly, it is particularly advantageous to design learning environments with the
potential to trigger situational interest, and to emphasize the relevance of the learning contents
[13,14].
85 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig. 2. Theoretical Framework [1,4,6].

One way of constructing relevant and authentic lesson contents is to use contexts. The effects of
appropriate contexts have already been investigated for German chemistry lessons. It can be
stated that context-based materials, when used correctly, can positively influence the learning
process, especially when contexts are perceived as authentic and relevant, and when contexts
contain everyday problems for pupils with little individual interest. For pupils with a higher level of
individual interest, special contexts proved to be more conducive to learning. [4]
Within this theoretical framework, the question therefore arises as to how exactly suitable contexts
can be selected and designed to trigger situational interest and increase the STV. Interest studies
report that areas of interest differ significantly between genders and age groups. One of the few
subject areas that emerge from all study results as equally interesting for all target groups is
medicine. [2,3]
Not only do medical topics possess the ability to arouse interest, using medicine as a context also
includes the opportunity to put career-related gender stereotypes into perspective. Even if the
number of women studying STEM subjects slowly increases, health care professions still are on
top of the list of typical female careers, while technical professions are considered male career
domains [15]. Clarifying connections of medical areas to physical and technological topics such
as radiation, diagnostic imaging, surgical technology, and orthotics can either help drawing the
interest of boys away from stereotypical technology professions towards the field of medicine or
promoting girls’ interest in technology and natural sciences beyond biological subjects. Especially
using the aspect of danger could be promising to enhance boys’ interest in medical contexts [3].
Thus, medicine could in more than one way be beneficial for interesting, gender-equitable
teaching and should be examined further regarding context-based learning. However, the studies
in question do not specify which medical content is considered interesting. Above all, there is a
lack of studies on the possible use of these findings in the classroom.

3. Research Questions

Previous research has shown that contextualized learning materials with interesting topics can
have beneficial effects on learning and performance if students realize the personal relevance of
the context and a high value of the task. Since medicine as a "universally" interesting subject area
offers a promising opportunity to create contexts with interdisciplinary relations but specified
medical contexts are yet to be considered a research gap, the following research questions arise:

1. Which contexts with a medical background can be designed for chemistry lessons?
2. How can a survey instrument for measuring the interestingness of medical contexts be
constructed?

4. Research Design and Methods

The following section presents an approach to narrow down the wide range of interfaces between
medicine and chemistry considering advice from experts. According to the Model of Educational
Transfer Research [16], interlocking scientific research and didactic expertise results in a student-
friendly reconstruction of different medical phenomena and facts. As depicted in Fig. 3, the
86 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

methodological approach of the project does not only include Educational Transfer Research and
Didactic Reconstruction, but also takes aspects of Design Based Research [17] into account by
including survey results regarding the interestingness of different contexts into the next circle of
optimization.

Fig. 3. Methodological Framework [16,17].

4.1 Choosing Interfaces between Chemistry and Medicine and Constructing Contexts

New topics for educational settings must meet requirements such as a connection to the
respective subject curriculum, teachability and reducible complexity, few seductive details that
require too much background knowledge, and relevance to the everyday lives of students. For
chemistry lessons in particular, topics must also be suitable for the integration of experiments.
To crystallize which overlaps between medicine and chemistry are suitable contexts in chemistry
lessons, interfaces were first collected. For this purpose, experts working at the Faculty of
Chemistry and the University Hospital of the Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena were interviewed.
The resulting answers were grouped thematically in such a way that they belong together in terms
of chemical content. Isolated topics to which at least five medical aspects could not be assigned
were excluded.
The topics filtered by grade level were then presented to a group of ten teachers who are
responsible for developing the chemistry curriculum in Thuringia, Germany. The experts were
asked to list subject content that could be taught in the classroom using the medical topic. They
were also asked to indicate which core concepts and competencies could be developed using
this topic. A six-point Likert scale was used to assess the appropriateness, exemplarity, and
relevance to everyday life of each medical topic. Finally, an evaluation should be made regarding
the medical topic’s general suitability for chemistry lessons.
After deriving three specified medical topics from the assessment of the teachers’ expert group,
one topic each was assigned to one grade level, which means levels 7/8 (beginning lessons,
initial experiences in chemistry), 9/10 (lower secondary level, covering all core chemistry
contents) and 11/12 (upper secondary level, advanced and deepened content, graduation
preparation). Respective topics from the curriculum were identified and each medical area was
put together as a storyline for a learning context, including ideas for experiments that link chemical
and medical contents.

4.2 Assessment of Situational Interest

Because of the close relation and correlation of individual and situational interest regarding the
theoretical framework of the psychological construct of interest, individual interest in chemistry
and chemistry-related self-concept are as well constructs to be measured. Items for assessing
these were implemented based on the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) [18].
Referring to the rather limited research concerned with context-based learning especially in
chemistry education, a number of items for surveying situational interest was derived from the
work of Habig et al. [4], but was adapted with major changes to match the medical topics.
87 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 1. Structure of the questionnaire.

Part 1.1 Part 1.2 Context presentation Part 2
gender, grade level, individual interest pre-recorded video interestingness,
career interests familiarity

Aiming for surveying situational interest after a short presentation of each context without
influencing or biasing the answers to the items for individual items, the questionnaire was
subdivided in three different parts as Table 1 shows. In a first part, socio-demographic data like
age, gender, career interests in medical or chemical fields, and grade level were collected.
Additional to that, individual interest and chemistry-related self-concept were measured in this
part. After that, a short video was embedded for each context. The video was assembled as a
PowerPoint presentation in which photos, formula, and chemical equations were shown to link
medical and chemical aspects of the contexts. The presentations were backed with audio. The
videos were between three and four minutes long. Using filtering questions, every participant was
only shown the video fitting their grade level. In a third part of the questionnaire, both items for
measuring the interestingness of the context presentations and assessing the familiarity of the
medical topics were implemented. The questionnaire was presented via SoSci Survey.

5. Results and Discussion

5.1 Choosing Interfaces between Chemistry and Medicine and constructing Contexts

The 62 answers of 35 professional experts were grouped thematically and categorized into five
major themes after excluding isolated answers. Sorting the results was complicated by answers
from fields of narrow medical specialization. Some unique answers are depicted in Table 2.

Table 2. Examples of excluded isolated interfaces.

Medical phenomenon Chemical background
neurodegenerative disease protein folding
biodistribution of nanoparticles surface charge
targeted drug delivery chemical interaction on a receptor surface

It emerges from this selection of answers that experts seem to have thought about rather
outstanding phenomena from their own professional field showing the extremely wide range of
the general area “medicine”. These difficulties entail the necessity to use the answers clustered
into five major themes as an inspiration to expand them to include more everyday medical
phenomena. As shown in Table 3, the expanded major themes can be connected to different
fields of the chemical curriculum.

Table 3. Five major themes for potential medical contexts presented to the teacher group.
Major Medical Theme Chemical Curriculum Content
Blood and Respiration Circulation air consistency, oxygen-transport proteins
(haemoglobin), carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide, carbonate chemistry, blood buffer, blood
analysis
Healthy Nutrition carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, ionic
substances, toxins
Digestion pH value, acids, bases, acidic or alkaline cleavage
of chemical bonds (hydrolysis), enzymes
Pharmaceuticals structure and reactions of organic molecules (natural
and synthetic drugs), steroids, nanomedicine in drug
delivery
Injuries, Surgery and Wound chemical structure of pain killers (e.g., ASS),
Dressings narcotics, polymer chemistry

Regarding the federal structure of the German educational system, it must be considered that the
Thuringian curriculum used here is to be seen as an example [19]. Other federal states differ
slightly in their chemical curriculum, but superordinate topics stay the same for all curricula.
It appears that considering the evaluation of the teacher group, scientific competence (scientific
knowledge) and assessment competence are the most assigned competences for all five themes.
Scientific knowledge-gaining and scientific communication are mentioned occasionally.
Concerning the three core concepts from central German educational standards [20], all themes
are estimated to support the core concept „structure and characteristics of substances and
particles“ as well as some aspects of the core concept „chemical reaction“. The core concept
88 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

“energetics” is only mentioned once. Highly mentioned contents are “ionic substances” (grade
levels 7/8), “pH-value, acids and bases, buffers” (grade levels 9/10), “carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide” (grade levels 9/10), “complexes” (grade levels 11/12), and “polymers” (grade
levels 11/12). Therefore, it seems that all five themes show the potential to integrate adequate
elements of high-quality, competence-oriented chemistry lessons. To conclude which themes are
the most promising for constructing learning contexts, the overall assessments (see Fig.) 4 of
appropriateness, exemplarity, relevance, and total evaluation are considered as well.

95
90
85
Blood and Respiration
Percentage of Fulfilment

80
Circulation
75
70 Pharmaceuticals
65
60 Injuries,Surgery and Wound
55 Dressings
50 Healthy Nutrition
45
Digestion

Fig. 4. Context ratings of the teachers

The major themes “blood”, “pharmaceuticals”, and “surgery” are rated highest and therefore could
be used to construct differentiated contexts. The themes “nutrients” and “digestion” are rated
lower and are in large parts already allocated in the biology curriculum. Thus, they are excluded
from the further design process. Regarding the linkages between medical themes and the
curriculum (see Table 3), it is necessary to combine both perspectives to specialize promising
contexts to address a suitable amount of curricular content and at the same time containing
enough authentic everyday phenomena.
Referencing back to common studies about gender differences in adolescents’ interests [2,3],
male students often prefer topics related to dangerous, hazardous, and technical things while
female ones prefer caring or biological aspects. Therefore, context ideas with relations both to
injury, surgery, or medical technology and to health care or healing were constructed combining
the highest rated major medical themes and the curriculum contents mentioned by the teachers.
Table 4 gives an overview of the three resulting contexts and possible experiments (exp.) joining
all approaches under the title “injury, blood and wounds”.

Table 4. Overview of the resulting context design approaches.

Context and Grade Level Content and Experiments
7/8 – Breaking and Healing Bones ionic substances (e.g., calcium, phosphate, sulphate,
comparison to other ions), ion detection, x-ray and
computer tomography, iodine as a contrasting agent
examining the components of bones (exp.) [21]
producing bone substitute materials (exp.) [21]
examining plaster bandages (exp.)
9/10 – Blood Circulation structure of haemoglobin (iron ions, complexes), structure
of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, acid-base-
balance, pH value, carbonate chemistry, buffers
modelling the oxygen transport in the blood (exp.)
modelling the blood buffer (exp.)
modelling blood gas analysis (exp.)
11/12 – Wound Dressings and Closure polymers (polypropylene, polyesters, polysaccharides,
proteins), (poly)ester cleavage, polymer degradation, gel
formation and swelling behaviour
degradation of surgical sutures (exp.) [22]
calcium alginate formation (exp.)
comparison between hydrogel bandages and cotton
bandages (exp.)
89 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

5.2 Assessment of Situational Interest

After conducting a first (N = 83) and a second (N = 144) piloting of the questionnaire, two relevant
psychological constructs could be verified as different scales with good reliabilities ranging
between 0.8 and 0.9 (Cronbach’s α). It emerges from the data that especially younger students
seem to struggle with items concerning their self-concept. This could arise from PISA items being
designed for 9th grade students. Therefore, the self-concept was excluded from further
considerations. With the first scale, individual interest in chemistry as a school subject is
assessed. The second scale portrays the interestingness of the medical contexts and therefore
the situational interest. The results show that the students perceive the medical contexts as rather
interesting as the mean values for interestingness are in the upper third of the Likert scale. It also
emerges that the contexts are perceived as rather familiar.

6. Conclusion

In this article, we presented ideas for interesting and authentic medical contexts for chemistry
education including a tool for surveying their interestingness. It cannot be ruled out that there are
more promising medical context ideas that have not been in scope of this research so far. To
further examine the potential of the medical contexts presented here, the following main future
research prospects arise from the data collected so far.

1. The first draft of the storylines for implementing the medical contexts in real chemistry
lessons will be developed into contextualized learning materials including experiments,
fictional patient data, and contextualized tasks.
2. The survey instrument will constantly be evaluated and optimized, clearing limitations
arising from the piloting data.
3. Having the survey instrument for assessing the situational interest in medical contexts
ready to use, it is of interest to deeper investigate the relationship between individual
interest and interestingness. This could concern mediating factors or predictive effects on
other related psychological constructs.

Eventually, teacher trainings regarding the implementation of our medical contexts will be
developed. Even interdisciplinary projects and non-formal educational settings can play a role in
future research. We are convinced to be able to design authentic and interesting contextualized
learning environments for chemistry education throughout different grade levels.

REFERENCES

[1] Hidi, S., Renninger, K. A. (2006). The Four-Phase Model of Interest Development.
Educational Psychologist 41/2, 111–127.
[2] Hoffmann, L., Häußler, P., Lehrke, M. (1998). Die IPN-Interessensstudie Physik. Kiel.
[3] Sjoberg, S., Schreiner, C. (2005). How do learners in different cultures relate to science
and technology? Results and perspectives from the project ROSE (the Relevance of
Science Education). Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching 6/2.
[4] Habig, S., Blankenburg, J., van Vorst, H., Fechner, S., Parchmann, I., Sumfleth, E. (2018).
Context characteristics and their effects on students’ situational interest in chemistry.
International Journal of Science Education 40/10, 1154–1175.
[5] Harackiewicz, J. M., Smith, J. L., Priniski, S. J. (2016). Interest Matters: The Importance
of Promoting Interest in Education. Policy insights from the behavioral and brain sciences
3/2, 220–227.
[6] Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy-value theory to situated expectancy-
value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on
motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology 61, 101859.
[7] Sarabi, M. K., Gafoor, K. A. (2018). Student Perception on Nature of Subjects: Impact on
Difficulties in Learning High School Physics, Chemistry and Biology. Online Submission
8/1, 42–55.
[8] Holbrook, J. (2003). Rethink science education. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning
and Teaching 4/2, 1–13.
[9] Daniels, Z. (2008). Entwicklung schulischer Interessen im Jugendalter. Zugl.: Potsdam,
Berlin, Univ., Diss., 2004. Waxmann, Münster.
[10] Zandt, F. (2024). MINT mangelt es a Frauen. Statista.
[11] Krapp, A. (1999). Interest, motivation and learning: An educational-psychological
perspective. Eur J Psychol Educ 14/1, 23–40.
90 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[12] Schiefele, U. (1991). Interest, Learning, and Motivation. Educational Psychologist 26/3,
299–323.
[13] Hulleman, C. S., Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high
school science classes. Science (New York, N.Y.) 326/5958, 1410–1412.
[14] Ochsen, S., Bernholt, S., Bernholt, A., Parchmann, I. (2022). Chemie finde ich eigentlich
interessant, aber manchmal auch nicht – Zusammenhänge zwischen Merkmalen des
Chemieunterrichts und dem situationalen Interesse von Lernenden. Unterrichtswiss 50/3,
425–451.
[15] Suhr, F. (2023). Frauenberufe, Männerberufe? Statista.
[16] Fruntke, A., Behnke, M., Stafast, L. M., Träder, T., Dietel, E., Vollrath, A., Weber, C.,
Schubert, U. S., Wilke, T. (2022). Targeted Drug Delivery: Synthesis of Smart
Nanocarriers for School Chemistry Education. J. Chem. Educ.
[17] The Design-Based Research Collective (2003). Design-Based Research: An Emerging
Paradigm for Educational Inquiry. Educational Researcher 32/1, 5–8.
[18] Frey, A., Taskinen, P., Schütte, K., Prenzel, M., Artelt, C., Baumert, J., Blum, W.,
Hammann, M., Klieme, E., Pekrun, R. (2015). PISA 2006 Skalenhandbuch.
Dokumentation der Erhebungsinstrumente.
[19] Thüringer Ministerium für Bildung, Wissenschaft und Kulter (2012). Lehrplan für den
Erwerb der allgemeinen Hochschulreife. Chemie.
[20] Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusinister der Länder der Bundesrepublik
Deutschland (2020). Bildungsstandards im Fach Chemie für die Allgemeine
Hochschulreife.
[21] Dietel, E., Wilke, T. (2023). "Setting Chemistry in Motion: Medical Aspects of Bones and
Movement in Chemistry Education", New Perspectives in Science Education, Conference
Proceedings 2023, 53-58.
[22] Dietel, E., Wilke, T. (2023). "Stitch by Stitch: Medical Aspects of Polymers in Surgical
Suture Materials for Chemistry Education", New Perspectives in Science Education,
Conference Proceedings 2023, 59-63.
91 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Adapted Primary Literature about CO2 Reduction Reaction –

Chemists’ Research Approach to Protect the Climate
Philipp Lanfermann1, Marc Schrader2, Thomas Waitz3, Mona Christin Maaß4

Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Department of

Chemistry Education, Tammannstrasse 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany1,2,3,4

Abstract

European politics and society currently face enormous challenges, such as the energy crisis or
the climate change. Research aims to contribute to possible solutions but unfortunately, research
results are commonly only published to the scientific community, even though they might help
politicians and society making decisions and acting responsibly. One approach to reach a broader
audience is Adapted Primary Literature (APL) [1]: literature adapted from research articles and
understandable to non-researchers. Herein, we present the conception and evaluation of an APL
for high school students originating from a research article that follows the vision of using carbon
dioxide as feedstock instead of fossil fuels [2]. This article presents a reaction path from carbon
dioxide to carbon monoxide that could be converted into fuels like methane or basic chemicals
for products of the chemical industry, such as plastics. The APL has the scientific style of writing
and the characteristic sections of research articles: introduction, experimental methods, results,
and discussion. High school students’ gaps in knowledge about the experimental methods XRD,
IR and NMR are closed by additional explanatory texts, whereas experimental details not relevant
for high school students (e.g., measuring parameters) are omitted. The main results and the
argumentation in the discussion part of the original article are mostly maintained to provide
authentic insights into the scientific process of gaining knowledge. The evaluation of the APL
revealed that around 20% of a test group of 30 high school students rated the APL as
understandable, whereas no one in a control group of nine high school students indicated the
translated original research article to be understandable. In addition, one in three of the 30
students showed interest in the APL, but only one in five in working with it in school lessons.
Moreover, everybody in a group of ten prospective schoolteachers expressed the intention to use
APLs in their future classes. In conclusion, the APL appears to be more understandable than the
translated original research article, but there is still room for improvement in terms of
understandability and interest.

Keywords: Adapted Primary Literature, CO2 reduction

1. Introduction

Adapted Primary Literature (APL) builds a bridge between research articles and schoolbooks. It
is literature which originates from research articles but is specifically adapted to targeted readers.
The scientific style of writing and discussing results as well as the structure of the original
(introduction, experimental section with methods and results, discussion) are retained. This allows
readers to gain authentic insights into recent research and the scientific process of acquiring
knowledge and thereby empowers them to make decisions and act consciously based on the
latest scientific findings. To fulfil this purpose, a research article was adapted which describes an
approach to convert carbon dioxide into fuels and might therefore be a future alternative to the
current power production from fossil fuels that causes the climate change by emitting carbon
dioxide. The target group were high school students, since they will shape our future. The final
APL was evaluated within a survey study with high school students and prospective teachers.

2. Conception

The following sections briefly summarize the original research article and the adaptation process.
92 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2.1 Original Article

The original research article [2] presents a possibility to use carbon dioxide as feedstock to
produce carbon monoxide that is convertible into fuels like methane or basic chemicals. The
following reaction pathway was investigated: In a first step, carbon dioxide is bound under
photochemical conditions to a nickel pincer complex as a catalyst. Next, water is split off by adding
an acid to form a cationic complex. In the following step, carbon monoxide is released. Finally,
the initial nickel pincer complex is recovered by using hydrogen as a reducing agent and forming
a hydronium ion. Overall carbon dioxide and hydrogen react to carbon monoxide and water. This
reaction is called reverse water gas shift reaction.

2.2 Adaptation

According to Yarden et al., nine criteria for the selection of a suitable research article have to be
considered [1]: the intended application, the curricula contents, the includability in teaching units,
the credibility of the references in the article, the knowledge of the high school students, the clarity
of the research approach / question, the visualization ability of results, variety of covered research
topics and approaches and the motivation and interest of the high school students. We took all
the criteria into account and chose an article of the Collaborative Research Centre 1073 (CRC)
because the APL was developed within the public outreach project of the CRC and was intended
as teaching material that is online accessible to schoolteachers. Moreover, this article deals with
a solution approach to climate change which is curriculum content of German high schools [3].
Furthermore, many school students have shown their interest in this topic by demonstrating for
climate protection.
In the next step, the knowledge of high school students was identified by studying the school
curriculum of the German State of Lower Saxony as an example curriculum [3]. According to it,
high school students should have acquired basic knowledge about acids and bases as well as
catalysts in grade 11.
As suggested by Yarden et al. [1], the article was adapted section by section in the following
order: results, experimental methods, introduction, discussion, title, and summary. In the results
section, only the central reaction pathways were described, alternative ways were left out.
Additionally, they were simplified visualized, e.g., the pincer complex structure was abbreviated
(s. Fig. 1).
The methods for investigating the reaction pathway, namely x-ray crystallography, nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy and infrared spectroscopy, are not part of the German school
curriculums [3], which is why the experimental section of the APL, unlike the original article,
contained explanatory texts and visualizations of these methods which can similarly be found in
schoolbooks [4] (s. Fig. 1). In return, the exact measurement parameters listed in the original
article were omitted.

Fig.1. Visualizations used in APL: Abbreviated nickel pincer complex (left), simplified setup of x-ray
diffractometer (centred) and schematic picture of basic principle of nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy (right).

In the introduction section, the social relevance of the research topic was expressed more clearly
in the APL than in the original article. The focus was on the socially relevant climate change and
the solution approach of the researchers in order to increase the interest of those students in the
APL who participate in the Fridays-For-Future demonstrations and therefore probably seek for
climate protection approaches. In addition, the introduction was extended by basic knowledge
about complexes and coordination compounds because those chemical topics are not included
in the German school curriculums [3]. In contrast, the discussion section was shortened because
only the results mentioned in the APL were discussed. The argumentation style of the original
article was maintained.
93 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The original title “Photochemically Driven Reverse Water-Gas Shift at Ambient Conditions
mediated by a Nickel Pincer Complex” contained scientific terms students are not familiar with.
For this reason, it was replaced by the title “The photochemically driven reverse water gas shift -
an attractive approach for a climate-friendly production of synthesis gas?” Furthermore, a
question was added to arouse interest. In the summary of the APL, the content of the APL was
reproduced in one to two sentences per section.

3. Evaluation

A survey study with high school students and prospective teachers was performed, to assess
their interest in working with APLs in school lessons and evaluate the understandability of the
designed APL. The following questions were raised:
• Do high school students understand the text of the designed APL?
• Are high school students interested in the designed APL? Would they like to work with
APLs in school lessons?
• What opportunities and risks of integrating APLs in school lessons do prospective
teachers consider? Do they intend to integrate them into their future chemistry classes?
• Do the results of the survey with high school students change the opportunities and risks
prospective teachers consider? Do they change prospective teachers’ intention to
integrate APLs into their future chemistry classes?

3.1 Survey with High School Students

The survey was performed with 39 German high school students (grade 11) which were divided
into two groups: a test group consisting of 30 students and a control group of 9 students.

3.1.1 Methodology

To test whether the APL is understandable to the students, a pre-/post-test design was chosen.
Both tests consisted of the same two multiple-choice questions about the approach of using CO 2
as feedstock instead of fossil fuels. The questions for the test and control group were not identical,
because the content of the introduction text is slightly different:

Question 1 for the test group: Which statements are correct?

1. Active research is being carried out into the conversion of CO 2 into fuels / energy sources
such as methanol.
2. CO2 is a low-energy substance and therefore cannot react at all.
3. The aim of some scientists is to produce fuels/energy sources such as methanol in a
climate-friendly way.
4. I don't know.
Question 2 for the test group: Which statements are correct?
1. CO is currently produced industrially mainly from methane with the emission of CO 2.
2. CO is currently produced industrially from CO2 in the air.
3. Methanol is currently produced in a climate-damaging way.
4. I do not know.
Question 1 for the control group: Which statements are correct?
1. Active research is being carried out into the use of CO 2 as a renewable raw material.
2. CO2 is a low-energy substance and therefore cannot react at all.
3. The aim of some scientists is to produce fuels / energy sources such as methanol in a
climate-friendly way. To do this, they convert CO 2 into CO, which, when mixed with H2,
forms a synthesis gas for methanol.
4. I don't know.
Question 2 for the control group: Which statements are correct?
1. CO2 and H2 usually react with molecular catalysts to formic acid and not CO.
2. The scientists in the article are researching how CO and not formic acid can be produced
from CO2.
3. The scientists in the article are researching ways to produce CO from the formic acid
formed.
4. I do not know.

The post-test additionally contained a self-assessment part to study, on the one hand, the
understandability with a different method and, on the other hand, the readability of the APL as
well as students’ interest in the APL. Readability here terms the writing style (the complexity of
94 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

the used vocabulary and syntax) and was measured to be able to discuss whether a low
understanding is caused by a complicated written text.
Each construct was measured by two items with a four-point Likert scale (s. Tab. 1). The item
quality was not tested in a pre-study, but the items for measuring students’ interest were adapted
from the PISA study 2015 [5].

Tab.1. Number of items and items used for each construct

Number
Construct Items (translated into English)
of items
The content of the text was difficult to understand.
Understandability of APL 2
The text was hard to grasp.
The text was easy to read.
Readability of APL 2
The language of the text was easy.
The text was interesting.
Interest in APL 2
I enjoyed reading the text.
Test group: I would like to work more with such texts
Interest in working with (adapted primary literature) in school lessons.
1
APL in school lessons Control group: I would like to work more with such
texts (translated research articles) in school lessons.

The survey took place at the end of a teaching unit about fossil fuels. Students had pointed out
negative impacts of the German oil consumption on the environment, society and economy and
discussed approaches to reduce the oil consumption, before they then faced the challenge of
finding out a recent approach of chemists by reading the introduction text of a research article.
The APL was handed out to the test group and the original research article to the control group.
To avoid language effects, the original research article had been translated into German. Students
obtained the information that two versions of the article are provided: an original research article
written by scientists to communicate new findings to other scientists which was only translated
into German and an article which was translated and adapted to make it more understandable
than the original article. However, they did not know which version each individual student
received.

3.1.2 Results

The percentage of correct answers to the multiple-choice question 1 in the test group increased
from pre- and post-test (s. Fig. 2). The percentage of the first correct answer to question 2 also
increased from pre- to post-test, but the percentage of the second one decreased. In the control
group, the percentage of respondents who gave the right answers to question 1 decreased from
pre- to post-test, whereas it increased for question 2 (s. Fig. 3). Three control group students
returned the blank post-test.

Fig.2. Percentage of respondents within the test group who gave the answers 1, 2, 3 and 4 to question 1
(left) and 2 (right).
95 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Question 1 for the control Question 2 for the

group control group
100 100

Percentage of respondents
Percentage of respondents
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Answers 1 and 3 are correct. Answers 1 and 2 are correct.

Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test

Fig.3. Percentage of respondents within the test group who gave the answers 1, 2, 3 and 4 to question 1
(left) and 2 (right).

More than 20% of the test group had the impression that the APL is understandable, whereas
none of the control group assessed the original article to be understandable (s. Fig. 4). More than
80% of the control group stated that the original research article was not understandable. In
comparison, only 50% of the test group indicated the APL as not understandable. Similar results
were obtained for the readability. For both constructs, however, the differences measured
between the mean values of the test and control groups are not significant.

Understandability Readability (Writing

style)

Test: 2.26±0.23 (0.7) Test: 2.33±0.18 (0.5)

Control Control

: 1.9±0.4 (0.5) 0% 50% 100% : 2.0±0.4 (0.5) 0% 50% 100%

<2.5: not understandable <2.5: complex writing style

2,5 2,5
>2.5: understandable >2.5: simple writing style

Fig.4. Results of survey concerning understandability (left) and readability (right) of the APL and the
original article resulting from the test group (upper bar) and control group (lower bar), respectively; values
given are mean values, 95% confidence intervals and standard deviations in brackets. Due to the Likert
scale, values range from 1 to 4 (very low to very high understandability/readability).

Only one third of the test group expressed no interest in the APL, one third showed interest.
Moreover, almost two thirds of the control group were interested in the translated research article,
but only 20% of the test group and around 30% of the control group seemed to be interested in
working with the APL and the original research article in school lessons, respectively (s. Fig. 5).
96 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Interest in APL / research Interest in working with

article APL / research article
in school lessons
Test: 2.48±0.22 (0.6)
Test: 2.0±0.3 (0.8)

Control Control
: 2.9±0.3 (0.4) : 2.0±0.8 (0.9)
0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100%

<2.5: not interested 2,5 <2.5: not interested 2,5

>2.5: interested >2.5: interested

Fig.5. Results of survey concerning interest in APL / original article (left) and interest in working with APL /
original article in school lessons (right) resulting from the test group (upper bars) and the control group
(lower bars); values given are mean values, 95% confidence intervals and standard deviations in brackets.
Due to the Likert scale, values range from 1 to 4 (very low to very high interest).

3.1.3 Discussion

The results of the multiple-choice pre- and post-tests are not conclusive. In both the test and the
control group one of the two questions suggests that students understood the text, while the other
leaves room for discussion: The reason why the percentage of respondents in the test group who
gave the second correct answer to question 2 decreased might be related to the wrong answer
“CO is currently produced industrially from CO 2 in the air.” Students probably thought that this
answer is right because the article reports about CO produced from CO2, but not on an industrial
scale. Maybe they simply missed the word “industrially” when reading the answer option. The
unclear control group results are likely caused by only six of nine control group students returning
a completed post-test, which may be a sign that those students felt not capable of answering
because they did not understand the text.
The results of the self-assessment part of the survey indicate that the APL was more
understandable to the high school students who participated in the study than the translated
research article, even though the difference in the measured mean values is less than 0.5 and
not significant. If the difference is rather small, many more participants would likely have been
required for a significant result.
As the results for the understandability and the readability of the APL were similar, the reason
why students rated the text to be “not understandable” did probably not predominantly result from
a complicated written text.

3.2 Survey with Prospective Teachers

Another part of the survey was conducted with prospective teachers which were preferred over
established teachers, because they might be more open to new concepts, as they do not yet have
tried and proven concepts for teaching the curriculum content, but rather need to test concepts
and figure out which one works best for them. The chosen prospective teachers were nine
university students in the first or second year of the Master of Education program and one student
at the very end of the Chemistry Education Bachelor program. All ten students participated in a
Chemistry Didactics seminar, six students in person and four virtually. Six students were female
and the rest male. Their second subjects besides Chemistry were Mathematics, Biology, French,
Philosophy and Sports.

3.2.1 Methodology

The survey was included in one session of a Chemistry Didactics seminar. Firstly, students were
encouraged to think about opportunities and risks of the integration of APLs into school lessons
and to express their thoughts with notes pinned on the board or with the online tool “shared notes”,
immediately after the concept of APLs had been presented to them and the designed APL had
been handed out to them. Furthermore, they were invited to make a mark between the two options
“I will, or I will not integrate APLs in my future Chemistry lessons”. Secondly, the results of the
97 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

survey study with high school students had been shown before students then got the chance to
change their notes and the position of their marks.

3.2.2 Results from Participation in Person

Among others, university students considered the opportunity to integrate current research into
school, to make additional learning offers for high-performing school students and to motivate
them by authentic science (s. Fig. 6). However, they worried that APLs might not be understood
by school students, especially not by low-performing students. Apart from that, they took into
account that teachers have to respect the curriculum and need to spend extra time incorporating
APLs into lessons. After the survey about high school students’ understanding of APLs and
interest in them had been shown, university students added notes about the risk of the APL being
too long and the APL topic not being interesting to a learning group.
Most of the students placed their marks closer to the statement “I will integrate APLs into my
future Chemistry lessons” but moved them a bit closer to the middle position between the two
contrary statements, when they had seen the results of the survey with high school students (s.
Fig. 7).

Fig.6. Translated noted opportunities and risks of integrating APLs in school lessons six prospective
teachers considered: The light green and light orange notes had been pinned on the board before the
results of the survey with high school students were shown, while the dark orange notes were added after
that.

Fig.7. Voting of six prospective teachers about their intention to integrate APLs in their future Chemistry
lessons before (on top) and after they learned about the results of the survey with high school students
(below).

3.2.3 Results from Virtual Participation

Virtual participants of the seminar pointed out the opportunity that students can acquire skills they
need for scientific work and studying at a university and that APLs can represent the scientific
process of gaining knowledge. In addition to the concerns already mentioned by students
attending in person (APLs being too complex for students and too time consuming for teachers),
virtual participants identified the risk of the original article being adapted so much to school
98 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

students that the scientific structure is lost. Just like the in-person participants, virtual participants
were in favour of APL integration into Chemistry lessons. The presentation of the survey study
with high school students did not result in participants changing their notes or voting. Here is the
complete list of notes and voting of the virtual participants (translated into German):

Opportunities:
- Opportunity to introduce school students to scientific literature
- general skills in relation to scientific work are trained (reading and understanding scientific
texts, application and use of technical language, ...)
- Preparation for university
➔ early familiarization with such texts
➔ can facilitate the transition from school to university
- compressed presentation of information
- represents the process of research
Risks:
- Complexity
- English as a foreign language (?)
- High time commitment for teachers
- Risk of changing scientific texts too much so that the actual structure of scientific research
is lost (negative impact on later professional life or university studies)

I will integrate APLs in my future Chemistry lesson (0% to 100% meaning “strongly disagree” to
“strongly agree”)
- 80% (certainly well suited for school courses at a high level)
- 70 %
- high school class 70%; other classes 50%
- high school class 70%, other classes 30%

3.2.4 Discussion

Prospective teachers considered great opportunities, but also understandable risks. Their
concern that even adapted research articles might be too complex for some students was
supported by the survey study with high school students. We assume two reasons for their slightly
decreased interest in integrating APLs in school lessons after the results of the survey study with
high school students had been shown: Half of the surveyed high school students stated the APL
to be not understandable and only 20% would like to work with APLs in school lessons. In
agreement with this assumption, the prospective teachers expressed the risk that school students
have no interest in APLs after seeing the survey with high school students. However, prospective
teachers found as many opportunities as risks and the voting showed that they were overall more
inclined to integrate APLs into their future teaching than not to do so. Finally, it should be noted
here that the study with the prospective teachers including the voting was not secret and was
performed as part of a Chemistry Didactic seminar, which may have affected the study results.

4. Conclusions

An APL originating from a research article dealing with a solution approach for the climate change
was developed and evaluated in a survey study. The results give rise to the assumption that the
APL is more understandable to high school students than the original research article which was
only translated into German. Thus, the purpose of making a research article understandable for
high school students seems achieved. However, half of the high school students surveyed stated
the APL as not understandable, which shows that the APL needs to be revised to further enhance
the understandability. Moreover, the study revealed that the APL could be made more interesting
for high school students. Prospective schoolteachers were also surveyed, and they all expressed
their intention to integrate APL into their future classes, even though they considered as many
risks as opportunities in doing so and even though the survey results about school students’
interest had a slight negative impact on their intention and considerations.

Acknowledgement

We would like to thank the German Research Foundation for funding the Public Outreach Project
within the framework of the Collaborative Research Center 1073.
99 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

REFERENCES

[1] Yarden, A., Norris, S. P., & Phillips, L. M. (2016). Adapted Primary Literature. Springer.
[2] Schneck, F., Schendzielorz, F., Hatami, N., Finger, M., Würtele, C., & Schneider, S.
(2018). Photochemically Driven Reverse Water‐Gas Shift at Ambient Conditions mediated
by a Nickel Pincer Complex. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 57(44), 14482-
14487.
[3] Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium (2022). Kerncurriculum für das Gymnasium –
gymnasiale Oberstufe die Gesamtschule – gymnasiale Oberstufe das Berufliche
Gymnasium das Abendgymnasium das Kolleg: Chemie.
[4] Bee, U., Blauth, O., Gietz, P., Irmer, E., Kirberger, C., Maier, H., Nelle, P., Töhl-Borsdorf,
J., Wiese, K. & Zippel, T. (2018). Elemente Chemie Oberstufe. Ernst Klett Verlag
[5] Mang, J., Ustjanzew, N., Leßke, I., Schiepe-Tiska, A., & Reiss, K. (2019). PISA 2015
skalenhandbuch: Dokumentation der Erhebungsinstrumente. Waxmann Verlag.
100 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

“The Complementary Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid”

- Adapting the Crick and Watson Paper for Science
Education

Hilko Aljets1, Florian Heisig2, Thomas Waitz3

University of Göttingen, Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry

Education, Germany1,2,3

Abstract

It has been 70 years since the molecular structure of DNA has been decoded, which can be
described as one of the most important scientific achievements of the last century. In 1953,
Watson and Crick reported their double helix model in Nature, after Pauling and Corey had
proposed a flawed three-stranded model. Later they gave a detailed description of the building of
the model in a following article. Using this article in science education offers a wide range of
valuable learning opportunities. In addition to the actual content of the highly interdisciplinary
research, it allows students to learn about scientific model building and the use of models in
research, as well as the development of scientific knowledge and nature of science. It can also
be used as an example for a discussion on social influences on science, ethical considerations in
science and good scientific practice. Due to the complexity of the original article, we propose to
adapt the text so that it is also understandable for students. In this contribution, we report on our
adaptation and the adaptation process, which is based on the concept of adapted scientific
literature and suggest measures to unlock its potential for educational settings.

Keywords: adapted scientific literature, adapted primary literature, scientific literature, reading, DNA,
historical case

1. Introduction

As previously reported [1], we propose the use of authentic scientific literature such as research
papers in form of Adapted Scientific Literature (ASL) in science education to foster an
understanding of the scientific processes. Based on the concept of Adapted Primary Literature by
Yarden et al. [2], ASL is a new type of text that uses scientific articles as a basis and simplifies
their content to make them accessible to students [1]. We argue that reading ASL has the potential
to help students understand pivotal features of science, including the social practices of the
scientific community, due to central structural and rhetorical features such as the IMRaD structure
(Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion), references to other publications, or the use of
rhetorical figures that indicate uncertainty [1, 3]. While we have focused so far on scientific
literature about contemporary cases [4, 5], we now want to explore a different approach by
determining the potential of ASL in historical contexts.
The usage and benefits of historical contexts to foster an understanding of nature of science
(NOS) is well described in literature, e.g., by Matthews [6] or Allchin and coworkers [7]. Benefits
arise from the possibilities to discuss cultural, biographical, and economic contexts of research
problems and the complexity of scientific practices. Since the outcome of the historical case is
known, the whole scientific process as well as the product itself can be analyzed from different
perspectives. The possible contexts are very diverse and range from ancient times, e.g., the
discovery of Archimedes' principle, to (pre-)modern science, like decoding the DNA.
A significant topic in science education is the field of genetics, in particular the structure and
function of DNA. The development of our modern understanding of this polymer is shaped by
astonishing stories of flawed hypotheses, social, cultural, and political influences as well as
personal relationships between the acting scientists. Therefore, it is not surprising that using this
context has already been used in educational frameworks. For instance, Wieder [8] describes
how he used the context for a theater play in class, followed by an activity to construct own DNA
structure models, while Dai et al. [9] focused on changing students understanding of NOS by
exposing them with historical narratives regarding the role of X-ray crystallographer Rosalind
Franklin. Focusing more on experimental instructions, Thompson et al. [10] describe two optical
experiments for undergraduates, which recreate the X-ray diffraction patterns obtained from
101 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling, while Crouse [11] proposes a way for undergraduate
students to mathematically verify the model of Crick and Watson by an X-ray diffraction analysis.
As described above, we want to use authentic scientific literature for fostering an understanding
of the features of science, especially the social aspects of the scientific community. After briefly
describing the historical development of the research on DNA (section 2), we will describe our
approach of adapting the Crick and Watson paper [12] (section 3) and conclude with possible
learning opportunities for science education using the created adaptation (section 4).

2. Historical Development

Unraveling the structure of DNA did not happen overnight. The journey started in 1869, where
Friedrich Miescher analyzed the chemical constitution of pus cells and described a nitrogen- and
phosphorus-rich substance from the cell nucleus, which he named “Nucleïn”. The nuclein was
still contaminated with protein residues, but in 1889, Richard Altmann was able to separate the
nucleic acid from the proteins [13]. Several contributions from Albrecht Kossel described the
purine and pyrimidine bases guanin (1883, isolated already in 1844), adenine (1885), thymine
(1893) and cytosine (1894) [13, 14]. In 1900, with the help of Kossel, Alberto Ascoli isolated uracil
from yeast [14], which replaces thymine in the RNA. Phoebus Levene identified a base,
carbohydrate and phosphoric acid unit in the nucleic acids extracted from yeast (i.e., RNA, in
1909) and from the thymus (i.e., DNA, in 1929). He was also able to show that the components
were linked together and form a repeating unit, which he named nucleotide [15]. Furthermore,
Levene proposed that the RNA molecule (and later analogous DNA) is composed of equal
amounts of the respective four nucleotides and that the structure repeats itself in a fixed manner,
leading to the influential tetranucleotide hypothesis (see fig. 1). This hypothesis implies that the
DNA or RNA molecule is too simple in its structure to encode complex information and is therefore
not suited to describe the complexity of life. As the tetranucleotide hypothesis dominated the field
for almost four decades, interest in DNA consequently declined in favor of proteins, as these
showed greater complexity and were therefore assumed to carry information [13, 15].

Fig. 1. Repeating tetranucleotide monomer unit of the DNA according to the tetranucleotide hypothesis by
Levene [15].

This changed in the late 1940s and early 1950s, where Erwin Chargaff and coworkers published
their observations on the exact amounts of the nucleotides and their relative proportions to each
other, now known as the Chargaff’s rules [13]. Contrary to the tetranucleotide hypothesis, only
the ratios between adenine and thymine as well as between guanine and cytosine are nearly one,
while the other ratios can differ among different species. Meanwhile, in 1937, William Astbury
produced the first X-ray diffraction patterns indicating a spiral structure of DNA [16], while Oswald
Avery, Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty were able to show that DNA was responsible for
changes in bacterial organisms in the experiments carried out by Frederick Griffith earlier, strongly
suggesting that the DNA helix is the carrier of genetic information. This was further supported by
experiments from Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase on bacteriophages in 1952 [13].
After establishing that hereditary information was encoded by DNA, the scientific community
focused on investigating the exact three-dimensional conformation of the molecule as well as how
the DNA stores information [13]. With the help of a new X-ray diffraction image of high hydrated
DNA from Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling [18], Francis Crick and James Watson were
able to build a correct model of the DNA molecule in 1953 [19], showing a specific paring of
nucleotides, which suggests a biological role for the replication mechanism. Earlier the same year,
Linus Pauling and Robert Corey proposed a flawed three-stranded model with bases outside and
the chains inside (see fig. 2) [20]. One year later, Crick and Watson explained their modeling in
an extended article entitled “The complementary structure of deoxyribonucleic acid” [12], which
is the template for the adaptation process described in the following section.
102 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig. 2. Three-stranded DNA model from Pauling and Corey [20]. Fig. A and B show a computer-generated
model of their calculations (PDB file by Lu [21]). For comparison, Fig. C shows a model of the B-DNA
based on X-ray diffraction data (PDB: 1BNA; [22]). This image is made with ChimeraX [23], coloration by
chemical elements (gray = carbon, red = oxygen, blue = nitrogen, orange = phosphorous), and reprinted
from [3].

3. Adapting the Crick and Watson Paper

The potential of adapted scientific literature for science education is described in numerous
publications [3]. Many authors observe improved inquiry skills [24], critical thinking skills [25] or
an improved understanding about nature of science [3, 4, 26, 27] of students after reading
adapted scientific literature. The main reason for adapting an article instead of using the original
is the often- high demand on text comprehensibility. Through adaptation, the texts are modified
to fit the pre-knowledge of the new target group, i.e., high school students or undergraduate
students, but maintain important structural motifs, like the organizational, argumentative, and
goal-directed structure – and thus implicitly characteristics of science [1, 3].
Several steps have to be performed in order to adapt the article properly (see tab. 1). The most
crucial step is the first one: determining the background knowledge of the target group, i.e., the
students, as this determines the subsequent steps. Since the education system in Germany is
federally organized, we used the local science curriculum standards as a guidance for determining
students' background knowledge. Based on these standards, it is to be expected that the students
in the selected grade level have prior knowledge of intermolecular interactions, the structure of a
biological cell as well as electromagnetic radiation. Nevertheless, this also means that the method
of X-ray diffraction and the evaluation of X-ray diffraction images is not part of the anticipated
competencies, which is why careful adaptation is required.

Tab. 1. Performed steps for adapting the Crick and Watson paper

Step Action
1 Identifying students background knowledge
2 Selection of the main content
3 Adding short section about the methodical approach
4 Re-writing section on chemical background
5 Re-writing section on the analysis of the X-ray patterns
6 Re-writing section on the configuration of the double helix
7 Re-writing section on the crystalline form
8 Re-writing introduction section
9 Re-writing discussion section
10 Re-writing title and abstract

Based on the considerations made in step 1, we decided which content from the article we want
to include in the adaptation, and in which order we want to present them. In the original paper,
Crick and Watson first present the already known facts about the chemical structure of the DNA
molecule and then proceed to construct the double helix structure model based on
crystallographic arguments, mainly focused on the work of Astbury and Bell as well as Franklin,
Wilkins, and Gosling. From this model, the authors derive atomic distances inside the molecule
and its density and verify them against crystallographic information, previous studies and
stereochemical arguments. A detailed view on the hydrogen bonds between the nucleotides,
some remarks about the structure of the water-free form of the DNA (A-DNA) as well as a
103 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

concluding discussion end the article. When selecting the content for the customization, some
information was omitted to shorten the article. Details on the sugar group, the isomerism, and the
cytosine derivative 5-methylcytosine have been removed. Also, the explanations to the A-DNA
have been shortened.
Contrary to classical scientific articles of modern science, this article is not presented IMRaD-like,
especially missing a Methods section. This is not only the case because the IMRaD structure
wasn’t fully established in the 1950s [28], but also because the article is rather theoretical and
does not present results derived from new experiments. Still, Crick and Watson work
methodologically by generating and optimizing their DNA model; the authors themselves describe
their method as the “classical method of trial and error” [12, p. 81]. To represent this and to simplify
the reading, we added a section called “Methodological approach” (step 3), where we summarize
the methodology of Crick and Watson by using existing paragraphs from the following section.
In the remaining steps 4 to 10, we rewrote the respective sections. This means that we used the
original material and carefully checked whether the content was suitable for the students
according to our analysis in step 1 or whether we wanted to retain the information (step 2). To
make the crystallographic arguments of Crick and Watson understandable, we included a copy
of the X-ray diffraction image of Franklin and Gosling [18], also known as “photo 51”, with
explanatory annotations about the parameters of the helix, that can be derived from the image.
Additionally, we created three new graphics: Two figures with the purpose to define the
components of the DNA molecule (e.g., nucleotide or nucleoside) and one figure to show the
calculated distances in the double helix (fig. 3). At the end of the article, we included the
acknowledgement made by Crick and Watson and listed the used references.

Fig. 3. Additional illustrations of the adaptation. Fig. A shows one of two additional graphics that serve as
an overview of the various chemical terms. Fig. B summarizes the calculated distances of the DNA double
helix.

4. Learning Opportunities

This context offers the potential for various learning objectives. As outlined in Section 2, the
historical development leading up to the development of Crick and Watson's model was far from
straightforward, which offers a learning opportunity concerning the development of science as
well as the influence of other scientists on science. This is highly connected to aspects of NOS,
e.g., the tentative nature, the theory-laden nature, or the empirical nature of scientific knowledge
[29], but also sheds light on the importance of communication in science, as the results of other
groups form the basis for one's own work.
In this case, this influence is reflected in several facts: Since the different ratios between the
nucleotides were initially interpreted as uncertainties in measurements, it was assumed that the
four bases adenine, thymine (or uracil), guanine and cytosine occur with equal frequency. This
led to Levene’s inaccurate tetranucleotide hypothesis [15]. Similar, based on density
measurements from Astbury that did not distinguish between the A and B forms of DNA and
without the new X-ray diffraction pattern of Franklin and Gosling, Pauling and Corey modeled the
DNA as three strands with the backbone in the center of the helix (see fig. 2) [20, 30]. This erratic
development emphasizes that scientific knowledge has a tentative character and that its results
can be subject to reinterpretation at any time [29]. However, this also applies to the results of
Crick and Watson: in their article, they only depict two instead of three hydrogen bonds between
guanine and cytosine [12, p. 89]. Because of doubts concerning the exact structure of guanine,
they nevertheless suggest a third hydrogen bond. The adaptation addresses both this and Pauling
104 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

and Corey's model, which is critically disproven by Crick and Watson. Only the impact of Levene’s
tetranucleotide hypothesis cannot be shown by the adaptation alone. However, in order to use
this for teaching, the adaptation can be used as a starting point for further discussion.
This historical case also opens debates about ethical questions. What role did Rosalind Franklin
play in the whole process and is she a victim of sexism? Was research data stolen from her by
Crick and Watson? These questions are highly debated among historians [30–33] and by far from
easy to answer, which is why we would like to emphasize that we are no experts in these particular
questions. If educators wish to debate this aspect in class, we strongly recommend an open
approach, hearing both sides of historians. Specifically, this debate revolves around the question
of whether or not Franklin knew about and approved the sharing of research data to Crick and
Watson. This is still ongoing: A recent Nature comment [32] describes previously unstudied
documents suggesting that Franklin was an equal contributor and knew that the data were shared
with Crick and Watson. In addition, at least according to Crick and Watson, her data were not
used for model building, but for its verification [32]. In their article from 1953, firstly communicating
their model, they declared that they were “not aware of the details” and have only “been stimulated
by a knowledge of the general nature of the unpublished experimental results and ideas” of the
work of Franklin and Gosling [19, p. 737]. In 1954, they generally repeat this statement in a
footnote but add that “without this data the formulation of our structure would have been most
unlikely, if not impossible” [12, p. 82]. How to interpret the phrases “details” and “general nature”
as well as to what extent these statements are trustworthy, everybody has to decide for
themselves.
However, to be accurate, three things should be made clear: First, the X-ray diffraction image
(“photo 51”) was taken by the often-forgotten Raymond Gosling – and not by Franklin, who
supervised him at that time. Second, Crick and Watson should have asked for permission to use
the data, and they should have made it clearer what they were doing with the data. Whether they
used the data for modeling or for verification is irrelevant in terms of good scientific practice. And
lastly, it is pretty safe to say, that Franklin’s scientific achievements were not give enough credit
by Crick, Watson and Wilkins.
Another learning opportunity concerns the modeling of the DNA structure and is strongly
connected with the case of Rosalind Franklin. In her research, Franklin used a bottom-up
approach: On the basis of gathered evidence she hypothesized a structure which fits the data
best. If the hypothesis does not fit all the available data, she rejected it. In contrast, Crick and
Watson worked top-down and built real physical models based on known bond angles and
distances, ignoring most of the evidence [30]. Interestingly this also includes Chargaff rules which
were not used to construct the model (according to statements made by Crick and Watson) but
which can be explained with the model. The conclusion of an actual physical parity of adenine
with thymine and guanine with cytosine from the 1:1 base ratio according to Chargaff is –
historically at least – incorrect, although often made in textbooks [30]. The difference of the
approaches of Franklin and Crick/Watson directly opens the opportunity to discuss scientific
modelling in general. Often scientific models are known as the product of science, depicting a
phenomenon of the natural world in a simplified way, while scientist, and Crick and Watson in
particular, also use models in the process as a tool for generating the knowledge. In the
framework of Upmeier zu Belzen et al.'s [34] modeling competence, this fact can therefore be
used to improve students' modeling competence from Level I, in which models are described as
the object of illustration of a phenomenon, to Level II or III, in which students acquire
competencies in the construction and appropriate use of models.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the adaptation of scientific literature, particularly the seminal work of Crick and
Watson on the structure of DNA, offers a rich opportunity for science education. By delving into
the historical context and different methodological approaches employed by scientists, students
have the opportunity for learning several concepts beside the scientific content itself. Especially
focused on NOS, students can explore the tentative nature of scientific findings, the influence of
social factors on research, and the ethical considerations inherent in scientific practice.
Furthermore, analyzing the contrasting approaches of scientists like Rosalind Franklin and
Crick/Watson provides a platform for discussing scientific modeling and foster modeling
competencies.

Acknowledgment and Declaration

We would like to thank Dr. Erhard Irmer for his advice on X-ray diffractometry. Part of this work
has already been published in the doctoral thesis by Hilko Aljets [3].
105 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

REFERENCES

[1] Aljets, H., & Waitz, T. (2023). About the Potential of Adapted Scientific Literature for
Science Education. In Pixel (Ed.), New Perspectives in Science Education—Conference
Proceedings. 12th Conference Edition (pp. 216–219). Filodiritto Editore.
[2] Yarden, A., Phillips, L. M., & Norris, S. P. (2015). Adapted Primary Literature: The Use of
Authentic Scientific Texts in Secondary Schools. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
94-017-9759-7
[3] Aljets, H. (2024). Adaptierte wissenschaftliche Literatur. Charakteristika und Potential zur
Vermittlung von Nature of Science [Dissertation, University of Göttingen, Germany].
https://doi.org/10.53846/goediss-10297
[4] von Hoff, E., Aljets, H., Milsch, N., Waitz, T., & Mey, I. (2019). Arbeiten mit Adaptierter
Primärliteratur im Chemieunterricht. CHEMKON, 26(5), 190–195.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ckon.201800070
[5] Aljets, H., Leibold, L., Mey, I., & Waitz, T. (2020). What do Legionella, EHEC and Botox
have in common? An Interdisciplinary Science Camp on Biomembrane Research and the
Nature of Science. In Pixel (Ed.), New Perspectives in Science Education—Conference
Proceedings. 9th Conference Edition (pp. 70–74). Filodiritto Editore.
[6] Matthews, M. R. (2014). Science Teaching: The Contribution of History and Philosophy
of Science, 20th Anniversary Revised and Expanded Edition. Routledge.
[7] Allchin, D., Andersen, H. M., & Nielsen, K. (2014). Complementary Approaches to
Teaching Nature of Science: Integrating Student Inquiry, Historical Cases, and
Contemporary Cases in Classroom Practice. Science Education, 98(3), 461–486.
https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21111
[8] Wieder, W. (2006). Science as Story: Communicating the Nature of Science through
Historical Perspectives of Science. The American Biology Teacher, 68(4), 200–205.
https://doi.org/10.2307/4451967
[9] Dai, P., Williams, C. T., Witucki, A. M., & Rudge, D. W. (2021). Rosalind Franklin and the
Discovery of the Structure of DNA. Science & Education, 30(3), 659–692.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-020-00188-6
[10] Thompson, J., Braun, G., Tierney, D., Wessels, L., Schmitzer, H., Rossa, B., Wagner, H.
P., & Dultz, W. (2018). Rosalind Franklin’s X-ray photo of DNA as an undergraduate
optical diffraction experiment. American Journal of Physics, 86(2), 95–104.
https://doi.org/10.1119/1.5020051
[11] Crouse, D. T. (2007). X-ray Diffraction and the Discovery of the Structure of DNA. A
Tutorial and Historical Account of James Watson and Francis Crick’s Use of X-ray
Diffraction in Their Discovery of the Double Helix Structure of DNA. Journal of Chemical
Education, 84(5), 803. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed084p803
[12] Crick, F. H. C., & Watson, J. D. (1954). The complementary structure of deoxyribonucleic
acid. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical
Sciences, 223(1152), 80–96. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1954.0101
[13] Dahm, R. (2008). Discovering DNA: Friedrich Miescher and the early years of nucleic
acid research. Human Genetics, 122(6), 565–581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-007-
0433-0
[14] Framm, E., & Framm, J. (2022). Albrecht Kossel und die Nukleinbasen. Chemie in
unserer Zeit, 56(6), 372–377. https://doi.org/10.1002/ciuz.202010003
[15] Frixione, E., & Ruiz-Zamarripa, L. (2019). The “scientific catastrophe” in nucleic acids
research that boosted molecular biology. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 294(7),
2249–2255. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.CL119.007397
[16] Astbury, W. T., & Bell, F. O. (1938). Some Recent Developments in the X-Ray Study of
Proteins and Related Structures. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology,
6, 109–121. https://doi.org/10.1101/SQB.1938.006.01.013
[17] Avery, O. T., MacLeod, C. M., & McCarty, M. (1944). Studies on the Chemical Nature of
the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types. Journal of Experimental
Medicine, 79(2), 137–158. https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.79.2.137
[18] Franklin, R. E., & Gosling, R. G. (1953). Molecular Configuration in Sodium
Thymonucleate. Nature, 171(4356), 740–741. https://doi.org/10.1038/171740a0
[19] Watson, J. D., & Crick, F. H. C. (1953). Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure
for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid. Nature, 171(4356), 737–738.
https://doi.org/10.1038/171737a0
[20] Pauling, L., & Corey, R. B. (1953). A Proposed Structure For The Nucleic Acids.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 39(2),
84–97. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.39.2.84
106 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[21] Lu, X.-J. (2016, November 19). Pauling’s triplex model of nucleic acids is available in
3DNA. 3DNA Homepage. https://x3dna.org/highlights/pauling-triplex-model-of-nucleic-
acids-is-available-in-3dna
[22] Drew, H. R., Wing, R. M., Takano, T., Broka, C., Tanaka, S., Itakura, K., & Dickerson, R.
E. (1981). Structure of a B-DNA dodecamer: Conformation and dynamics. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences, 78(4), 2179–2183.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.78.4.2179
[23] Pettersen, E. F., Goddard, T. D., Huang, C. C., Meng, E. C., Couch, G. S., Croll, T. I.,
Morris, J. H., & Ferrin, T. E. (2021). UCSF ChimeraX: Structure visualization for
researchers, educators, and developers. Protein Science, 30(1), 70–82.
https://doi.org/10.1002/pro.3943
[24] Baram-Tsabari, A., & Yarden, A. (2005). Text genre as a factor in the formation of
scientific literacy. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 42(4), 403–428.
https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20063
[25] Norris, S. P., Stelnicki, N., & Vries, G. (2012). Teaching Mathematical Biology in High
School Using Adapted Primary Literature. Research in Science Education, 42(4), 633–
649. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-011-9215-8
[26] Braun, I., & Nückles, M. (2014). Scholarly Holds Lead Over Popular and Instructional:
Text Type Influences Epistemological Reading Outcomes. Science Education, 98(5),
867–904. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21117
[27] Hagen, R., Watermann, R., & Nückles, M. (2022). Der Einfluss wissenschaftlicher
Textgenres auf das Textverständnis und epistemologische Überzeugungen bei
Studierenden der Bildungswissenschaften. Swiss Journal of Educational Research,
44(2), 237–249. https://doi.org/10.24452/sjer.44.2.6
[28] Sollaci, L. B., & Pereira, M. G. (2004). The introduction, methods, results, and discussion
(IMRAD) structure: A fifty-year survey. Journal of the Medical Library Association, 92(3),
364–367.
[29] Lederman, N. G., Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R. L., & Schwartz, R. S. (2002). Views of Nature
of Science Questionnaire: Toward Valid and Meaningful Assessment of Learners’
Conceptions of Nature of Science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(6), 497–
521. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.10034
[30] Schindler, S. (2008). Model, Theory, and Evidence in the Discovery of the DNA Structure.
The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 59(4), 619–658.
https://doi.org/10.1093/bjps/axn030
[31] Esquerra, T. (2012). Exploration of Common Law Fraud in Scientific Discovery: The Case
of James Watson, Francis Crick, and Rosalind Franklin. Landslide, 4(4), 34–40.
[32] Cobb, M., & Comfort, N. (2023). What Rosalind Franklin truly contributed to the discovery
of DNA’s structure. Nature, 616(7958), 657–660. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-
01313-5
[33] Jaeger, L. (2023). Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958): The Woman Next to Watson and Crick.
In L. Jaeger (Ed.), Women of Genius in Science: Whose Frequently Overlooked
Contributions Changed the World (pp. 153–164). Springer International Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23926-7_14
[34] Upmeier zu Belzen, A., van Driel, J., & Krüger, D. (2019). Introducing a Framework for
Modeling Competence. In A. Upmeier zu Belzen, D. Krüger, & J. van Driel (Eds.),
Towards a Competence-Based View on Models and Modeling in Science Education (pp.
3–19). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30255-9_1
107 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

University of Malta Courses with Intermediate / Advanced

Chemistry as a Requirement and/or Option:
An Analysis of Students’ Choices

Edward Thake1, Martin Musumeci2

St. Theresa College and San Ġorg Preca College, Malta1

Department of Mathematics and Science Education, Faculty of Education, University of
Malta, Malta2

Abstract

Tertiary course selection by post-secondary Chemistry students plays a pivotal role in shaping
their academic trajectory across diverse fields [1]. Student decisions reflect a complex interplay
of motivations and rationale, influencing not only their educational journey but also impacting
curriculum design, pedagogical approaches, and support systems within Chemistry Education [2].
This study examines students' preferences, focusing on the University of Malta courses that have
Intermediate (IM) or Advanced (AM) Chemistry as a requirement or option. Through distribution
of self-administered questionnaires to stakeholders, this research study unveils themes derived
from responses: influence, misconceptions, motivation, perception, career aspirations [3],
acquired skills, and promotion of chemistry. [4] These themes shed light on converging and
diverging viewpoints, offering insights into factors shaping students' decisions. Noteworthy results
are student misconceptions about Chemistry, including perceiving it as difficult [5],
underestimating its importance, and assuming limited career opportunities. The study
underscores the significance of incorporating real-world applications of Chemistry in curriculum,
advocating for practical examples, context-based approaches, and highlighting job opportunities
to make the subject more relevant to students' daily lives. An often-overlooked aspect is the need
for greater emphasis on promoting Chemistry as a standalone discipline. While Chemistry has
served as a conduit to medical courses, its potential as an independent field is underappreciated,
exacerbated by a lack of awareness and limited job opportunities. Consequently, students may
explore alternative routes or consider options abroad [6]. The study reveals that having Chemistry
at both IM and AM levels opens up a broader spectrum of career choices. University students
highlight the role of personal aspirations and interests in motivating their decision to pursue a
Chemistry-related course. While recognising factors such as University requirements, prestige,
societal influences, and personal interests, sixth-form Chemistry teachers do not explicitly
mention influence of personal aspirations in their key responses. Diverse career aspirations within
the field of Chemistry emerge among University of Malta students. Despite this, there is a shared
perception among university students that educational institutions inadequately promote
Chemistry. These results could contribute to an informed and supportive framework for students
navigating tertiary course choices in Chemistry.

Keywords: Chemistry; University Courses; Enrolment; Tertiary Education

1. Introduction

1.1 Aims of the Research Study

This study focuses on University of Malta (UM) courses featured in the Undergraduate Prospectus
with Chemistry as a compulsory or optional requirement. It examines students’ preferences and
analyses UM course selection with Intermediate (IM) or Advanced (AM) Chemistry as
requirements/options. The aim is to analyse student course preferences of students with IM and
AM level Chemistry in their 1st, 2nd, and 3rd year of university. It investigates influences behind
students’ enrolment choices and their motivation to choose a university course with Chemistry as
a compulsory or optional requirement. This research study explored whether Chemistry gives
students wider career choices in the labour market. The two research questions were:
108 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

(i) RQ1: What are University students’ motivation/reasons for selecting tertiary courses were IM
/ AM level Chemistry are specified?
(ii) RQ2: Does Chemistry at IM / AM level restrict student career options or does it open choices?

1.2 Literature Review

In higher education, student choices go beyond individual academic interests, creating a complex
network of decisions that greatly affect their academic path [5]. The conceptual idea behind
rational choice theory (RCT) shows students actively navigating many available courses as
decision-makers. RCT proposes these choices are rational, shaped by personal preferences,
beliefs, and limitations. Cultural background, commitments, and habits are key factors impacting
student preferences [7]. Constraints on choices include academic requirements, enrollment limits,
family duties, health issues, and physical restrictions [8]. Differences in evaluation among different
students are further complicated by family income, social costs, and expectations.
Vocational Types Theory (VTT) and Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) provide a theoretical
understanding of students' choices. VTT focuses on personality types, categorizing chemists as
investigative thinkers and realistic doers, illuminating the psychological aspects of career
preferences [8]. Meanwhile, SCCT delves into the complex interplay between personal,
behavioural, and environmental factors influencing academic and career decisions. SCCT
highlights personal factors like self-efficacy and outcome expectations as crucial influencers. It
also examines behavioural factors like actions students take to achieve academic and career
goals. SCCT also considers environmental factors, including contextual and support elements
that further shape the decision-making process [10]; [11]; [12]; [13].

1.3 The Educational System in Malta

The Maltese Education System is based on the British model. It is regulated by the Education Act
of 1988 and subsequent amendments thereafter. Compulsory education ranges between 5 to 16
years of age, consisting of primary and secondary education. Students sit for 16+ examinations
at Secondary Education Certificate (SEC) level on completion of their secondary education. This
permits students to follow a vocational or academic route into post-secondary colleges and
eventually continuue with their vocational or tertiary education. The tertiary institutions in Malta
include the UM, the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST), the Institute of
Tourism Studies (ITS), and a host of other local and foreign institutions, several of which
representing oversees universities [14].
Students sit for 18+ Matriculation Certificate (MC) exams, which are entry requirements to
university. The MC comprises six subjects and is awarded if students obtain passes in a language,
a science and a humanistic subject, and a pass in a subject entitled ‘Systems of Knowledge’;
students also need to score a minimum number of points based on their performance. Two of six
subjects must be at AM level, three others at IM level, apart from Systems of Knowledge.
Equivalent foreign qualifications are also accepted [15]. There are two Chemistry pre-university
examinations: at IM and at AM level. These examinations are held biannually in May and
September.
The UM’s student population has been recorded at 12,503 students for the academic year
2022/23. The selection of courses of interest for this study has been based on the UM
undergraduate prospectus for academic year 2022/23. The University comprises of a total of 14
faculties and 18 institutes. There are a total of 20 courses within seven faculties which specify AM
level Chemistry as an entry requirement or option. One of 18 institutes specify IM Chemistry as
an entry requirement or option. Six of 14 faculties specify IM level Chemistry as an entry
requirement or option. A total of 26 courses of interest were identified in the UM undergraduate
prospectus which specify Chemistry as a potential entry choice [16].
The number of students enrolled in the 26 courses of interest in this study amounts to 5,118 from
2020-2022. Most students enrolled in these courses is attributed to Doctor of Medicine and
Surgery (2,155) followed by the B.Sc. (Hons), and Built Environment Studies totalling 633 in 2020-
2022. In certain courses (out of these 26), while Chemistry is one of the possible entry options,
students may have other qualifications that make them eligible for enrolment. As a result, this
study considered the students with an IM or AM level Chemistry qualification who enrolled in these
courses. The total number of students was 667 (within a three-year period).
109 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2. Research Methodology

2.1 Design

A mixed methods approach was adopted, consisting of two research instruments: the analysis of
statistical data and three self-administered questionnaires to different stakeholders, namely UM
students, Sixth Form Chemistry teachers and UM course coordinators. This approach allowed for
the collection of quantitative and qualitative data, enabling a comprehensive analysis and
understanding of the research aims [17]. Quantitative data provided numerical insights into
patterns and associations, while qualitative data offered detailed descriptions and explanations
of participants’ perspectives.

2.2 Mapping the Participants

University students were sourced from those who had an IM / AM qualification in chemistry. They
were in their 1st, 2nd, or 3rd year of study (enrolled between 2020-2022) and were enrolled in a
course specified by the UM undergraduate prospectus for the academic year 2022/23. Students
in their 4th and subsequent years of study were excluded because the decision to enrol in a
university course would have been taken prior to the last three years, and a considerable amount
of time would have passed to recollect their course enrolment decision. Sixth Form Chemistry
Teachers Chemistry in Maltese Sixth Forms were recruited. Course coordinators of UM courses
with IM / AM Chemistry as a requirement or option were chosen.

2.3 Method

The online questionnaire consisted of 17 questions, divided into four sections (A-D):
Demographics; Course Choices; Motivations and Reasons for Choosing Chemistry; and
Students’ Career Choices. The questionnaire was adapted to each stakeholder group. A piloting
process was carried out on a small participant sample to pre-test the questionnaires for clarity,
comprehension, and overall effectiveness. Data collection occurred between March and May
2023. Participants were contacted through the UM Registrar’s office, social media and institutional
websites. Convenience sampling was adopted, where participant selection was based on
availability and willingness of participation in the study.

2.4 Limitations of the Study

The study focused on students in their 1st, 2nd, and 3rd year of study who sat for the 2020-2022
MC sessions. It did not consider students who participated in multiple MC sessions, students
enrolling through alternative entry requirements, or completing a course through alternative
pathways to UM programs and applicants with foreign Chemistry qualifications. The perspectives
of participants are based on their individual experiences. A larger sample size could have
provided a more comprehensive exploration of students’ views and experiences with IM and AM
Chemistry qualifications regarding course selection.

3. Results

There were 107 participants in this study. They consisted of: 79 UM students (S1-79), 22 Sixth
Form Chemistry teachers (T1-22), and six course coordinators (C1-6). Table 2 presents a
summary of results.

3.1 University of Malta Students

A total of 79 responses were obtained (Table 1) from 106 student questionnaires. The distribution
of respondents was as follows: 1st years (30.4%), 2nd years (40.0%), and 3rd years (31.6%). The
three most popular courses were: Doctor of Medicine and Surgery (37 participants); B.Sc. (Hons)
Chemistry (8 participants), and B.Sc. (Hons) Pharmaceutical Science (7 participants).
The responses were analysed using Braun and Clarke, 2006 [18]. The seven themes which
emerged included: influence, misconceptions, motivation, perceptions, career aspirations,
acquired skills and promoting Chemistry. The respondents were 47 females and 32 males. The
most frequent motivations for choosing Chemistry were “family” followed by “teachers and
mentors”. One student stated: “The attitude and teaching methods of my teacher at Sixth Form
were pivotal to developing a positive attitude to a subject” (S23).
110 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Other factors related to academic requirements. “Chemistry was always a subject I struggled with,
and I only chose it because it was a requirement for pharmacy” (S79). “I definitely think that most
students are [overwhelmed] by the idea of choosing Chemistry as it is made out to seem [a]
challenging subject” (S50). “I always enjoyed the subject [chemistry], but terrible teachers made
it more challenging than it had to be” (S44).

Table 1. Student Participants

Year of Study
Course 1 st
2nd 3rd Year Total
Year Year
B.Sc. (Hons) Information Technology (Computing and
1 1
Business)
B.Sc. (Hons) Applied Biomedical Science 4 1 1 6
B.Sc. (Hons) Applied Food and Nutritional Sciences 1 1
B.Sc. (Hons) Biology 2 2 1 5
B.Sc. (Hons) Chemistry 1 4 3 8
B.Sc. (Hons) Medical Biochemistry 1 1 2
B.Sc. (Hons) Pharmaceutical Science 1 3 3 7
B.Sc. (Hons) Pharmaceutical Technology 2 2
B.Sc. (Hons) Pharmacology 1 1 2
B.Sc. (Hons) Podiatry 1 1 2
Doctor of Medicine and Surgery 9 15 13 37
Master of Dental Surgery 2 3 1 6
Total 24 30 25 79
Percentage 30.4% 40.0% 31.6% 100%

Other students’ comments were insightful: “Chemistry is not respected in Malta. No warrants, no
real work other than ‘analyst’ / quality type jobs. Most successful chemists choose a completely
different, higher-paying career path entirely” (S2). A high majority of 92.4% (73 of 79) participants
stated that IM and AM level Chemistry widened their career choices. A total of 35 respondents
(44.5%) indicated that they would consider a Chemistry-related career abroad. “I want to expand
my horizons and work abroad” (S14). “Chemistry is a highly valuable subject anywhere in the
world” (S16).

3.2 Sixth Form Chemistry Teachers

The responses of Sixth Form Chemistry teachers consisted of 10 female and 12 male
respondents, all of Maltese nationality. They came from these educational sectors: state (54.5%),
independent (27.3%), and church (18.0%) schools. They have a range of experience in AM
Chemistry, spanning from two to 29 years, while IM Chemistry teachers’ experience varies from
one to 14 years. One Sixth Form college does not offer IM Chemistry. There are variations in
teaching loads and class sizes. The number of AM Chemistry students varies, averaging between
60-70 students, with differences between institutions. Most respondents do not teach IM
Chemistry, showing institutional differences, with others teaching a limited number of students.
The teachers perceived several factors influencing students' course choices, including university
requirements, future career aspirations, prestige, societal influences, job opportunities, family
background, personal interests, and peer influence. Teachers mentioned that students consider
“professional opportunities” (T6) and “job satisfaction” (T11) when choosing their course. This
resonates with the VTT where career choice and development and work satisfaction are
emphasised.
Teachers focus on dispelling misconceptions about Chemistry, addressing perceived difficulty,
comparisons with Biology, rote memorisation, and transition challenges. To support informed
decisions, teachers stressed the importance of adopting an individualised approach, promoting
exploration, and recommending students to utilise career guidance services.
Regarding student motivations for choosing Chemistry, teachers employ diverse strategies,
including hands-on activities, diverse teaching resources, interdisciplinary connections, effective
questioning, and maintaining a balance between theory and practice. Student motivations
included career aspirations, interest in the subject, meeting prerequisites, exploring diverse
career opportunities, and parental influence. Teachers incorporated context-based teaching, real-
life examples, and implementing real-world applications to enhance students' understanding of
the practical aspects of Chemistry.
111 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Regarding students' career choices, teachers utilise various strategies, such as facilitating
discussions, offering exposure, conducting research, sharing personal experiences, and
collaborating with career counsellors. However, teachers highlight a lack of information about job
trends. “I feel nobody tells us anything and we are very much out of the loop, except from what
we hear from ex-students. In-service courses should be designed specifically for Sixth Form
teachers to help us guide our students better” (T2).
Teachers emphasised limited opportunities and stressed the need for enhanced promotion of
careers in Chemistry. “… it does not make sense to promote a subject because the student knows
that education is a means to a job … if the job is not well paid, does not have a high status, then
the effort should be proportional” (T3).
Divergent opinions surfaced regarding the effectiveness of educational institutions in promoting
Chemistry. Moreover, teachers expressed concerns about students' choices, highlighted
restricted career opportunities, and advocated for increased promotion of Chemistry careers.

3.3 Course Coordinators

Despite reaching out to many course coordinators, the response rate and the level of engagement
low. Thus, this limited cohort size may not fully represent the experiences and viewpoints. Some
course coordinators dis not grasp the underlying focus of the study due to the presence of the
term "Chemistry" in the questionnaire. This confusion arose as their specific course
responsibilities did not did not directly involve Chemistry, although Chemistry is a potential entry
requirement for their courses.
This study included insights from six course coordinators for a total of seven courses. The
demographics showed a gender-balanced group, with three females and three males; all
participants were Maltese nationals. Regarding Chemistry qualifications, four coordinators hold
AM or IM Chemistry. In terms of teaching experience, they span from 15 to 37 lecturing years,
with a mean of 27 years. Coordinator experience ranges from three to 15 years, averaging seven
years.
Exploring students’ course choices, coordinators identified factors aligned with the SCCT Model.
These include: personal goals, job availability, salaries, personal preferences, and academic
performance. Addressing misconceptions about Chemistry, coordinators emphasised practical
applications and dispelled notions of difficulty and limited career options. They also stated that
students' choice of IM or AM level is driven by interest, prerequisites, diverse career opportunities,
and career aspirations.
Section D considered student career choices, where coordinators highlighted the role of
Chemistry in understanding biological principles. Chemistry is perceived as contributing to
interdisciplinary connections in the curriculum. “We wish to have students with knowledge in
different subjects so that they may enrich [their experiences]” (C2). “Students acquire a good
background in all the science areas and specialise in one. If they specialise in Chemistry this
serves to give students an understanding of [the subject] in applied situations and in real-life
contexts” (C5).
Recognition of Chemistry's impact on daily life was highlighted, with suggestions for improving
curriculum emphasis. Students with a Chemistry background acquire analytical skills, data
management abilities, research proficiency, logical thinking, and problem-solving skills “and an
understanding of the application of principles” (C4).
The study also considered alignment with industry standards and expectations. Respondents
stressed the importance of aligning Chemistry (as an entry requirement) with industry standards
and proposed syllabus changes to include diverse real-world applications. Proactive industry
engagement, in line with the SCCT model, involves close connections with the industry: “we are
close to industry, and I regularly discuss the curriculum with industry exponents” (C6).
Additional comments included the the importance of basic Chemistry for all science students,
even if not expressly a required prerequisite for Information and Communication Technology
(ICT). The presence of Chemistry as an accepted AM level qualification, even though not taught
in the course, helps students' potential career changes and choices. The rationale for limiting
accepted AM levels to science subjects is to ensure a foundation in analytical thinking and
problem-solving.
112 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 2. Summary of Results

University Sixth Form Chemistry
Themes UM Course Coordinators
Students Teachers
- Family members - University requirements - Personal goals
- Teachers and - Future career aspirations - Job availability
mentors - Prestige and societal - Potential earnings
- Educational influence - Personal preferences
1 Influence institutions - Job opportunities and - Academic performance
- Career aspirations satisfaction
- Interest in the - Family background and
subject personal interests
- Peer influence
- Perceived to be - Perceived to be difficult - Perceived to be difficult
difficult - Memorisation-based - Limited understanding of
- Limited learning approach its applications
understanding of its - Chemistry as a difficult - Limited career
2 Misconceptions applications subject compared to opportunities
- Limited career biology - Perception as a textbook
opportunities - Limited career science
- Perception as a opportunities
textbook science.
- Career aspirations - Career aspirations - Career aspirations
- Interest in the - Interest in the subject - Interest in the subject
3 Motivation subject - Prerequisites for other - Future qualifications
- Future programmes
qualifications
- Positive perception - Limited job market trends - Need for diverse career
- Concerns about and opportunities in Malta. prospects in Chemistry
4 Perceptions domestic vs. - Limiting career prospects - Limited advertising
international (emphasis on medicine).
opportunities
- Broad options in - Varied options - Importance of lectures
career choices - Awareness of the and teachers in
Career
5 - Positive impact on relevance of Chemistry in emphasising the subject’s
Aspirations
future career real-world applications. relevance.
prospects
- Career aspirations - Academic skills in - Analytical skills
in Chemistry-related Chemistry - Critical thinking abilities
6 Acquired skills
fields - Analytical skills - Practical laboratory skills
- Problem-solving skills
- Hands-on activities - Hands-on activities and - Promoting
- Visual aids and visual aids interdisciplinary
analogies - Applying Chemistry to knowledge
- Laboratory everyday life - Complementary to other
Promoting sessions - Using humour science subjects
7 Chemistry - Discussions - Incorporating questioning - Ensuring a solid
techniques and laboratory foundation for further
sessions education.
- Importance of
modernising the curriculum

4. Analysis and Discussion

4.1 Convergent and Divergent Perspectives

Career aspirations emerged as a crucial factor in course choices, resonating with both UM
students and Sixth Form Chemistry teachers. Course coordinators added depth to this discussion
by highlighting the significance of personal goals and job availability. In the field of Chemistry,
participants recognised a variety of career aspirations, spanning medical professions, research,
pharmacy, and dentistry. The emphasis on aligning educational options and offers with students'
career paths underscored the pivotal role of addressing these aspects in course design.
Both Sixth Form Chemistry teachers and course coordinators emphasised the paramount
significance of integrating real-world applications of Chemistry into the curriculum. Proposals
included practical examples, context-based approaches, and a spotlight on job opportunities. This
shared focus on developing analytical skills, fostering problem-solving abilities, encouraging
critical thinking, and emphasising practical applications underscores a collective commitment to
showcasing Chemistry's practical utility.
In answer to RQ1, the study uncovered a disconnection between the views of university students
and teachers on what motivates students to pursue chemistry. Students cited family influence as
113 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

their main reason for choosing chemistry, while teachers indicated a complex web of factors
including university requirements, societal impact, prestige, and personal interest as driving
forces of students’ course selection.
This misalignment purports student misconceptions about Chemistry being difficult, undervalued,
and offering few career options. These concerns were shared by teachers and coordinators who
aim to foster a more well-rounded understanding of the subject. UM students also identified a
deficiency in the promotion of the subject by educational institutions. Conversely, Sixth Form
Chemistry teachers expressed mixed opinions, suggesting a potential incongruency between
students' expectations and institutional actions. This contrast shows the need for improved
communication and awareness-building in order to bridge the gap.
The convergent and divergent perspectives illuminate the distinct viewpoints of UM students,
Sixth Form Chemistry teachers, and course coordinators on influences, perceptions, motivations,
career aspirations, and the role of Chemistry in education. These insights directly address the
first research question regarding the motivations driving university students' selection of courses
requiring IM or AM level Chemistry. RQ2 explored students' career options and the role of
Chemistry as a limiting or expanding factor. The majority of students perceived Chemistry as a
valuable qualification that widens their career opportunities, indicating a positive impact.
These varied perspectives emphasise the necessity for a nuanced approach in supporting
students as they navigate course choices, recognising the intricate factors influencing their
decisions. These results can contribute significantly to the development of a more informed and
supportive framework for Chemistry education at the UM. The collaborative commitment to dispel
misconceptions, align courses with career aspirations, and integrate real-world applications
signals a positive trajectory for enhancing Chemistry education.

5. Conclusion and Recommendations

In conclusion, it is vital to identify and address students’ misconceptions about the difficulty,
perceived unimportance, and limited career prospects of the subject. Feedback from students,
Sixth Form Chemistry teachers, and course coordinators revealed influences, perceptions,
motivations, and career aspirations in Chemistry education. This understanding promotes
stakeholder communication and decision-making, laying the groundwork for better educational
practices.
The study advocates the integration of real-world applications into the curriculum, using practical
examples, context-based approaches, and highlighting potential careers. This pedagogical shift
would make Chemistry more relevant to students’ daily lives, increasing their active engagement
and success in related courses. The research insights are key for shaping future curriculum
design, teaching methods, and support systems in Chemistry education. Incorporating these
insights into educational practices is crucial for institutions to proactively boost student
engagement, interest, and achievement in tertiary Chemistry courses. This study can help in
creating a more comprehensive and engaging Chemistry education experience, to prepare
students better for their careers and to advance in the field.
Further research can include a wider student body with such qualifications, ensuring a more
comprehensive analysis of influences on course choices. To address the practical educational
aspect, feedback from employers and workers with Chemistry qualifications could be incorporated
into research methodologies. This will help with the alignment of academic programmes and
industry needs, ensuring graduates possess skills valued in the job market. A cross-cultural
comparison on Chemistry choices would offer insights into the universality or uniqueness of
factors that influence course selection. This will guide institutions in tailoring educational
approaches to diverse student populations, and to foster inclusivity. Finally, a longitudinal study
to analyse historical course selection data and to predict future trends would be useful. This
approach empowers educational institutions to proactively adapt curriculum design, and ensure
sustained relevance. Integration of these recommendations aligns with the overarching goal of
advancing Chemistry education, deepening our understanding of course choices, and fostering
student engagement and success.

REFERENCES

[1] Regan, E., & DeWitt, J. (2014). Attitudes, interest and factors influencing STEM enrolment
behaviour: An overview of relevant literature. In Understanding student participation and
choice in science and technology education, pp. 63-88.
[2] Thake, E. (2023). Courses Requiring Intermediate / Advanced Level Chemistry at the
University of Malta: An Analysis of Students’ Choices (unpublished Master dissertation).
114 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[3] Magro, M., & Musumeci, M. (2019). Trends and patterns in subject choice by science
students at sixth form level in Malta. In Conference Proceedings: New Perspectives in
Science Education 8th Edition.
[4] Musumeci, M. (2015). Subject Choice and Performance in Chemistry and the Science
Subjects in Malta: Patterns According to Gender and School Type. In Conference
Proceedings International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education 4 th Edition.
[5] Southerland, S. A., Johnston, A., & Sowell, S. (2006). Describing teachers' conceptual
ecologies for the nature of science. Science Education, 90(5), 874-906.
[6] Chen, X. (2013). STEM Attrition: College Students' Paths Into and Out of STEM Fields
(NCES 2014-001). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education
Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC.
[7] Herfeld, C. (2018). From theories of human behavior to rules of rational choice: tracing a
normative turn at the Cowles Commission, 1943–54. History of Political Economy, 50(1),
1-48.
[8] Wittek, R., Snijders, T. A., & Nee, V. (Eds.). (2013). The handbook of rational choice social
research. Stanford University Press.
[9] Holland, J.L., Daiger, D.C., Power, P.G. (1980) My Vocational Situation. Palo Alto, CA,
Consulting Psychologists Press.
[10] Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory
of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of vocational
behavior,45(1), 79-122.
[11] Adebusuyi, A. S., Adebusuyi, O. F., & Kolade, O. (2022). Development and validation of
sources of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and outcome expectations: A social cognitive
career theory perspective. The International Journal of Management Education, 20(2),
100572.
[12] Garriott, P. O., Hudyma, A., Keene, C., & Santiago, D. (2015). Social cognitive predictors
of first-and non-first-generation college students’ academic and life satisfaction. Journal of
Counselling Psychology, 62(2), 253.
[13] Gibbons, M. M., & Borders, L. D. (2010). Prospective first‐generation college students: A
social‐cognitive perspective. The Career Development Quarterly, 58(3), 194-208.
[14] Malta Union of Teachers – A Short Overview of the Education System in Malta. Retrieved
January 20, 2024, from https://mut.org.mt/information/education-system-overview/
[15] University of Malta – Admissions and advice – Admissions FAQs – Entry Requirements.
Which subjects do I need in order to satisfy the University’s General Requirements?
Retrieved January 20, 2024, from
https://www.um.edu.mt/study/admissionsadvice/admissionsfaqs/
[16] University of Malta, Undergraduate Prospectus 2022 & 2023. Retrieved January 20, 2024,
from https://www.um.edu.mt/media/um/docs/study/admissions/UG_Prospectus.pdf
[17] Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods
research. Sage Publications.
[18] Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative
Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
115 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Variation of the Synthesis for Influencing the Optical

Properties of Carbon Quantum Dots

Malte Petersen1, Timm Wilke1*

Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg,

Institute for Chemistry, Chemistry Education Department,
26129 Oldenburg, Germany1

Abstract

Quantum dots represent a novel and innovative class of nanomaterials, enabling precise
adjustments in their absorption and emission properties. Their potential is evident in applications
like phosphors and display technologies. The awarding of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2023
has increased the general awareness of quantum dots, making the term familiar to many. From
an educational standpoint, the introduction of these advancements into school curricula presents
a valuable opportunity, allowing for the development of relevant experiments for educational
purposes. The synthesis of zinc oxide quantum dots and carbon quantum dots is already
achievable in educational settings.
In order to delve deeper into this subject, we suggest an alternative method of synthesis using a
standard microwave. This method involves altering the ratios of reactants showcasing how these
changes can influence the optical properties of the quantum dots. This approach not only
highlights the important chemistry concept of structure-property relationships but also serves as
an engaging introduction to the fields of spectroscopy and photochemistry.

Keywords: carbon quantum dots (CQDs), nanomaterial, optical properties, spectroscopy

1. Introduction

The field of nanochemistry and nanotechnology encompasses a wide range of topics and is an
integral part of our society. Its applications span various domains, including food chemistry,
medicine, and electronics [1]. The impact of these technologies was underscored by the Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 2023. The Nobel Committee recognized the significance of quantum dots in
laying the groundwork for nanotechnology. The importance of this field has also been
acknowledged by the Conference of Ministers of Culture (Kultusministerkonferenz) in Germany.
In 2020, they included nanotechnology in the German national educational standards. As a result,
this topic will soon be incorporated into the curricula of all German states.
Given this context, there is a clear need for effective experiments to support chemistry teachers
in achieving their educational objectives. Several preliminary publications aiming to assist
nanotechnology’s implementation in schools include the synthesis of zinc oxide quantum dots [2]
and targeted drug delivery enabled by nanoparticles [3], just to give two examples. Many other
established experiments rely on the synthesis of nanoparticles using various d-block transition
metals [4,5]. These are generally considered environmentally harmful and pose a risk to our
ecosystem when released in larger quantities. As an alternative, carbon quantum dots (CQDs)
have emerged in research as an alternative class of materials. They are currently being
investigated, particularly in the context of Green Chemistry [6] or photochemical applications [7].
CQDs therefore offer great potential for transferring current research effectively into schools.
Concepts relevant to teaching chemistry such as absorption, emission, or synthesis of
nanoparticles can be taught using this class of nanomaterials. In school education, however, the
topic is up to this time only barely represented. In this work, we will show a simple synthesis
approach for realizing fluorescent CQDs. For this purpose, a commercially available microwave
is used as a reactor and the fluorescence properties of the product are influenced by varying the
reactants.
116 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2. Scientific Background

Carbon quantum dots are a class of materials with unique properties based on carbon
nanomaterials. They consist of various clusters of carbon atoms including other heteroatoms such
as nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, or phosphorus. Typically, the size of these clusters is less than 10 nm.
Their most characteristic properties include good photoluminescence, high chemical adaptability,
and being nontoxic to the environment [8].
CQDs are synthesized using two approaches (Fig. 1): The top-down and the bottom-up method
[9]. In the top-down method, larger carbon-containing materials (bulk) such as carbon nanotubes,
graphene or plants are broken down into smaller fragments. This can be carried out by burning
or electrochemically treating the carbon base. In contrast, the bottom-up method synthesizes
CQDs from smaller, molecular precursors such as atoms, organic molecules, or polymers. These
precursors can be converted into clusters and then into CQDs by various chemical processes
such as hydrothermal treatment or microwave pyrolysis. This second synthesis approach offers
more precise control over the size and properties of the particles’ surface.

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the top-down and bottom-up approaches for the synthesis of
nanoparticles.

In bottom-up synthesis with the aid of a microwave, the treated solution is heated by microwave
radiation. This results in rapid heating of the precursors which in turn results in a pyrolysis in which
organic compounds are broken down and small carbon clusters can form in the solution. These
serve as nuclei for the formation of CQDs. The resulting carbon cluster continues to grow through
the integration of further carbon atoms. By adding different chemicals, the surface can be
functionalized and the size and stability of the CQDs can be controlled. The exact mechanism
varies across different syntheses using a microwave. In general, it is associated with improved
reaction efficiency, shortened synthesis time, and the formation of CQDs with desirable optical
and chemical properties. Following the reaction, the CQDs must be isolated from remaining
impurities for further use. Typical methods here are dialysis, size exclusion chromatography,
centrifugation, or the use of a separating funnel.
The photoluminescence properties of CQDs depend on their structure. CQDs have a crystalline
core structure and various amorphous functional groups on the surface. The energy gap of the
π-electron system in CQDs has a sufficient band gap to exhibit photoluminescence properties.
The functional groups on the surface can also contribute to influence the light phenomenon. The
targeted synthesis of CQDs allows them to emit light across the entire spectrum [10], with the
coloration depending on the surface defects (broken bonds). Due to the oxidation processes that
take place and the organic nature of the precursors, the hydroxyl group (-OH) is the most common
functional group to influence this photochemical property [11].

3. Experimental Setting

The following procedure describes a simple synthesis of CQD dots for chemistry education in
school, school laboratories or undergraduate laboratory courses. The experiment can be
conducted in two variants, resulting in CQDs with different appearance and photoluminescence.

Equipment: 500 mL beaker, 100 mL beaker, 50 mL beaker, standing cylinder, glass rod, pipette,
scale, spatula, microwave, UV/vis photo spectrometer, UV permeable cuvette, centrifuge,
centrifuge tube, hotplate
Chemicals: urea, citric acid monohydrate (GHS07), demineralized water
Optional: separating funnel, dichloromethane (GHS 06, 07), ethanol (GHS 02, 07)

Experiment: For the synthesis of the CQDs, citric acid (3 g, 14.2 mmol) is dissolved with urea
(variant A: 1 g, 16.6 mmol, variant B: 3 g, 50 mmol) in 8 mL demineralized water in a 50 mL
beaker. The clear solution is then transferred to the 500 mL beaker and placed in the middle of
117 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

the microwave. The microwave is operated at 700 W for 10 min until a black, dry residue has
formed in the beaker. The resulting product is taken up in 30 mL of demineralized water and
centrifuged for 1 h at 8.000 rpm. A clear, light-yellow solution is pipetted off and can be analyzed
for its absorption properties. For longer-term storage of the CQDs, they can be isolated by
evaporating the water on a hotplate.

If no centrifuge is available, one alternative for the school is to shake out the CQDs with the help
of a separating funnel. For this, the product is taken up after in 30 mL of demineralized water after
microwaving and poured into the separating funnel with a 1:2 mixture of ethanol: dichloromethane.
This procedure requires working under a fume hood and wearing gloves. The CQDs in the organic
phase can be isolated again by evaporating the organic solvents and then be stored.

4. Observations and Results

In this experiment, urea and citric acid are used for the microwave-assisted synthesis of CQDs
[12]. As can be seen in Fig. 2, the synthesized CQDs differ in their appearance and
photoluminescence behavior. The preparation with the 3:1 ratio (variant A) is yellowish in ambient
light whereas the 1:1 synthesis (variant B) is from a dark yellow to almost brownish appearance.
Under the irradiation of ultraviolet light (λ = 365 nm), the difference is even more visible. Here a
color difference from blue (3:1, A) to light yellow (1:1, B) can be observed.

Fig. 2. Photography of the synthesized CQDs with a ratio of 3:1 (left) and 1:1 (right) citric acid and urea.
The photo on the left was taken in ambient light and on the right under UV light (λ = 365 nm).

To understand this observation, urea must be understood as the variable that changes during
synthesis. The presence of urea as a precursor in the process affects the optical properties and
fluorescence of the CQDs [13]. Both the observation with the naked eye and the recorded
absorptions confirms this as can be seen in Fig. 2 and 3.

Fig. 3. Normalized absorption spectra of synthesis with a ratio of 3:1 (red) and 1:1 (grey) citric acid and
urea (the graph jump at 330 nm can be explained by the UV/vis lamp switch).

In the normalized absorption spectra, a bathochromic effect, a shift of the absorbance into the
longer wavelength range, from the 3:1 synthesis (red curve) to the 1:1 synthesis (gray curve) can
be seen. This ranges from 292 nm to 339 nm and amounts to 47 nm. The visible fluorescence
depends on the characteristics of the surface of the CQDs [11]. It can therefore be assumed that
varying the amount of urea compared to citric acid influences the photoluminescence of the
CQDs. It is reported that the proportion of hydroxyl groups on the surface can be influenced by
118 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

urea [13]. An increase in surface groups like these leads to increased passivation of the surface
of the CQDs, which causes the bathochromic effect [11].

5. Conclusion and Outlook

In this article, a simple method for the synthesis of CQDs is presented. The method is easy, safe
to conduct, and has a high probability of success. The effects are impressively visible, particularly
concerning the change in fluorescence. Furthermore, it gives the students an insight into what at
first glance appears to be an unconventional synthesis method in current research. The observed
bathochromic shift in absorption and the change of the fluorescence provides a starting point for
investigating the material properties of CQDs as nanomaterials. This initial approach can be
researched further and adapted for use in schools or universities. Here, for example, the use as
a catalyst for classic organic reactions lends itself to demonstrating the diverse advantages of this
material class. Another possibility is the investigation of their photochemical properties. These
could be used to simulate the photochemical degradation of pollutants such as drugs by
degrading a model dye. It also seems possible that CQDs can be used in school for a greener
approach to photochemical hydrogen generation. This would allow a reference back to current
topics relating to the future energy supply and the discussion of hydrogen as an energy carrier.
This brief list already shows that CQDs are a new class of materials for schools, which offers
potential for a possible implementation in regular school operations in various areas.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) for funding this work through the
Sonderforschungsbereich/Transregio 234 CATALIGHT, project number 364549901 (project Ö1).

REFERENCES

[1] Dan, D. T. (2020). Nanotechnology, Nanoparticles and Nanoscience: A New Approach

in Chemistry and Life Sciences. SNL 10/02, 17–26.
[2] Wilke, T., Waitz, S., von Hoff, E., Waitz, T. (2018). Farbig fluoreszierende Zinkoxid‐
Nanopartikel. CHEMKON 25/1, 16–22.
[3] Fruntke, A., Behnke, M., Stafast, L. M., Träder, T., Dietel, E., Vollrath, A., Weber, C.,
Schubert, U. S., Wilke, T. (2023). Targeted Drug Delivery: Synthesis of Smart
Nanocarriers for School Chemistry Education. J. Chem. Educ. 100/2, 751–759.
[4] Parvizian, M., Bechter, J., Huber, J., Chettata, N., Roo, J. de (2023). An Experimental
Introduction to Colloidal Nanocrystals through InP and InP/ZnS Quantum Dots. J. Chem.
Educ. 100/4, 1613–1620.
[5] Landry, M. L., Morrell, T. E., Karagounis, T. K., Hsia, C.-H., Wang, C.-Y. (2014). Simple
Syntheses of CdSe Quantum Dots. J. Chem. Educ. 91/2, 274–279.
[6] Dandia, A., Saini, P., Sethi, M., Kumar, K., Saini, S., Meena, S., Meena, S., Parewa, V.
(2021). Nanocarbons in quantum regime: An emerging sustainable catalytic platform for
organic synthesis. Catalysis Reviews, 1–55.
[7] Syed, N., Huang, J., Feng, Y. (2022). CQDs as emerging trends for future prospect in
enhancement of photocatalytic activity. Carbon Lett. 32/1, 81–97.
[8] Giordano, M. G., Seganti, G., Bartoli, M., Tagliaferro, A. (2023). An Overview on Carbon
Quantum Dots Optical and Chemical Features. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) 28/6.
[9] Das, R., Bandyopadhyay, R., Pramanik, P. (2018). Carbon quantum dots from natural
resource: A review. Materials Today Chemistry 8, 96–109.
[10] Bao, L., Liu, C., Zhang, Z.-L., Pang, D.-W. (2015). Photoluminescence-tunable carbon
nanodots: surface-state energy-gap tuning. Advanced materials (Deerfield Beach, Fla.)
27/10, 1663–1667.
[11] Shabbir, H., Csapó, E., Wojnicki, M. (2023). Carbon Quantum Dots: The Role of Surface
Functional Groups and Proposed Mechanisms for Metal Ion Sensing. Inorganics 11/6,
262.
[12] Wang, Y., Godin, R., Durrant, J. R., Tang, J. (2021). Efficient Hole Trapping in Carbon
Dot/Oxygen-Modified Carbon Nitride Heterojunction Photocatalysts for Enhanced
Methanol Production from CO2 under Neutral Conditions. Angewandte Chemie
(International ed. in English) 60/38, 20811–20816.
[13] MS, J., Nambiar, A., A, S. (2023). Modulating the fluorescence properties of carbon dots
by varying the stoichiometric ratios of citric acid and urea during the synthesis. Materials
Today Communications 37, 107199.
119 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Experimental Escape Games with Digital Enrichment

- An Innovative Format in Science Education

Isabel Rubner1, David Ditter2, David Weiser3, Sarah Lukas4

University of Education Weingarten, Germany1,2,3,4

Abstract

Escape games are innovative formats that are both motivating and have great potential to
integrate subject-specific content and train future-oriented skills (21st century skills, future skills)
in a fun and entertaining manner. Here, we present the integration of experimental escape games
in chemistry education. They are carried out in the Chemistry Teaching and Learning Laboratory
at the University Education Weingarten and developed further for the application in schools. The
aim is to increase students' motivation for scientific topics and interest in STEM subjects, and to
consolidate the application of knowledge acquired at school. In addition, 21st century skills
(creativity, collaboration, interest, engagement and self-regulation) are promoted by embedding
them in a game-based context.
In the escape games, experimental approaches and solutions are essential to achieve the goal.
Some of the escape games are digitally enhanced and guide the students (e.g., Actionbound,
H5P) or digitally enhanced with different technologies as needed (AR, explanatory videos, etc.).
In this contribution, the development, testing and evaluation of this innovative teaching method is
presented.

Keywords: game-based learning, Escape Games, Digitalisierung, STEM

1. Introduction

Young people's interest in science is still low. One way to attract students is to embed science
topics in motivating contexts. In this respect, game-based elements offer great potential,
especially if they are enriched with practical experiments and digital components. In addition,
game-based learning offers good opportunities to organize learning content in a practical way.
They also demand application-related knowledge, which is still rarely practiced in schools. As
experimentation is at the heart of chemistry, it is useful and valuable to go beyond the theoretical
transfer of knowledge and realize the consolidation and transfer of knowledge in the context of
practical experiments. Digital learning environments and enrichments have the potential to reach
groups of students who are sometimes not primarily interested in science. Here we present an
approach in which experimental escape games with digital enrichments are developed, tested
and evaluated in the Teaching and Learning Laboratory of the University of Education as part of
the Science4Exit project. In addition, the sub-project Science4Exit School Escape Games is
designed for use in schools.

2. Learning in Game-Based Contexts

2.1 Gamification - Game-Based Learning

Gamification can be considered business-related according to Deterding et al [1]. Gamification is

defined as "... the use of game design elements in non-game contexts". This means the
integration of game-based elements in non-game contexts. This could be as simple as visualizing
a progress bar when loading an update or giving feedback on the extent to which a profile has
been completed. According to Oliveira and Bittencourt [2], the process is analyzed more
specifically in terms of problem-solving strategies. Game mechanisms and game strategies are
central to problem solving. The definition is as follows: "The process of making activities more
playful". This is the basis for game-based learning.
The use of gamification in non-gaming contexts promotes several areas. In addition to promoting
motivation (Gears & Braun, 2013), increasing engagement (Reeves, Cumming & Anderson,
2011), increasing participation (Barata, Gama, Jorge & Gonçalves, 2013; Vassileva, 2012) and
promoting well-being (Oprescu, Jones & Katsikitis, 2014), gamification can also be used to
promote learning (Cheong, Cheong & Filippou, 2013) and collaboration and interaction
120 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

(Raftopoulos & Walz, 2013). The latter are particularly relevant as 21st century skills in today's
world [5].

2.2 Escape Rooms - Escape Games

In an escape room, the initial objective is to get out of a room in which the group has been trapped
within a certain amount of time [3]. For safety reasons this format cannot be used in a chemistry
laboratory, but the basic idea can still be used. The terms Escape Game or Exit Game are more
appropriate for the Science4Exit project and the term Escape Game will be used in our context
for standardization purposes. The use of escape games in education is often referred to as an
educational escape game [4]. In general, they contain tricky problems or tasks, the solution of
which leads to the next problem [5]. These tasks have a clear technical reference, so that the
focus is on consolidating or transferring specialist knowledge through the application of
knowledge. In this respect, different elements can be integrated into escape games. Escape
games can be purely digital, purely analogue/haptic or hybrid.

3. The Science4Exit Project

3.1 Presentation of the Project
The aim of the Science4Exit project is to increase students' interest in science and to consolidate
their applied knowledge. To this end, we focus on the development, testing, optimization and
evaluation of experimental escape games with digital enrichment [6]. Students should also
consolidate their experimental and digital skills as part of the escape games.
The Science4Exit project is designed for use in teaching and learning laboratories and has since
been extended for use in chemistry classrooms (Science4Exitschool). As part of the project, classic
and innovative chemistry topics are prepared and offered as escape games for school classes.
School classes can visit the teaching and learning laboratory Ex 3 Lab at the University of
Education to play an escape game on different topics, supervised by teacher students specializing
in chemistry. The teacher students gain valuable practical experience in guiding and supervising
students in a reduced complexity environment. The teacher students are also videotaped during
their supervision in the Ex 3 Lab. Video vignettes (short scenes) of relevant scenes are then
created from the recordings. The supervision and work with the video vignettes are part of a
Master's course.
The development of further escape games or building blocks for escape games will also take
place as part of a course in the Master's program, so that the teacher students are actively
involved and engage intensively with the technical content, experimental possibilities, and digital
implementation in the creation of escape games.
Another component of the Science4Exit project is the Exit AG. Students who have visited the Ex 3
Lab are invited to participate in the design of further escape games as
part of a research/exit group. This allows students to explore their
topics and interests and develop digital elements or experimental modules according to their
interests.
Supervision in the Exit AG is provided by academic staff from the University and student teachers.
The diagram Figure 1 shows how the different areas are linked:

Figure 1. Project structure Science4Exit

121 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

3.2 Development of the Escape Games in the Science4Exit Project

In the Science4Exit project the escape games are designed in such a way that the game flow is
as smooth as possible and that subject-specific content is deepened and applied and subject-
specific transfer is achieved. The orientation and focus vary according to the topic and the grade
level.
The escape games are all embedded in digital learning environments (e.g., Actionbound,
Genial:ly, H5P) and are played independently in small groups. A central feature of the
Science4Exit project is the use of digital technologies such as digital learning environments and
extensions such as AR, VR or explanatory videos, which create additional levels for the
understanding process.

3.3 The Escape Game “Stranded”

To illustrate how we work, here are some insights into the escape game “Stranded”. Stranded on
a desert island, a crate is washed ashore. The animated character Bill guides through the escape
game, which is placed in the Genial:ly learning environment. In the course of the game, students
use the contents of the box (see Figure 4) to solve different challenges and experiments.
For example, they have to produce drinking water from salty, contaminated water by separation
and purification methods. This is done by decanting, filtering and evaporating the water to recover
it. They are given various berries to work with, which they first must analyze to see if they are
edible. This is done by examining the color composition of these berries using paper
chromatography. Colored cones are used as berries (fig.3) . A defective torch (3D print,
homemade) with a broken circuit has to be supplemented with conductive material in order to
have light at night. After several other experiments, they finally manage to leave the island. In this
way, the students consolidate various aspects of material separation and properties that they
have learned in class and apply them in a new context.
Other escape games deal with topics such as acids and alkalis or energy supply and storage.

Figure 2. Students playing an escape game, wooden box with material

Figure 3. paper chromatography with Skittles

122 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 4. Wooden box from the escape game "Stranded", making fire with fire steel, instructions, Bill figure

One of the project’s key objectives is the development of key competences in students.
Participation in the Escape Games promotes the acquisition of skills that go beyond the mere
subject knowledge, and add critical thinking, problem solving, creativity and teamwork (21st
century skills) [7].

3.4 Results

The qualitative feedback from all participants, the teachers in the neighboring schools, as well as
from the students, was consistently positive. This was also confirmed by the quantitative data
collected to accompany the escape games in the school laboratory. Using a questionnaire at two
measurement points (before and after the escape game), 61 students answered questions about
their motivation, perceived competence (in the experiment and in the escape game in general),
communication and perceived pressure. The five-point scales ranged from -2 to 2, so that a data
value in the positive range indicates agreement with the named construct.
The data show a significant increase in the areas of planning experiments (t[60] = 4.42, p < .001),
communication with classmates during the escape game compared to school lessons (t[60] =
1.86, p<.05) and perceived competence in the escape game (t[60] = 2.85, p < .01, see also Table
1). Motivation did not improve significantly, but scores were relatively high to begin with.
Competence in conducting an experiment also did not change as a result of participation in the
Escape Game.

Table 1. Means (and standard deviation) of the constructs survey in the questionnaire. The scales were
five-point and ranged from -2 to 2. A positive value indicates an expression in the direction of the
construct.

Scale Before the escape game After the escape game

Motivation 1.04 (0.9) 1.09 (0.92)
Planning an experiment 0.15 (0.58) 0.56 (0.81)
Conducting an experiment 1.08 (0.56) 1.12 (0.74)
Perceived competence 0.45 (0.77) 0.82 (0.911)
Perceived pressure -1.02 (0.95) -0.95 (1.09)

The Masters Seminar, which aims at developing teacher students' professional skills, is also
currently being evaluated. Detailed results are still pending, but the videos and interview data
collected during the pilot program show that teacher students can deepen their knowledge and
skills in the development of digital teaching and learning materials. They benefit from the
development of escape games by expanding their didactic, creative and technological skills and
being able to put them into practice in the Teaching and Learning Lab.
In the peer tutoring course, teacher students reflect on their competences, improve their ability to
deal with complex situations, deepen their technical language skills and expand their
experimental skills. The seminar provides a practical platform for testing, reflecting and improving
their teaching skills, which makes a significant contribution to the professionalization of future
teachers.
123 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The practical application of theoretical knowledge and the realization of concepts in a real
teaching and learning context enable the different actors to strengthen their digital and
experimental skills.

Figure 5. Impressions of the escape game

4. Summary and Outlook

In the Science4Exit project, different levels of education are linked in a constructive way, creating
a classic win-win situation.
The experimental escape games with digital enrichment offer different starting points for students
to deal with scientific topics through the game-based context. In addition to the transfer of learning
contents from school and the application of the content in the escape game, several relevant key
skills are strengthened. The supervision of the students in the escape games enables them to
integrate valuable practical experience into their studies. In addition, valuable aspects of teacher
professionalization are strengthened.
In the future, we will develop further escape games in the project for the teaching and learning
laboratory and for chemistry lessons. Interdisciplinary STEM escape games will also be explored.

REFERENCES

[1] S. Deterding, D. Dixon, R. Khaled, L. Nacke (2011): From game design elements to
gamefulness: Defining “gamification”. Proceedings of the 15th International Academic
MindTrek Conference: Envisioning Future Media Environments, 9–15.
https://doi.org/10.1145/2181037.2181040
[2] W. Oliveira, I. Bittencourt (2019): Tailored Gamification to Educational Technologies.
Springer https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9812-5
[3] Strahringer, S. and Leyh, C. (eds) (2017) Gamification und serious games: Grundlagen,
Vorgehen und Anwendungen. Wiesbaden [Heidelberg]: Springer Vieweg (Edition HMD -
Praxis der Wirtschaftsinformatik). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-16742-4.
[4] Veldkamp, A. et al. (2020) ‘Escape education: A systematic review on escape rooms in
education’, Educational Research Review, 31, p. 100364.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100364.
[5] Tercanli, H., Martina, R. and Ferreira Dias, M. (2021) ‘Educational Escape Rooms in
Practice: Research and Experiences’. https://doi.org/10.34624/RPXK-HC61.
[6] Rubner, I., Lukas, S. (2023): Experimentelle Escape Games im Lehr-Lern-Labor Ex3-Lab
des Fachbereichs Chemie. In: Lehr-Lern-Labore und Digitalisierung. Hrsg: Meier, M.,
Hammann, M., Greefrath, G., Ziepprecht, K., Wodzinski, R.; Springer Verlag, p. 185-189,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-40109-2
[7] L. I. González-Pérez, M. S. Ramírez-Montoya (2022): Components of Education 4.0 in
21st Century Skills Frameworks: Systematic Review, Sustainability, 14(3), 1493.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031493
[8] S. Sorge, I. Neumann, K. Neumann, I. Parchmann, J. Schwanewedel. Lehr-Lern-Labore
als Vorbereitung auf den Lehrberuf – die Perspektive der Studierenden (2020), In: Lehr-
Lern-Labore. Konzepte und deren Wirksamkeit in der MINT-Lehrpersonenbildung,
Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 285–297, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-58913-7
124 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Calculation Tasks’ E-learning Methodology Creation and

Application for Lower Chemistry Secondary Education

Andrejs Zaicenko1, Mihails Gorskis2, Martin Bilek3

Charles University, Czech Republic1

Riga Technical University, Latvia2
Charles University, Czech Republic3

Abstract

Last 10 years Latvian national chemistry exam results have been researched and calculation
tasks successful solution level downgrade tendency observed. Study author created an approach
to help teachers in calculation tasks’ solution teaching and training. E-learning methodology has
been created based on Uzdevumi.lv platform’s editor that provided virtually unlimited opportunity
to individualise conditions, solve problems studying chemistry and organise competence tests.
Effectiveness of methodology has been measured by a pedagogical experiment where 250
students from class 8 and 10 teachers with different pedagogical experience participated.
Opportunities of ICT tools in performing calculation tasks’ solving competence and checking
results, principle of memorisation and basics of algorithms for calculation tasks have been
researched. Main difference in methodology and using Uzdevumi.lv task editor compared with
classical methods is the possibility to create calculation tasks with condition variations to increase
diversity and individualised approach to each student. In the result chemistry calculation basic
formulas have been combined with algorithms and numbers’ randomisation allowed to create
more than 1700 tasks with different conditions for the experimental group. Methodology has been
tested and evaluated as recommended to use in Latvian schools to increase students’ calculation
tasks’ solving skills in chemistry courses for lower chemistry secondary education level. Students'
interest in e-learning platforms in chemistry lessons has been detected but nevertheless the
majority believe that ICT and classic (printed tasks and communication with teacher) teaching
tools should be used evenly.

Keywords: ICT course, chemistry education, e-learning, methodology

1. Introduction

Research has been conducted to determine that the level of mathematical knowledge is decisive
at the beginning of learning chemistry. Students with weak mathematical skills typically achieve
poor results in solving chemistry calculation tasks. [1] There is also a debatable question about
the role of calculation tasks in the process of learning chemistry - whether they are necessary for
mastering chemistry or whether they hinder and deter interest in learning chemistry. [2]

2. Theoretical Part

2.1 Integration of ICT in Chemistry Education

Effective chemistry education faces challenges, particularly in teaching calculation tasks, which
require strong math skills. In Latvia, chemistry courses include training in various calculation skills,
but teachers often lack confidence and experience in teaching them effectively. Bridging this gap
requires enhancing both teachers' Common Content Knowledge (CCK) and their Specialized
Content Knowledge (SCK) specific to chemistry education. In order to successfully master the
skill of solving chemistry calculation tasks, it is necessary to understand the basic principles of
chemistry and various problem-solving approaches. However, students often struggle with
understanding the conditions of the task, selecting rational solving methods, and analysing the
obtained solution. ICT technologies, creating e-learning environments, allow supplementing
another learning method in solving tasks. Skill training, using variations, is one of the possibilities
for solving the problem.
125 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2.2 Integration of ICT in Chemistry Education

Integrating Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in education presents challenges

such as time constraints, teacher demographics, and reluctance to adopt new technologies.
However, ICT offers opportunities for enhancing chemistry education. Platforms like uzdevumi.lv
provide tailored resources for teaching chemistry, including interactive problem-solving tasks and
assessment tools. The main educational platform in Latvia can be called the portal uzdevumi.lv.
SIA "Uzdevumi.lv" is a representative of the private sector, which continues to improve the digital
learning resource website. In 2020, a study "Evaluation of the functionality of digital learning
platforms" was conducted, where users, evaluating the digital learning tools developed in Latvia
according to various criteria, assigned the highest number of points to the uzdevumi.lv (37 points)
and soma.lv (35 points) platforms out of the maximum possible score (42 points). (Daniela, 2020)
The uzdevumi.lv platform is highly rated, so it can be concluded that this platform is widely used,
convenient, and has been highly useful during the COVID-19 pandemic. [3]

2.3 Integration of ICT in Chemistry Education

One of the most complex and important issues in chemistry education is: "How to teach a student
to solve problems on their own?" Teachers often teach problem-solving using models for which
algorithms were prepared before the lesson - worked out in previous algorithm classes. This is
the easiest option. As observations by foreign researchers show, students more often use an
algorithmic approach, or mathematical formulas. [4], [5]
As evidenced by the results of a study by Serbian scientists, calculation tasks are more closely
related to algorithmic operations. Students find it difficult to relate calculation tasks in chemistry
to real-life situations. Since mastering chemistry tasks is still related to real life, calculation tasks
should be adapted to real-life situations. This allows students to express their creativity and
attempt to solve problems by analysing the situation, rather than following specific actions
according to an algorithm. [6]
In Czech schools, elementary school students only solve problems related to solutions -
calculating the composition of a solution. These tasks connect students with real life and provide
opportunities for various calculation approaches. The quantity, scope, and depth of calculation
tasks remain the responsibility of the teacher. [7]

3. Methodology

3.1 Description of Research Methods and Research Base

The primary aim of the research is to investigate the effectiveness of using ICT, specifically the
uzdevumi.lv platform, in developing students' ability to solve chemistry calculation tasks. A
pedagogical experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that ICT integration improves task-
solving skills. The experiment involved two groups: Group A, which used uzdevumi.lv for learning
tasks, and Group B, which did not. The experiment took place in the second semester of the
2021/2022 academic year, involving 250 8th-grade students from five schools in the Upper
Daugava region. Schools were selected based on similar student abilities and distributed as a
control group and 4 experimental groups.
The research employed a natural pedagogical experiment approach to minimise interference with
the teaching process while testing the effectiveness of ICT integration. Teachers synchronised
thematic plans and administered tests, maintaining consistency across all groups. Diagnostic
tests were conducted at the beginning of the second semester to assess students' baseline
abilities. Result delta for all groups is 1.4% (Fig.1.).
126 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig.1. Diagnostic test results.

Routine examinations were conducted throughout the study to track progress. A final control test
was administered at the end of the semester to evaluate skill retention and compare outcomes
between groups.

3.2 Overview of Algorithms for Computational Tasks

The currently prevailing approach in teaching problem-solving techniques is the demonstration of

specific problem-solving examples. To create examples, it is necessary to use ready-made
algorithms to increase variation and accelerate the acquisition of mathematical competencies. By
using the basic formulas (Fig.2.) used in chemistry problems and the principles of composing
chemical reaction equations.

Fig.2. Diagnostic test results.

The mentioned formulas are used to create tasks, the calculation of which follows a certain
sequence:
Choose one of the basic formulas (1)-(3) or derived formulas (4)-(6) that relate the physical
quantity, whose numerical value is known, to the physical quantity that needs to be calculated. If
necessary, transform the formula so that the physical quantity whose numerical value needs to
be calculated remains on the left side of the equation, while all other physical quantities are on
the right side.
Supplement the conditions of the task with the necessary numerical values of constant physical
quantities, as well as calculate the numerical value of the given substance's molar mass (if
necessary). Insert the numerical values of physical quantities into the formula and perform the
calculation.
Without changing the numerical values of physical quantities, the number of variations already
significantly exceeds the number of students in an average class. By utilising the principle of
random number generation, as provided by the Uzdevumi.lv platform where tasks are created, it
is possible to infinitely increase the variation of tasks for successful student training (Table 1.)
127 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 1. List of competencies and full tasks variations created

Competence to be trained Number of tasks Compounds / Full tasks
reactions variations

1. Molecular Weight Calculation 2 57 342

2. Mass fraction 3 36 1080

3. Units of measurement 2 15 75

4. Physical quantities 2 27 27

5. Mole Calculation 5 60 60

6. Volume of substance 5 60 60

7. Substance mass 3 13 78

22 268 1722

3. Research Part

3.1 Results of the Pedagogical Experiment

In order to check whether the uzdevumi.lv platform helps students to learn and strengthen the
skill of calculating tasks due to large variations and repetitions it was decided to conduct three
routine tests every month from February:
• The 1st routine test is about molecular mass and substance quantity calculations, knowing
the mass, mass calculations, knowing the substance quantity.
• The 2nd regular test is about calculating the volume of gaseous substances, knowing the
quantity and calculating the quantity, knowing the volume;
• The 3rd round test – calculation of the mass fraction of the dissolved substance, knowing the
mass of the dissolved substance, calculation of the mass of the dissolved substance, knowing
the mass fraction or the mass of the solution or solvent.
Control group also conducts regular testing. The teachers of all groups themselves decide at what
point to give the students to complete the regular evaluation work, and also evaluate their own
students. After the work was completed, the results were sent to the author (Fig.3.).

Fig.3. Routine tests’ results

128 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Experimental groups showed higher achievements than the control group in some Quality Tests.
This can be explained by the fact that the uzdevumi.lv portal helps students train the basic skills
of calculating tasks. There is also an upward trend of experimental groups 2, 3 and 4 with up to
8.6% growth compared to 4.0% for control group. However, the differences are not very big and
are entire relative errors. This can be explained by the fact that the teachers explain the subject
well and the students acquire a lot of skills during the lessons. The portal uzdevumi.lv only helps
to mechanically train the skill of calculating tasks, applying the necessary formulas, choosing the
necessary quantities and units of measurement.

3.2 Analysis and Evaluation of the Final Test Work

At the end of the academic year the final test was conducted with the aim of finding out whether
the acquired skills to solve calculation tasks remained with the students or were forgotten, as well
as to check the distribution of results between groups. With this final test, the author tries to prove
the proposed hypothesis - the use of the portal uzdevumi.lv in the learning process is effective for
developing problem-solving skills in chemistry, as it gives the opportunity to train this skill due to
the large number of variations of the task.
The final exam for testing the ability to solve 7 calculation tasks. The tasks consist of one action,
similar to the tasks that were used in regular assessment tasks. Assessment haven’t tested the
students' ability level or other skills, only the ability to calculate the amount of a substance, if the
mass or volume of the substance was given, the ability to calculate the molar mass, the ability to
calculate the mass fraction or the mass, knowing the mass fraction of the solution, was tested.
The work was supervised by the teachers, only the results were sent to the author.

Fig.4. Final test results.

By comparing the percentage of students' performance of tasks shown in Fig. 4 results the
experimental groups in a lot of tasks are higher than the control group. Especially large differences
are observed in the first three tasks, where the molar mass and amount of substance had to be
calculated. These results can be explained by the fact that the students studied these topics at
the beginning of the semester (January - March), but were not repeated afterwards. Students
showed better results when solving questions 4-6. task. This graph also shows that the
performance of the experimental group is similar in all tasks. This allows us to think that, however,
the portal uzdevumi.lv approach helps to develop and maintain acquired skills.
129 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4. Conclusions

Algorithms for creating calculation tasks and the number of variations on the platform uzdevumi.lv
were evaluated and the effectiveness of using the portal for developing the skill of solving
calculation tasks in the elementary school chemistry course was experimentally tested. In order
to prove their effectiveness a pedagogical experiment was conducted during which the students
of 4 four experimental and the control group were tested and their results were compared.
Following conclusions are made:

1. Experimental group with the lowest initial rate showed slowest progress during the experiment.
2. Experimental groups demonstrated higher overall results compared to the control group
almost in all test papers but not significantly.
3. After the pedagogical experiment the final test experimental group 1-3 showed higher results
but group 4 total result was lower than the control group.
4. Experimental Group 3 showed highest progress in quality tests, control group - lowest.

Research showed e-learning tools successful application in solving calculation tasks in chemistry
training and implementation in the education process for Latvian schools. At the same time e-
learning methodology is not showing much higher results than traditional methods and not
decreasing competence level of students participated in research.

REFERENCES

[1] Srougi, M. C., Miller, H. B. Peer learning as a tool to strengthen math skills in introductory
chemistry laboratories, Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 19(1), 2018, p. 319-
330.
[2] Rusek, M., Jančařík, A., & Novotná, J. Chemical calculations: A necessary evil or an
important part of chemistry education? In D. Rychtarikova, D. Szarkova & L. Balko (Eds.),
APLIMAT 2016 - 15th Conference on Applied Mathematics, Bratislava, Proceedings Paper,
2016, p. 978-986.
[3] Zaicenko, A., Gorskis, M., Bilek, M. Observation of 3 years changes in the chemistry e-
learning process concentrated on solving calculation tasks during the periods of forced
distance learning. DidSci+, Košice, 2022.
[4] Cracolice, M. S., Deming, J. C. & Ehlert, B. Concept learning versus problem solving: a
cognitive difference. Journal of Chemical Education, 85(6), 2008, p. 873–878.
[5] Lazenby, K. & Becker, N. M. A Modeling perspective on supporting students’ reasoning
with mathematics in chemistry. In M. H. Towns, K. Bain, & J-M. G. Rodriguez (Eds.), It’s
just math: research on students’ understanding of chemistry and mathematics, American
Chemical Society, 2019, p. 9–24.
[6] Rodić, D., Horvat, S., Rončević, T., Babić-Kekez, S. Algorithmic approach to quantitative
problem-solving in chemistry, In. V. Lamanauskas (Ed.), Science and technology
education: Developing a global perspective, Proceedings of the 4th International Baltic
Symposium on Science and Technology Education, Šiauliai, BalticSTE2021, 2021, p. 144-
151.
[7] Rusek M., Vojir K., Bartova I., Klečkova M., Sirotek V., Štrofova J., To What Extent Do
Freshmen University Chemistry Students Master Chemistry Calculations? Acta Chim. Slov.
69, 2022, p. 371–377.
130 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Curriculum Development
131 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Integrating Artistic Research into German University of

Applied Sciences Curricula: A New Paradigm in Science
Education

Tobias Schmohl1, Sebastian Grobler2

OWL Technical University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Germany1,2

Abstract

This paper presents a pioneering approach to integrating artistic research into the curriculum of
German universities of applied sciences (UAS). Recognizing the unique challenges and
opportunities presented by artistic disciplines in higher education, we have developed modules
for a master's program that blend epistemological content with the fundamentals of artistic
research. This initiative addresses the current disparity in qualification opportunities for artistic
disciplines at the UAS level, where artistic achievements are legally equated with scientific
accomplishments, yet opportunities for higher qualification in these fields are limited.
Our approach is anchored in the belief that artistic research, a field that challenges traditional
research paradigms by valuing artful knowledge alongside scientific knowledge, deserves a
structured and recognized pathway within the academic system. Drawing from relevant legal texts
and documents that equate artistic and scientific qualifications of personnel, we argue for the
integration of artistic research into the curriculum as a step towards rectifying the existing
imbalance and underrepresentation of artistic disciplines in higher education.

Keywords: Artistic Research, Art-Based Research, Curriculum Development, Higher Education,

Epistemology

1. Introduction

Artistic research (ArtR) is a synthesis of creative practice and academic investigation, in which
artistic pursuits are not only subjects of study but also an essential part of the research process
itself. This approach departs from traditional research methods by focusing on creative,
experiential, and practice-based forms of knowledge production and by promoting an exploratory
mindset in which the search for knowledge and creativity is grounded in artistic processes and
products.
The discourse on ArtR, as highlighted by Matcham [1], Williams [2], Vanlee [3], and Liinamaa [4],
emphasizes the need for inclusive perspectives in research and the recognition of diverse
methodologies and outcomes. Our effort is a step towards valuing the unique methodologies and
scientific contributions of artistic disciplines at the UAS level, paving the way for new qualification
paths for their graduates, right up to the doctoral level.

2. Definitions

Research can be described in general terms as the methodical and systematic pursuit of new
knowledge across all scientific disciplines [5]. In a narrow sense, it involves the deliberate and
purpose-driven investigation to discover new insights within a specific field of knowledge,
including the development of ways to test these findings. Broadly, research encompasses the
entire range of methodical, systematic, and creative intellectual efforts in all scientific disciplines.
This includes the methods and techniques employed in these endeavors, aimed at acquiring new,
verifiable knowledge and understanding the underlying principles governing them. It also refers
to the network of individuals and institutions involved in this process [6]. Additionally, research
involves the critical examination of existing dominant theories and the resolution of complex
problems.
ArtR represents a unique paradigm within the broader domain of academic inquiry. While sharing
commonalities with scientific research, ArtR diverges in its methods, objectives, and interpretative
frameworks, emphasizing the process of art creation [7]. This divergence underscores the
uniqueness of artistic inquiry as a mode of knowledge production. In contemporary discourse on
132 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

ArtR, the discussion often centers around varying definitions and interpretations of what
constitutes research within the arts.
Current discussions in the field frequently revolve around the evolving definitions and
interpretations of what constitutes research in the arts. This discourse includes distinguishing
between "research on art," a well-established field evident in disciplines such as art history, art
theory, and cultural studies, and "research for art." The latter, while relatively new, does not
significantly shift the theoretical underpinnings of art studies, often employing research
methodologies from the natural sciences and sociology to inform artistic creation. However, the
concept of "research in art," often synonymous with ArtR, remains more enigmatic and open to
diverse interpretations [7].
Henk Borgdorff's work is pivotal in this discourse. He argues that research, traditionally
understood as an original investigation aimed at gaining knowledge and insights, can be applied
to the arts. This application, however, must recognize that the arts contribute uniquely to the realm
of knowledge, not merely by extending empirical knowledge but by adding novel dimensions to
the artistic universe: Following Borgdorff, ArtR “is to be understood as original investigation
undertaken in order to gain knowledge and understanding. It includes work of direct relevance to
the needs of commerce, industry, and to the public and voluntary sectors; scholarship; the
invention and generation of ideas, images, performances, artefacts including design, where these
lead to new or substantially improved insights; and the use of existing knowledge in experimental
development to produce new or substantially improved materials, devices, products and
processes, including design and construction” [8].
As a newly coined term within the academic sphere, ArtR sparks ongoing debates among artists,
art theorists, and academics. Despite differing viewpoints, there is a consensus that in ArtR, the
art-making process is paramount, with the final product gaining significance only if it elucidates
this process. When considering ArtR as a novel form of scientific inquiry, questioning the nature
of its subject matter becomes essential. Yet, such inquiries may be deemed unnecessary if we
embrace the varied interpretations of research within the expansive artistic landscape. This
landscape encompasses a range of activities, from experimentation to the genesis of new artistic
phenomena.
ArtR cultivates a distinct relationship with the public by accepting participation and contact as
essential elements of the creative process, fostering a dynamic relationship between the
researcher and the audience. This approach not only enriches the artistic process but also serves
to democratize the creation and appreciation of art, encouraging a more inclusive and
participatory cultural discourse.

2.1 Rethinking Knowledge Creation in Artistic Research

Borgdorff's contribution to the discourse challenges conventional paradigms of knowledge

generation. He advocates for ArtR as a distinct realm of knowledge production, employing
methodologies akin to those in empirical sciences. Borgdorff introduces a nuanced understanding
of knowledge in this context: it is artistic, embodied, and non-conceptual, yet simultaneously
cognitive, non-propositional, rational, and non-discursive. Despite referencing debates in various
scientific fields, Borgdorff stops short of fully integrating these diverse notions of knowledge into
his theoretical framework.
A significant aspect of his argument is the emphasis on "practical knowledge" — the implicit
beliefs and assumptions foundational to artistic creation, yet often remaining unarticulated. This
form of knowledge, intrinsic to artistic processes, diverges from the more concrete, empirical
knowledge that typifies scientific inquiry.
The proposition of ArtR as a novel scientific discipline prompts a reassessment of established
scientific objectivity concepts. Alternatively, if we view "research in art" as a new artistic program,
broadening the definition of research, it may not necessitate redefining the criteria for scientific
research. Recognizing ArtR as a valid, expansive research practice implies that artists in this
domain should recalibrate their self-perception, addressing potential misinterpretations of ArtR as
a science.
The juxtaposition of art and science is not contingent on narrowly defining art as research in the
scientific sense. Both domains are vital to the human experience: empirical science seeks to
advance reliable knowledge, while art enriches various aspects of human life with aesthetic
values. The commensurate significance of art and science lies in their unique contributions to
human existence. Empirical scientific research embodies research in a strict sense, whereas
research in art aligns with a broader interpretation, consistent with other forms of artistic
expression.
In this context, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada has introduced
the term "research-creation." This concept encapsulates an "approach to research that combines
creative and academic research practices, and supports the development of knowledge and
133 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

innovation through artistic expression, scholarly investigation, and experimentation. The creation
process is situated within the research activity and produces critically informed work in a variety
of media (art forms)" [9].

2.2 Differentiating Practice-Based and Practice-Led Research in Artistic Inquiry

Within ArtR, it is imperative to distinguish between two types of research, as defined by [10] and
[11]. Candy provides a concise definition of these two types of research, stating that "[i]f a creative
artifact serves as the foundation for the knowledge contribution, the research is practice-based.
If the research leads primarily to new understandings about practice, it is practice-led" [10, p.1].
Practice-based research, on the one hand, integrates the creation of an art form as a central
component of the research process. Here, artistic practices like painting, dance, sculpture, or
music composition are not just subjects of investigation; they are conduits of research. The
creation of new artistic works, viewed as contributions to knowledge, is the primary outcome of
practice-based research. These artifacts, performances, or exhibitions encapsulate new insights
and understandings, thereby constituting a form of new knowledge or contribution to the field. The
research aims to generate artifacts, performances, or exhibitions that embody new
understandings and insights.
In ArtR, practice-based approaches are used to explore and understand artistic processes,
techniques, and the materiality of the art form. The artistic work itself, as a result of this research,
stands as a testament to the inquiry and its findings.
Practice-led research, on the other hand, focuses more on the reflection and theoretical
understanding that emerges from artistic practice. Here, the practice (artistic creation) leads to
new insights that are then articulated and analyzed through a more traditional research
framework. The outcome of practice-led research is typically a combination of an artistic output
and a reflective, analytical documentation or thesis that contextualizes and explains the insights
gained from the creative process.
In ArtR, practice-led approaches are instrumental in investigating the concepts, theories, and
ideas underpinning an artist’s work. It emphasizes understanding the implications, meanings, and
contextual relevance of the artistic practice.

2.3 Recent Discourses in Artistic Research

Recent discussions in the field have further expanded the scope of ArtR. Taylor & Hansen [12]
categorize organizational aesthetics research into four categories, blending intellectual and
aesthetic analyses with artistic explorations. Djahwasi & Saidon [13] introduce the performative
methodology as a third paradigm within ArtR, marking a distinct mode of inquiry. Seregina [14]
highlights the diverse terminology in the field, such as artistic inquiry and arts-based education
research, indicating the breadth of approaches and perspectives.
The positioning of ArtR within higher education brings both challenges and opportunities. Its
integration into academic frameworks promotes rigorous inquiry but also raises concerns about
potential constraints on artistic spontaneity [8]. This integration underscores the importance of
maintaining the essence of artistic creativity within structured environments.
ArtR's ethos resonates with scientific research's aim to explore the unknown, driven by curiosity
and imagination [15]. This pursuit parallels the scientific quest for new knowledge frontiers. Market
dynamics and state policies significantly influence ArtR's trajectory. The increasing global
consumption of art and the expansion of higher education present complex challenges and
prospects for ArtR [16].
Haarmann's [17] 'praxology of knowledge' in ArtR emphasizes practical knowledge. However, the
philosophical delineation between this practical knowledge and propositional knowledge remains
an area for further exploration and clarification.

3. The Science-Political Dimension of Artistic Research

The evolution of ArtR in Europe, beginning in the 1990s, has significantly intersected with higher
education policy developments, particularly since the 2000s. This intersection is largely
attributable to curricular reforms mandated by the Bologna Process, aimed at standardizing study
programs and degrees to foster a unified European higher education area. These reforms have
notably shaped ArtR's role in post-secondary education. Parallel to Europe's efforts, art
universities in the USA, Canada, and eventually China have independently established ArtR-
centric PhD programs since the early 1990s [18]. This trend underscores a growing recognition
and institutionalization of ArtR in higher academia, despite the fact that less than 300 art schools
and universities globally offer such programs [19].
134 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

A critical issue in this domain is the scarcity of specialized post-secondary education in artistic
disciplines. This lack has sparked debates about the need for a distinct ArtR approach, separate
from the methodologies of humanities or cultural studies. The push for legitimizing ArtR,
championed by various artistic university associations and disciplines, is seen as a strategic move
to access more robust state and non-state research funding. The Vienna Declaration on Artistic
Research [20] reflects this stance by advocating for ArtR's inclusion in national and international
funding policies. However, this declaration has encountered criticism, particularly in a Manifesto
on Artistic Research [21], for its perceived overemphasis on financial incentives and the risk of
scientification of artistic programs, which might undermine the intrinsic values of artistic creation
[22].
Despite these controversies, the 2010s have marked a proliferation of institutes, doctoral
scholarships, and research programs dedicated to ArtR throughout Europe. However, a notable
gap remains in the integration of ArtR into the curricula of Germany’s universities of applied
sciences (UAS). These institutions are traditionally focused on applied sciences and technology.
They can benefit from incorporating ArtR, particularly in programs like design and media
technology. However, integrating ArtR requires navigating the UAS’s existing curricular
framework, which may not readily accommodate the fluid and interdisciplinary nature of ArtR.
Opportunities lie in fostering interdisciplinary projects that combine scientific methods with artistic
creativity, enhancing problem-solving skills and innovation. This approach aligns with the findings
of [21], who emphasize the potential of ArtR to enrich traditional academic disciplines.
German UAS, which cater to a substantial segment of the student body, particularly in design and
art-related fields, demonstrate a preference for research in natural sciences, and to a lesser
extent, cultural and social sciences, over ArtR. This disparity is striking and underscores the need
for a more inclusive approach to incorporating ArtR within the broader academic landscape,
especially in institutions hosting significant numbers of students engaged in artistic disciplines.
Moreover, ArtR may contribute to expanding the traditional industry ties of German UAS.
Collaborations could involve joint research projects, internships, or new product and service
development. Such partnerships would provide mutual benefits, offering industry insights to
students and enriching curricula with practical experiences [18].

4. Implications on Post-Secondary Teaching and Learning

The focus on artistic processes in ArtR presents transformative opportunities for higher education,
especially in nurturing artistic processes. First, it encourages students to explore various
expression forms and techniques, crucial in developing their artistic identity and producing
profound, independent work. This nurturance is vital for professional growth. Second, articulating
intuitive and pre-conscious artistic processes facilitates craft mastery. Such awareness empowers
artists to transcend traditional norms, technological constraints, and perceived creative
boundaries. Systematizing these processes within an artistic field’s best practice discourse is
imperative, given the current gap in formalized knowledge production. Integrating research with
creation could elevate knowledge production within specific artistic domains.
In the following chapter, we will present an overview of a pioneering initiative to establish a new
part-time degree program with the objective of bridging the gap between artistic and scientific
disciplines. This initiative responds to evolving higher education demands, aligning with
interdisciplinary study trends. The program’s structure, extending to doctoral studies, commits to
integrated professional development in these fields.

4.1 Curriculum Design and Implementation

To successfully integrate ArtR into the curriculum of German UAS, programs must align with the
specific requirements and conditions of the German education system. This includes adhering to
accreditation standards and promoting interdisciplinary learning, as highlighted in the Bologna
Process guidelines. Development of ArtR programs should be undertaken in collaboration with
accreditation bodies to ensure compliance with quality standards while maintaining the flexibility
to respond to the dynamic needs of the job market and artistic practice. Interdisciplinary
approaches are crucial, enabling students to make connections across various knowledge areas
[7].
We propose a pioneering part-time degree program, merging artistic and scientific disciplines.
Modelled on our successful master's courses, this modular program offers flexibility for
professionals. It integrates artistic and scientific principles, aiming to develop comprehensive
understanding in both areas. The program targets professionals seeking advanced academic and
practical skills at the art-science nexus, paving the way for doctoral studies. It emphasizes
research opportunities combining theoretical and practical elements, fostering academia-industry
synergy.
135 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Participants must undertake a practical artistic-creative project. The curriculum includes theories
from the artistic field (e.g., Baumgart's sensory cognition theory, Kant's imagination role, Adorno's
art theory) and basic ArtR texts. It introduces art-works related to ArtR, artistic methods (e.g.,
artist book, re-enactment), and, where applicable, relevant methods from other disciplines (e.g.,
experimental design, action research, participant observation). Participants will reflect on and
implement their artistic-creative projects, culminating in group discussions and critiques. The goal
is to generate thematic-artistic knowledge, enhancing creative-artistic practices.

4.2 Establishment of a Specialized Doctoral Group

In conjunction with expanding our academic offerings, we plan to establish a specialized doctoral
group within a doctoral college. This initiative follows our recent authorization by the German
Science Council to award doctoral degrees, significantly enhancing our institution's academic and
research capabilities. The doctoral college is envisioned as a center for interdisciplinary research,
emphasizing collaboration across artistic and scientific disciplines. It aims to cultivate a vibrant
community for academic exchange and innovation, contributing to the development of new
research paradigms in ArtR.

4.3 Projected Impact and Future Directions

The introduction of this degree program and the establishment of the doctoral college are
anticipated to enrich both arts and sciences. These initiatives are expected to enhance the
institution's academic reputation and attract a diverse range of students and researchers. Such
diversity is key to enriching the academic community and promoting a culture of interdisciplinary
discourse and collaboration, fostering advancements in artistic and scientific research.

5. Artistic Research — Quo Vadis?

The potential of ArtR lies in its ability to break free from traditional academic constraints and
establish its unique methodology, theory, and institutional identity. Refuting the misconception of
ArtR as a fallback for those unable to thrive in conventional academia or the arts [21], this form
of inquiry transcends typical artistic and scientific methods. This unique form of inquiry moves
beyond traditional artistic and scientific practices, characterized by its embracement of
undisciplinarity, acceptance of uncertainty, and a quest for clarity that includes the integration of
negativity. ArtR transcends the typical dichotomy of practice and theory, demanding a balanced
integration of both elements. It calls for a deep understanding of both artistic practice and scientific
inquiry, challenging established norms of art including authorship, epistemic knowledge pursuit,
and concepts of inspiration, creativity, originality, and imagination.
At its essence, the practice of ArtR in aesthetics is an interplay of action and reflection, rooted in
practices of difference rather than logics of identity. This approach predates the practices of
modern sciences and operates under unique principles [7]. The strength of ArtR lies in its inherent
conflicts and its perpetual state of self-definition, a characteristic that becomes increasingly
pertinent in the digital era. ArtR resists simplification to algorithms or programs, facing the future
challenge of navigating a digital landscape that constantly evolves. Aesthetic thought,
fundamentally based on freedom, is an ongoing process of self-critique and exploration.

6. Conclusion

In this position paper, we have explored ArtR's multifaceted dimensions – from its theoretical
underpinnings and methodological approaches to its evolving role within higher education and its
science-political implications as well as its exemplifications within the German post-secondary
educational system. ArtR emerges not merely as a field of study but as a revolutionary paradigm,
challenging and expanding the boundaries of knowledge creation and dissemination.
The integration of ArtR into higher education curricula, particularly in light of the Bologna Process,
signifies a recognition of its value in the academic sphere. This integration, while presenting
challenges, offers unparalleled opportunities for fostering creativity, interdisciplinary dialogue, and
innovation in teaching and learning.
ArtR's strength lies in its dynamic nature – it is a domain constantly redefining itself, pushing the
limits of traditional academic disciplines. It advocates for a balance between practical artistic
creation and inquiry, underscoring the importance of nurturing creativity and critical thinking in
tandem.
As we look to the future, it is clear that ArtR holds a crucial place in the evolving landscape of
global education and research. Its potential to contribute uniquely to our understanding of the
world, to enhance our appreciation of aesthetics, and to innovate across disciplinary boundaries
136 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

is immense. The challenge and opportunity ahead lie in continuing to develop ArtR in a manner
that honors its unique qualities while embracing the changes and demands of a rapidly evolving
world. This journey requires a commitment to both the preservation of artistic integrity and the
pursuit of academic rigor.
In conclusion, ArtR stands at the forefront of a new epoch in academic inquiry. It invites educators,
researchers, and practitioners to reimagine the possibilities of what research can be and how it
can profoundly impact both the arts and sciences. As ArtR continues to evolve, it promises to
enrich our understanding of the human experience, blending creativity with critical inquiry in a
dance of knowledge that transcends traditional academic boundaries.

REFERENCES

[1] Matcham, D. (2013). Practices of legitimacy and the problem of artistic research. Arts and
Humanities in Higher Education, 13(3), 276-281.
[2] Williams, K. (2019). Disclosing and evaluating artistic research. Journal of Data and
Information Science, 4(3), 35-54.
[3] Vanlee, F. H. J. (2021). Discourses on artistic research in Flanders: Non-scholarly
perspectives on research in the arts. Artnodes, 2021(27), 1-10.
[4] Liinamaa, S. (2017). Negotiating a ‘radically ambiguous world’: Planning for the future of
research at the art and design university. International Journal of Art & Design Education,
37(3), 426-437.
[5] Gauch, H. G. (2003). Scientific method in practice. Cambridge University Press.
[6] Knapp, M. S., & Watkins, M. W. (2005). The role of research in educational improvement.
Harvard Education Press.
[7] Borgdorff, H. (2012). The conflict of the faculties: Perspectives on artistic research and
academia. Leiden University Press.
[8] Borgdorff, H. (2006). The debate on research in the arts. Sensuous Knowledge 2.
[9] Government of Canada. (2021, May 4). Social Sciences and Humanities Research
Council. https://www.sshrc-crsh.gc.ca/funding-financement/programs-
programmes/definitions-eng.aspx
[10] Smith, H., & Dean, R. T. (Eds.). (2009). Practice-led research, research-led practice in
the creative arts. Edinburgh University Press.
[11] Candy, L. (2006). Practice based research: A guide. CCS Report, 1(2), 1-19.
[12] Taylor, S. S., & Hansen, H. L. (2017). Finding form: Looking at the field of organizational
aesthetics. The Aesthetic Turn in Management, 17-37.
[13] Djahwasi, H. R., & Saidon, Z. L. (2020). Artistic research: Artistic as research vs artistic
as method. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences,
10(11), 292–309.
[14] Seregina, U. (2019). Co-creating bodily, interactive, and reflexive knowledge through art-
based research. Consumption Markets & Culture, 23(6), 513-536.
[15] Nowotny, H. (2008). Insatiable curiosity: Innovation in a fragile future. MIT Press.
[16] Seggern, H. von, Joost, G., & Valk, T. (2008). Space between: People, places, objects.
Birkhäuser.
[17] Haarmann, A. (2019). Artistic research: Eine epistemologische Ästhetik. Transcript.
[18] Schiesser, G. (2015). Dritter Zyklus. In J. Badura et al. (Eds.), Künstlerische Forschung.
Ein Handbuch (pp. 225-230). Diaphanes.
[19] Elkins, J. (2013). Six cultures of the PhD. In M. Wilson & S. van Ruiten (Eds.), SHARE
Handbook for Artistic Research Education (pp. 10-15). ELIA.
[20] The Vienna Declaration on Artistic Research. (2020, October).
https://societyforartisticresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Vienna-Declaration-
on-Artistic-Research-Final.pdf
[21] Henke, S., Mersch, D., Strässle, T., Wiesel, J., & van der Meulen, N. (2020). Manifesto
of artistic research. Diaphanes.
[22] Mokre, M. (2015). Forschungs- und Wissenschaftspolitik. In J. Badura et al. (Eds.),
Künstlerische Forschung. Ein Handbuch (pp. 249–252). Diaphanes.
137 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Educational Strategies
138 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Disorders of Verbal Fluency in Individuals with Cognitive

Dysfunctions from a Neuropsycholinguistic Perspective

Monika Betyna-Białek

Collegium Medicum, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Poland

Abstract

Language is the most important source of interpersonal communication. Therefore, studies on

language functions are crucial in assessing various clinical groups, especially patients with
cognitive function disorders. In patients in the early stages of dementia, there are numerous
disturbances in verbal functions, including verbal fluency disorders. The analysis of verbal fluency
in patients with different dysfunctions, such as damage to the right, left, or both hemispheres of
the brain [1], has found application in the differential diagnosis of neurological disorders in children
and adolescents [2], as well as in neuropsychological diagnostics [3], [4], [5] which has been
systematically explored for several years. However, few studies on verbal fluency disorders in
patients with cognitive impairments focus on comprehensive interdisciplinary
neuropsycholinguistic analysis [6]. Therefore, it was decided to analyze the specifics of verbal
fluency disorders in patients in the early stage of dementia, at the mild cognitive impairment stage,
as well as in patients with clinical manifestations of dementia-related diseases. The aim of this
research project is to examine and analyze verbal fluency in individuals with cognitive dysfunction
at the level of mild cognitive impairment and dementia, including those with Alzheimer's disease.
The results of verbal fluency test (MMSE) studies in patients showing similar disorders will be
subjected to analysis. Using tools for corpus data analysis [7], [8], [9] the most frequently occurring
words extracted from patient studies through the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scale
for assessing mental status will be examined.

Keywords: verbal fluency tests, MMSE, functional disorders, cognitive disorders, corpus analysis

Verbal fluency, also known as semantic fluency, is a specialized medical term referring to the
capacity to choose words that have been encoded and stored through language acquisition [4],
[1]. In the context of fluency tasks, possessing categorical knowledge is essential. The concept
of a semantic category pertains to the minimal meaning found within human consciousness, which
forms the foundation of their reference knowledge [5]. This typology prompts the necessary
semantic associations required to recall the appropriate words from one's mental lexicon. The
effectiveness of swapping words that align with a specific criterion is made possible through the
semantic network that connects concepts into distinct sets, along with mechanisms of lexical
activation and fundamental skills like understanding the content of verbal messages [6].
In older individuals, difficulties in comprehending words can result in a reduced frequency of word
usage and occurrence, consequently leading to a significant simplification of their verbal fluency
[7]. The quality of linguistic processes and the state of semantic memory are influenced by how
verbal fluency tasks are carried out. This encompasses factors such as the quantity of concepts
generated based on specific criteria, the alignment of these concepts with the chosen criteria, the
presence of clusters or groups of related words, the nature of errors, which may include newly
coined words and repeating the same words, as well as the use of words that do not fit into the
specified category [1], [8].
Both early and contemporary research in the fields of neuropsychology and psychiatry extensively
describe and underscore the numerous factors that directly and indirectly affect the performance
levels in verbal fluency tasks. These studies highlight the multifaceted nature of the mechanisms
linked not only to psychology but also neural processes relevant to this area of investigation. It's
worth noting that there is a scarcity of scientific literature addressing the adaptation of verbal
fluency techniques to the specific context of research conducted in Polish settings. Several
significant factors were identified as influencing the execution of verbal fluency tasks, including
age, gender, and education. Furthermore, there is a particular emphasis on the cognitive abilities
of the subjects under examination, as well as their emotional and personality-related conditions.
139 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

This is evident through elevated levels of anxiety, depression, compulsiveness, and the
emergence of comorbidities, all of which are relevant to the study [1].
In this research, the corpus method of linguistic analysis was employed, which involves the
automated extraction of the mentioned terms and their grouping based on how often they appear.
This technique of electronic concordances facilitates the rapid identification of keywords and
expressions that are distinctive within the subject matter being studied. As corpus tools have
advanced, it has become increasingly convenient to pinpoint phrases, clusters, or sets of related
words. A fundamental aspect of text analysis and the extraction of these lexical bundles or
individual terms is their frequency, as it indicates how often these linguistic items tend to appear.

Kjellmer (1994) highlights in the initial sections of the Dictionary of English Collocations (DEC)
that the presence of repetition should be regarded as an essential requirement for recognizing a
linguistic entity as a collocation [10]. In contrast, Krenn (2000) asserts that research findings
confirm the limitations of statistical measures when it comes to identifying lexical bundles in data
containing a significant proportion of infrequently occurring items. Krenn suggests that this
necessitates the development of methods capable of identifying bundles based on data with low
occurrence frequencies, as such words are prevalent in language corpora [11].

On the other hand, Gablasov, Brezina, and McEnery (2017) stress the importance of considering
the distance between words that appear together and the desired proximity of units when
identifying lexical bundles. This can be accomplished through the identification of lexical bundles
or through the use of n-grams, which are single tokens that capture these word associations.

In the initial phase of the analysis, as per the standard procedure in scientific research, the
effectiveness of the research tools employed with the elderly participants was evaluated. Given
the characteristics of the variables under examination and the requirements for a specific type of
analysis, the Alpha-Cronbach index was utilized to assess the verbal fluency test and the MMSE
(Mini-Mental State Examination). It was assumed that an alpha index exceeding 70 indicates a
high level of consistency within the analyzed scales. The results of these analyses indicated that
the subscales of the verbal fluency test and the MMSE in the group of elderly individuals being
studied displayed strong internal consistency, as evidenced by notably high Cronbach's alpha
values ranging from 0.73 for the MMSE to 0.80 for the letter fluency test and 0.82 for the fluency
tests involving "animals" and "sharp objects." Moreover, in the factor analysis, it was observed
that all the subtests of the fluency test and the MMSE could be explained by a single factor. This
suggests a common underlying etiopathogenetic mechanism that accounts for cognitive disorders
in the areas under investigation. A similar approach to the analysis of neurocognitive tests,
including fluency tests, is commonly applied in modern research concerning elderly individuals
with cognitive impairments [12].

The group of 100 elderly individuals analyzed in this study exhibited a high degree of
homogeneity. When considering their age and the results of the MMSE test, there were no notable
differences between men and women within this group. In the verbal fluency test, women
outperformed men in the letter-based assessment, whereas the results in the categorical tests
involving "animals" and "sharp objects" were similar. It's important to note that these findings
should be interpreted in the context of this particular study, as there is not a universal consensus
on this matter in global research. For instance, in studies involving elderly individuals in Spanish-
speaking populations, gender-based differences in verbal fluency test performance were
generally not significant, except for the "animals" subtest [13]. However, another study within this
language group did not find such substantial gender differences [14]. In research conducted by
Polish authors, significant differences were identified in the performance of fluency tests among
younger people. Men performed slightly better in the semantic fluency test, but there were no
variations in verbal strategy. The authors proposed a hypothesis that these findings might reflect
disparities in the lexical system related to social roles. Nevertheless, this hypothesis is not
particularly convincing, especially considering that the study was not conducted on
a representative group that would permit broad generalizations [15].

One recent meta-analysis revealed that the most influential factor affecting performance in fluency
tests among the elderly is age, with gender playing a less significant role [43]. However, the
results of the correlation analysis conducted in this study do not entirely align with this
observation. No substantial correlations were identified between the respondents' age and their
performance in the verbal fluency test and the MMSE test. Similarly, there were no significant
correlations between age and the frequency of incorrectly inserted words in the fluency test.
The analysis did reveal a negative correlation between the duration of neurocognitive dysfunction
and the number of words generated in the verbal fluency test. This suggests that overall fluency
140 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

test performance tends to worsen with a longer duration of cognitive impairment. These findings
are consistent with American studies, which clearly indicate that the decline in verbal fluency,
especially in phonemic and semantic fluency tests, serves as a predictor of general cognitive
deterioration over time [16]. Furthermore, in this study, a clear relationship was established
between the effectiveness of cognitive functions, as measured by the MMSE test, and
the performance in verbal fluency tests. The greater the decline in cognitive functions observed
in the MMSE, the poorer the results obtained by the respondents in all fluency tests.
The findings derived from this study hold substantial importance from both clinical and cognitive
perspectives, as disturbances in verbal fluency are likely indicative of more profound structural
and functional alterations within the brain.

REFERENCES

[1] Szepietowska, E.M., Lipian, J. (2012) Fluencja słowna neutralna i afektywna u chorych z
uszkodzeniem prawej, lewej lub obu półkul mózgu. Psychiatr Pol 2012; Volume 46: 539–
551.
[2] Biechowska D., Kaczmarek I., Witkowska M., Steinborn B., 2012, Przydatność prób
fluencji słownej w diagnozie różnicowej zaburzeń neurologicznych u dzieci i młodzieży,
„Neurologia Dziecięca” Volume 21, Issue 42, 45–51.
[3] Borkowska, A. (2011) Pamięć i jej zaburzenia w MCI. Medical Education. Warszawa.
[4] Piskunowicz, M., Bieliński, M., Zgliński, A., Borkowska, A. (2013) Testy fluencji słownej –
zastosowanie w diagnostyce neuropsychologicznej. Psychiatria Polska 2013, Volume
XLVII, Issue 3.
[5] Podemski, R., Słotwiński K. (2003) Zaburzenia mowy w procesach otępiennych, [in:]
Choroby otępienne. Teoria i praktyka, ed. J. Leszek, Wrocław, 271–283.
[6] Strauss, E., Sherman, E.M.S., Spreen, O. (2006) A Compendium of neuropsychological
tests: Administration, norms, and commentary. New York: Oxford University Press.
[7] Sinclair, J. McH. (1991) Corpus, Concordance, Collocation. Oxford: OUP.
[8] Sinclair, J. McH. (2004) Trust the Text: Language corpus and discourse. London:
Routledge.
[9] Scott, M. (2015) Word Smith Tools 6.0. Liverpool: Lexical Analysis Software.
[10] Kjellmer, G. (1994) Some thoughts on collocational distinctiveness. In J. Aarts and W.
Meijs: 163-172.
[11] Krenn, B. (2000) Empirical implications on lexical association measures. In Evert, S., U.
Heid, E. Lehmann and C. Rohrer (eds.) Proceedings of the Ninth EURALEX International
Congress EURALEX 2000, 359-371. Stuttgart: EURALEX.
[12] Kwon, S.J., Kim, H.S., Han, J.H., Bae, J.B., Han, J.W., Kim, K.W. (2021) Reliability and
Validity of Alzheimer's Disease Screening with a Semi-automated Smartphone
Application Using Verbal Fluency. Front Neurol. 2021; 12:684902. doi:
10.3389/fneur.2021.684902. PMID: 34305793.
[13] Santos Nogueira, D., Azevedo Reis, E., Vieira, A. (2016) Verbal Fluency Tasks: Effects
of Age, Gender, and Education. Folia Phoniatr Logop. 2016;68(3):124-133.
[14] Sokołowski, A., Tyburski, E., Sołtys, A., Karabanowicz, E. (2020) Sex Differences
in Verbal Fluency Among Young Adults. Adv Cogn Psychol. 2020;16(2):92-102.
[15] Stephan, Y., Sutin, A.R., Luchetti, M., Aschwanden, D., Terracciano, A. (2021) Subjective
age and verbal fluency among middle aged and older adults: A meta-analysis of five
cohorts. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2021 Nov-Dec; 97:104527. doi:
10.1016/j.archger.2021.104527. Epub 2021 Sep 11. PMID: 34534857.
[16] McDonnell, M., Dill, L., Panos, S., Amano, S., Brown, W., Giurgius, S., Small, G., Miller,
K. (2020) Verbal fluency as a screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. Int
Psychogeriatr. 2020; 32(9):1055-1062.
141 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

What Can Educational Case Studies Reveal About How

Teachers Implement the Model of Educational Reconstruction
in Biology Instruction?

Martin Jáč

Department of Biology, Faculty of Education, Palacký University Olomouc, Czech

Republic

Abstract

The Model of Educational Reconstruction (MER) tightly links subject matter analysis and research
on pupils’ preconceptions to design the teaching and learning environments of school science
subjects, including biology [1]. The paper will be focused on a qualitative analysis of how
comprehensively biology teachers implement components of the Model of Educational
Reconstruction into their lessons, i.e. whether they take advantage of pupils’ preconceptions in
designing instruction of different biology topics. The multiple-case study design with a theoretical
replication was used in this study [2], together 18 individual case studies were included in the
analysis. Each case study was based on a video record of a biology lesson and selected teaching
and learning situations were qualitatively analyzed by 3A procedure (annotation – analysis –
alteration), which enabled an in-depth assessment of the integrity of the instruction using the
conceptual structure diagram [3]. Transcripts and conceptual structure diagrams of teaching and
learning situations were analyzed using the principles of grounded theory and inductive approach
[4] to identify and categorize components of MER and the level of its implementation in each
educational case study. The multiple-case study results revealed several different levels of MER
implementation into biology lessons ranging from solely diagnostics of pupils’ preconceptions
without their further use in the instruction to comprehensive use of MER in the design of teaching
and learning environment in the analyzed lesson. The complex incorporation of MER into biology
lessons with an emphasis on (re)construction of pupils’ pre-scientific conceptions was very rare,
as it was identified only in one educational case study. Particular examples of MER
implementation into biology instruction will be highlighted in the paper.

Keywords: biology instruction, educational case study, Model of Educational Reconstruction, biology
teacher

1. Introduction and Theoretical Framework

The Model of Educational Reconstruction (MER) was developed by Ulrich Kattmann and his
coworkers as a theoretical and research framework to design the teaching and learning
environments of different school science topics [1; 5]. The model consists of three very tightly
interconnected components: „(a) clarification and analysis of science content; (b) research on
teaching and learning; (c) design and evaluation of teaching and learning environments” [1; 5;
English terminology adopted from Duit et al., 2012, pp. 21–23, see reference 1]. An important
feature of the MER is that it equally takes into account the analysis of scientific content (subject
matter) and students’ pre-instructional conceptions when designing the teaching and learning
environments of a particular science (biology) topic [1; 5]. Many biological and environmental
topics have been reconstructed for educational purposes so far, including genetics [6], growth
and cell division [7; 8], ecology [9], or climate change [10]. A decade later, a new research model
called Educational Reconstruction for Teacher Education (ERTE) was developed [11]. This model
integrates the concept of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) [12; 13] within the framework of
the original MER for research-based (re)construction of pre-service and in-service teacher
education [1; 11; cf. 14]. According to the ERTE model, pedagogical content knowledge studies
focused on specific educational topics (e.g., evolutionary theory) [c.f. 14] and knowledge of how
to design teaching and learning environments based on the MER [11; 14] are critical components
for the effective and meaningful (re)construction of teacher education and its improvement
[1; 11]. There are many results of research studies on students’ pre-scientific conceptions of
particular biological topics available [for a summary see e.g., 15] and researchers present these
results within the MER framework comprehensively to the community of biology teachers [16; 17;
18].
142 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The MER represents one of the theoretical and research models that aim at improving everyday
instructional practice in schools [1]. Janík et al. (2019) [3] emphasize the content-focused
approach as a way how to prevent “the shedding of content”, which they consider “the great
challenge of teaching and learning in today’s schools” [3, p. 185]. Based on the content-focused
approach and particularly inspired by the MER, the authors developed a qualitative research
method called the 3A procedure to study instructional practice in schools and to propose (if
necessary) its improvements [3; 19]. The output of an in-depth content-focused analysis using
the 3A procedure is a comprehensive educational case study that represents the original and
illustrative instructional approach to a particular educational topic [3; 19]. In our previous study
[20], we performed a metaanalysis of 18 educational case studies of biology instruction at lower
and upper secondary schools (grades 6 to 12). The metaanalysis was focused on: (a) the quality
of the teaching and learning (TL) situation; (b) the development of key competencies during the
TL situation; and (c) the prevalence of educational (didactic) formalisms within TL situations [20,
pp. 159–188]. In the current study, we would like to focus on a novel metaanalysis of the same
set of educational case studies [20, pp. 43–51] with an emphasis on whether and how biology
teachers implement the MER into their lessons.

2. Methodology

For the metaanalysis of educational case studies of biology instruction, we have used the multiple-
case study design [2; c.f. 3 and 20] with a theoretical replication [2, pp. 55–59]. Together 18
individual case studies were included in the analysis when, according to Yin (2018) [2, p. 55 and
p. 65], this number of single cases should be sufficient to obtain relevant findings in the multiple-
case study. Each educational case study in the research sample was originally based on a
videorecord of a biology lesson, and selected teaching and learning situations were qualitatively
analyzed by 3A procedure (annotation – analysis – alteration) [for more details on 3A procedure
see reference 3, pp. 188–189 and reference 19, pp. 677–680]. Single educational case studies
in the research sample described and analyzed biology instruction at lower (12 case studies) and
upper secondary schools (6 case studies) and covered different biological topics (botany – 4 case
studies including one case study focused on laboratory exercise; zoology – 7 case studies
including two cases focused on practical & laboratory work; human biology – 4 case studies;
genetics and molecular biology – 2 case studies; 1 case study was focused on the geological
topic because geology is a part of extended biology curriculum [21; pp. 62–63] at lower secondary
schools in the Czech Republic). A complete list of educational case studies with further details
(original case study codes; grade; pre-service / in-service teacher; topic of instruction; and
bibliographical source of the case study) is available in our previous study [see reference 20, pp.
43–51]. Individual case studies were marked with the codes CS_1 to CS_18 (abbreviation CS
stands for case study, the number indicates the serial number in the multiple-case study; c.f. [20]).
Entry criteria for inclusion of a case study in a multiple-case study were as follows: (a) compliance
of the case study with the 3A procedure; (b) concept analysis of the selected TL situation(s) using
the conceptual structure diagram was performed in the case study; and (c) transcripts of the
selected TL situation(s) were provided in the case study [c.f. 3; 19; 20]. Transcripts and
conceptual structure diagrams of the TL situations were analyzed using the principles of grounded
theory and inductive approach [4] to identify and categorize components of MER and the level of
its implementation in each educational case study. Development of the categorical system was
also inspired by recommendations of biology education researchers how to take advantage of
students’ everyday ideas in the biology instruction within the MER framework [16; 17; 18].

3. Results

The multiple-case study results show that in 8 case studies (approx. 44.5 %) were not identified
elements of the MER either in transcripts or conceptual structure diagrams of the TL situations.
In the remaining 10 case studies (approx. 55.5 %) the multiple-case study approach revealed five
different levels of the MER implementation into biology lessons ranging from solely diagnostics of
student’s preconceptions without their further use in the instruction to comprehensive use of MER
in the design of teaching and learning environment in the analyzed lesson. The most frequent
category of the MER implementation in biology lessons (5 case studies; approx. 28 %) was
reduced only to diagnostics of student’s pre-instructional (pre-scientific) conceptions in the course
of discussion with students. However, in these case studies teachers did not take advantage of
identified student’s pre-instructional conceptions for construction of learning tasks and their
subsequent solution by students or to design the teaching and learning environment of the lesson.
In 2 case studies (approx. 11 %; CS_1 and CS_5; [20]) teachers firstly identified student’s pre-
instructional conceptions. Subsequently students solved learning tasks designed by the teacher
143 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

that allowed them to bridge misconceptions and reconstruct their pre-instructional concepts
towards scientifically correct ideas. However, teachers used principles of the MER only during
time-limited TL situation and not to design the teaching and learning environment of the whole
biology lesson (or unit). This was the case of CS_1 [20] where teacher identified student’s pre-
instructional conceptions on plant leaves morphology (e.g., leaf shapes or leaf margins) during
their solution of learning task in order to reconstruct their pre-instructional everyday ideas. Another
category of the MER implementation in biology lesson was detected in CS_6 [20], where teacher
accidentally identified during the course of solving the learning task student’s misconception
about heart anatomy and based on this misconception the topic was explained in more detail in
order to bridge this misconception. In one educational case study (CS_2; [20]) the teacher
designed the teaching and learning environment in order to support student’s active learning
during peer discussion about the floral morphology (comparison of different types of flowers).
However, due to an inappropriate choice of plant species for observation (Gerbera as an example
of the heterochlamydeous flower) the students were in fact learning the misconception. The
complex incorporation of MER into biology lessons with an emphasis on (re)construction of pupils’
pre-scientific conceptions was very rare, as it was identified only in one educational case study.
In this case study (CS_10; [22]) the teacher designed teaching and learning environment as
follows: (a) diagnosis of student’s pre-scientific conceptions about insect morphology (drawing
pictures of insect morphology, e.g. bee or ant); (b) inquiry-based unit on insect morphology with
an emphasis on practical work; (c) identification and correction of mistakes (anthromorphisms) in
drawings of insects in children's books based on student’s knowledge of insect body plan; (d)
reconstruction of student’s pre-instructional conceptions – correction of insect drawings from the
beginning of the lesson according to gained knowledge during the instruction.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

The Model of Educational Reconstruction is a powerful theoretical and research tool to design the
teaching and learning environments in the classroom [1; 5]. Results of research within the MER
framework on different biological topics are available to the teacher community [16; 17; 18] and
the effective use and of these results in designing the teaching and learning environments in the
classroom could help to improve the teaching of biology in schools [1; 5; 16]. Findings of our
multiple-case study indicate that teachers implement elements of the MER in their instruction only
occasionally and complex use of the MER to design the teaching and learning environments is
rather rare. Teacher’s knowledge of student’s pre-instructional (i.e., pre-scientific) ideas about
variety of biological topics represents an integral part of their pedagogical content knowledge [11;
12; 13]. However, based on results of our research biology teachers very often do not take
advantage of student’s everyday ideas about nature for either construction of learning tasks or to
design the teaching and learning environments of biology lesson(s). Therefore, we propose the
(re)construction of pre-service biology teacher education and also lifelong in-service biology
teacher education within the framework of the model of Educational Reconstruction for Teacher
Education [11; 14]. Although this paradigm shift in biology teacher education will be somewhat
challenging, we believe that in the long term it will help to improve both biology teacher education
and everyday teaching practice of biology in schools.

Acknowledgements

This study was prepared under institutional support of Faculty of Education, Palacký University in
Olomouc. Videorecordings and educational case studies (CS_1 to CS_7) referenced in [20] were
supported by the OP RDE project, registration number CZ.02.3.68/0.0/0.0/16_011/0000660.

REFERENCES

[1] Duit, R., Gropengießer, H., Kattmann, U., Komorek, M., & Parchmann, I. (2012). The
model of educational reconstruction – a framework for improving teaching and learning
science. In D. Jorde & J. Dillon (Eds.), Science education research and practice in
Europe: Retrospective and prospective (pp. 13–37). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
[2] Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: design and methods. Los
Angeles: Sage.
[3] Janík, T., Slavík, J., Najvar, P., & Janíková M. (2019). Shedding the content: semantics
of teaching burdened by didactic formalisms. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 51(2), 185–
201.
[4] Corbin, J. M., & Strauss, A. (1990). Grounded theory research: procedures, canons, and
evaluative criteria. Qualitative Sociology, 13(1), 3–21.
144 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[5] Kattmann, U., Duit, R., Gropengießer, H., & Komorek, M. (1997). Das Model der
didaktischen Rekonstruktion – Ein Rahmen für naturwissenschaftsdidaktische Forschung
und Entwicklung [The model of educational reconstruction – a framework for science
education research and development]. Zeitschrift für Didaktik der Naturwissenschaften,
3(3), 3–18.
[6] Lewis, J., & Kattmann, U. (2004). Traits, genes, particles and information: re‐visiting
students’ understandings of genetics. International Journal of Science Education, 26(2),
195–206.
[7] Krüger, D., Fleige, J., & Riemeier, T. (2006). How to foster an understanding of growth
and cell division. Journal of Biological Education, 40(3), 135–140.
[8] Riemeier, T., & Gropengießer, H. (2008). On the roots of difficulties in learning about cell
division: process‐based analysis of students’ conceptual development in teaching
experiments. International Journal of Science Education, 30(7), 923–939.
[9] Sander, E., Jelemenská, P. A., & Kattmann, U. (2006). Towards a better understanding
of ecology. Journal of Biological Education, 40(3), 119–123.
[10] Niebert, K., & Gropengiesser, H. (2013). The model of educational reconstruction: A
framework for the design of theory, based content specific interventions. The example of
climate change. In T. Plomp, & N. Nieveen (Eds.), Educational design research – Part B:
Illustrative cases (pp. 511–531). Enschede: SLO.
[11] Van Dijk, E. M., & Kattmann, U. (2007). A research model for the study of science
teachers’ PCK and improving teacher education. Teaching and teacher education, 23(6),
885–897.
[12] Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching.
Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14.
[13] Shulman, L. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard
Educational Review, 57(1), 1–23.
[14] van Dijk, E. M. (2009). Teachers' views on understanding evolutionary theory: A PCK-
study in the framework of the ERTE-model. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(2), 259–
267.
[15] Kampourakis, K., & Reiss, M. J. (Eds.). (2018). Teaching biology in schools: global
research, issues, and trends. New York: Routledge.
[16] Kattmann, U. (2015). Schüler besser verstehen: Alltagsvorstellungen im
Biologieunterricht [Understanding your students better: everyday ideas in biology
instruction]. Aulis: Hallbergmoos.
[17] Kattmann, U. (2017). Biologie unterrichten mit Alltagsvorstellungen. Didaktische
Rekonstruktion in Unterrichtseinheiten [Teaching biology using everyday ideas:
Educational reconstruction in teaching units]. Seelze: Klett/Kallmeyer.
[18] Hammann, M., & Asshoff, R. (2014). Schülervorstellungen im Biologieunterricht.
Ursachen für Lernschwierigkeiten [Students’ preconceptions in biology instruction:
causes of learning difficulties]. Seelze: Klett/Kallmeyer.
[19] Slavík, J., Janík, T., & Najvar, P. (2016). Producing knowledge for improvement: The 3A
procedure as a tool for content-focused research on teaching and learning. Pedagogika,
66(6), 672–689.
[20] Jáč, M., Kopecká, J., Morris, M., & Vránová, O. (2019). Didaktické kazuistiky výuky
přírodopisu a biologie [Educational case studies of biology instruction]. Olomouc: Palacký
University Olomouc.
[21] Framework Educational Programme for Basic Education (2007). Prague: Research
Institute of Education in Prague.
[22] Důbravová, I. (2016). Hospitační videostudie výuky přírodopisu na základní škole [Video
study-based analysis of biology instruction at lower secondary school]. (Master thesis).
Olomouc: Palacký University in Olomouc, Faculty of Education.
145 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The Energy Blackout in Debate. An Activity to Develop

Argumentation in Pre-Service Primary Teachers
José Manuel Hierrezuelo-Osorio1, María José Cano-Iglesias2, María del Mar
López-Fernández3, Antonio Joaquín Franco-Mariscal4

University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain1,2,3,4

Abstract

Society increasingly requires citizens with reflective and critical thinking skills to navigate
challenges arising from scientific and technological advancements. Developing argumentation
skills, crucial for personal, social, and professional life, is an important educational objective.
Focusing on pre-service teacher education brings benefits, enabling critical analysis of
pedagogical theories, educational practices, and research findings. Debates emerge as a highly
relevant strategy within this educational context, fostering important processes, such as making
informed decisions, mainly through evidence-based argumentation, for students´ intellectual and
civic development, which is important for building an informed and engaged citizenry in a
democratic society. This paper delves into how pre-service teachers argue about Science,
Technology, and Society (STS) issues, setting the stage for mobile applications addressing
environmental concerns to advance digitalisation and sustainability in education. The study
introduces a “Microdebate” activity involving pre-service primary education teachers in a brief
debate on the possibility of an energy blackout in Europe. The activity unfolds in four phases:
initial decision-making, debate preparation, staging the debate, and final decision-making.
Analysing the initial decision-making revealed a majority favouring an energy blackout, citing
arguments such as excessive energy resource use and political factors, with a significant portion
offering conclusions without justified arguments. A notable shift occurred in the final decision-
making, with the majority now against, primarily citing negative energetic consequences.
Environmental considerations also emerged prominently. Notably, there was a significant
reduction in students not providing justifications post-activity, indicating the potential of debate to
enhance argumentation skills. These preliminary results will inform the design of mobile
applications focused on arguing about environmental actions.

Keywords: Pre-service teachers, argumentation, decision-making, debate, educational strategies

1. Introduction

Nowadays, there is unanimous agreement on the importance of critical thinking for citizens and
on its consideration as one of the main goals of science education [1]. Unfortunately, for many
years, science education has neglected the development of critical thinking skills [2], even though
today´s society demands that science education should play an active role in its development in
the context of problems related to energy, environmental, food or health issues.
Although critical thinking is a complex construct, many authors agree that argumentation and
decision-making are remarkable skills [3]. For this reason, fostering the development of
argumentation and decision-making has become two of the main objectives of education today.
It is considered an essential personal, social, and professional skill [4]. Moreover, focusing on
pre-service teacher education brings multiple benefits, enabling them to critically analyse
pedagogical theories, educational practices, and research findings to make informed decisions
[5].
Furthermore, they will be responsible for educating the next generations, who can take advantage
of developing argumentative and decision-making skills, enabling them to face the various
challenges that our society presents. Science education considers these skills important to train
students to make decisions about everyday situations and problems whose consequences may
affect citizens in different areas. Hence, it is essential to have scientifically and technologically
literate students who can fully exercise their rights and participate in decision-making in today's
democratic societies. Therefore, this training must help them adopt responsible, reasoned, and
knowledge-based positions. Moreover, it is based on scientific and technological knowledge [6,7].
146 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

In this context, debate is a highly relevant educational strategy that enables the exploration of
opposing viewpoints, fostering processes for students´ intellectual and civic development crucial
to building an informed and engaged citizenry in a democratic society. Also, debate is considered
a suitable activity for developing critical thinking from everyday problems, as it is based on
reasoning, argumentation, decision-making and communication [8,9]. Debate requires students
to evaluate and identify data and information, reflect on different opinions, defend and reason
rationally, and make decisions based on quality evidence [9]. It thus facilitates exposure from
different perspectives, making it a good strategy because it enhances the acquisition of
competences and learning and promotes autonomy and participation, thus contributing to the
integral education of students, who develop knowledge and attitudes cross-cutting and
transversal way [11]. Debates also contribute to changes in position [12].
Therefore, this paper focuses on developing argumentation and decision-making as dimensions
of critical thinking through discussions of everyday problems in pre-service primary school
teachers (hereafter PSTs) by showing the results of a case study on the possibility of an energy
blackout in Europe.

2. Method

The activity was carried out as part of a programme of debates with 45 pre-service teachers
(PSTs, 87.8% women and 12.2% men) of the Degree in Primary Education at the University of
Malaga (Malaga, Spain) in the subject "Didactic of Experimental Sciences” during the first term of
the academic year 2022-2023.
This paper analyses the results of a classroom debate on the possibility of an energy blackout in
Europe. It is introduced with the question: Do you think an energy blackout can occur in Europe?
The participants in the debate, three of the PSTs, were a presenter and two debaters, one in
favour of a possible energy blackout in Europe and one against. The remaining PSTs acted as
listeners. The activity posed the following tasks (figure 1):

• Task 1: Initial decision-making about the problem. The PSTs make a reasoned decision
on whether they could consider a possible energy blackout in Europe before the debate
without access to information.
• Task 2: Debate preparation. Debaters develop arguments based on their role for or
against at home during a week. The presenter should prepare a digital presentation on
the issue.
• Task 3: Classroom debate. It is structured as follows: 1. The presenter introduces the
problem supported by evidence in three minutes. 2. Each debater presents his/her
position in one minute, and then they debate for five minutes, supported by data, images
and graphs of the problem. 3. Each debater has one final minute to draw their conclusion.
• Task 4: Final decision-making. After the debate, the same initial question is administered
for the PSTs to answer reasonedly.

Figure 1. Task included in the debate process

147 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 2 shows a schematic representation of the possible classroom disposition of the presenter
and debaters during the activity.

Figure 2. Possible classroom disposition

3. Results

Starting Point About the Problem

The examination of the initial decision-making data revealed a notable majority of the PSTs,
57.8%, inclining towards endorsing the prospect of a possible energy blackout. Figure 3 shows
the different topics on which the students based their arguments. Their rationale behind this
decision was multifaceted, with 44.4% articulating concerns about the unrestrained consumption
of energy resources. Two examples provided by students related to this topic were:

I think there are significant indications that could lead to this disaster. Nowadays, we are
very dependent on electricity; most daily devices are linked to electricity. We are so
dependent that if a blackout were to happen one day, we would suffer paralysis in our
daily lives (PST 06).

According to Cope (2021), Europe is one of the world's most secure continents in terms
of energy supply, despite its high energy consumption, and therefore one of the least
exposed to the possibility of a prolonged blackout, although this does not mean that it
cannot happen on occasion (PST 25).

Figure 3. Students´ topics justify their arguments in the initial decision-making

Additionally, 13.3% of the participants highlighted political factors as pivotal in the intricate web
of energy supply distribution. Two examples provided by students related to this topic were:
148 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

From the information I have gathered in recent months, Europe is not in a perfect energy
situation because it depends on electricity from Russia, among other reasons. Thus, with
the EU imposing "punishments" on that country, the amount of energy coming from there
has been dramatically reduced, so many problems are currently being experienced
regarding this issue. Given this political instability, I think it is possible that such a
phenomenon could occur (PST 42).

In my view, it would not be an unexpected blackout. However, the different European

governments could orchestrate it for political reasons to alert citizens to the importance
of electricity and how we depend on it (PST 43).

It should be noted that the PSTs used, in the minority, other aspects related to technology (4.4%),
economics (4.4%), social (2.2%) and environmental (2.2%) aspects to support their arguments.
To conclude this section, 28.9% of the students presented conclusions devoid of well-
substantiated arguments. It suggests that a considerable proportion relied on conclusive
statements rather than thoroughly justifying their viewpoints. Identifying such patterns in the
decision-making process adds a layer of complexity to our understanding of the students' thought
processes. It underscores the importance of fostering argumentation in evaluating complex
issues.

Final Point About the Problem

The analysis of the final decision-making showed that a prevailing trend emerged among the
students, with a substantial 66.7% expressing a stance against the contemplated scenario.
Notably, the justifications put forth by this majority predominantly centred around the anticipation
of adverse energetic repercussions, constituting a significant 60.0% of the articulated reasons
(figure 4). This suggests a heightened awareness among the students regarding the potential
negative impacts of the proposed course of action. Two examples provided by students related
to this topic were:

Most experts confirm that an energy blackout in Europe is almost impossible. Of course,
as in everything else, there are possibilities, but a series of unlikely events must come
together to make it practically impossible (PST 11).

The data provided during the debate made me think that despite being energy-dependent
on other countries, it is doubtful that there will be an energy blackout. This is, among other
things, because we have 50 days´ worth of stored energy. Moreover, now that the law
has changed, there is a more significant commitment to renewable energies, which
makes us more accessible. We must add that the leftover energy is accumulated, and
only 13% of the energy produced is consumed (PST 14).

Figure 4. Students´ topics justify their arguments in the final decision-making

Equally noteworthy was the emergence of environmental considerations, constituting 20.0% of

the justifications provided for the opposing viewpoint. This underlines a shift in the discourse, with
students extending their concerns beyond the immediate energetic consequences to incorporate
broader environmental implications. Incorporating such considerations reflects a more
comprehensive understanding of the interconnectedness of energy-related decisions with
broader ecological concerns. Two examples provided by students related to this topic were:
149 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The probability is relatively low but not impossible. Moreover, at this low probability, we
should already be preparing for other disasters that can occur at a moment's notice, such
as a possible tsunami, which also has a probability. Moreover, we should always be
prepared for any natural disasters that can occur, which are unpredictable and
unavoidable (PST 16).

The current trend is for the electricity system to rely heavily on renewable energy,
especially wind and solar energy, which is variable and difficult to predict. If there is a
sudden change in weather conditions, such as a heat wave or a storm, renewable energy
production could decrease dramatically, which could cause a blackout (PST 41).

In this case, minority categories related to technological, economic and social aspects remained
below 5%, while political aspects were drastically reduced (4.4%) after the debate. The post-
activity analysis revealed a marked decrease in students abstaining from providing justifications,
now at a reduced 8.9%. This positive shift indicates that the structured debate format facilitated
by the activity had a discernible impact on enhancing argumentation skills among the participants.
The reduction in unreasoned conclusions underscores the potential of debate as an effective
pedagogical tool in nurturing critical thinking and encouraging students to articulate their
perspectives with greater clarity and depth. This evolution in the decision-making process
highlights the educational value of engaging students in structured debates to foster a more
informed and articulate citizenry.

Maintenance or Change in Decision-making

Figure 5 represents the percentage of pre-service teachers who maintained their position (for or
against the possible energy blackout) before and after the debate or, on the contrary, changed
their decision.

Figure 5. Maintenance or change in decision-making before and after the debate

In general, students are not reticent to change their positions, as 42.2% of the pre-service
teachers made another decision after the activity, regardless of whether their initial position was
for or against a possible energy blackout. Remarkably, the most significant change occurred
among pre-service teachers who initially indicated that an energy blackout in Europe would be
possible and finally decided it would not be possible.

4. Final Considerations

The experience with pre-service primary school teachers, focusing on implementing a didactic
strategy such as debate to foster the development of critical thinking, has proven to be highly
effective. This approach has significantly strengthened key skills, such as argumentation and
decision-making, among the participants. The results reveal a substantial improvement in the pre-
service teachers´ ability to articulate arguments coherently and well-justified. The debate has also
enhanced their ability to analyse information, evaluate different perspectives and make informed
decisions. This strategy has provided future teaching professionals an effective platform to
explore and express their ideas, fostering an environment where critical thinking is encouraged.
The practical application of the debate strategy has boosted the development of crucial
competences for their future educational work, as it focuses not only on content mastery but also
on reasoning and analytical skills. In summary, the experience based on using debate as a
didactic tool has proven to be a valuable pedagogical approach, significantly enriching the training
150 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

of future primary school teachers and preparing them to face the complex challenges of today's
educational environment.

Acknowledgements

This work is part of the following projects:

• Project reference 21ProyExcel_00176, entitled "Mobile applications for scientific and
technological argumentation on climate, environmental and resource efficient actions",
funded by the Regional Government of Andalusia (Spain).
• Educational Innovation Project PIE22-184 of the Permanent Group for Critical Education
Innovation (EDUCRIT), funded by the University of Malaga, INNOVA22 call for the
biennium 2022-2023.

REFERENCES

[1] Osborne, J. (2014). Teaching critical thinking. New directions in science education? School
Science Review, 352, 53-62.
[2] Osborne, J. (2001). Promoting Argument in the Science Classroom: A Rhetorical
Perspective. Canadian Journal Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, 3(1),
271-290. https://doi.org/10.1080/14926150109556470
[3] Cano, M.J. (2024). Argumentación y toma de decisiones como habilidades del
pensamiento crítico. Una investigación con estudiantes de ingenierías industriales y del
Máster en Profesorado de especialidades científico-tecnológicas. Doctoral Thesis.
Universidad de Málaga.
[4] Jiménez-Aleixandre, M. P. (2010). 10 ideas clave. Competencias en argumentación y uso
de pruebas. Graó.
[5] Brookfield, S. (2017). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. John Wiley & Sons.
[6] Yacoubian, H. A. (2018). Scientific literacy for democratic decision-making. International
Journal of Science Education, 40(3), 308-327.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2017.1420266
[7] Sadler, T. D. & Zeidler, D. L. (2005). Patterns of informal reasoning in the context of
socioscientific decision making. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 42(1), 112-138.
https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20042
[8] Fang, S. C., Hsu, Y. S. & Lin, S. S. (2019). Conceptualizing socioscientific decision making
from a review of research in science education. International Journal Science and
Mathematics Education, 17, 427-448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-018-9890-2
[9] Simonneaux, L. (2001). Role-play or debate to promote students’ argumentation and
justification on an issue in animal transgenesis. International Journal Science Education,
23(9), 903-927. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690010016076
[10] Wang, H. H., Chen, H. T., Lin, H. S., Huang, Y. N. & Hong, Z. R. (2017). Longitudinal study
of a cooperation-driven, socio-scientific issue intervention on promoting students’ critical
thinking and self-regulation in learning science. International Journal Science Education,
39(15), 2002-2026. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2017.1357087
[11] Rodríguez, R. (2012). El debate como estrategia de innovación docente. Experiencias en
filosofía del derecho y teoría de la cultura. UPO Innova: Revista de Innovación Docente,
1, 493-503.
[12] Bernal, P., Cano, M.J., Franco, A.J. & Blanco, A. (2023). Impacto de un debate
sociocientífico en las habilidades argumentativas y en la toma de decisiones del
profesorado de secundaria en formación inicial. Enseñanza de las Ciencias, 41(3), 113-
132. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/ensciencias.5861
151 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Go Extinct! The Educational Game for Learning about

Invertebrates
María del Mar López-Fernández1, José Manuel Hierrezuelo-Osorio2, María José
Cano-Iglesias3, Antonio Joaquín Franco-Mariscal4

University of Málaga, Spain1,2,3,4

Abstract

Educational games offer a multitude of advantages in the teaching process, including enhancing
motivation, active learning, fostering collaboration, skill development, immediate feedback,
practical application of knowledge, adaptability, stress reduction, promotion of creativity, memory
improvement, and retention. These attributes render games as effective tools for engaging
students, facilitating understanding and learning, as well as promoting both social and cognitive
skills. Nevertheless, their effectiveness hinges on their seamless integration into the curriculum,
along with a careful consideration of students' needs and age [1] [2]. In this study, we present an
educational game entitled "Go Extinct!" designed to teach students about invertebrates. The
game comprises a deck of 16 cards, each featuring illustrations of invertebrates from various
taxonomic groups. At the outset, four cards are randomly distributed to each player. In each
round, players discard one of their cards and pass it to the player on their right. The objective of
the game is to extinguish an entire invertebrate group by collecting four cards from the same
taxonomic category. The first player to achieve this and announce the invertebrate group's name
wins the game. We implemented this game with 42 eighth-grade students (aged 11-12) who were
studying biology in a high school in Spain as part of their invertebrate module. After the game,
the students completed a [8] in which they assessed the activity and its impact on their learning.
In terms of evaluating their learning, students rated their initial knowledge at 4.69 out of 10, which
increased to 7.98 after the activity, indicating an improvement of 3.29 points. The game received
high ratings, with 70% finding it very easy, 77% deeming it very useful, 67% describing it as highly
attractive, and 81% considering it very interesting. Overall, the students rated the game at 9.1 out
of 10. The results from this study seem to suggest that the educational game “Go Extinct!”
effectively promotes the understanding of invertebrate groups among Spanish eighth-grade
biology students. Additionally, it has positively influenced motivation, generated interest, and
increased student participation. Building on these promising findings, our future plans include
digitizing the game and subjecting it to evaluation using e-rubrics.

Keywords: Game-Based Learning, Invertebrates, Science Education

1. Introduction

Gaming-based learning, an educational paradigm leveraging games for learning facilitation, has
garnered attention for its effectiveness in developing diverse skills, notably computational thinking
[1] Educational games confer numerous advantages to the teaching process, encompassing
enhanced motivation, active learning, collaborative skills, proficiency development, immediate
feedback, practical knowledge application, adaptability, stress reduction, creativity promotion,
memory enhancement, and improved retention [2]. The efficacy of games as educational tools
depends on their seamless integration into the curriculum and a careful consideration of students'
needs and age [1] [2].
Recent reports, systematic reviews, and literature reviews have delved into motivation,
engagement, and learning in games, providing valuable insights into their multifaceted impact [2]
[3] [4] [5]. Gaming-based learning, rooted in the fusion of entertainment and learning, not only
introduces novel entertainment experiences [4] but also utilizes a delivery mode often integrated
with other pedagogical approaches [7]. Playing techniques, as demonstrated by Frank [6], inject
realism and experiential learning into the classroom, facilitating critical evaluation of complex
issues that demand moral and judgmental competencies. Moreover, game-based learning has
been identified as a catalyst for intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, and emotional involvement, as
emphasized by Gee [8].
152 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The utilization of games for teaching sciences [9] [10], particularly biology [12] [13], holds
significant importance and offers a plethora of benefits. Some examples include the board game
presented by Spiegel [11], which is based on learning by problem-solving, and educational card
games designed to reinforce biological concepts compared to traditional teaching methods [14].
Games provide an immersive and interactive environment that not only captures students'
attention but also fosters a deep understanding of complex biological concepts [1]. The dynamic
nature of biological systems can be effectively simulated through games, allowing students to
explore, experiment, and observe virtual ecosystems. This experiential learning enhances
retention and application of biological knowledge, as students engage in problem-solving
scenarios and make real-time decisions, mirroring the challenges faced by scientists in the field.
Additionally, the gamified approach introduces an element of fun and excitement, contributing to
increased motivation and enthusiasm for learning.
The combination of games and fictional characters can enhance learning outcomes. So, various
authors have investigated the benefits of using fiction resources such as films, TV programmes,
series, stories or novels to teach science [15]. These resources may help to create mental images
that can be correlated with an underlying scientific theory, may help to understand abstract
concepts, are very visual, fun, improve the applicability of the content learned or enhance the
interest in learning science, amongst other advantages [16]. Thus, the bibliography shows some
examples of how physics can be taught by posing interesting problem situations based on
sequences from series or films, addressing the study of kinematics with Game of Thrones [15],
dynamics with Prison Break [17] or optics with Peppa Pig [18]. In the field of chemistry, Torres
and García [19] proposed workshops based on the films Shutter Island or A Todo Gas, or series
such as Bones, to introduce chemistry concepts or show the importance of chemistry in our lives.
Also in this subject, it has been proposed to explain the chemistry of special effects in film and
television [20]. Using games containing cartoon characters familiar to students can help with this
issue.
In the context of this study, we introduce an educational game titled "Go Extinct!" designed to
impart knowledge about invertebrates, showcasing the potential of game-based learning in
specific educational contexts.

2. Methodology

2.1 Participants

This study was conducted with 42 eighth-grade students (42.86% were girls, while 57.14% were
boys, aged 11-12) who were studying biology in a high school in Spain as part of their invertebrate
module.
The students had recently completed a module on invertebrates. This involved studying the
taxonomic groups of invertebrates, their classification, and characteristics. They worked with
various individuals in the laboratory and carried out identification activities as part of the learning
process. This activity was presented as an application activity, so that students could apply their
learning from the invertebrate module.

2.2 Game Description and Educational Goals

"Go Extinct!” is an educational card game depicting the different invertebrates. The game is
played with 16 cards. Although four players are recommended, the game may be played by three
or five players.
The educational aims for the students are:

• Identify invertebrate animals.

• Recognize different invertebrate individuals within the same taxonomic group.
• Reinforce knowledge about the various taxonomic groups of invertebrates.
• Identify to which taxonomic group different invertebrates belong.

A typical game takes 15−20 min.

Each card featuring illustrations of invertebrates from various taxonomic groups (Table 1). You
may note that cartoons from the television series SpongeBob SquarePants were included to make
certain taxonomic groups more relatable and engaging for the students.
153 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 1. Cards, invertebrate and taxonomic groups

Card Invertebrate Taxonomic groups

Number 1 Squidward Tentacles (squid)

Number 2 Octopus
Mollusks
Number 3 Clam

Number 4 Gary (Snail)

Number 5 Leech

Number 6 Earthworm
Annelids
Number 7 Polychaete Worm

Number 8 Tubifex Worm

Number 9 Mr. Krabs (Crab)

Number 10 Spider
Arthropods
Number 11 Ant

Number 12 Millipide

Number 13 SpongeBob (Sponge)

Number 14 Bath Sponge (Spongia sfficinals)

Sponges
Number 15 Venus' Flower Basket (Euplectella aspergillum)

Number 16 Freshwater sponge (Spongilla lacustris)

*The groups can be extended with other cartoons such as Patrick Star (echinoderm).

2.3 Rules of the Game

At the outset, four cards are randomly distributed to each player (Figure 1). In each round, players
discard one of their cards and pass it to the player on their right. The objective of the game is to
extinguish an entire invertebrate group by collecting four cards from the same taxonomic
category. The first player to achieve this and announce the invertebrate group's name wins the
game.

Figure 1. Student’s card

154 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Let's imagine a round of this game. At the outset, Player 1 is dealt cards featuring a starfish, a
crab, an octopus, and a jellyfish. In the first round, Player 1 decides to discard the crab card and
passes it to Player 2. In the next round, Player 1 receives a squid card and chooses to discard
the jellyfish card, passing it to Player 3. Meanwhile, Player 2 receives the crab card and decides
to discard the octopus’ card. The game progresses with players strategically exchanging cards,
each aiming to collect four cards from the same taxonomic group. The first player to achieve this
and announces the name of the invertebrate group becomes the winner of the game.
The teacher played a test game with the students in order. Afterwards, the students were able to
play freely. The teacher acted as a guide, answering any questions that arose during the game.

2.4 Assessment of the Educational Value

After the game, the students completed a questionnaire [9] in which they assessed the activity
and its impact on their learning. Survey assessing their learning and the activity. Students were
asked to score the activity from 0 to 10 points, what they had learned from the game (With the
game, I have learned...), perception of their knowledge a score of between 0 and 10 before and
after the activity, and four qualities of the activity (simplicity, attractiveness, usefulness and
interest) on a Likert scale (nothing, little, quiet, a lot).
For the qualitative data analysis, content analysis was performed to identify themes and recurrent
patterns in students' open-ended responses regarding what they had learned from the game. For
the quantitative data analysis, responses were tallied, and their mean was calculated.

3. Results

The students rated the Go Extint! with an average of 9.1 points out of 10. In addition, they rated
their knowledge before the activity with 4.69 points on average, and after the activity, they
considered that it improved their learning by 3.29 points out of 10.
The game received high ratings, with 70% finding it very easy, 77% deeming it very useful, 67%
describing it as highly attractive, and 81% considering it very interesting. Overall, the students
rated the game at 9.1 out of 10 (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Students' assessment of the qualities of the activity

The responses to "With the game, I have learned..." were categorized into three groups: Learning
and Knowledge; Strategy and Competition; and Fun and Motivation.
The Learning and Knowledge category was the majority, comprising 47.62% of the responses
(20 answers). Here, students express how the game has allowed them to acquire new knowledge
about the classification and identification of invertebrates. Some examples include: "This game
helped me better understand the classification of invertebrates." "I learned to identify different
groups of invertebrates more quickly."
In the Fun and Motivation category, with 33.33% (14 responses), comments revolve around the
enjoyable and motivational experience of the game. Students share how fun and intrinsic
155 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

motivation have become catalysts for learning. Examples include: "It was amazing how the game
reinforced my knowledge without me realizing it." "I learned that fun can be an excellent way to
learn about biology."
Lastly, in the Strategy and Competition category, with 19.05% of the responses (8 answers),
students highlight the importance of strategy and competition in the game. Examples include: "I
discovered the importance of strategy in discarding and passing cards." "It was exciting to
discover how strategies can change the course of the game."

4. Conclusions

The results from this study seem to suggest that the educational game “Go Extinct!” effectively
promotes the understanding of invertebrate groups among Spanish eighth-grade biology
students.
In conclusion, the outcomes of the student evaluations provide compelling evidence supporting
the efficacy of the biology learning game. The high levels of satisfaction expressed by students,
as evidenced by the impressive overall rating of 9.1 out of 10 for both the game, underscore the
positive impact of incorporating gamified approaches into biology education. The substantial
increase in perceived knowledge post-activity, along with favorable ratings for the game's ease
of use, utility, attractiveness, and interest, highlights the potential of such educational initiatives
to enhance both engagement and learning outcomes. These conclusions suggest that well-
designed educational games have the capacity not only to capture students' interest but also to
foster meaningful and effective learning experiences in the realm of biology education [4] [5].
The results of this study will be used for the digitisation of educational resources and the creation
of mobile applications for the ecological transition.

Acknowledgements

This work is part of the TED2021-130102B-I00 project entitled 'Digital and Ecological Transition
in Science Education through Disruptive Technologies for the Digitalization of Educational Games
and their Evaluation with E-Rubrics', funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by the
European Union 'NextGenerationEU'/PRTR.

REFERENCES

[1] López-Fernández, M. M., & Franco-Mariscal, A. J. (2019). Percepciones de

estudiantes de secundaria sobre el juego educativo GeneticsHome. Revista
Eletrônica Ludus Scientiae, 3(2), 1-11.
[2] Perrotta, C., Featherstone, G., Aston, H., & Houghton, E. (2013). Game-based
learning: Latest evidence and future directions. NFR.
[3] Barnett, A., Cerin E., & Baranowski, T. (2011). Active video games for youth: A
systematic review. Journal of Physical Activity for Health, 8, 724–737.
[4] Boyle, A. Z., Connolly, M. T., Hainey, T., Boyle, M. J. (2012). Engagement in digital
entertainment games: A systematic review. Computers in Human Behaviour, 28,
771–780.
[5] Clark, B. D., Nelson, C. B., Chang, H.-Y., Martinez-Garza, M., Slack, K., & D’Angelo,
M. C. (2011). Exploring Newtonian mechanics in a conceptually integrated digital
game: Comparison of learning and affective outcomes for students in Taiwan and
the United States. Computers & Education, 57, 2178-2195.
[6] Frank, A. I. (2006). Three decades of thought on planning education, Journal of
Planning Literature, 21, 15–67.
[7] Lau, P. W., Lau, E. Y., Wong, D. P., & Ransdell, L. (2011). A systematic review of
information and communication technology-based interventions for promoting
physical activity behavior change in children and adolescents. Journal of Medical
Internet Research, 13(3), e48.
[8] Gee, J. P. (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and
Literacy. Palgrave Macmillan.
[9] Franco-Mariscal, A. J., Franco-Mariscal, R., & Salas-García, G. (2017). El tren
orbital: un juego educativo basado en una analogía para aprender la configuración
electrónica en secundaria. Revista Eletrônica Ludus Scientiae, 1(2), 1-13.
[10] Franco-Mariscal, A. J., Oliva-Martínez, J. M., Bernal, S. (2012). Una revisión
bibliográfica sobre el papel de los juegos didácticos en el estudio de los elementos
químicos. Segunda parte: Los juegos al servicio de la comprensión y uso de la tabla
156 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

periódica. Educación Química, 23(4), 474-481. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0187-

893x(17)30135-0
[11] Spiegel, C. N., Alves, G. G., Cardona, T. D. S., Melim, L. M., Luz, M. R., Araújo-
Jorge, T. C., & Henriques-Pons, A. (2008). Discovering the cell: an educational
game about cell and molecular biology. Journal of Biological Education, 43(1), 27-
36.
[12] Infante, M. E.; Queiroz, I.; WELLER, M.; SANTOS, S. Comprehension of basic
genetic concepts by brazilian undergrate students. Revista Electrónica de
Enseñanza de las Ciencias, v. 9, n. 3, p. 657-668, 2010.
[13] Morera, J.; Mora, J. J. Empleo de la gamificación en un curso de fundamentos de
Biología. Revista Electrónica Educare, v. 23, n. 2, p. 1-13, 2019.
[14] Gutierrez, A. F. (2014). Development and effectiveness of an educational card game
as supplementary material in understanding selected topics in biology. CBE—Life
Sciences Education, 13(1), 76-82.
[15] Franco-Mariscal, A. J. (2021). Enseñar física con juego de tronos. Estudio del
movimiento. Revista Mexicana de Física E, 18(1), 63-68.
[16] Barnett, M., & Kafka, A. (2007). Using Science Fiction Movie Scenes to Support
Critical Analysis of Science. Journal of College Science Teaching, 36(4), 31-35.
[17] Franco-Mariscal, A. J. (2009). Aprende física com Prison Break. Alambique,
Didáctica de las Ciencias Experimentales, 60, 82-94.
[18] Franco-Mariscal, A. J. (2016). Óptica con Peppa Pig. Alambique, Didáctica de las
Ciencias Experimentales, 83, 57-63.
[19] Torres, L., & García, S. (2012). La química en el cine: ficción o realidad. In Anales
de la Real Sociedad Española de Química, 1, 44-48.
[20] Muñoz, F., Arvayo, K., Villegas, C. A., González, F. H., & Sosa, Ó. H. (2013). La
química detrás de los efectos especiales mecánicos en cine y televisión: regreso a
los clásicos. Tecnociencia Chihuahua, 7(2), 58-64.
157 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Active Learning for Circular Economy Businesses,

Fostering a Sustainable Mindset
Sabrina Fontanella1, Giovanna Attanasio2, Luca Fraccascia1,3, Fabio Nonino1,
Cinzia Battistella2

Sapienza University of Rome, Italy1

University of Udine, Italy2
University of Twente, The Netherlands3

Abstract

Despite extensive literature on corporate sustainability, understanding how companies become

sustainable remains elusive. Similarly, the innovative processes that lead organizations to
become “green” are not well understood. Industrial symbiosis (IS) offers a new model for
sustainable development, involving the exchange of waste materials between companies. This
study explores how IS can be taught to students to develop sustainable entrepreneurial skills,
using a business game developed for the “Circular Sustainable Business Development” course
at the University of Twente. The game allows students to negotiate simulated IS agreements,
helping them understand the economic and environmental implications of their decisions.
The study aims to investigate how the IS business game can enhance students’ entrepreneurial
skills, including negotiation abilities, holistic vision, and forward-thinking capabilities. This is
crucial as entrepreneurial education must adapt to a changing economic landscape, encouraging
future entrepreneurs to think sustainably. The paper addresses the need for educational models
that prepare entrepreneurs to not only apply existing principles but also to pose new questions
and find innovative solutions. Students complete a questionnaire right after the game to assess
their knowledge and proficiency in IS and entrepreneurial thinking.
The business game is expected to significantly impact students’ understanding of IS and their
entrepreneurial thinking skills. It’s anticipated that students will gain a deeper understanding of IS
dynamics, develop sophisticated negotiation skills, and adopt a holistic view of entrepreneurial
practices related to the circular economy. The study aims to highlight the transformative potential
of experiential learning in shaping entrepreneurs equipped to navigate a sustainable business
landscape. This research is a step towards understanding the role of innovative educational
models in fostering a new generation of entrepreneurs who are prepared to tackle the challenges
of a sustainable future.

Keywords: Circular economy; soft skills; sustainable management; entrepreneurship; education

1. Introduction

In recent years, sustainability has become a key objective to be pursued by rethinking traditional
production and consumption patterns [1] and educating the population towards more responsible
behaviour [2]. Education for sustainability plays a key role in this transformation. Indeed, goal
number 4 of the Sustainable Development Goals aims to ensure that everyone acquires the
knowledge and skills necessary to promote sustainable development; this goal is to be
understood as fundamental to achieving the other 16 SDGs structured by UNESCO in 2015 and
the reviewed in 2017 and 2018. Thus, modern education must provide not only students but the
population at large with the competencies to achieve a sustainable future and a resilient society
[3][4][5][6].
Teaching through games is emerging as an effective way to transfer knowledge on complex topics
to a broad audience [7], as in the case of sustainability. Besides transferring knowledge of
concepts and principles, they can also teach competencies such as decision-making and
problem-solving [8][9]. This is especially useful in the case of the circular economy, where the
large number of actors involved need to coordinate and make decisions that respect the goals of
individuals. This research endeavours to comprehensively investigate the influence of a
sustainable game, specifically the IS business game, on certain competencies recognized as
pivotal for cultivating sustainable thinking. The primary objective is to gain a nuanced
understanding of how engagement with this sustainable game contributes to the development
and enhancement of these crucial competencies, thereby contributing to the broader discourse
on sustainable education and fostering a more environmentally conscious mindset among
158 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

participants. To accomplish this objective, we will employ a meticulously calibrated questionnaire,

strategically designed to systematically assess and delve into the specific competencies identified
within the context of our study. This tailored instrument aims to provide a nuanced and in-depth
exploration, facilitating a comprehensive analysis of the impact of the sustainable game,
particularly the IS business game, on the targeted skills essential for fostering sustainable
thinking.

2. Theoretical Background

The term 'competencies' describes individuals' dispositions to act and self-organise in various
contexts and complex situations [10].
Competencies combine three elements: knowledge, skills, and attitudes [11][12][13].
Knowledge is composed of facts and figures, concepts, ideas and theories that are already
established and provide the basis for understanding a particular field or topic; skills are
understood as knowing and being able to perform processes and apply existing knowledge to
obtain results; attitudes describe the disposition and mindset to act or react to ideas, people or
situations [13]. These elements should not be considered independent but interconnected [12].
The European Union has identified eight key competencies that individuals must possess to live
successfully in society: Literacy competence, Multilingual competence, Mathematical
competence and competence in science, technology and engineering, Digital competence,
Personal, social and learning-to-learn competence, Citizenship competence, Entrepreneurship
competence, Cultural awareness and expression competence [13].
These competencies are developed in a lifelong learning perspective, from early childhood to
adult life, through formal (e.g., through study) in the case of Mathematical competence, and
informal learning (e.g., through action) in the case of cultural awareness competence [13].
Recently, sustainability competence has also been added to these competencies. If possessed
by all, sustainability competencies should be agents for sustainable development in society [14].
However, more than formal or informal learning may be required for sustainability competencies.
Sustainability is meant to address complex challenges, and the approach to be taken must be
multi-sectoral (public, private and civil society), multi-level (from local to global), and multi-
disciplinary (involving different disciplines to find a solution) [15], which is difficult to transfer
through only formal study.
More significant results could be achieved by combining the two types of learning, i.e., formal and
informal, because study and action are also combined with reflection and experience in its
execution [16], as in the case of learning through play. Games develop knowledge, skills and the
ability to understand situations. Learning through play allows also for exploration and
experimentation with the guidance of a facilitator and in a safe environment. This allows
participants to receive instant feedback on their actions and decisions [17] and to develop
competencies quickly.

3. Methodology

3.1 Industrial Symbiosis Business Game

The IS Business game is an integral part of the CSBD class, a course in the master’s degree
program of Industrial Engineering and Management at UT [18]. The game serves as a practical
learning tool, enabling students to experience the operational and business dynamics of Industrial
Symbiosis (IS), particularly focusing on the establishment and management of Industrial
Symbiosis Relationships (ISRs) over time: ISRs are formed when one company uses another’s
waste as a substitute for production inputs or to create new products [19].
The game involves students divided into groups, each representing a company. These companies
are categorized as either waste producers or receivers. Each company produces one main output
for the final market, and each waste receiver requires one production input, while each waste
producer generates one waste. The amount of waste produced and inputs required are dependent
on the output generated and the production technologies employed. In this context, the game
poses two main challenges to the students: identifying potential partners and creating ISRs with
other companies while negotiating the contractual terms, and operating these relationships in a
turbulent business environment. The environmental turbulence is simulated through changes in
the market demand for outputs produced by companies and changes in policy actions undertaken
by the government.
The goal of each company in the game is to maximize the environmental and economic benefits
created through ISRs with other companies. The performance of each company is evaluated
based on two indicators: environmental performance and economic performance. At the end of
the game, companies are ranked according to these two performance indicators. The game is
159 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

played continuously for several days, divided into three game periods. In each game period,
companies can establish and implement as many ISRs as they want. Each relationship is ruled
by a contract signed by both parties, which defines the duration of the relationship, the waste
exchange rate, the amount of waste to be exchanged, the cost-sharing policy, the waste
exchange price, and the penalty for prematurely ending the contract.
In this game, the diverse range of activities and extensive interactivity and interaction among the
participants enable students to manifest a myriad of attitudes and competencies. These aspects
will be explored through the evaluative questionnaire described below.

3.1 Literature Review and Questionnaire Development

Following the purpose of this research, it was necessary to identify the specific sustainability
competencies. A literature review was conducted by entering 'sustainab* competent*' as a
keyword on Scopus. A separate search added additional articles and reports to ensure the
completeness of the sources in the subject matter. The selection of articles favoured articles that
identified and defined sustainability competencies as the article's central focus. In the different
articles, the competencies were systematically mapped and subsequently aggregated for
similarity.
In the end, eight sustainability-related competencies were identified: System thinking
competencies, Strategic -thinking competencies, Futures thinking competencies, Values-thinking
competencies, Interpersonal competencies, Intrapersonal competencies or self-awareness,
Implementational thinking, Integrated problem solving.

1. System thinking competencies: Analyze problem in current state and its history [20][21][22];
2. Strategic -thinking competencies: Develop sustainability transition strategies
[23][24][20][25][26];
3. Futures thinking competencies: Futures thinking competencies Craft future sustainability
visions [20][26][14];
4. Values-thinking competencies: Map, specify, apply, reconcile and negotiate sustainability
values [20][27][28][26];
5. Interpersonal competencies: Collaborate in each step of the problem - solving process
[29][30][31];
6. Intrapersonal competencies or self-awareness: Aware of one’s own emotions, desires,
thoughts, behaviours, and personality, as well as to regulate, motivate, and continually
improve oneself drawing on competencies related to emotional intelligence and social and
emotional learning [32][33][20];
7. Implementational thinking: Act on sustainability strategies to find viable transformational
solutions to sustainability problems [20][34][35][36][14];
8. Integrated problem solving: Apply different problem-solving frameworks to complex
sustainability problems and develop viable solution options” in order to “meaningfully
integrate problem analysis, sustainability assessment, visioning and strategy building”
[14][22][23][24][20][26];

According to the analysis, a questionnaire was designed to test whether the game develops
sustainability competencies. Questions for each competence were developed. The questions
were formulated in the first person according to the identified definitions to test the ability, skills,
and attitudes in the different situations posed by the game. Subsequently, the response criteria
were defined using a 5-point Likert scale (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly
disagree). The questionnaire was a simple online survey using a 'Google Form'. The game was
administered to 48 students attending the second year of the master’s degree in management
engineering at Sapienza University of Rome. The project is part of the course in environmental
economics and management. The questionnaire was administered right after the game session.
Finally, the results were analysed.

4. Results

Hereafter, the various sections of the questionnaire will be delineated, with the students'
responses explicated for each individual question within every respective section. This
presentation aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the collected data, shedding light on
the diverse perspectives and insights offered by the participating students.
160 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4.1 System Thinking Competencies

The questionnaire assessed the system thinking competencies of students, specifically their
ability to analyse problems in their current state and history.

1. The question was “I was able to understand the strengths and challenges in the game and
use this information to create optimal solutions to problems”: Most students (37 out of 48)
agreed (either partially or totally), 8 remains neutral, 3 partially disagree.
2. The question was “When a problem occurred, I was able to identify the root cause”: Again,
most students (35 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 8 remains neutral, 5 disagree
(either partially or totally).
3. The question was “I was able to understand the severity of a problem when it occurs”: Similar
to the previous questions, most students (35 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 8
remains neutral, 5 disagree (either partially or totally).
4. The question was “I have constantly monitored budgets and deadlines to stay informed of
any problems”: A majority of the students (33 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 6
remains neutral, 9 partially disagree.

Overall, the results suggest that the students possess a good level of system thinking
competencies. They are capable of understanding the dynamics of the game, identifying and
solving problems, and managing resources effectively.

4.2 Strategic -Thinking Competencies

The questionnaire assessed the strategic thinking competencies of students, specifically their
ability to develop sustainability transition strategies.

1. The question was “I was able to formulate strategies and action plans to ensure the
completion of objectives and goals”: A majority of students (30 out of 48) agreed (either
partially or totally), 9 remains neutral, 9 disagree (either partially or totally).
2. The question was “I was able to develop innovative solutions to taking into account the
principles of economic, social and environmental sustainability”: Most students (31 out of 48)
agreed (either partially or totally), 9 remains neutral, 8 disagree (either partially or totally).
3. The question was “I have been able to evaluate the effectiveness of solutions and plans”: A
significant majority of students (37 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 6 remains
neutral, 5 partially disagree (either partially or totally).
4. The question was “During the game, I reflected on whether the actions I took were in
accordance with my personal and group goals”: Most students (34 out of 48) agreed (either
partially or totally). 9 remains neutral, 5 partially disagree.
5. The question was “I am capable of communicating to my teammates how I would like to
continue in the game”: A majority of students (39 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally),
6 remains neutral, 3 partially disagree.

The questionnaire results show that students possess strong strategic thinking competencies,
evident in their ability to formulate strategies, devise innovative solutions, evaluate plan
effectiveness, reflect on actions in alignment with goals, and communicate effectively with
teammates.

4.3 Futures Thinking Competencies

The questionnaire assessed the futures thinking competencies of students, specifically their
ability to craft future sustainability visions.

1. The question was “I am able to anticipate the future developments of the game”: A little
majority of students (18 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 15 remains neutral, 15
disagree (either partially or totally).
2. The question was “When a problem occurred, I find a lasting solution to the problem”: Most
students (23 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 17 remains neutral, 8 disagree
(either partially or totally).
3. The question was “I’m able to consider the future consequences of my actions”: A significant
majority of students (32 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 6 remains neutral, 10
disagree (either partially or totally).
161 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4. The question was “I was able to make decisions even in situations of uncertainty, ambiguity
and risk”: Most students (30 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 13 remains neutral,
5 disagree (either partially or totally).
5. The question was “I imagined future developments of the game by linking different disciplines
I studied, using creative thinking and experimenting with new methods”: A little majority of
students (21 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 14 remains neutral, 14 disagree
(either partially or totally).

Overall, the results indicate students have strong integrated problem-solving competencies,
showcasing skills in recognizing problems, developing innovative solutions, decision-making,
information gathering and analysis, solution implementation and evaluation, and data-driven
judgments.

4.4 Values-Thinking Competencies

The questionnaire assessed the values-thinking competencies of students, specifically their ability
to map, specify, apply, reconcile and negotiate sustainability values.

1. The question was “I was able to create a common vision for all my teammates in the group”:
A majority of students (39 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 6 remains neutral, 3
disagree (either partially or totally).
2. The question was “During the game, I reflected on whether the actions I had taken were right
or still wrong”: Most students (36 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 6 remains
neutral, 5 disagree (either partially or totally).
3. The question was “During the game, I reflected on whether the actions I took were in
accordance with my personal and group goals”: Most students (35 out of 48) agreed (either
partially or totally), 9 remains neutral, 4 partially disagree.
4. The question was “During the game, I re-evaluated actions based on experiences that had
already occurred”: A majority of students (36 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 7
remains neutral, 5 disagree (either partially or totally).

The results indicate that students have strong implementational thinking competencies, crucial
for applying learned knowledge, conducting goal-oriented actions, considering others' needs in
decision-making, and adhering to rules and constraints.

4.5 Interpersonal Competencies

The questionnaire assessed the interpersonal competencies of students, specifically their ability
to collaborate in each step of the problem-solving process.

1. The question was “I was able to accept the other opinions and views”: A vast majority of
students (44 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 2 remains neutral, 2 partially
disagree.
2. The question was “I actively seek feedback from others”: Most students (40 out of 48) agreed
(either partially or totally), 4 remains neutral, 4 partially disagree.
3. The question was “I was able to encourage my colleagues to take responsibility”: Most
students (33 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 12 remains neutral, 3 partially
disagree.
4. The question was “I was able to get the members of my group to agree on the strategies to
be undertaken”: Most students (36 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 9 remains
neutral, 3 disagree (either partially or totally).
5. The question was “I was able to find a compromise between conflicting needs”: A vast
majority of students (38 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 7 remains neutral, 3
partially disagree.
6. The question was “I was able to accept that one of my colleagues is responsible for a specific
activity without intervening in decisions”: Most students (32 out of 48) agreed (either partially
or totally), 13 remains neutral, 3 partially disagree.

The results suggest that students possess strong intrapersonal competencies, crucial for taking
responsibility, learning from mistakes, accepting outcomes, seeking knowledge, empathizing, and
understanding others' feelings.
162 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4.6 Intrapersonal Competencies or Self-Awareness

The questionnaire assessed the intrapersonal competencies of students, specifically their self-
awareness and ability to regulate, motivate, and continually improve oneself.

1. The question was “I take responsibility for the actions I perform”: A vast majority of students
(40 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 6 remains neutral, 2 partially disagree.
2. The question was “I was able to take ownership of mistakes and learn from them”: Most
students (39 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 7 remains neutral, 2 disagree (either
partially or totally).
3. The question was “I was able to take responsibility for achievements, good and bad”: Most
students (41 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 4 remains neutral, 3 partially
disagree.
4. The question was “If there is new information, I am very challenged to find the answer”: Most
students (34 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 10 remains neutral, 4 disagree
(either partially or totally).
5. The question was “I was concerned to find a solution that would suit all participants in the
game, leaving aside competitiveness”: Most students (33 out of 48) agreed (either partially
or totally), 10 remains neutral, 5 disagree (either partially or totally).
6. The question was “I was able to understand the feelings of the other players”: Most students
(39 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 5 remains neutral, 4 disagree (either partially
or totally).

The results indicate that students possess strong interpersonal competencies, essential for
accepting opinions, seeking feedback, encouraging responsibility, negotiating strategies,
resolving conflicts, and respecting others' roles.

4.7 Implementational Thinking

The questionnaire assessed the implementational thinking competencies of students, specifically

their ability to act on sustainability strategies to find viable transformational solutions to
sustainability problems.

1. The question was “I was able to implement in practice what I have studied”: Most students
(29 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 13 remains neutral, 6 disagree (either
partially or totally).
2. The question was “I was motivated to perform actions that are not only goal-oriented, but are
respectful of others and the environment”: Most students (33 out of 48) agreed (either
partially or totally), 7 remains neutral, 8 disagree (either partially or totally).
3. The question was “When deciding which action to implement, I always choose the one that
is a compromise between everyone’s needs”: Most students (36 out of 48) agreed (either
partially or totally), 6 remains neutral, 6 partially disagree.
4. The question was “During the game, I implemented my actions taking into account
constraints and rules given”: A majority of students (41 out of 48) agreed (either partially or
totally), 5 remains neutral, 2 partially disagree.

The results indicate that students possess strong values-thinking competencies, essential for
creating a common vision, reflecting on actions, aligning actions with goals, and learning from
experiences.

4.8 Integrated Problem Solving

The questionnaire assessed the integrated problem-solving competencies of students,

specifically their ability to apply different problem-solving frameworks to complex sustainability
problems and develop viable solution options.

1. The question was “I was aware of problems or issues that may affect the organization during
the game”: Most students (30 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 10 remains neutral,
8 partially disagree.
2. The question was “When there was a problem, I tried to develop innovative solutions to
problems”: Most students (31 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 11 remains neutral,
6 disagree (either partially or totally).
163 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

3. The question was “I frequently analyze alternatives and select a course of action during the
IS business game”: Most students (38 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 7 remains
neutral, 3 disagree (either partially or totally).
4. The question was “I frequently collect relevant information and data to solve the occurring
problems”: Most students (30 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 14 remains neutral,
4 disagree (either partially or totally).
5. The question was “I actively implemented solutions and evaluated the results”: Most students
(30 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally),15 remains neutral, 3 disagree (either partially
or totally).
6. The question was “I base my judgments upon the relevant information collected”: Most
students (35 out of 48) agreed (either partially or totally), 11 remains neutral, 2 disagree
(either partially or totally).

The results indicate that students possess strong futures thinking competencies, essential for
anticipating future developments, effective problem-solving, considering future consequences,
making decisions in uncertain situations, and thinking creatively and interdisciplinarity.

5. Conclusion

The IS business game has shown a significant impact on students’ entrepreneurial skills. The
game fosters a range of competencies, including strategic thinking, futures thinking, values-
thinking, implementational thinking, and integrated problem-solving.
Students demonstrated the ability to formulate strategies, develop innovative solutions, evaluate
the effectiveness of plans, reflect on their actions in relation to their goals, and communicate
effectively with their teammates. They also showed foresight, the ability to craft future
sustainability visions, and the capacity to map, specify, apply, reconcile, and negotiate
sustainability values. Furthermore, students exhibited strong interpersonal competencies,
demonstrating the ability to collaborate in each step of the problem-solving process. They also
displayed intrapersonal competencies, showing self-awareness and the ability to regulate,
motivate, and continually improve oneself. In terms of implementational thinking, students
demonstrated the ability to act on sustainability strategies to find viable transformational solutions
to sustainability problems. Lastly, in integrated problem-solving, students showed the ability to
apply different problem-solving frameworks to complex sustainability problems and develop viable
solution options.
Overall, the IS business game appears to be an effective tool for fostering these competencies,
suggesting the value of experiential learning in education for sustainable development. The game
prepares students for future challenges in entrepreneurship by equipping them with the necessary
skills and competencies.

6. Future Reaserch

Future research could involve applying the IS business game to students without a sustainability
background. This would help understand its impact on a broader student population and its
potential as an introductory tool for sustainability education. Longitudinal studies could assess the
game’s long-term impact, and qualitative methods could provide deeper insights into students’
experiences.

REFERENCES

[1] Manshoven, S., & Gillabel, J. “Learning through play: a serious game as a tool to support
circular economy education and business model innovation”, Sustainability, 2021, 13,
13277.
[2] Bianchi, G. “Sustainability competences”, EUR 30555 EN, Publications Office of the
European Union, Luxembourg, 2020, ISBN 978-92-76-28408-6
[3] Kagawa, F. “Dissonance in students' perceptions of sustainable development and
sustainability. Implications for curriculum change”, International Journal of Sustainability in
Higher Education, 2007, 8 (3), 317-338.
[4] Nejati, M., & Nejati, M. “Assessment of sustainable university factors from the perspective
of university students”, Journal of Cleaner production, 2013, 48, 101-107.
[5] Glasser, H., & Hirsh, J., “Toward the development of robust learning for sustainability core
competencies”, Sustainability, 2016, 9(3):121– 134.
[6] Sterling, S., Glasser, H., Rieckmann, M., & Warwick, P., “More than scaling up: a critical
and practical inquiry into operationalizing sustainability competencies”. In: Corcoran PB,
164 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Weakland JP, Wals AEJ (eds) Envisioning futures for environmental and sustainability
education. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, 2017, pp 153–168.
[7] Qian, M., & Clark, K. R., “Game-based Learning and 21st century skills: A review of recent
research”, Computers in human behavior, 2016, 63, 50-58.
[8] Wouters, P., Van Nimwegen, C., Van Oostendorp, H., & Van Der Spek, E. D., A meta-
analysis of the cognitive and motivational effects of serious games. Journal of educational
psychology, 2013, 105(2), 249
[9] Bevilacqua, M., Ciarapica, F. E., Mazzuto, G., & Paciarotti, C., “Cook &Teach: learning by
playing”, Journal of Cleaner Production, 2015, 106, 259-271.
[10] Weinert, F. E., “Concept of competence: A conceptual clarification”, In D. S. Rychen & L.
H. Salganik (Eds.), Defining and selecting key competencies, Hogrefe & Huber Publishers,
2001, 45-65.
[11] Boyatzis, R. E. “Competencies in the 21st century”. Journal of management development,
2008, 27(1), 5-12.
[12] Rieckmann, M. “Future-oriented higher education: Which key competencies should be
fostered through university teaching and learning?”. Futures, 2012, 44(2), 127-135.
[13] European Commission, KEY COMPETENCES FOR LIFELONG LEARNING A
EUROPEAN REFERENCE FRAMEWORK, 2018, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/IT/ALL/?uri=OJ:C:2018:189:TOC.
[14] European Commission, Joint Research Centre, GreenComp, the European sustainability
competence framework, Publications Office of the European Union, 2022,
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/13286.
[15] Kurucz, E. C., Colbert, B. A., Luedeke-Freund, F., Upward, A., & Willard, B. “Relational
leadership for strategic sustainability: Practices and capabilities to advance the design and
assessment of sustainable business models”. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2017, 140,
189-204.
[16] Caldana, A. C. F., Eustachio, J. H. P. P., Lespinasse Sampaio, B., Gianotto, M. L., Talarico,
A. C., & Batalhão, A. C. D. S. “A hybrid approach to sustainable development
competencies: The role of formal, informal and non-formal learning experiences”.
International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 2023, 24(2), 235-258.
[17] Kolb, D. A. “Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development”.
FT press. 2014.
[18] Fraccascia L., Sabato A., Yazan D.M. “An industrial symbiosis simulation game: Evidence
from the Circular Sustainable Business Development class”. Journal of Industrial Ecology,
2021, in press.
[19] Sokka, L., Lehtoranta, S., Nissinen, A., & Melanen, M. “Analyzing the environmental
benefits of industrial symbiosis”. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 2011, 15(1), 137–155.
[20] Annelin, A., & Boström, G. O. “An assessment of key sustainability competencies: a review
of scales and propositions for validation”. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher
Education, 2022, 24(9), 53-69.
[21] Meza Rios, M. M., Herremans, I. M., Wallace, J. E., Althouse, N., Lansdale, D., & Preusser,
M., “Strengthening sustainability leadership competencies through university
internships”, International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 2018, 19(4), 739-
755.
[22] Wiek A, Withycombe L., Redman C.L. “Key competencies in sustainability: a reference
framework for academic program development”. Sustainability Science, 2011, 6(2):203–
218.
[23] De Haan, G. “The BLK ‘21’programme in Germany: a ‘Gestaltungskompetenz’‐based
model for Education for Sustainable Development”. Environmental Education Research,
2006, 12(1), 19-32.
[24] Annelin, A., & Boström, G. O., “An assessment of key sustainability competencies: a review
of scales and propositions for validation”, International Journal of Sustainability in Higher
Education,2022, 24(9), 53-69.
[25] Lans, T., Blok, V., & Wesselink, R. “Learning apart and together: towards an integrated
competence framework for sustainable entrepreneurship in higher education”. Journal of
Cleaner Production, 2014, 62, 37-47.
[26] Savage, E., Tapics, T., Evarts, J., Wilson, J., & Tirone, S., “Experiential learning for
sustainability leadership in higher education” International Journal of Sustainability in
Higher Education, 2015, 16(5), 692-705.
[27] Komasinski, A. and Ishimura, G. “Critical thinking and normative competencies for
sustainability science education”. Journal of Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, 2017,
Vol. 24, pp. 21-37.
[28] Remington-Doucette, S.M., Hiller, C.K.Y., Armstrong, C.M. and Musgrove, S.L. “Assessing
sustainability education in a transdisciplinary undergraduate course focused on real-world
165 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

problem solving: a case for disciplinary grounding”, International Journal of Sustainability

in Higher Education, 2013, Vol. 14 No. 4, pp. 404-433.
[29] Crofton F. “Educating for sustainability: opportunities in undergraduate engineering”. J
Clean Prod, 2000, 8(5):397–405.
[30] Sterling S. “Education in change”. In: Huckle J, Sterling S (eds) Education for sustainability.
Earthscan, London, 1996, pp 18–39.
[31] Kearins K., Springett D. “Educating for sustainability: developing critical skills”. J Manag
Educ, 2003, 27(2):188–204.
[32] Cabral, C., & Dhar, R. L., “Green competencies: Construct development and measurement
validation”, Journal of Cleaner Production, 2019, 235, 887-900.
[33] Faham, E., Rezvanfar, A., Mohammadi, S. H. M., & Nohooji, M. R., “Using system
dynamics to develop education for sustainable development in higher education with the
emphasis on the sustainability competencies of students”, Technological Forecasting and
Social Change, 2017,123, 307-326.
[34] Ploum, L., Blok, V., Lans, T., & Omta, O. “Toward a validated competence framework for
sustainable entrepreneurship”. Organization & environment, 2018, 31(2), 113-132.
[35] Brandt, J. O., Bürgener, L., Barth, M., & Redman, A. “Becoming a competent teacher in
education for sustainable development: Learning outcomes and processes in teacher
education”. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 2019, 20(4), 630-
653.,
[36] Holdsworth, S., Sandri, O., Thomas, I., Wong, P., Chester, A., & McLaughlin, P. “The use
of the theory of planned behaviour to assess graduate attributes for sustainability”.
Environmental Education Research, 2020, 26(2), 275-295.
166 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Vermicomposting:
An Idea to Work Science and Mathematics in Primary Education
Hugo Castanheira1, Patrícia Morgado2, Raquel Pereira3, Ana A. Cruz4, Ricardo
Machado5

ISEC Lisboa – Instituto Superior de Educação e Ciências, Portugal 1,2,3,4,5

Abstract

The Portuguese curricula point out the importance of interdisciplinarity when teaching in primary
education, namely between Science and Mathematics [1]. In pre-service teaching, students
should experience ways of promoting this kind of work. Inquiry Based Learning (IBL) is a
pedagogical approach that engages students in new discoveries and allows the connections
between these two sciences [2]. This investigation emerged from a joint work in two curricular
units under Master’s Degree in Preschool and Primary Education – Experimental Science
Practices and Methodology for Teaching Mathematics. From a contemporary science issue
proposed by students – what to do with the leftovers from home meals – they started an
investigation towards a clean and environmentally friendly solution. The aim was to design and
implement an IBL activity for 3rd grade; students themselves should also go through all IBL’s
stages. Mathematical knowledge should be used and integrated all along IBL work. We assumed
an interpretative paradigm [3] and developed an action-research project [4]. The participants were
the three students that developed this theme and the teachers from both curricular units, which
acted as tutors along this work. Data were collected through documents’ investigation,
experimentations, observation, students’ protocols and informal conversations. The procedures
were developed in four phases: (1) the initial investigation performed by students allowed them
to choose vermicomposting as the most suitable solution; (2) design of a proposal task to
implement in the classroom, following IBL stages; (3) development of the proposal simulating
what it is expected in a 3rd grade class; science and mathematical knowledge were used to collect,
interpret and conclude about data obtained. In practical terms, a worm bin was built, species were
selected and conditions for vermicomposting were studied; and (4) from the results and
conclusions taken, a second investigation was performed (importance of compost for lettuce
growth). During all the procedures, technical and scientific rigor was taken into account. The
results shaped that these investigative activities promote scientific reasoning, critical sense,
curiosity and introduce students to the scientific method, therefore, developing scientific and
mathematical literacy. All the activities promote interdisciplinarity and stimulate student’s
participation, exploration, and development of abilities and competencies.

Keywords: Science Education, Mathematics Education, Interdisciplinarity, IBL

1. Introduction

Several studies have associated teaching approaches with the disinterest of children and young
people in sciences [5, 6, 7]. In addition, relevance has been given to the unique role of the teacher
in familiarizing students, from a very early age, with basic science concepts, contributing for a
greater success at later levels of learning. These studies emphasize the importance of
methodologies focused in the student, such as practical investigative work. Indeed, this is also a
powerful way of working when we think about pre-service teacher education.
Inquiry Based Learning (IBL) is a valuable strategy for introducing students into small research
activities, promoting the acquisition of scientific knowledge and scientific method [8]. It is built on
students’ natural curiosity, involving them in the formulation of research questions and in the
conception of hypotheses that intend to answer the initial questions and which are the origin of
research and activities developed under the guidance of the teacher [9, 10]. Finally, students have
the opportunity to analyse the results, think of alternative explanations and have the opportunity
to argue and communicate [11], developing the competencies highlighted in Portuguese curricula
[1].
Although this approach has a positive influence students’ learnings, Portuguese teachers have to
cope with extensive curricula contents and external school evaluations, therefore not developing
this way of work in the classes. Moreover, in pre-service teacher education students also show
167 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

resistance to this form of learning [12]. Accordingly, they will become teachers that will show little
flexibility and will plan lessons mostly by the book or with no connection with the real, promoting
no spaces for students’ active participation, knowledge construction and critical thinking.
Although Mathematics is associated with lower academic performance and disinterest by
students, one of the main contributions of it is the development of critical thinking and the ability
to solve real-world problems. In primary education, students should begin to apply mathematical
concepts to practical situations, developing the ability to analyse problems, identify patterns,
make connections, and draw logical conclusion. Moreover, when students solve problems or
other situations collaboratively, they develop communication competencies in order to learn to
articulate their ideas clearly and effectively. But for this to be possible, teachers’ practices should
be different than usual and promote exploratory teaching [13]. Thus, this way of work with
students should be presented for future teachers.
Thus, assuming interdisciplinarity, practices between Sciences and Mathematics could be a way
to overcome these barriers once these subjects have a lot of common educational goals. The
interaction between these two sciences allows students to integrate knowledge and develop
abilities and competencies that are pointed out in 21st Century Skills for Students [14] and also in
Portuguese curricula [1, 15, 16]. This way of work is only possible if there are two kinds of
collaboration: (1) between teachers in order to align educational goals of these two subjects and
to implement a joint IBL approach in their classes; and (2) between students in which they are
involved in an IBL strategy both as learners and as future teachers.
This paper describes a joint work in two curricular units of the Master´s Degree in Preschool and
Primary Education - Experimental Science Practices and Methodology for Teaching Mathematics
– in a private Higher Education Institution in Portugal. The main goal was to develop an IBL
approach, from a contemporary science issue proposed by students, in which they integrated
mathematical knowledge all along the investigation.

2. Method

In this work, we assumed an interpretative paradigm [3], since it was intended to produce
knowledge through the students’ investigations unveiling the interpretations that they elaborated
about the study theme. As for the design, we developed an action-research project [4], since it
was intended to intervene by changing the ways in which students and teachers act regarding the
involvement in IBL activities.
The participants were the three students and the teachers from both curricular units that acted as
tutors along these classes. During whole process, teachers work collaboratively in the planning,
orientation and supporting all phases of the work. Data were collected through documents’
investigation, experimentations, observation, students’ protocols and informal conversations.
The procedures were developed in four phases: (1) the initial investigation performed by students
allowed them to choose vermicomposting as the most suitable solution; (2) design of a proposal
task to implement in the classroom, following IBL stages; (3) development of the proposal
simulating what it is expected in a 3rd grade class; science and mathematical knowledge were
used to collect, interpret and conclude about data obtained. In practical terms, a worm bin was
built, species were selected and conditions for vermicomposting were studied; and (4) from the
results and conclusions taken, a second investigation was performed (importance of compost for
lettuce growth).

3. Results

Several studies have associated teaching approaches with the disinterest of students as learners
and as future teachers in sciences [12]. To overcome this, we have been implementing IBL as
one of the teaching approaches developed in Master classes of Experimental Science Practices
and Methodology for Teaching Mathematics curricular units. This fulfils a double goal - to
introduce the IBL methodology to our students and to guide them into designing a proposal for
their future students, also using the same methodology.

3.1 The Pre-Service Teaching Practices – College Students as Learners

The proposals of our classes are usually developed into five moments that include the various
stages of the IBL methodology, with different goals, which are described below. In the first
moment, in both classes, students are confronted with IBL methodology in a theoretical
perspective. Moreover, they are asked to think about the connections between this methodology
and the exploratory mathematics teaching [13], which have a lot of points in common, namely the
collaborative work, the active learning and discussion of ideas or argumentation.
168 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The second moment is characterised by the theme choice, according to the criteria proposed by
both teachers: (1) contemporary science issue; (2) suitable for the curriculum of primary
education; and (3) not usually worked in primary education classes.
The following moment is related with the investigation and discussion performed by the students
guided by the teachers. In this phase, which includes discussion of existing knowledge within the
group, guided and autonomous research, our students manage various sources, and which allow
them to obtain a wide range of information about the theme – in this case, vermicomposting –
which is fundamental for establishing the most suitable experimental conditions and designing
their activities. After the research activities, our students often realise that some of their ideas and
knowledge are incorrect and point out the importance of acquiring/correcting/developing
knowledge in their own learning process. At this stage, they show some initial difficulty in selecting
reliable sources of information and the relevance of the information gathered.
The fourth moment corresponds to the design of an interdisciplinarity proposal activity to be
developed in primary education in a specific grade, which is presented in the following section.
All this work is developed under the guidance of both teachers in the classroom. In the fifth and
last moment, students present and discuss the proposal in the classroom in the presence of both
teachers, who collaboratively comment, argue and evaluate all the developed work.

3.2 The Proposal Activity in Primary Education – College Students as Teachers

The project was elaborated considering a 3rd graders group, enabling the developing abilities,
competencies, and attitudes according to Portuguese curricula [15, 16]. As stated before,
students followed an IBL approach that it will be described (Table 1).

Table 1. Developing the Vermicomposting project

Natural Sciences IBL phases Mathematics
Starting point: Starting point:
▪ Food waste ▪ Calculate the amount of
▪ What can I do? food waste produced per
▪ Students and teachers started Orientation 3rd graders
research activities ▪ Calculate the amount of
food waste produced by
the 3rd graders
Discussion about: ▪ Count and check the size
▪ What is a vermicomposter? and weight of the worms
▪ How do earthworms live? ▪ Measure the dimensions
▪ How does the decomposition of the composter
process take place? ▪ Analyse the
▪ What are the benefits of characteristics of a
vermicomposting for the soil? parallelepiped
Conceptualization
▪ Calculate the volume of
the soil to be introduced
Build the vermicomposter (Fig. 1.) and ▪ Calculate the weight of
define the variables (temperature, waste to be put in per day
humidity, soil pH, amount of water, type
and weight of residues added, and worm’s
weights)
▪ Research using books and the ▪ Record variable data in
internet the research diary on a
▪ Build the vermicomposter and daily basis
observe the worms ▪ Check the results weekly
▪ Record the evolution of the Investigation and monthly (drawing up
different variables in the graphs and tables)
researcher’s diary (Fig. 2.) ▪ Discuss the results using
▪ Check the evolution of the study graphs and tables
variables
Conclusion
▪ Some foods can lead to mosquitoes (avoid putting these foods in the classroom)
▪ Worm showed preference for some “food”
▪ Intake of organic matter is equivalent to worm’s weight
▪ Different residues show different decomposition times
▪ Worm is less active with the reduction of humidity
▪ The variables change with time and type of waste
▪ Survival of worms is thermoregulated (withstand of extreme temperature limits - 0ºC and 35ºC)
▪ Humus is produced
▪ Vermicomposting allows human beings to reduce the amount of waste they dispose of
169 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Investigation
(part 2)
▪ Is the humus produced important ▪ Compare the growth of
for the soil and plant growth? lettuce (size and number
▪ Deposit humus in different soils of new leaf)
and plant similar lettuce. ▪ Discuss the results using
▪ Compare the growth of lettuce. graphs and tables

Conclusion
(part 2)
▪ Water must be increase in line with plant growth
▪ The soil enriched with composting (humus) alters positively lettuce growth

The measures of the vermicomposter are illustrated in Fig. 1. The researcher’s diary included
several information: the worm species and its characteristics, the daily and weekly registration
about the study variables, the analyses and discussion of data obtained (in tables and/or graphs),
and the lettuce’s growth evolution (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1. Vermicomposter Fig. 2. Researcher’s diary

4. Final Remarks

Inquiry Based Learning is one of the approaches considered valuable when teaching science.
However, it is not commonly used by pre-school and primary teachers in Portugal, in spite of it
obvious advantages.
Several studies have associated teaching approaches with the disinterest of children and young
people in sciences [5, 6, 7, 12]. In addition, relevance has been given to the unique role of the
teacher in familiarizing students, from a very early age, with basic science concepts, contributing
for a greater participation in society later on.
Moreover, there is a notorious difficulty for teachers to work collaboratively as they cope with strict
curricula orientations and full class schedule, which does not allow them to develop
interdisciplinarity between knowledge. This is also the case for college teachers who need to
organize and work between classes. Thus, the proposal presented in this paper represents an
interdisciplinary approach and highlights the possibility of working all the curricular areas from a
central science theme, overcoming the limits of time and rigid schedules of some institutions.
This proposal was a way to promote scientific and mathematical literacy since students were
confronted to a contemporary environmental issue that they have to solve through scientific
method. They were encouraged to experiment, manipulate, predict, hypothesize, register,
interpret results and conclude using science and mathematics. We highlight that this task does
not require any special material or equipment and can be easily performed in primary classes.
This was one of our goals since most of our pre- and primary schools do not have laboratory
equipment and materials.
At the end of this work, students acknowledged that this was more challenging and thought
provoking than to work science and mathematics separately. To sum up, this represents a real
solution for a real problem.
170 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

REFERENCES

[1] Martins, G. et al. Perfil dos Alunos à Saída da Escolaridade Obrigatória. ME/DGE.
2017.
[2] Pedaste, M.; Mäeots, M.; Siiman, L. A.; de Jong, T.; van Riesen, S. A. N.; Kamp, E.
T.; Tsourlidaki, E. Phases of inquiry-based learning: Definitions and the inquiry cycle.
Educational Research Review 2015, 14, 47-61.
[3] Denzin, N.K. The interpretive process. In The qualitative researchers’ companion; A.
Haberman, & M. Milles, Eds.; Sage Publications: California, USA, 2002; pp. 349-366.
[4] Mason, J. Researching your own practice: The discipline of noticing; Rand Falmer:
London, UK, 2002.
[5] Fitzgerald, A. Science in Primary Schools: Examining the Practices of Effective
Teachers. Sense Publishers: Rotterdam, Netherlands, 2012.
[6] Tippett, Ch. D; Milford, T.D. Science Education in Canada: Consistencies,
Commonalities, and Distinctions, Springer Nature, Switzerland, 2019.
[7] Griethuijsen, R.A.L.F; Eijck, M.W.; Haste, H.; Brok, P.J; Skinner, N.C; Mansour, N.;
Gencer, A.; BouJaoude, S.; Global Patterns in Students’ Views of Science and Interest
in Science. Research in Science Education 2015, 45.
[8] Levy, P. Inquiry-based Learning Planner. University of Sheffield: Sheffield, UK, 2010.
[9] Jang, H.; Reeve, J.; Deci, E. L. Engaging students in learning activities: It is not
autonomy support or structure but autonomy support and structure. Journal of
Educational Psychology 2010, 10(3); 588–600.
[10] Walldén, S.; Mäkinen, E. Educational Data Mining and Problem-Based Learning.
Informatics in Education. 2014, 13, 141 – 156.
[11] Chu, S.K.; Tse, K.C. Using collaborative teaching and inquiry project-based learning
to help primary school students develop information literacy and information skills.
Library & Information Science Research 2011, 33, 132-143.
[12] Paramés, A. Atividades de resolução de problemas no ensino das ciências:
Potencialidades e desafios na formação inicial de professores. PhD thesis at
University of Lisbon. 2023
[13] Canavarro, A. P. Ensino exploratório da matemática: Práticas e desafios. Educação
e Matemática 2011, 115, 11-17.
[14] OECD. OECD future of education and skills 2030: OECD learning compass 2030.
2019.
[15] Ministério da Educação. Aprendizagens Essenciais de Estudo do Meio no Ensino
Básico. ME-DGE.2018.
[16] Canavarro, A. P.; Mestre, C.; Gomes, D.; Santos, E.; Santos, L.; Brunheira, L.;
Vicente, M.; Gouveia, M. J.; Correia, P.; Marques, P.; Espadeiro, G. Aprendizagens
Essenciais de Matemática no Ensino Básico. ME-DGE. 2021.
171 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Using Visual Notetaking to Promote Participatory Equity in

a Science and Math Methods Course

Michael R. Taber1, Kristin Stanec2

Colorado College, United States1,2

Abstract

This paper is part of a multi-year project on implementing visual notetaking strategies into
undergraduate courses to promote equitable learning experiences, reflexive thinking, divergent
thinking, and participatory equity. Here, we define participatory equity as the internalization of a
sense of belonging, where teacher educators, learning science and math concepts, can engage
with inquiry, intellectual challenge, and uncertainty in a space that utilizes various identity
perspectives as assets, minimizing the “I am not good at math/science” mindset. Participants
were undergraduate students in a science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) teacher
preparation methods course from six majors (courses of study), with 27% from a STEM discipline,
20% from humanities, and 53% from the social sciences. Visual notetaking exercises were used
daily as part of the instructional process to assist students in connecting learning experiences to
material reality as they learned about their STEM identities while learning STEM content and
instructional design. Visual notetaking facilitated visual representation using visual thinking
strategies, recognizing patterns, and defining structures through new notetaking forms. Learning
experiences were designed to develop students’ conceptualizing of science and math while
learning how to design learning for pre-adolescent students. By using visual notetaking strategies,
students were able to practice divergent thinking (i.e., possibilities), convergent thinking (i.e.,
forms that express meaning), and risk-taking (i.e., the vulnerability associated with expression).
Qualitative coding of open responses on a post-survey revealed two major themes: 1) Visual
notetaking provided a mind space for learning about self, and 2) it provided a calming opportunity
to connect concepts. Quantitative analysis indicated significant correlations between focused
headspace and notetaking (r = 0.555, p < 0.001), focused headspace and connecting with others
(r = 0.405, p < 0.001), and using imagination helps me learn and creating visuals helps me learn
(r = 0.528, p < 0.001). In addition, students showed small gains (eta squared = 0.03) on a pre-
post analysis on “a safe space for learning.” Future work now focuses on what students and
professors perceive as possibilities for instruction and what students perceive as possibilities for
more profound development of safe-space embodiment, intuition, tolerance, and the co-creation
of knowledge.

Keywords: teaching methods, inclusion, equity, creativity, student engagement, STEM

Introduction

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education has been primarily driven
by national and state policies focused on fulfilling a perceived deficit in an employment-eligible
citizenry to address and meet specific sociocultural needs [1]. The National Science Foundation
and federal and state education agencies have been responsible for addressing the deficits (e.g.,
new standards, funding career pathways) with only a modest increase (2.6%) in doctoral science
and engineering students since 2000 [2]. The 2017-19 numbers are dismal for Black and Hispanic
workers compared with White (9%, 8%, 67%, respectively). Despite policies designed to promote
an increase in overall STEM professions, particularly when trying to increase gender, racial, and
ethnic diversity, we ask, what is not working in STEM education?
Indeed, focusing on socioscientific issues does lead to a focus on STEM, but with a lens of deficit
thinking (how to fill gaps with STEM training) rather than reframing the issues in sociocultural
contexts (the assets cultural beings bring to STEM solutions). Developing a sociocultural-
socioscientific position provides an opportunity to deconstruct existing STEM silos [2] and center
STEM education in the context of social justice education and participatory equity [3].
Social justice science education reframes learning from what should be learned to sense-making
through intentional dialogs with self and others [3]. This reframing humanizes STEM learning by
focusing on the intersection between community concerns and science understandings. The
focus shifts from the traditional, top-down reductionist model of teaching STEM to a bottom-up
model where STEM learning is social-issue driven. This shift orientates learning towards
172 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

meaningful learning, the relation of reality to learned material, and a focus on self and learning
processes [1].

Transformative Pedagogy and Situated Learning

How do we implement a new transformative pedagogy that is justice-centered and results in more
equitable participation in STEM classrooms? Culturally relevant pedagogy [4], critical pedagogy
[5], and problem-based learning [6] provide the theoretical frameworks for transformative
pedagogies. The Soil Project focused on a local issue – the long-term environmental impact of a
recently closed coal-fired power plant [7]. In the project, high-school students faced a real, local
issue. The result of the project and new pedagogy was that students understand environmental
racism as a more significant issue, were able to learn STEM concepts and skills through original
laboratory work (promoting equitable experiences and expectations), and broadened the
students' participation as a service to their community and direct engagement with social justice
[7].
The Soil Project provided students with the construct of agency and autonomy. The agency
allowed students to take control of their learning [8]. The autonomy was grounded in a
sociocultural issue, which fostered an internal dialog focused on controlling the learning process
and what needed to be learned. The combination of agency and autonomy contributes to the
student’s reflexive thinking capacity [9].
Situated learning refers to interactions between self, others, and objects. “Self” describes the
space of agency and autonomy within situated learning. “Others” refers to the interactions within
the situated space, and “objects” refers to the resources (human and non-human) and
content/concepts being learned. The interactions in situated learning flow at the direction of the
experience (e.g., teacher-directed curriculum). The degree to which agency and autonomy are
permitted is crucial in situated learning. The resulting internal dialog provides opportunities for
students to “make discoveries about self,” “discern,” and “deliberate” to place value and priorities
on what is being learned and to “commit” based on aspirations, hopes, or desires [9].

Possibility Books - Implementing Visual Notetaking in a STEM Methods Course

“Possibility books” are a form of visual notetaking, sketchnoting, or visual thinking grounded in
Mayer and Moreno’s [10] cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Meaningful learning requires
discerning, deliberating, and committing to the material's perceived essential aspects. Often,
students in STEM classes experience notetaking to capture what was said during lectures – a
behavior associated with “being a good student.” Meaningful learning is shared when students
can apply what is being taught, engage in problem-solving strategies, and develop mental models
of interconnected concepts [10], [11]. Gansemer-Topf, Paepcke-Hjelness, and Russell [12]
employed visual notetaking (sketchnoting) strategies in a university ecology course. They defined
sketchnoting as “a non-linear, note-taking methodology, following the procedure of listening,
synthesizing, and visualizing information, by incorporating building blocks made of language,
space, frames & connectors, people, and objects.” What appears to be missing in the ecology
course is the critical development of creative thinking, which helps students learn about the
tolerance of ambiguity, be open to new experiences and different perspectives, be willing to take
risks to explore new possibilities, and discover unexpected connections between concepts and
across disciplinary domains.
We implemented Possibility Books in a STEM methods course for undergraduate students
interested in becoming teachers. Participants (11) were undergraduate students in a science,
technology, engineering, and math teacher preparation methods course from six majors (courses
of study), with 27% from a STEM discipline, 20% from humanities, and 53% from the social
sciences. Students not majoring in STEM had minimal and often troubled experiences learning
mathematics and science. The students in the STEM methods course were part of a more
extensive study across the undergraduate institution. During implementation, we determined that
the visual notetaking activity was best presented at the start of each class, where students could
engage in developing creative thinking skills that could then be used to create mental models
while engaging with content. For example, in one activity, students were asked to choose three
shapes, three lines, and three colors and then connect each shape, line, and color to their
perception of what it means to learn in STEM spaces. This helped students consider the
importance of divergent thinking as a valuable skill for exploring and discerning. Each Possibility
Book activity illustrates the creative process, often in the "messy middle" of scientific discovery.
The students learned the importance of failing, iterating, and analyzing to try again. The final
activity asked students to choose one of two images as a textbook cover for the course and then
explain why they chose that particular cover. Connecting with learning often resides in “a big
173 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

idea.” An activity like this allows students to discern and deliberate on a deeper level as they
resolve the “muddy middle” between what is known and what is unknown.
A thirty-three-item questionnaire was developed to determine how Possibility Books were used
for notetaking (mark making), how well the books connected learning, how well Possibility Book
activities addressed anxiety with learning content, and how well social interaction experiences
contributed to overall learning. The questionnaire was given at the beginning and end of the
course.

Results and Discussion

An exploratory factor analysis was employed to determine the interrelation among scaled
variables. The intent was to reduce the data to fewer items with strong correlations (r = 0.642, p
< 0.001). The result was a ten-item index that described a Safe Space for Learning (SSL) (Table
1). A t-test was conducted to evaluate the influence of Possibility Books on creating an SSL. There
was a statistically significant increase in SSL scores from the beginning of the course (M = 50.31,
SD = 4.54) to the end of the course (M = 51.08, SD = 5.07, t (191) = 2.6, p < .005, two-tailed).
The mean increase in SSL scores was 0.77, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.188
to 1.35. The eta squared statistic (0.03) indicated a small effect size.
Through visual notetaking, students were able to practice divergent thinking (i.e., developing
possibilities), convergent thinking (i.e., forms that express meaning), and risk-taking (i.e., the
vulnerability associated with expression). Qualitative coding of open responses on a post-survey
revealed two major themes: 1) Visual notetaking provided a mind space for learning about self,
and 2) it provided a calming opportunity to connect concepts. Quantitative analysis indicated
significant correlations between focused headspace and notetaking (r = 0.555, p < 0.001),
focused headspace and connecting with others (r = 0.405, p < 0.001), and using imagination
helps me learn and creating visuals helps me learn (r = 0.528, p < 0.001).
Qualitative data was also analyzed using structural and thematic coding derived from the SSL
index: how the Possibility Book activities contributed to learning and how the activities promoted
community. For knowledge construction, the primary theme was the ability to “think abstractly”
and “create drawings” to represent abstract concepts. For example, one student wrote, “I liked
that a couple of tasks asked us to think abstractly and create abstract drawings to represent what
we know about math. This changed my perspective on how I think about math and made me
realize that math is pretty abstract.” Another student wrote, “It activated a very engaged and
synthesized way of thinking. once I drew one, I would draw more.” Two themes that emerged
from “promoting community” were the “opportunity to express” and “seeing what others were
thinking.” One student wrote, “Being able to share our ideas and visuals and having the
opportunity to express where our heads were helped us understand each other and our
community as a class.” Another student wrote, “Being able to share parts of our notebooks and
seeing what others were thinking.”

Summary

Possibility books were implemented in a STEM methods course for future teachers, most of whom
were not majoring in STEM. This was part of a larger project for undergraduate students in
courses across multiple disciplines. The project aimed to determine if the cognitive theory of
multimedia learning could be situated in social justice pedagogy to create a safe space for
learning. Results proved promising, providing an index of scaled variables that could be tested
further in courses that span STEM disciplines. Future research on how Possibility Books are
instructionally implemented to deepen meaningful learning further is the next step in this project.

REFERENCES

[1] Zeidler, Dana. “STEM Education: A Deficit Framework for the Twenty-First Century? A
Sociocultural Socioscientific Response.” Cultural Studies of Science Education 11, no. 1
(March 1, 2016): 11–26. doi:10.1007/s11422-014-9578-z.
[2] Fry, Richard, Brian Kennedy, and Cary Funk. "STEM jobs see uneven progress in
increasing gender, racial and ethnic diversity." Pew Research Center (2021): 1-28.
[3] Morales-Doyle, Daniel. “Putting Science Education in Its Place: The Science Question in
Social Justice Education.” Cultural Studies of Science Education 18, no. 1 (March 1,
2023): 81–94. doi:10.1007/s11422-023-10151-w.
[4] Ladson-Billings, Gloria. “CHAPTER SEVEN: I KNOW WHY THIS DOESN’T FEEL
EMPOWERING: A Critical ‘Race’ Analysis of Critical Pedagogy.” Counterpoints 60
(January 1, 1997): 127–41.
174 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

https://research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=890efaa0-b242-35e3-b491-
147bba4bba86.
[5] Ostling, Michael. “Pedagogy of Freedom: Ethics, Democracy, and Civic Courage. By
Paolo Freire; Translated by Patrick Clark. New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001. Pp.
Xxii + 144. Paper, $19.95; Ebook, $18.99.” Religious Studies Review 45, no. 1 (March 1,
2019): 55. doi:10.1111/rsr.13807.
[6] Aidoo, Benjamin. “Teacher Educators Experience Adopting Problem-Based Learning in
Science Education.” Education Sciences 13, no. 11 (November 1, 2023): 1113.
doi:10.3390/educsci13111113.
[7] Morales, Doyle, Daniel. “Justice-Centered Science Pedagogy: A Catalyst for Academic
Achievement and Social Transformation.” Science Education 101, no. 6 (November 1,
2017): 1034–60. doi:10.1002/sce.21305.
[8] Benson, Phil. “Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning.” Language Teaching 40,
no. 1 (2007): 21–40. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444806003958.
[9] Gao, X. (2013). Reflexive and reflective thinking: A crucial link between agency and
autonomy. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 7(3), 226-237.
[10] Mayer, Richard E., and Roxana Moreno. “Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in
Multimedia Learning.” Educational Psychologist 38, no. 1 (January 1, 2003): 43–52.
doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3801_6.
[11] Paepcke-Hjeltness, V., Mina, M., & Cyamani, A. (2017). Sketchnoting: A new approach
to developing visual communication ability, improving critical thinking and creative
confidence for engineering and design studies. 2017 IEEE Frontiers in Education
Conference (FIE), 1-5. doi:10.1109/FIE.2017.8190659.
[12] Gansemer-Topf, Ann M., Verena Paepcke-Hjeltness, Ann E. Russell, and James Schiltz.
“‘Drawing’ Your Own Conclusions: Sketchnoting as a Pedagogical Tool for Teaching
Ecology.” Innovative Higher Education 46, no. 3 (June 1, 2021): 303–19.
doi:10.1007/s10755-020-09542-6.
175 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Activating the Student´s Prior Knowledge in the Learning of

Third Newton Law trough a P.O.E. (“Predict-Observe-Explain”)
Strategy

Juan Sabín

Santiago de Compostela University, Applied Didactics Department, Spain

Abstract

Laboratory experiments are commonly used in the teaching of experimental science. They have
proven beneficial when they are designed to demonstrate concepts previously explained by the
teacher. However, they often fail short when used to introduce the explanation of a new concepts.
There is a necessity of designing new lab experiments that activate the student´s prior knowledge
in pursuit of more efficient learning when introducing new scientific concepts for the first time. The
constructivist principles of learning are grounded in the notion that learning constitutes an internal
reorganization process of the student´s mental frameworks, which undergo more significant
modifications when learners encounter discrepancies with their prior ideas. Hence, many
constructivists learning strategies place emphasis on leveraging students' prior knowledge as a
fundamental starting point. A method to translate this approach into the teaching of science
involves the utilization of P.O.E. strategies (Predict, Observe, Explain). In this work, we present
several P.O.E. experiences employing counterintuitive experiments based on third Newton´s Law.
These experiments were specifically designed to challenge students' predictions and uncover
common misconceptions in comprehension of the Newtonian mechanics. Specifically, scenarios
such as the behavior of an analog scale when a person raises on tiptoes; and the movement of a
ship propelled by its own fan often contradict many student predictions, including those of
prospective secondary school educators. These experiences also highlight the importance of the
capacity of students for scientific abstraction and the correct use of rational argumentation to
correctly explain the counterintuitive experiments and to argue against their own previous
predictions. The P.O.E. experiences were tested with prospective secondary school educators to
assess the level of significative learning facilitated by this constructivist approach.

Keywords: Constructivist, Predict-Observe-Explain, P.O.E., Newton´s Law, Prior-Knowledge.

1. Introduction

Traditional approaches for laboratory activities usually focus on verification work, with students
following handouts or lab manuals that provide detailed instructions for both the design and the
procedure of the experiments(Saunders, 1992). While these activities have proven to be
undoubtably fruitful for learners to assimilate the phenomena under study(Hofstein & Kind, 2012),
they often exhibit poor impact in learning when introducing a new topic for the first time(Pickering,
1988). One of the reasons is the lack of specific design for hand-on laboratory activities aimed to
introducing students to a new topic or explaining a new phenomenon for first time(Eubanks,
2015).
Constructivist principles of learning are grounded in the notion that learning constitutes an internal
reorganization process of the student´s mental frameworks, which undergo more significant
modifications when learners encounter discrepancies with their prior ideas(Ausubel, 1968).
Hence, many constructivist learning strategies emphasize leveraging students' prior knowledge
as a fundamental starting point(Driver et al., 1994).
A method to translate this approach into the teaching of science involves the utilization of P.O.E.
strategies (Predict, Observe, Explain)(White & Gunstone, 1992). A P.O.E. strategy in education
is a formal instructional approach designed to enhance critical thinking and conceptual
understanding among students. This pedagogical method typically unfolds in three key
stages(Yang & Chen, 2023):
176 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Predict: In the initial phase, students are prompted to make predictions or hypotheses about the
outcomes of an experiment, a scientific phenomenon, or a problem-solving scenario. This
encourages students to tap into their prior knowledge and form initial expectations.

Observe: Following the prediction stage, students engage in hands-on or observational activities
to gather data, observe outcomes, or conduct experiments. This empirical phase allows students
to compare their predictions with real-world observations, fostering a direct connection between
theoretical concepts and practical experiences.
Explain: The final stage involves students articulating their observations and connecting them to
underlying scientific principles or theoretical frameworks. This step encourages students to reflect
on their predictions, assess the accuracy of their initial hypotheses, and refine their understanding
based on the observed outcomes. Additionally, it provides an opportunity for classroom
discussion and collaborative learning as students share and compare their explanations.

The P.O.E. strategy is particularly effective in science and mathematics education, by promoting
active engagement, inquiry-based learning, and the development of analytical skills(Suryamiati et
al., 2019). Through the incorporating of prediction, observation, and explanation into the learning
process, educators aim to deepen students' understanding of complex concepts and foster a
more robust grasp of the underlying principles within a given subject area(Astiti et al., 2020).
When designing a P.O.E. strategy, the selection of the experimental activities become crucial, as
traditional hands-on laboratory experiences often fall short in provoking significant learning of new
scientific concepts(Liaw et al., 2021). Experimental activities in the P.O.E. strategy should be as
counterintuitive as possible because deeper conceptual changes in the student´s mind occur
when new learning contradicts their prior knowledge(Gok & Goldstone, 2022).
This paper presents two P.O.E. activities to teach Newton´s third law. The P.O.E. strategy was
tested with students from the Master’s degree in Secondary Education Teaching (n= 29). All
students held a degree in a scientific discipline; but no specific review of the Newton´s laws was
conducted before this pilot experience. The activity aimed to provide a first-person experience for
future teachers, triggering a conceptual change through a strong contradiction with their prior
knowledge. Additionally, it served to assess the suitability of the experiences for implementing a
P.O.E. strategy.

2. Methodology

The pilot experience was performed without any previous explanation of the P.O.E. strategies
and without a review of the Newton’s laws. Students were tasked with predicting the outcome of
two counterintuitive experiments:
Experiment 1: Behavior of a scale when a person raises on tiptoes.
Experiment 2: Movement of a sailship propelled by its own fan.

2.1 Prediction

It is crucial for the efficiency of the P.O.E. strategy to incorporate the prediction of experiments 1
and 2 discreetly among other, more intuitive yet challenging questions related to the same topic.
To elicit the prior knowledge of the students effectively, it is necessary for them to express their
more natural and intuitive answers for the predictions. Teachers should avoid the perception that
the prediction task is a “tricky” question to avoid overthought answers from the students.
Table 1 and 2 show the questions used to mask the predictions that will be tested through
observation in the next step of the P.O.E. strategy. As shown in Figure 2, the large majority of the
students failed in their predictions of question 5 of table 1 and question 2 of table 2.

Table 1. Selection of questions to cover up the prediction of experiment 1. Question #5 was the relevant
question to test through P.O.E. strategy.
Predictions related with experiment 1
1 Does the scale show the same, more, or less weight if you step on it
with one foot compared to stepping on it with both?
2 If you were to step on the scale on the Moon, would it indicate more,
less, or the same weight?
3 Would your mass on the Moon be the same, more, or less than on
Earth?
4 Does the scale show the same, more, or less weight if you lean on a
friend?
5 If you stand on tiptoes on the scale, does it always show the same
weight?
177 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 2. Questions related with experiment 2. Question #2 was the relevant question to test through
P.O.E. strategy.
Predictions related with experiment 2
Which way would a sailboat move with the wind against it if the sail is
positioned as shown by the green line?
a) It would approach point B
1 b) It would approach point A
c) None of the above

If on a day with little wind, a giant fan located at the back of the
boat is turned on, sending air towards the sail, how does the boat
move?

2 a) It would approach point B

b) It would approach point A
c) None of the above

2.2 Observation

As next step, students were invited to enter the lab to test their predictions through hand-on
experience. Special attention was given to carefully annotating their observations. They tested
the scale standing on one leg and leaning on a colleague, confirming their predictions for these
situations. However, they were very surprised when they noticed that scale´s needle moved
rapidly in both directions when they raised themselves on tiptoes over the scale.
Additionally, students assembled a toy car with a built-in fan pointed to its sail, as shown in Figure
1. Contrary to their previous predictions, it was unexpected that the toy car did not move when
the fan was tuner on.

Figure 1. Sytudents were tasked with predicting, observing and explaining the behavior of a scale when a
person raises on tiptoes (experiemnt 1) and theovement of a sailship propelled by its own fan.

Even though students may tend to improvise hypotheses and potential explanations during the
experiments, teachers should maintain the discussion focused on the experimentation and the
annotation of their observation, leaving the argumentation for the next and final step of the P.O.E.
strategy.

2.3 Explanation

After the experimentation in the lab, students collaboratively worked in groups of four on the
detailed scientific argumentation to explain the unexpected observations. More importantly, they
aimed to identity counterargument against their initial predictions. This is a key aspect of the
P.O.E. strategy because provoking the detection, understanding and correction of their own prior
Knowledge triggers a deeper conceptual change and a more lasting assimilation of the new
scientific concept (Erdem Özcan & Uyanık, 2022). During their deliberation, students were not
178 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

allowed to use smartphone or computer because. Although it is not easy to find correct
explanations for these experiments in internet and even AI chatbots like ChatGPT have failed in
their predictions, it is more desirable for students to focus their reasoning on their annotations and
the debate of their hypothesis.

2.3.1 The Third Newton´S Law: “To Every Action There Is Always an Equal and Opposite
Reaction.”

Most all the secondary physics textbooks illustrate the third Newton´s Law with very similar
examples: a gun firing a bullet pushes back the gun backwards, jumping from a boat to land
pushes back the boat to the sea or a garden hose moving while expelling water. This limited
scope hardly helps students to grasp the idea that our daily life if surrounded by action-reaction
forces. Nature manifests forces always in pairs. A particularly surprising fact for students is that
even gravitational forces are manifested by a pair of action-reaction forces. For instance, when
an apple (~200 mg) falls from a tree attracted by a gravitational force of F=mg ~ 1,96 N., the apple
also attracts the Earth with equal reaction force in the opposite direction. So, theoretically, the
apple fails into the Earth; and the Earth also falls toward the apple. The scientific concept is very
similar to two separated strong magnets of opposite sign. Once that we are released, they will
move forward to each other and meet in a middle point. However, in practice, the Earth does not
actually move towards the apple dur to two reasons: other objects are pushing Earth in other
directions; and the displacement of the Earth is so small that it is imperceptible. Doing the math
could be a good exercise for students: considering that the Earth´s mass is 5.9·1024 Kg, the
second Newton’s law can be applied to calculate the acceleration of Earth as a=F/m. Assuming
a null initial velocity for our planet, the displacement of the Earth by the attraction of the apple is
~10-24 meters. This is less than 500 millionth of the size of an electron. At this distance, even
uncertainty principle from quantum theory would prevent us from making any claim about the
displacement of Earth.
When we stand on a scale, gravity pulls us down on with force mg (where m is our mass) and the
scale pushes up on us with the same force, resulting in a net force of zero on us. This force
pushing up against us is what the scale actually measures, and this is what tralates as our weight.
When the students raised themselves on their tiptoes, they accelerated their bodies up by
applying an extra force against the scale, primary executed by the calf muscle (Parker, 2001).
According with third Newton´s law, the scale reacts pushing their bodies back in the opposite
direction, causing the scale to register a higher weight. Just before reaching the maximum height
on tiptoes, they had to deaccelerate before stopping This is archived by the calf muscle applying
an extra force in the direction of the scale, which sum up with the weight of the students. This
translates in the scale manifesting a lower reaction force, and registering lower weight(Lewin &
Goldstein, 2011). The rapid acceleration and deceleration occurring within a short duration create
the perception that the scale's needle behaves erratically when raising on tiptoes.
A similar line of reasoning can be applied to explain experiment 2 with the sailship. A force is
generated when the fan pushes air in the direction of the sail. Following the third Newton´s law,
the air pushes the fan in the opposite direction and with the same force. Since both the fan and
the sail are anchored to the same toy car, the net force on the car is zero and, therefore, no
movement.

3. Results

To evaluate the efficiency of these two P.O.E. strategies on provoking a significant learning in the
students of Master’s Degree in Secondary Education Teaching, a feedback survey was
conducted two weeks after the activity. The large majority of them (95%) considered the
experiment 2 (sailship) useful for a deeper comprehension of the third Newton´s law, while 58%
considered the experiment 1 (scale) effective. When asked about their preference, a mayoralty
of 58% of the students prefers the Experiment 2 to produce a significant learning.
We attribute this difference in the perceived efficiency of the experiments to the fact that
Experiment 1 (scale) appears to be more challenging for students with less training in abstract
thinking, mainly students with background in biology, nutrition, veterinary science, or other related
subjects. However, students who fully understood the scale experiment, mainly with background
in chemistry, engineering, or mathematics, seem to grasp a deeper understanding of the action-
reaction effect. This is reflected in a 21% of the students who still prefer the scale experiment to
produce a conceptual change. These results suggest that the scale experiment may be better
suited for advanced courses in secondary education while the sailship experiment could be
effective for introducing the Newton’s laws at the initial courses of secondary education.
179 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 2. Results of the survey to evaluate the efficiency of the two experiment to teach third Newtown’s
law using P.O.E. strategy.

4. Conclusions

As traditional laboratory activities often focus on verifying previously explained phenomena, there
is a growing need to design new hand-on experimental activities to activate prior knowledge. The
constructivism view of education suggests that more significant learning occurs when hand-on
activities contradict prior knowledge of learners, triggering a conceptual change in their minds.
To challenge prior knowledge about third Newton´s law of the students of master’s degree in
Secondary Education Teaching, two counterintuitive experiments were presented: one was based
on the behavior of a scale when a person raises on tiptoes, and the other on the movement of a
sailship propelled by its own fan.
Both experiments successfully demonstrated unexpected outcomes for the students and
Prediction-Observation-Explanation strategies seem to translate the constructivist approach by
helping learners to provoke conceptual changes and a more significant learning. The results
suggest that the sailship experience would be significantly useful in introducing the third Newton’s
law at the initial coursers of secondary education. On the other hand, the scale experiment would
contribute to a deeper understanding of the action-reaction law in more advanced courses.

REFERENCES

[1] Astiti, D. T., Ibrahim, M., & Hariyono, E. (2020). Application of P.O.E. (Predict-Observe-
Explain) Learning Strategies to Reduce Students’ Misconceptions in Science Subjects in
Elementary School. International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology,
5(7), 437–445. https://doi.org/10.38124/IJISRT20JUL478
[2] Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
[3] Driver, R., Leach, J., Scott, P., & Wood-Robinson, C. (1994). Young People’s
understanding of science concepts: Implications of cross-age studies for curriculum
planning. Studies in Science Education, 24(1), 75–100.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03057269408560040
[4] Erdem Özcan, G., & Uyanık, G. (2022). The effects of the “Predict-Observe-Explain
(P.O.E.)” strategy on academic achievement, attitude and retention in science learning.
Journal of Pedagogical Research, 3. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202215535
[5] Eubanks, L. P. (2015). Laboratory Instruction: Less Verification−More Discovery. In M. V.
Orna (Ed.), In Sputnik to Smartphones: A Half-Century of Chemistry Education (Vol. 1208,
pp. 195–217). American Chemical Society. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2015-1208.ch011
[6] Gok, S., & Goldstone, R. (2022). The Counterintuitive Interpretations Learned from
Putatively Intuitive Simulations. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive
Science Society, 44(44). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/67x0g266
[7] Hofstein, A., & Kind, P. M. (2012). Learning In and From Science Laboratories. In B. J.
Fraser, K. Tobin, & C. J. McRobbie (Eds.), Second International Handbook of Science
180 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Education (pp. 189–207). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9041-

7_15
[8] Lewin, W., & Goldstein, W. (2011). For the Love of Physics: From the End of the Rainbow
to the Edge of Time - A Journey Through the Wonders of Physics. Simon and Schuster.
[9] Liaw, H., Yu, Y.-R., Chou, C.-C., & Chiu, M.-H. (2021). Relationships between Facial
Expressions, Prior Knowledge, and Multiple Representations: A Case of Conceptual
Change for Kinematics Instruction. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 30(2),
227–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-020-09863-3
[10] Parker, K. (2001). Use of force platforms in physics and sport. Physics Education, 36(1),
18–22. https://doi.org/10.1088/0031-9120/36/1/303
[11] Pickering, M. (1988). The chemistry lab and its future. Report on the NEACT Conference,
65–5, 449. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed065p449
[12] Saunders, W. L. (1992). The Constructivist Perspective: Implications and Teaching
Strategies for Science. School Science and Mathematics, 92(3), 136–141.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1949-8594.1992.tb12159.x
[13] Suryamiati, W., Kahar, A. P., & Setiadi, A. E. (2019). Improving higher-order thinking skill
through P.O.E. (Predict, Observe, Explain) and guided discovery learning models. JPBI
(Jurnal Pendidikan Biologi Indonesia), 5(2), Article 2.
https://doi.org/10.22219/jpbi.v5i2.8266
[14] White, R., & Gunstone, R. (1992). Probing Understanding. Taylor & Fracis Group.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203761342
[15] Yang, K.-H., & Chen, H.-H. (2023). What increases learning retention: Employing the
prediction-observation-explanation learning strategy in digital game-based learning.
Interactive Learning Environments, 31(6), 3898–3913.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2021.1944219
181 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Educational Tourism in Bulgaria: New Research Project

Sonya Spasova1, Svetoslava Dimitrova2

University of Library Studies and Information Technologies, Bulgaria1,2

Abstract

The intersection points in the interaction of three state management systems, namely: cultural
heritage, education, tourism in Bulgaria, has so far not been the subject of a complex study. Each
of these systems is managed by state institutions that have a high degree of overlapping funding
and responsibilities. This paper presents a new research project entitled “Research of
opportunities for the implementation and development of educational tourism in Bulgaria: Cultural
heritage in support of formal education”, that in 2023 won the Competition for financial support of
basic research projects, organized by the Bulgarian National Science Fund, part of the Ministry
of Education and Science of the Republic of Bulgaria, Contract № KP-06-N75/17 from
15.12.2023, led by Chief Assist. Sonya Spasova, PhD. The goals and results of the project are
presented. The set goals of the project proposal include, in addition to the study of international
good practices and the analysis of published scientific studies on the subject, conducting field
studies (surveys, interviews, photo-documentation of selected objects that directly correspond to
school education and the development of tourism in Bulgaria), also publishing a monograph and
a teaching aid. The object of research is educational tourism in Bulgaria. The subject of research
are pre-selected sites of national cultural heritage as a potential for the development of
educational tourism in the country, with the aim of increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of
formal education in Bulgaria. It is envisaged that the selection of objects will be categorized into
three historical eras: Antiquity, Middle Ages, Bulgarian Revival. The methods and approaches
envisaged include: a survey of published literature on the subject; conducting field studies
(surveys, interviews, photo, and video documentation), analyses and synthesis of regulatory
documents.

Keywords: Research project, Cultural Tourism, Cultural Heritage, Education

1. Introduction

Educational tourism is an intersection where the principles of continuity and accessibility of

education and tourism find their practical realization. The goals and tasks of the present study are
based on the systematic development of the scientific-theoretical concept of cultural heritage as
an interdisciplinary phenomenon bordering on a number of other close and related sciences, such
as: cultural science, history, sociology, pedagogy, museology, etc. In the process of the study,
the formulation of criteria and the application of a complex approach to the study of the
educational aspects of tourism in interaction with the national cultural heritage system are
envisaged.

2. Timeliness and Relevance of Scientific Problems Addressed by the Project

The intersection area in the interaction of three state management systems, namely: cultural
heritage, education, tourism in Bulgaria, has so far not been the subject of a complex study. Each
of these systems is managed by state institutions that have a high degree of overlapping funding
and responsibilities. The research and discovery of a methodology regarding their qualitative and
effective coordination of activities that correspond to the satisfaction of the direct needs of society
is feasible by applying a scientific-research approach. The planned activities of the project
proposal aim to explore these relationships, research, and propose concrete methods as
principles for basic dependencies in inter-institutional cooperation.
The set goals of the project proposal include, in addition to the study of international good
practices and the analysis of published scientific studies on the subject, conducting field studies
(surveys, interviews, photo-documentation of selected objects that directly correspond to school
education and the development of tourism in Bulgaria), also publishing a monograph and a
teaching aid.
182 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The innovative approach adopted in the activities of the current project is the purchase of a drone,
with which to document pre-selected cultural heritage sites and to outline educational tourist
routes in support of school education, based on some academic disciplines (I - XIII grade). The
recorded video materials will be published fully accessible to Internet users and shared on some
of the most popular social networks and on the official website of the project.
Educational tourism research plays an important role in understanding and improving this type of
tourism, as well as in determining its impacts and potential challenges. Here are some of the main
aspects and topics that are explored in the context of educational tourism:

• Motivation and interests of tourists: Research can be aimed at understanding the

motivations and interests of people who choose educational tourism. What motivates
them to learn and explore new places. What are their expectations and preferences.
• Impact on the educational process: Research can examine how educational tourism
affects the learning and development of participants. This includes an analysis of how
travel enriches tourists’ knowledge and experience.
• Economic and social impacts: Research can analyse the economic and social impacts of
educational tourism on destinations. What is the economic impact of increased visits to
museums, universities, and other educational institutions. What are the social benefits
and challenges for local communities.
• Sustainable tourism: Research can focus on the ways in which educational tourism can
be directed towards sustainable development. How can tourist footprints on the
environment and cultural resources be reduced.
• Educational programs and approaches: Research can focus on the effectiveness of
educational programs and teaching methods used in educational tourism.
• Destination Marketing and Management: Research can analyse the marketing strategies
and management of destinations in educational tourism. How are tourists seeking
educational experiences attracted and managed.
• Trends and innovations: Educational’ tourism research can also follow trends and
innovations related to the development of new educational experiences and technological
solutions.

Opportunities to link the cultural heritage, tourism and education systems are often categorized
as bilateral but not tripartite cooperation.
In publications by authors such as Irena Emilova, Elenita Velikova, etc., the issue is considered
from an economic point of view and the dimensions for the tourism industry in the sectors engaged
in their direct practical service. [1] Associate Professor Velikov and Assist. Stoyanova analyse the
role of the tour guide activity, as well as the methodology of implementation and for making a
quality tourist product. Publications that make a concrete connection between cultural heritage
and tourism are also found in the field of research. As an example, a monograph album entitled
“Tourism and Cultural Heritage” was released. [2]
Educational tourism is a type of tourism that focuses on educational and cultural goals, providing
opportunities to enrich the knowledge, develop skills and expand the cultural horizons of tourists.
This type of tourism often includes visits to educational institutions, museums, exhibitions,
archaeological sites, historical sites, nature reserves and other places of interest related to
science, history, art, nature, and culture.
One of the key aspects of educational tourism is the opportunity to learn and enrich knowledge
while traveling. Tourists can learn about the history and culture of a place, understand its traditions
and customs, explore local flora and fauna, or learn about local scientific achievements and
innovations.
Educational tourism has many advantages, such as promoting the educational process, helping
to preserve cultural heritage, and promoting sustainable development. It can also be inspiring and
motivating for people to continue learning and developing throughout their lives.
Educational tourism can be expressed in various forms, such as field trips, lectures, courses,
workshops, and even long-term educational programs that include stays in different regions and
countries. This type of tourism is often popular with students, teachers, researchers, and anyone
who values education and cultural exchange.
In modern literature, educational tourism is interpreted differently. One of the first definitions was
given by Zorin I.V. and Kvartalnov V.A. The authors define educational tourism as tourist trips and
excursions for the purpose of training, satisfying curiosity and other cognitive interests. Thay
clarify the purpose and tasks of the educational tours, calling them informative, carried out to fulfil
the tasks determined by the educational programs of the educational institutions. [3]
183 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

3. Project Objectives, Hypotheses and Approaches for Accomplishment of Project

Objectives

The study of the potential of qualitative and effective interrelationships between basic spheres,
which directly influence the development of modern democratic societies, is a leading factor for
the application of current and innovative methods regarding their updating and their promotion to
the improvement of economic, social, and cultural relations. The present project proposal aims to
explore opportunities for interaction between three state management systems that have real
points of contact in this regard.
The object of research is educational tourism in Bulgaria.
The subject of research are pre-selected sites of national cultural heritage as a potential for the
development of educational tourism in the country, with the aim of increasing the effectiveness
and efficiency of formal education in Bulgaria. It is envisaged that the selection of objects will be
categorized into three historical eras: Antiquity, Middle Ages, Bulgarian Revival.
The methods and approaches envisaged include: a survey of published literature on the subject;
conducting field studies (surveys, interviews, photo, and video documentation), analyses and
synthesis of regulatory documents.
The objectives of the project are relevant in several directions:
1. Study of the regional and institutional potential as a resource for increasing the quality of
education with the active participation of cultural institutions in the country.
2. Conducting field studies.
3. Shooting with a drone the most emblematic objects from three historical eras and
publishing them on social networks and on the Internet.
The following tasks are planned for the fulfilment of the goals thus set:
1. Carrying out a review of the literature on the topic.
2. Processing of statistical data on the institutional resource and potential for
implementation of educational tourist routes in the country.
3. Documentation and editing of the video material.
4. Processing and systematization of the results.
The expected results of conducting the research refer to:
1. The socialization of the national cultural heritage.
2. Increasing the quality of formal education in the country.
3. Implementation of scientific and theoretical relations between three state spheres:
cultural heritage - tourism – education.
It is planned to apply a complex of research methods with which to respond to the tasks set for
the implementation of the project. Namely: search, study and systematization of theoretical
statements related to educational tourism and its relationship with various institutions; conducting
a representative study based on quantitative and qualitative research methods (survey, interview)
to present an up-to-date and comprehensive picture regarding the development of educational
initiatives and extracurricular activities; applying a systematic approach in the analysis of the
results.
In accordance with the rapid development of our information and communication technologies
and the role of the Internet for sharing information, field work with photo and video documentation
of basic objects of cultural heritage, which directly correspond to the educational content of some
subjects of the school education system in the country, is planned.

4. Conclusions

The goals set for the project are also related to the guidelines for supporting scientific research,
defined in the Law on the Promotion of Scientific Research – ZNNI (Bulgarian history, language,
culture and national identity; solving problems in the field of economy, education, social
processes, etc.) and corresponds to the set goals for sustainable development under the Horizon
Europe program of the European Union in the field of scientific research and innovation for the
period 2021-2027. Cultural heritage belongs to the past, but it is also of great social importance
in the present, especially with its educational function. The fundamental and leading role of
education for the formation of values and behaviour, as well as for the acquisition of individual
competences, is indisputable. There are different definitions of the term “education” that
unanimously unite its core mission to preserve and develop culture. [4]
The research undertaken in the current project is a continuation of studies that were carried out
in another scientific project: “Research of contemporary educational programs of cultural
institutions in Bulgaria”, financed by National Science Fund of the Ministry of Education and
Science of the Republic of Bulgaria with Contract № KP-06-M35/3 from 18.12.2019, led by Assist.
Sonya Spasova, PhD. [5]
184 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Part of the applied methodology for researching the educational function of cultural heritage [6]
will also be adapted to the current study to clarify the characteristics and interactions between
education, cultural heritage, and tourism.

Acknowledgements

This research would not be possible without the financial assistance of the following project:
“Research of opportunities for the implementation and development of educational tourism in
Bulgaria: Cultural heritage in support of formal education”, financed by National Science Fund of
the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Bulgaria with Contract № KP-06-N75/17
from 15.12.2023, led by Chief Assist. Sonya Spasova, PhD.

REFERENCES

[1] Emilova, I., Velikova, E. Introduction to tourism, Sofia, New Bulgarian University, 2016
[2] Aleksieva, S., Bokova, I. Tourism and cultural heritage, Sofia, New Bulgarian University,
2014
[3] Zorin, I., Kvartalnov, V. Encyclopedia of tourism: reference book. Moscow: AST, 2003
[4] Dimitrova, S., Spasova, S., Dusheva, S., Gindev, P. Cultural Institutions and Education in
Bulgaria – Popularization of Programs with a Scientific and Research Project. // In
Proceedings of 11th International Conference on New Perspectives in Science Education,
17-18 March 2022, Florence: PIXEL, pp. 278-283
[5] Spasova, S., A. Stanimirov, A. Kolev, R. Krasteva. Experimental Methodology for Research
of Museum Educational Programs. INTED2021 Proceedings: 15th International
Technology, Education and Development Conference, 8-9 March, 2021, Online
Conference, pp. 1888-1895
[6] Spasova, S., Dimitrova, S., Stanimirov, A., Kolev, A. National Science Fund: Adaptation of
the Cultural Institutions in Bulgaria to the New Reality – Practice from Social Networks // In
Proceedings of 11th International Conference on New Perspectives in Science Education,
17-18 March 2022, Florence: PIXEL, pp. 284-288.
185 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Is There a Place for Regular Mid-Semester Assessments in

Higher Education?

Zsófia Frányó1, Péter Tasi2, Boglárka Szijártó3, Barbara Kardos4

Budapest Business University, Hungary1,3,4

Aston University, Birmingham United Kingdom2

Abstract

By the 21st century, higher education has evolved into an essential component of the global
economy, influenced by economic forces and societal expectations [1]. The increasing student
population, coupled with growing diversity, necessitates ongoing innovation as traditional
knowledge transfer methods prove inadequate [2][3]. Core challenges include enhancing quality
and minimizing attrition [7], demanding continual adaptation to diverse student needs and
objectives [19]. Innovative thinking becomes imperative in this context [20]. This empirical study
investigates the effectiveness and student acceptance of a novel assessment system
implemented in the accounting department of a prominent Central European university of
economics. The system allocates 30% of scores through diligence-based regular tests and 70%
through end-of-semester exams. Utilizing qualitative research methods, including questionnaire
data collection in correspondence courses, the study targets students engaged in online video
course materials within the 1st semester of 2023/2024, amassing responses from over 220
participants. Results indicate a favourable shift in student effectiveness (grades and dropout
rates) under the new system, with clear student endorsement. Feedback highlights that the test
schedule enhances curriculum adherence, offers practice opportunities, facilitates continuous
progress, and serves as an exam model, providing ongoing feedback on knowledge levels. This
formative assessment approach supplements summative evaluations, contributing to students'
developmental growth. Conclusively, the findings endorse the utility of the new assessment
system, recommending its continued use with potential for minor adjustments, such as
percentage modifications and test reopening for practice purposes. Despite limitations tied to a
specific scientific field and institutional context, positive outcomes prompt further educational
development and research.

Keywords: formative assessment, student satisfaction, dropout, part-time training, regular assessment

1. Problem Statement

The international, economic, social, and technical environment of higher education has radically
changed by the 21st century, making the complex world of higher education significantly different
from the past. It has become an integral part of the global economy, partly financed by society,
thus accountable, profit-oriented, service-oriented, and a participant in market competition, with
the university environment shaped by economic actors. Institutions are becoming
internationalised, student diversity is increasing, as well as the technological background is
changing, and the knowledge about learning [1]. Alongside the massification of higher education
[2], the increase in institutional and student diversity has become a defining factor in recent years
[3]. Student diversity manifests in atypical age groups, studying while working, diversity in chosen
educational forms [3], differences in nationality and prior education, as well as in different social
opportunities and learning abilities [4]. Students enter higher education with different life
experiences and prior knowledge, concepts, views, and attitudes, making the management of
these differences essential. A flexible learning environment is needed to support less certain and
independently less successful learners and to develop learning abilities, where it becomes
possible to adaptively respond to individual learning needs of students. From the perspective of
adult learning, it is particularly important to promote students' awareness of their own knowledge,
learning habits, and goals, as often the lack of self-diagnosis and realistic goals is the cause of
dropout [5]. Life-long learning and changing labour market intentions result in different learning
goals, urging continuous renewal amidst increasing labour market skill demands and social,
community expectations, as traditional educational forms seem unable to satisfy these needs [7].
186 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic [8] also pose serious challenges. Online education
caused technological problems for many students and methodological difficulties for almost
everyone. In the virtual space, instructors lost a significant part of their pedagogical toolkit, trying
to capture and retain students' attention, engage, and activate them while exerting much less
control. The current generation of university students likes to multitask, making it difficult for them
patiently and attentively sitting through traditional lectures. They have a strong desire for
reinforcement and rewards, which also became cumbersome in a virtual space [9]. The new
online environment was less retentive than the personal institutional setting, thus only focused,
determined students thrived easily. Seeing this, institutions began to reconsider their expectations
to find some balance in this previously unknown situation, and national education policy
regulations also changed. All this did not favour learning efficiency. Another significant
consequence of the pandemic was the lack of community, school environment, and the social
network that develops there, which likely weakened many students' motivation to learn and their
commitment to learning [10].
This leads to tension in terms of goals: simultaneously wanting to develop both the education that
develops students and their learning and to produce easily measurable outcomes [11]. Today,
while a key educational policy goal is to reduce student dropout, enhance international student
mobility, and improve the proportion of higher education graduates [4], as well as to introduce
measures aimed at improving quality and increasing the efficiency of programs (supporting life-
long learning, competence-based education focused on learning outcomes, efforts towards
quality improvement, and measures aimed at increasing the efficiency of programs [12]), it is
fundamental to assist students in confidently navigating a complex, changing, and uncertain
world, preparing them for workplace challenges unknown today, use of yet-to-exist technologies,
and unpredictable future societal situations [13].
The goal of teaching appears simple: to enable students to learn [14]. Teaching and learning are
inseparable concepts, interpreted in various ways depending on the specific context. Nilson [15]
transcends different interpretations but emphasizes the importance of students, positioning them
at the centre of educational thought: "we must think of our work primarily not as teaching art,
biology, mathematics, etc., but as teaching students" [15]. The aim of education is to assist the
student's progress, actively involve them in their own learning processes, and elicit their best
learning performance [16]. Thus, education can no longer be viewed merely as a collection of
methods and techniques, but as an activity where we select, organize, and transform our
discipline so that students can engage and deeply understand. Effective education leads to
effective, successful, meaningful, and deep student learning, causing positive changes in
students cognitively (specific and general skills) and affectively (attitude, interest in the subject,
and social skills) [16].
Although the need for change is recognized, it is slow to occur in terms of goals, curriculum,
teaching methods, and assessments alike. The international literature on effective higher
education that supports effective learning is abundant, with thematic journals and books available
[15], [16], [17], [18] that help navigate this area. Their consistent findings indicate that instructors'
task is no longer primarily the classical sense of knowledge transfer but supporting the entire
learning process: setting learning outcomes as goals, organizing and facilitating learning
processes that fit these goals, and transforming the assessment system in a way that it includes
formative, developmental purpose assessments alongside summative final evaluations, providing
feedback within the learning process, and feedback to students about their current knowledge
level and its possible further development.
Based on the theoretical introduction, our conclusion is that an adaptive approach, continuous
renewal considering different needs and goals, is vital in the world of higher education [19], and
innovative thinking is indispensable [20]. Following the theoretical foundation, we present and
examine a practical implementation introduced and continuously monitored at the Department of
Accounting of the Faculty of Finance and Accountancy at the Budapest Business School, a
leading Central European institution of applied sciences, in the spirit of quality improvement. The
change aimed at increasing student effectiveness (course completion) and providing a system of
regular formative assessments to support learning.

2. Methods

The aim of the empirical research is to examine the effectiveness and student acceptance of the
evaluation system introduced at the university's Department of Accounting among distance
learning students. Since 2020, the distance learning program has been conducted in an absentee
format, with the processing of materials through e-learning, video materials, and online video
conference consultations. However, with the lifting of the pandemic restrictions, assessments
returned to an in-person format, conducted under supervision at the institution, ensuring a
controlled, fair assessment that truly reflects students' knowledge. Until the end of the spring
187 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

semester of 2023, grades were determined based on exams written at the end of the semester,
with the passing threshold uniformly set at 60%.
The essence of the evaluation system introduced in the fall of 2023 is that 30% of the scores
determining the outcome can be earned during the academic term through regular test
completions, and 70% during the exams at the end of the term. The mid-term tests (30%) are
accessible online through a learning management system, with scheduling varying by subject:
conducted in three or more rounds, tailored to the content of the material, supported by an
unlimited number of attempts at similar practice tests for each "live" point-gathering test. The
exams (70%) remain in-person, covering the material previously assessed in tests as well as
additional topics built upon it. The pedagogical foundation of the introduced evaluation system is
the logical, comprehensive, and strictly professional content of accounting subjects.
The evaluation of the system was dual-purpose (examining effectiveness and student
satisfaction), relying on two data sources and using a mixed methodology. The data sources
included official university system performance data and comparisons with previous year's results
to examine improvements due to the new evaluation system. Another tool was a short
questionnaire, which gathered information on student satisfaction. The questionnaire required
both quantitative and qualitative data analysis through its closed and open-ended questions,
which were as follows after selecting the subject from a dropdown menu:
• How do you evaluate the midterm assessment (30%)? (Options on a five-point Likert
scale)
• What did you like about the midterm assessment? (Open-ended response)
• What did you dislike about the midterm assessment? (Open-ended response)
Data collection occurred among students studying accounting in the distance learning program
during the fall semester of 2023/2024. The exact total number of students is not specified as some
study multiple subjects concurrently, deviating from the standard curriculum. Thus, the total
number of courses in the first semester of 2023/2024 was 826 (which exceeds the actual number
of students). Out of these, 239 students completed the questionnaire during the exam period
(January 2024), resulting in a 29% response rate. The sample is not representative in terms of
subject distribution, but since the responses did not significantly differ by subject, their importance
lies more in the examination of student performance.
Based on the data analysis, the following results will be presented:
• Effectiveness: improvement in course completion from the first (fall) semester of
2022/2023 to the first (fall) semester of 2023/2024 by subject
• Students' opinions on the new evaluation system (Likert scale responses)
• The reasons (supported by quotes) why the new evaluation system was favoured by
students.
• Reasons (supported by quotes) why the new evaluation system was not favoured by
students.

3. Results

3.1 Subjects’ Results for 2023 and 2022 (Autum Semester)

Table 1. Completion rates for accounting subjects in the fall semester of 2023
Number of
Subjects students Passed Failed Did not attend
Basics of accounting FA 136 78% 22% 20%
Basics of accounting BA 129 56% 44% 36%
Basics of accounting HR 59 54% 46% 39%
Financial accounting 2 FA 252 80% 20% 10%
Management accounting BA 182 66% 34% 27%
Special issues in accounting
FA 68 78% 22% 13%

The results for the fall of 2023 are first presented by subject grouping (Table 1). Students in the
finance and accounting (FA), management and business administration (BA), and human
resources undergraduate programs (HR) study the basics of accounting with nearly identical
content, as it serves as a foundational subject in the first semester of the curriculum for all three
undergraduate programs. 78% of students in the finance and accounting program successfully
completed the subject, with 20% of the non-completing students not appearing for any exam. It is
assumed that students in the finance and accounting program have a higher interest in
accounting-related subjects than those in the other two programs. This assumption is supported
188 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

by the completion rates, which are significantly lower in the other two programs (BA 56%, HR
54%), and a major challenge from the teaching side is the significantly higher rate of absence
from exams (BA 36%, HR 39%). The data indicates that most students who do attend the exams
meet the requirements, so the focus should be on reaching and motivating those students who
enrolled in the program, took up the subject, but did not engage sufficiently with the material to
even attempt the exam for subject completion.
Our Financial Accounting 2 subject is taught in the finance and accounting undergraduate
program during the 3rd semester and includes significant accounting expertise. Further
accounting-related subjects are built on Financial Accounting 2 according to the curriculum. In the
fall of 2023, differentiated assessment was introduced for this subject: students who successfully
wrote the final written paper (above 60%) could choose to be satisfied with a passing grade (2)
or to take an oral exam in hopes of a better grade. (In the fall of 2022 and before, the oral exam
was mandatory, and students with a successful written paper went to an oral exam, and their
performance there was graded.) In the new system, 80% of students successfully earned the
credit, with only 20% not succeeding, of which 10% failed and 10% did not appear for the exam.
For Managerial Accounting, it is particularly important that the subject is taught in the management
and business administration undergraduate program in the 3rd semester, and there are no
subsequent subjects built on it; this is the last accounting-related subject in the program. Two-
thirds of the students successfully completed the subject, with a non-completion rate of 34%,
within which the proportion of students who did not take the exam at all is considered high (27%).
This may be explained by the orientation of students in the program (less interested in accounting)
and the fact that there is no subsequent subject.
The statistics of accounting characteristics are specifically presented because it concerns a 5th-
semester accounting specialization subject found at the end of the undergraduate curriculum. Its
completion rate is 78%, with the proportion of students not appearing for the exam at all being
13%, a low rate which may also be explained by the fact that students at the end of their program
cannot afford to delay subjects to a later semester, suggesting a certain level of awareness on
their part.

Table 2. Completion rates for accounting subjects in the fall semesters of 2022 and 2023
Number Number
of of Did not Did not
students students Passed Passed attend attend
Subjects 2022 2023 2022 2023 2022 2023
Basics of accounting FA 78 136 53% 78% 41% 20%
Basics of accounting BA 106 129 52% 56% 37% 36%
Basics of accounting HR 51 59 59% 54% 31% 39%
Financial accounting 2
FA 226 252 38% 80% 37% 10%
Management accounting
BA 150 182 47% 66% 30% 27%
Special issues in
accounting FA 26 68 69% 78% 15% 13%

Table 2 presents the fall 2023 results alongside the fall 2022 results for comparison purposes. It
is evident that the midterm point-gathering activities introduced in fall 2023 had a positive effect
on the outcomes, with significant improvements observed in completion rates for all subjects
within the finance and accounting (FA) program. For the Basics of Accounting subject, the
completion rate in the finance and accounting program increased from 53% to 78%. The results
for the Basics of Accounting subject in the other two programs did not improve significantly or at
all. The most notable change was seen in Financial Accounting 2, where completion improved
from 38% to 80%, a result explained not only by the encouragement of midterm work but also by
the opportunity for differentiated assessment. Managerial Accounting also saw favourable
improvements in completion, from 47% to 66%, which is particularly significant given the
challenge of motivating 3rd-semester management and business administration students to study
accounting, especially when there is no subsequent subject, and they have enough semesters
left in their program that delays do not pose a problem. Fewer improvement is noted for
Accounting Characteristics, but it's important to consider that the completion rate started from a
higher level.
Overall, the improvements in the fall 2023 results raise the question of how much the proportion
of students who did not take the exam at all can be reduced and whether there is an acceptable
and natural rate for distance learning programs. We are aware that in-person assessments are
one of the reasons students do not attend exams but considering the need to maintain
189 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

professional standards and the seriousness of accounting content, we continue to prefer in-
person examinations.

3.2 Student Satisfaction with the Introduced Assessment System

The midterm point collection (30%) and practice tasks clearly won the students' favour, as
presented in the following figure. The motivation and positive reception of the midterm work were
clearly evident in the 1st and 3rd semesters. In the case of Accounting Characteristics (5th
semester), the students' opinions were not as clear and unanimous, which can be explained by
the fact that the students were not accustomed to this system, nor to the complex, multifaceted
form of assessment, thus they reacted in various ways to the innovations introduced towards the
end of the program.

100%
89%
90% 81%
80% 73%
70% 63%
60%
50%
40%
30% 23% 25%
20% 18%
10% 13%
10% 5%
1% 2%
0%
Basics of Financial Management Special issues in
accounting accounting 2 accounting accounting

Particularly liked Rather liked Rather disliked

Fig.1. Review of midterm scoring opportunity (30%-70%)

In response to the question of why they liked the new form of assessment, students mentioned
several aspects. According to the opinions of those who completed the questionnaire, the
scheduling of the midterm point collections complemented and made the available study material,
received in e-learning format, followable. It's important to remember that as distance learning
students, finding time to study amidst the daily pressures of work and personal life is a significant
challenge. Having the opportunity to collect points for smaller sections of the material better aided
understanding and practice and was more effective than having a single larger point collection
opportunity at the end of the semester or just before the exam. Many also highlighted that the
harmony between the e-learning material to be processed and the tests to be completed at the
time served as a motivating force for them.
The opportunity for midterm point collection occurred during the academic term with an evenly
distributed schedule. Students could earn the 30% by completing 3-6 tests throughout the
semester, for which they could practice for 2 weeks in advance (in the form of practice tests and
tasks). A one-week window was provided for completing the live tests and small tasks. The
practice and live tests followed each other week by week, building on each other's content. The
scheduling of the point collections encouraged continuous learning and the constructed test
system served as a model for the end-of-semester exam as well.
Finally, from a higher education pedagogical perspective, it was highlighted as a significant result
that many mentioned the midterm point collection also served as immediate feedback regarding
their current knowledge. That is, it was possible to provide regular formative, developmental
assessments alongside summative final assessments for the students, serving as a motivation
for them. The key topics are supported by quotes selected from student responses according to
Figure 3.
190 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 3. Excerpts from student opinions

The schedule made the material easy to follow "I was able to master the material much better than
if only videos and uploaded tasks had been
provided." "...they set the pace in which it was
worthwhile to learn the material. I really liked that
there were practice tasks included with the
material, and you could check the solutions as
well, so you could figure out what you did wrong."
"The breakdown of the material for the given
assessments was of an appropriate amount, it was
possible to prepare, and the assessment was
similar to the practiced tasks." "It was fully based
on the material to be learned, thereby making the
knowledge integration more effective."

Provided an opportunity to practice "It was useful that I could test my preparedness in
parts, and it was especially useful that we were
given the opportunity to practice." "The fact that
there were smaller assessments covering 2-3
topics made preparation and learning easier for
me." "The midterm assessments and the practice
tasks made preparation much easier. The timing
between the practice tasks and the point-gathering
tasks was just right for comfortably scheduling my
time alongside work."

Was in harmony with the video material "I liked it because it made me continuously prepare
throughout the semester, progress with the
material, and it was motivating that I could earn
points. Also, the fact that it was 100% related to
what was in the video material." "It helped me to
study continuously for the subject and exactly what
we had practiced before was assessed." "The
tasks to be solved were in harmony with the
provided study material."

Facilitated continuous progress "Studying alongside work is not easy, it motivated

me to make continuous progress with the
material." "It spurs continuous preparation and
reduces end-of-semester exam stress by allowing
part of the points to be earned in advance." "I
particularly liked that it encouraged the student to
engage with the topic, making it much easier to
prepare for the exam."

Served as an example for the exam "It thoroughly prepared me for the exam." "It
helped in practicing and summarizing the given
topic, highlighting what to pay attention to and
what and how it needs to be known. It also aids in
preparing for the exam."
Provided feedback on the current
level of knowledge "It's a good opportunity for earning points during
the semester and helps to ascertain our current
knowledge." "It's good to test knowledge in real-
time, part by part. It helped motivate regular
preparation, thus the learned material was better
understood."

"The most important aspect was receiving

continuous feedback and motivation, which is
crucial for successful preparation for the subject."
"It facilitated preparation in detail, and with many
opportunities for practice, I received continuous
feedback about my knowledge."

Naturally, not every student likes the new system, which can be attributed to individual learning
habits: while some would prefer even more midterm tasks and practice opportunities, happily
embracing the need to "continuously engage with the material," and wish that "this would be the
case for every subject!", others were dissatisfied precisely because they feel this system "takes
away the opportunity for students to study flexibly, at their own pace and schedule." Based on our
191 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

experience since the transition of in-person education to an online system, a significant portion of
students falls behind due to the lack of regular study during the semester, because they face a
large amount of material to learn just a few weeks before the exams. Thus, assuming a narrow
segment of highly goal-oriented students who can progress independently and who might find the
restrictions problematic, we see it beneficial to support the majority with a mandatory scheduling
of the material.

4. Conclusions, Implications, Limitations

Due to student diversity, every assessment system has well-developed parts loved by the majority
of students and areas that need improvement. There could always be more practice assignments,
more sample papers, and more detailed solutions available, but we must also keep in mind that
it's not practical to provide too much material for students, as they might get lost in it. The question
of the quantity of sample exams is a perpetual dilemma because if we publish too many, students
might focus only on those instead of the basic/e-learning material. In distance learning, finding a
balance between video materials, live consultations, uploaded practice assignments, and sample
papers is a big challenge, so students feel the subject is achievable, and the material is sufficient
but manageable. When designing methods and setting up the educational toolkit, we must aim to
ensure students complete the planned learning process, thus achieving successful subject
completion, knowledge transfer, and progress. Based on the results of the study, we currently
see that incorporating midterm assessments in distance learning is feasible, as it supports the
majority of students in their learning. Moreover, the midterm points act as a motivating force for
the students in terms of exams, because if they have collected points, they would not want to lose
them, thus they complete the assessment process by writing the in-person exam. We trust that if
students are socialized into this assessment system from the 1st semester, the rate of successful
subject completions will increase, and the rate of students not taking the exam at all will decrease.
The conclusion drawn from the results is that the new evaluation system is useful according to
both outcomes and student evaluations, and its further application is recommended not only at
the department that introduced it but also across all three faculties of the institution, and even
more broadly. Since the evaluation system is not subject-specific, it could be useful at other
universities where students need to master a large amount of strictly professional material
organized into a logical, sequential system. Possible further refinements could involve changing
the percentage ratios so that the point collection does not lose its inspiring effect, but students
who only wake up during the exam period also have an easier opportunity to complete the subject.
Minor adjustments to the scheduling of tests based on experiences and certainly considering
reopening the tests after the deadline for exam practice purposes are worth contemplating. The
limitation of the research is that it examined experiences from a single semester within a specific
field of study at one institution, yet its positive results warrant further educational development
changes and related research.

REFERENCES

[1] Kezar, A. J. (2014). How colleges change: Understanding, leading, and enacting change.
Routledge.
[2] Meyer, J. W., & Schofer, E. (2006). The University in Europe and the World: Twentieth
Century Expansion. In G. Krücken, A. Kosmützky, & M. Torka (Szerk.), Towards a
Multiversity? (o. 45–62). transcript Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783839404683-003
[3] Hrubos I., & Horváth Á. (2012). Kísérlet a magyarországi felsőoktatási intézmények fő
típusainak azonosítására. In Elefántcsonttoronyból világítótorony—A felsőoktatási
intézmények misszióinak bővülése, átalakulása (o. 25–71). Aula kiadó.
[4] Vida C. (Szerk.). (2021). Elemzés Felsőoktatás a változások tükrében – verseny,
minőség, teljesítmén. Állami Számvevőszék EL-2925-006/2021.
[5] Kraiciné Szokoly M., & Csoma G. (2012). Bevezetés az andragógia elméletébe és
módszertanába. ELTE.
[6] Csehné Papp, I., Varga, E., & Hajós, L. (2017). The appearance of a new generation on
the labour market. Annals of Faculty Engineering Hunedoara - International Journal of
Engineering, 15(1), 123–130.
[7] Csehné Papp, I., & Varga, E. (2018). The novelty and challenges of labour shortage. Acta
Carolus Robertus, 8(2), 149–160.
[8] Neuwirth, L. S., Jović, S., & Mukherji, B. R. (2021). Reimagining higher education during
and post-COVID-19: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of Adult and Continuing
Education, 27(2), 141–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477971420947738
[9] Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants part 2: Do they really think
differently? On the horizon, 9(6), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1108/10748120110424843
192 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[10] Elliott, G. (2021). Generation COVID and the Impact of Lockdown. Research Matters, 31,
68-83. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1294096.pdf
[11] Hunt, L., & Chalmers, D. (Szerk.). (2021). University teaching in focus: A learning-centred
approach. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
[12] Derényi A. (2018). A tanítás és tanulás minőségének javítása az elmúlt 10 évben. In A
magyar felsőoktatás egy évtizede. 2008 – 2017 (Köt. 2, o. 130–146).
[13] OECD. (2022). Building the future of education. OECD. https://web-
archive.oecd.org/2022-11-30/618066-future-of-education-brochure.pdf
[14] Ramsden, P. (2003). Learning to Teach in Higher Education. Taylor and Francis.
[15] Nilson, L. B. (2010). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college
instructors. Jossey-Bass.
[16] Hativa, N. (2000). Teaching for Effective Learning in Higher Education. Springer
Netherlands.
[17] Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2007). Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckingham:
SRHE and Open University Press.
[18] Fink, L. D. (2013). Creating significant learning experiences: An integrated approach to
designing college courses (Revised and updated edition). Jossey-Bass.
[19] OECD. (2019). OEVD Future of Education and Skills 2030: OECD Learning Compass
2030.
[20] Ramsey, P. L., & Khan, S. (2021). Dilemmas, emotion and innovation in tertiary
education. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 58(3), 250–260.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2020.1733046
193 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The Potential of Virtual Reality for Teaching and Learning

Purposes
Anna Bekeeva1, Elena Notina2, Irina Bykova3

RUDN University (People’s Friendship University of Russia), Russia1,2,3

Abstract

Many spheres of activity are undergoing changes due to the active development of information
computer technologies, which contributes to the modification of various fields of knowledge,
education and science. The purpose of this study is to explore the potential of virtual reality
technologies in learning as an important part of the modern educational process. VR in education
is aimed not at replacing the teacher, laboratory and practical classes, but at motivating the
student and teaching him in a new way. The research proves that one of the main advantages of
using VR in teaching foreign languages is the creation of an authentic language environment.
Students can immerse themselves in virtual scenarios where they can interact with native
speakers, hear real conversations, and participate in simulated communication situations. It helps
students develop communication skills in a foreign language in a realistic environment. VR in
education can enhance collaborative learning. Learners can interact with their peers and the
virtual environment, making the experience more active. It can additionally offer students a
personalized learning experience by allowing them to explore the virtual world at their own pace
and in the way. Students can improve their comprehension of the subject matter by using VR
technology to deliver personalized feedback. VR has a notable benefit in education as it offers a
cost-effective solution. Instead of arranging physical models or field trips, educational institutions
can generate a virtual environment that can be accessed by many students simultaneously. The
analysis revealed that the use of VR in education has the capability to revolutionize the learning
experience for students through immersive and captivating engagement that can enhance their
comprehension of the subject. Providing an interactive VR experience has the potential to connect
theoretical concepts with practical applications, thereby equipping students with the confidence
to face future challenges.

Keywords: digitalization, education, virtual reality, digital technologies, virtual environment

1. Introduction

Many spheres of activity are undergoing changes due to the active development of computer
technologies, which contributes to the modification of various fields of knowledge, education and
science. In modern conditions, mobility is important for a person, the ability to adapt quickly and
constantly improve their knowledge in a particular field. Higher education, like other areas of the
social sphere, is undergoing a process of digital transformation. In addition to the pandemic and
the forced transition to distance learning, the state is actively pushing universities towards
digitalization. The state plays an important role in the introduction of digital technologies into
society. The state policy on digitalization of the economy is directly related to the transformation
of the education system, including vocational education, as the economy is tasked with providing
the necessary workforce with well-developed digital skills. The purpose of this study is to explore
the potential of virtual reality technologies in learning as an important part of the modern
educational process.
From the point of view of digitalization, the priority direction of educational policy is to improve the
quality of education at all levels. The competitive advantage of educational institutions is
determined by their willingness to introduce new generation technologies into the educational
process. The creation of a digital educational environment in vocational education institutions
contributes to improving the quality of student training, effectively solving various tasks of the
educational process.
Digitalization implies not only the introduction of computers and the Internet into the learning
process. These include virtual and augmented reality technologies that can be successfully used
in fields such as surgery, astronomy, chemistry, engineering, physics, anatomy, history, art,
foreign languages. Innovative technologies of augmented (AR) and virtual (VR) reality open up
new horizons for the educational sphere. AR and VR solutions for education help schools,
colleges and universities rethink their approaches to learning and make the learning process more
194 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

interactive, practical and exciting. AR and VR can revolutionize educational practice by making
complex concepts more understandable and accessible to students of all ages. Due to virtual
reality, students can interact with three-dimensional models, study and recreate historical events
and scenarios, as well as make virtual trips to anywhere in the world or even into space.
Digital technologies will not be able to completely replace existing achievements in the field of
didactics. It should also be remembered about the various types of educational activities, the
variability of competencies formed by students, different types of tasks and actions performed in
the learning process. If the purpose of digital classes is not to recreate practices, but to find
effective ways to provide students with the necessary information and opportunities to apply this
knowledge, then digital technologies can become a significant additional educational resource.

2. Digital Learning

Digital learning has become a huge advantage in the learning system, including a foreign
language, due to certain properties, which include: the ability to study anywhere in the world; the
possibility of asynchronous learning; the use of various methods, technologies and methods of
teaching, learning within a variety of disciplines, both applied and theoretical.
The availability of computer tools is becoming one of the main conditions for digital learning. Such
tools most often include electronic textbooks, computer testing, multimedia tools, asynchronous
e-mail, webinars and other ways of exchanging information in real time, mediated by computer
networks and the Internet. The level of modern digital developments makes it possible to use this
model in the practice of teaching foreign languages with maximum efficiency. Digital learning
allows to get wide access to educational resources, which will increase the level of educational
potential of society and the quality of education in general. The use of an interactive language
course using a mixed learning model expands the creative capabilities of the teacher and allows
to educate a successful independent, self-governing student.
Electronic platforms provide the opportunity to hold conferences and webinars, but in order to
bring them closer to direct communication, ideal technical conditions and special teacher training
are needed. Learning a foreign language in a virtual classroom requires the constant attention of
students. It is necessary to change the types of speech activity in the classroom. The traditional
method of teaching foreign languages has proven its effectiveness. The main provisions of the
methodology remain relevant at the present time. It is necessary to take into account the fact that
it is impossible to directly transfer those forms and methods of teaching a classroom-based
system to digital learning without taking into account its features. The educational text should be
different in form with the addition of interactivity (hyperlinks, tooltips, video sequence, glossary).
Working with an electronic text provides more independent search work for students, arouses
interest and increases motivation to learn the language. Clicking on hyperlinks inside the text
increases the amount of information, promotes a quick change of activities and reduces the
overall fatigue of students in the classroom. Developing and creating context are key elements of
learning a language with the support of technology. Language learners need to conduct training
in the target language environment and apply it in practice. Supported by high-performance
computers, it can generate a simulated three-dimensional environment and provide students with
multi-channel sensory stimuli such as visual perception, auditory perception and touch, as well
as implement natural modes of interaction such as voice, tactile, gesture and multi-sensory
channel interaction.

3. Virtual Reality

Due to the rapid development and expansion of the field of application of the latest computer
technologies in various fields, VR technologies are of particular interest for consideration. The
article provides an overview of modern digital technologies in education, including the use of
virtual, augmented and mixed reality at RUDN university (Peoples’ Friendship University of
Russia).
VR technology and device appeared in the early 1960s, and many studies on VR and its
applications have already been carried out in recent years. Virtual Reality (VR) refers to a three-
dimensional (3D) environment generated by computer technology, which can provide a context
similar to visual simulation and other senses [2].
Virtual reality is an environment created through the use of special hardware and software. It
allows participants not only to immerse themselves as deeply as possible in the subject being
studied, but also to interact with it. This is how it differs from AR – augmented reality.
Among the different technologies available, Virtual Reality (VR) has been proven to be valuable
for educational purposes. VR can be described as a technology that provides a sensation of being
immersed in a digital environment. The main objective of VR is to make the user feel close to
another reality, using the human’s five senses. This technology integrates a diversity of devices
195 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

that maybe used to help create a realistic and multisensory experience (e.g., Head-Mounted
Displays (HMD), motion tracking [6].
With the help of systems and various virtual reality tools, the impact occurs on the main sensory
organs: tactile, auditory, visual, thereby creating a high-quality simulation of the surrounding
world, where the user, being a part of it, can control its objects and objects, be in the virtual world
not as an observer, but as an active participant.
The created effects affect the user's consciousness and allow them to experience sensations
close to real ones. This simulated reality with the illusion of being present in an artificial world has
several types of VR. Non-immersive virtual reality is the least immersive implementation of virtual
reality technology. This is usually a computer with a high-resolution screen, a powerful processor,
and manipulative devices such as a mouse and keyboard. Flight simulators are a typical example
of non-immersive virtual reality. Semi-immersive virtual reality is a type of virtual reality that
provides a more immersive experience than non-immersive virtual reality, but still does not fully
immerse the user in a virtual environment. This often includes a large projection screen or multiple
television monitors and motion tracking devices. Full immersion in virtual reality is the most
exciting form of virtual reality. This is usually a virtual reality headset that provides a 360-degree
field of view, as well as portable controllers or gloves with sensors that track the user's movements
and allow him to interact with the virtual environment.
Virtual reality technology for desktop computers is most widely used in language learning, which
is called immersive virtual reality. Many studies have proven the effectiveness of desktop virtual
reality in language learning, showing that it can increase learning motivation and academic
performance, develop cognitive abilities and facilitate the achievement of complex goals of
learning a foreign language in collaboration. One of the main advantages of using VR in teaching
foreign languages is the creation of an authentic language environment. Students can immerse
themselves in virtual scenarios where they can interact with native speakers, hear real
conversations, and participate in simulated communication situations. It helps students develop
communication skills in a foreign language in a realistic environment. For example, Il Divino:
Michelangelo’s Sistine Ceiling in VR is a Virtual Reality experience powered by Unreal Engine
where you can walk through and learn about the Sistine Chapel Ceiling. Attendees can step onto
Michelangelo’s own scaffold to learn about how he painted the ceiling or enter a Vatican
conservator’s mobile aerial platform to see the ceiling up close and learn about the controversial
cleaning. In all, there are over 100 clickable elements connected to an hour of commentary talking
about Michelangelo’s monumental work.
When learning a language, immersive virtual reality has more advantages than desktop virtual
reality, which can provide more channels of sensory stimulation and create a more realistic and
ideal learning environment. A virtual reality headset can also provide multi-channel interaction,
which can make the presentation of non-verbal information more expressive. The use of
immersive virtual reality technology in language learning has only just begun, and there are still
many opportunities for further research. VR in education is aimed not at replacing the teacher,
laboratory and practical classes, but at motivating the student and teaching him information in a
new way. The VR simulator “A journey to ancient China” was developed by the RUDN VR
laboratory. The simulator scenario is a trip to ancient China, during which the student is invited to
visit the Gogong Palace Complex and complete a number of tasks, including tasks for assembling
Chinese characters, visiting the Chinese theater, the city of Shanghai (in the form of a 360-degree
panorama) and answering questions about Chinese set expressions.
High internal motivation has a direct connection with the improvement of the student's educational
results, his self-confidence and initiative. VR allows to maintain the internal motivation of students
when performing complex tasks. Learning in virtual reality increases student engagement,
thereby increasing their concentration on completing the task. As a result, students make more
efforts to direct cognitive resources to solving complex problems.

4. Conclusion

One of the most important advantages of virtual reality is the ability to manipulate objects. Being
in a virtual environment, the student enters the stage of a specific active experience, where he
gets an empirical experience of interacting with an object, and then can move on to the stage of
reflexive observation, retreating from the task and reviewing what he has experienced. Object
manipulation is also embedded in the concept of operational learning, which is specific to VR
technology, as it assumes that VR technology provides a convenient system and feedback for
manipulation. Due to VR, students can study the properties and shapes of objects in the virtual
environment by manipulating them.
VR in education can enhance collaborative learning. Learners can interact with their peers and
the virtual environment, making the experience more active. It can additionally offer students a
personalized learning experience by allowing them to explore the virtual world at their own pace
196 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

and in the way they prefer. Students can improve their comprehension of the subject matter by
using VR technology to deliver personalized feedback. VR has a notable benefit in education as
it offers a cost-effective solution. Instead of arranging physical models or field trips, educational
institutions can generate a virtual environment that can be accessed by multiple students
simultaneously. Moreover, technology can create a secure and regulated learning environment
for students, particularly when working with complex machinery or hazardous materials [4].
The use of VR in education has the capability to revolutionize the learning experience for students
through immersive and captivating encounters that can enhance their comprehension of the
subject. Providing an interactive VR experience has the potential to connect theoretical concepts
with practical applications, thereby equipping students with the confidence to face future
challenges. With the continuous advancement of technology, it is highly probable that VR will
become an essential component of the education system, offering students a potent means to
amplify their learning [5].
There are numerous proven advantages of using VR technology in education. First of all, VR
provides outstanding visualization, which cannot be obtained in traditional classroom. It reflects
the world that young generations feel comfortable in. It is inclusive, allowing everybody,
everywhere, regardless of status, financial situation and disability to participate in education
process. It gives virtually unlimited access to information, books or articles. Modern technology
used in a classroom increases engagement, stimulates cooperation and involvement. It is used
for highly efficient blended learning, encouraging self-study and individual pursuit of knowledge
[3]. The immersive nature of VR allowed students to explore scientific phenomena, conduct virtual
experiments, and gain a deeper understanding of complex concepts. Correspondingly, a central
benefit of VR – the teachers’ role shifts from a knowledge provider to a knowledge facilitator,
helping students to independently learn using VR by empowering students to engage control over
their learning process [1].
It is worth noting that learning in virtual reality proceeds inseparably from the most cognizable
environment, which is difficult to reproduce in a classroom setting. Accordingly, with the help of
VR, a teacher is able to solve another urgent problem of education – the development of
knowledge and skills without taking them out of context. Contextual learning involves fully
immersing the student in an authentic, meaningful virtual learning environment. The analysis
demonstrates that the characteristics of virtual reality increase its potential as an educational
technology. The virtual environment allows to form skills based on context, control the level of
cognitive load, as well as form complex mental functions of a learner. It can serve as a medium
for actively gaining empirical experience and a tool for developing problem-solving skills and
behavioral characteristics. Moreover, learning in virtual reality leads to increased motivation and
involvement of students in the learning process.

REFERENCES

[1] Carpenter, R; McWhorter R.; Stone, K; Coyne, K. “Adopting Virtual Reality for Education:
Exploring Teachers’ Perspectives on Readiness, Opportunities, and Challenges”,
International Journal on Integrating Technology in Education, 2023, 12(3), p. 27-36
[2] Chen, B.; Wang, Y.; Wang, L. “The Effects of Virtual Reality-Assisted Language Learning: A
Meta-Analysis”, Sustainability, 2022, 14, 3147. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14063147
[3] Kamińska, D.; Sapiński, T.; Wiak, S.; Tikk, T.; Haamer, R.E.; Avots, E.; Helmi, A.; Ozcinar,
C.; Anbarjafari, G. “Virtual Reality and Its Applications in Education: Survey”, Information,
2019, 10, 318. https://doi.org/10.3390/info10100318
[4] Marougkas A.; Troussas C.; Krouska A.; Sgouropoulou C. “Virtual Reality in Education: A
Review of Learning Theories, Approaches and Methodologies for the Last Decade”,
Electronics, 2023; 12(13), p. 2832. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12132832
[5] Martini Kristo, R. “Virtual Reality in a Foreign Language Teaching”, International Journal of
Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro), Volume 4, Issue 7, 2017, pp.73-78.
[6] Peixoto, B.; Pinto, R.; Melo, M.; Cabral, L.; Bessa, M. “Immersive Virtual Reality for Foreign
Language Education: A PRISMA Systematic Review”, IEEE Access, vol. 9, 2021, pp. 48952-
48962
197 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Engineering Education
198 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Exploring Changes in Students’ Understanding the Basic

Concepts of Data Analysis in Introductory Laboratory Course
“Search for Physics Laws”

Oksana Lozovenko1, Dominik Giel2

Offenburg University of Applied Sciences, Germany1,2

National University “Zaporizhzhia Polytechnic”, Ukraine1

Abstract

Laboratory courses have always been one of the most important components of university
science courses. It is expected that first-year engineering students will acquire basic skills to deal
with experimental data after such course. This ability to generate knowledge using experiments
they could and should use later in subsequent courses. However, a number of pedagogical
researches revealed that most students do not master the necessary skills. As one possible way
to solve this problem, the course “Search for Physics Laws” was developed. This course is based
on the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions and can be put into educational practice
by using different laboratory equipment. Evaluation of the course showed that the organized in
the new way laboratory sessions is more effective than traditional laboratory sessions. In this
work, we consider in detail how students’ understanding of the basic concepts of error analysis
changes over the course.

Keywords: systematic construction of mental actions, laboratory course, analysis of experimental data,
physics law

1. Introduction

The course “Search for Physics Laws” [1-2] started in 2017 as an introductory laboratory physics
course for first-year engineering students at the National University “Zaporizhzhia Polytechnic”.
Using the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions the set of 12 laboratory works was
sorted out, adapted, and put into practice in the order that allows to teach students the basics of
data analysis gradually, from the relatively simple procedures (as estimation uncertainties in
repeatable measurements) to more complicated (as using some ideas of data mining).
This course was developed as an attempt to solve one of well-known teaching problems: first-
year students have significant difficulties with analyzing experimental data [3-5]. The main
meaningful lines of this course are: 1) experiments were generally arranged from mechanics to
thermodynamics and electrodynamics, in the same order these topics are studied in the lecture
course; 2) we taught students the graphical method of data analysis that gives an intuitive
understanding of an experimental situation; 3) laboratory works were adopted in a way that allows
students to learn about different types of experimental uncertainties slowly, step by step; 4)
chosen experiments also allowed us to show students how to apply some general methods of
research such as dimensional analysis, extrapolation, interpolation, modelling, and testing a
hypothesis.
The first part of the course was evaluated and results [6] showed that the organized in the new
way laboratory sessions have been significantly more successful in improving students’ basic
skills of data analysis than traditional laboratory sessions.
In this paper, we present findings obtained over the next five years of teaching this course.
Unfortunately, over these years, it was impossible to deliver the course in the same way and
gather the information about students’ performance. In 2020 due to COVID-2019, we switched to
online mode and although we did not change the content of the course, the new organization of
the educational process could not but affect students’ results. In 2022 due to Russian aggression,
part of the findings became inaccessible. Nevertheless, even available data give us necessary
information about the effectiveness of the course and the peculiarities of the learning process.
199 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2. Stability of Students’ Results in the Course Over Time

In this section, we answer the questions about the stability of students’ results in the course over
time. To check whether the results obtained earlier [6] were not coincidental, the research was
continued for the next two years.

2.1 Participants and Data Collection

The study was conducted in 2018 and 2019 academic years with 136 first-year undergraduate
students followed 4 years BSc programmes in Engineering at the National University
“Zaporizhzhia Polytechnic”. For the evaluation of students’ results the same written questionnaire
(as in 2017) was used [6].

2.2 Analysis and Discussion

To evaluate the stability of students’ results in the new course we compared them with the results
obtained earlier, in 2017 for the control and experimental groups [6]. Results are presented in
Figure 1 and Table 1.

Figure 1. Effectiveness of the new course over three years

For each of the three experimental groups and the control group, chi-squared calculations result
in values 50.304 (Cramer’s effect size V = 0.42), 41.571 (V = 0.39), and 56.051 (V = 0.48)
respectively (df 2, p < 0.0001). By conventional criteria, such differences are considered to be
extremely statistically significant.

Table 1. Students’ results of questionnaire

Number of students who obtained scores
Groups
from 0 to 2 from 3 to 5 from 6 to 8
Control group - 2017
9 (15%) 38 (62%) 14 (23%)
(After a traditional course, N = 61)
Experimental group - 2017
9 (11%) 29 (34%) 47 (55%)
(After the new course, N = 85)
Experimental group - 2018
10 (14%) 24 (32%) 40 (54%)
(After the new course, N = 74)
Experimental group - 2019
6 (10%) 17 (27%) 39 (63%)
(After the new course, N = 62)

Chi-squared calculations for each of the three experimental groups between each other result in
the following values: 0.491 (df 2, p = 0.7825, V = 0.04) for the groups in 2017 and 2018; 1.592 (df
2, p = 0.4510, V = 0.07) for the groups in 2017 and 2019; 2.144 (df 2, p = 0.3423, V = 0.09) for
the groups in 2018 and 2019. Such differences are considered to be not statistically significant.
These findings show that obtained in 2017 results were not coincidental and the introductory
laboratory course “Search for Physics Laws” does provide students with basic skills of data
analysis more successfully than traditional laboratory sessions.
 200 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

3. Students’ Understanding Changes Over the Course

In this section, we present and discuss some results obtained in 2021-2023 during online
teaching. The content of the course was not changed but instead of working with real equipment
students had to use photos, videos, and simulations. At the beginning of each laboratory session,
an instructor (via Zoom) discussed briefly with students the relevant background information and
introduced the next idea of data analysis. Over the next two weeks after the session, students
had to download their reports and pass the short quiz (3-5 items) about the corresponding method
of data analysis. These quizzes and the final quiz at the end of the course allowed us to gather
information about the process of changing students understanding of the basic concepts of data
analysis.

3.1. Study Design

During four semesters 2021-2023, we gathered data on the next generation of first-year
undergraduate students followed 4 years BSc programmes in Engineering. In the present work,
we focus on the six most difficult for students’ quiz questions (see Table 2).

Table 2. Students’ performance on the most difficult quiz questions

Question Question description Post-lab quiz Final quiz (N = 76)
1.2 Rounding the experimental result: 36 of 72 (50%) 64 (84%)
height = 5.032±0.04329 (m).

2.3 Determining the fractional uncertainty of the 35 of 63 (56%) 62 (82%)

certain data point using the graph which
shows an error bar through each data point.

2.5 Determining the confidence interval in 30 of 63 (48%) 45 (59%)

repeatable measurements. Equation for the
absolute uncertainty was given.

5.1 Determining parameters b and x0 in the 16 of 46 (35%) 53 (70%)

equations y = kx + b and y = k (x +x0) using a
graph

5.2 Determining the confidence interval for x- 32 of 68 (47%) 44 (58%)

intercept using the experimental graph

5.3 Determining confidence interval for y- 27 of 68 (40%) 43 (57%)

intercept using the experimental graph

3.2 Results and Discussion

As can be seen from Table 2, on three questions we found a great difference between the post-
lab and final quizzes.
Even after explanations and short training in the first session, only half of the students were able
to apply the rules and complete the task correctly (question 1.2). In the final quiz students’
performance was much better, since students had to round obtained results in every laboratory
work.
In the second laboratory work, we discussed different types of uncertainties in physics
experiments, especially the instrumental uncertainties. Question 2.3 had a surprisingly low
number of correct responses. It would be logical to assume that students had difficulties with even
more basic knowledge. For example, they could have not known how to find the mean value and
the absolute uncertainty using the graph and error bars or how the fractional uncertainty is
connected to the mean value and the absolute uncertainty. However, students’ responses to other
questions showed that it was not the case. After discussing with students, we concluded that the
main difficulty was to combine these more basic pieces of knowledge. At the end of the course,
the situation became significantly better.
Question 5.1 asks for reading the parameters of a straight line from the graph. The most frequent
incorrect answer students gave was conditioned by confusion between the x-intercept and
parameter x0 in the equation y = k (x +x0).
For the other three questions from Table 2, we do not see a significant increase in the correct
responses in the final test.
201 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

It could be expected that after being given explanations and some experience in calculating
confidence intervals while preparing two reports majority of students would answer the question
2.5 correctly, especially considering that the equation for calculating the absolute uncertainty was
given in the text of the question as a hint. However, analysis of wrong answers showed that a lot
of students forgot about the square root.
The last two questions (questions 5.2 and 5.3) were aimed to check if students understood the
graphical method of finding confidence intervals for intercepts. The most frequent mistake
students made was not taking into account that the width of the confidence interval depends on
the total number of measurements although it was explained during the session.

4. Conclusions

In this study, we presented new results about the introductory laboratory course “Search for
Physics Laws”. While the laboratory works themselves are mostly typical for undergraduate
courses, the new organisational structure provides an opportunity to improve students’
understanding of the basic concepts of data analysis. We examined the effectiveness of the
course with 221 students over three years and found a significant positive effect on students’
knowledge.
Subsequent development of the course allowed us to identify the most challenging for first-year
students basic concepts and procedures. We believe that these findings reveal something
important about the nature of students’ understanding of these concepts and could be used by
other researchers during developing laboratory, data analysis, and statistics courses.
There are three major limitations in the presented work. First, only one control group, from 2017
was used. Second, students’ understanding changes were registered for the whole group, not
individually for each student. And third, only the first part of the course was evaluated.
In future studies, we would like to addressed this limitation and extend this work to the second,
more complicated part of the course.

The project on which this report is based was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and
Research of Germany (project ID: 57705968). The responsibility for the content of this publication
lies with the authors.

REFERENCES

[1] Lozovenko, O., Sokolov, Y., Minaiev, Y. “Search for Physics Laws” — a New Laboratory
Course for Engineering Students”, in: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds) Educating Engineers
for Future Industrial Revolutions. ICL 2020. Advances in Intelligent Systems and
Computing, vol. 1329. Springer, Cham, 2021.
[2] Sokolov, Y., Lozovenko, O. Poshuk fizychnykh zakonomirnostei: navchalnyi kompleks
[Search for Physics Laws: educational complex] Zaporizhzhia: Vydavnychyi dim
«Helvetyka», 2021. [in Ukrainian]
[3] Baumgartner, I. “A Set of Best Practices to Design Face-to-face Teaching Sessions for
Technology-centered University-level Computing Courses”, International Journal of
Engineering Pedagogy, vol 4, issue 4, 2014, pp. 59-66.
[4] Holmes, N.G. & Bonn, D.A. “Quantitative Comparisons to Promote Inquiry in the
Introductory Physics Lab”, Physics Teacher, 53 (6), 2015, pp. 352-355.
[5] Lippmann, R.F. “Students’ Understanding of Measurement and Uncertainty in the Physics
Laboratory: Social construction, underlying concepts, and quantitative analysis”, PhD
Thesis, University of Maryland, College Park, 2003.
[6] Lozovenko, O., Sokolov, Y., Minaiev, Y. “Evaluation of students' understanding the
uncertainties after a new course ‘Search for Physics Laws’”. International Journal of
Engineering Pedagogy, 11(3), 2021, pp. 116–130.
202 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Open Source Gamified Remote Labs in Photonics

Education
Johannes Kretzschmar1, Clara Henkel2, Christian Helgert3, Thomas Pertsch4

IAP, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany1,4

ASP, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany2,3

Abstract

Remote Labs are nowadays a widely used educational resource in curriculums of a wide range
of scientific fields. The growing technological advances and progressing digitalization of education
provides an ecosystem of possibilities to experiment with new means of communicating science.
In this paper, we will present an approach to combine remote laboratories with gamification and
storytelling all in one.
Although, the development and implementation are usually associated with costs and resources,
we provide a framework solely based on open technology. From 3d-printing and off-the-shelf
components on the hardware side to free software libraries and technology for implementing web
applications and endpoints for augmented (AR) and virtual reality (VR) – open source enables
reducing costs while developing platform and device independent applications.
Based on this technological implementation, we also developed a best practice for embedding
learning content in an attractive and state-of-the-art manner directly within the 3D visualization of
the experiment. Our method particularly relies on sequential storytelling for historical and research
narratives, as well as gamification for an abstract, interactive visualization of the experiment itself.
With the integrated educational content, remote experiment applications offer a comprehensive,
holistic learning experience for self-paced learning.

Keywords: Remote Lab, Open Source, Gamification, Photonics

1. The Potentials of Gamified Remote Labs

Remote labs and virtual labs are well-proven instruments to enhance online lab training. Whether
based on a remotely accessible physical experiment or a plain software implementation of a
simulated experiment, these environments offer a wide range of possibilities in the curriculum of
various scientific fields and educational levels [1]. According to [2], there is no significant
disadvantage in learning success by using digitally accessible experiments of any kind. They
actually can improve achievements in various aspects.
During the last year, we experimented with the implementation of remote labs in an international
MSc Photonics program. The goal was to provide an easy-to-use and customizable framework to
adapt existing experiments and provide them as open educational resources (OER). Besides the
development of the framework, we especially targeted two main scopes: First, we wanted to
provide a maximum level of immersion, so the lab experience feels as real as possible. Our
approach here was to rely heavily on the implementation of interactive 3d-representations,
augmentations, and virtual reality applications. According to studies [3] [4], virtual (VR) and
augmented (AR) support is widely accepted and again promotes learning success.
The second approach is to implement means of gamification directly into the lab environment.
These allow an interesting interrelationship between a real experiment with measurements and a
more abstract explanation of the same object. Here, we especially experimented with
contemporary ways of communicating educational content directly through the promising
utilization of comics. [5]
In the following paper, we will introduce our approach based on a self-developed software and
hardware framework for remote labs and illustrate it based on a demonstrator application of a
virtualized Michelson interferometer.
203 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2. Virtual Remote Lab Environment

Our approach, as shown in figure 1, of openly accessible experiments as educational resource is

based on real and virtual experiments at its core, framed by layers for gamification concepts and
storytelling. Every resource and module implemented here works also on its own and can be
applied individually, depending on the learning context and application.

Figure 1. The conceptual approach of integrating hardware and software labs or simulations into a publicly
accessible platform and framing these by gamification and storytelling layers for self-paced explorative
learning

1.1 XR Twin Lab (XRTL)

We developed a framework for remote access of experimental setups with a focus on photonics.
The framework is solely based on open technologies, so research groups and educational
institutions can reproduce and adapt their remote experiments at low costs. As described in [1]
and shown in figure 2, actuators and sensors are attached via 3D-printed parts to physical
components of the experiment and controlled by a microcontroller. These controllers
communicate via Websockets with a server, which runs an Internet-of-Things (IoT) message
protocol. One way to control the experiment is a ReactJS application, which runs in any browser
on desktop computers and mobile devices as well. The JavaScript application shows a WebGL-
rendered 3D representation where the user can select components and generate commands in
a user-friendly interface. The advantage of JavaScript is that besides the platform- and device-
independent operation, various libraries support modern augmented and virtual reality
environments. These applications run in standard commercially available VR and AR headsets
or smartphones. Furthermore, JavaScript is one approach to integrate further educational content
and implement games into the virtual layer. On the other hand, the open message-based protocol
of XRTL allows client implementations in other game development and authoring tools like Unity,
Unreal or Godot.
204 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 2. Architecture of the XRTL framework as introduced in [1]. The experiment, controlled by ESP32
microcontrollers and the user endpoints communicate via a nodeJS express server.

1.2 Gamification and Narration

To enhance the learning experience with a remote experiment, real-time simulations can
supplement the virtualization. The goal is to integrate more abstract models of the experiment to
facilitate the learning process. This whole virtualization is then framed in a gamification and
narration layer.
Gamification is a method to connect simulations with measurement data from the experiment to
create an interactive and entertaining way to communicate natural scientific models and
relationships. There is a wide range of possibilities here: starting with simple quizzes or puzzles
to contemporary game genres like flight simulation, adventure role gaming, first-person
involvement, and strategy. Our objective is not just to communicate facts and methods on a meta-
level but to allow the user to become a part of the experiment in an immersive way and experience
science from a different perspective.
To communicate the context and content, the gamification is capsuled in a narration layer. Here,
we experimented in particular with the sequential art (comic) medium. Comics allow splitting
narration into small chunks, which can be temporally and spatially arranged [7]. This is beneficial
since the explanation of an experimental process and underlying methods have temporal and
spatial aspects as well. Additionally, comics have a high appeal for young readers and inherently
allow the communication of complex interrelationships in an attractive graphical manner. We will
show the implementation of the gamification and narration layer based on an experiment in the
next chapter.
An example of the integration of comics and gamifying and experiment is illustrated in the
chapters 2.2 and 2.4

2. Gamification and Narration of a Remote Michelson Interferometer

One of the fundamental and canonical experiments in physics or photonics is the Michelson
Interferometer. It became well known for its use by Michelson and Morley in an experiment to
detect the earth’s motion through a “luminiferous eather” at the end of the 19th century. The ether
was an assumed medium for light to be propagated in. Although the experiment disapproved of
its existence, it is still a common setup to show the wave nature of light and is implemented in a
wide range of modern optical devices for fine vibration and distance measurements.

2.1 Experiment

In the Experiment, light from a coherent source is split into two paths by a beam splitter, reflected
back, and thereby overlaid which generates an observable interference pattern on a screen.
Moving one of the mirrors changes the path length and therefore the interference pattern. By
observing and counting the fringes, the student can conclude the path length changes and
wavelength of the light source. We based our remote experiment on an educational kit provided
by Thorlabs. As shown in figure 3a, every adjustable kinematic component was motorized as
205 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

described in chapter 1.1. The interference pattern is observable by a camera feed in the web
application (figure 2b).

Figure 3. a) Remote version of Michelson interferometer educational Thorlabs kit with 3D-printed
attachments (pink) for motors and status LEDs and the server running on a RaspberryPi in the background
b) ReactJS web application for remote control of the experiment with 3d rendering and component
windows for controlling motors and viewing the interference fringe pattern on the screen

2.2 Storytelling

The Michelson interferometer plays a pivotal role in the history of physics. It stands between the
ancient conception of classical nature elements, critical thinking in the Age of Enlightenment and
led into the revolution of physics beginning of the 20th century. Therefore, the interferometer offers
a wide playground to embed stories about the experiment context such as historical, social
background, scientific context, and contemporary research like gravitational waves or quantum
mechanics.
We decided on comics and illustrative work to visualize and tell the story of world models involving
the aether as shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5a. The experiment components hereby act as a backdrop
for the augmented storytelling. While explaining the experiment itself, components get faces and
become characters besides Michelson and Morley. So even without referencing the setup in
particular, it is always a part of the narrative and becomes a steady rememberable constant for
the audience.

Figure 4. a) separated comic elements to be integrated into b) a virtual 3D environment based on an

experimental setup (here in Unity Game Engine)

2.3 Advanced Narratives

We further experimented with how the sequential stories are actually read by the audience. The
experiment itself is no comic book and just imitating pages is not considered attractive and maybe
even discouraging. Depending on the viewer orienting the view in the web application or using a
mobile device and moving around a virtual or real experiment, there is always a user interaction
between the experiment, its representation, or a 3D model. We utilized this mechanism by
revealing story elements (panels) according to the view changes. By doing so, the viewer can
“scroll” and progress the story by moving the viewing device. This is especially beneficial while
explaining a process or a method based on experiment components (see Fig 5c)
We also not only implemented illustrations as story elements, but experimented with 3D models,
visualizations, and alembic animations as shown in Fig 5b. Contemporary game development
206 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

environments like Unity, Unreal, or Godot as well as the JavaScript frameworks used by us all
provide a wide range of technological possibilities to embed complex multimedia content into
scenes, which bridge the gap between reality and virtual environment. In interaction with a real-
world experiment, and the processing of real measurements results, these methods open a
completely new world into experiencing and communicating science and research.

Figure 5. a) augmenting illustrations and comic elements on real or virtual experiments b) integrating 3D
models and alembic animations for visualization and story elements and c) showing panels and story
elements interactively depending on view direction and changes

2.4 Gamification

Finally, we also integrated a variety of gamification approaches into our remote lab environment.
The focus here is to complement the explanation and contextualization of the experiment.
Especially hard-to-grasp concepts are being boiled down to an abstract simulated approach which
is playfully. We hereby tried to integrate games as seamlessly as possible into the virtual
environment, for example by exploring an optical setup from the point of view of a photon in the
style of a flight simulator as shown in Fig 6a. Another example is the Augmented Layer of the
Hanbury-Brown-Twiss-Interferometer (HBTI) shown in figure 6b. To comprehend a single photon
and correlation measurement, the user can introduce interactively their own virtual photons from
the single photon source and therefore build up a personal more abstract measurement. By
comparing these to the real-world data, these simplified results offer an approach to the topic of
particle-wave duality of photons.

Figure 6. a) ReactJS implementation as a flight simulator, guiding a photon through an experiment b)

HBTI implementation with abstract model photons activated by the user to generate simulated results

3. Conclusion

We have shown that lab experiments can be virtualized and remotely controllable with open-
source technology. DIY manufacturing tools like 3D printing, off-the-shelf electronic components,
and extensive software environments offer a wide toolset of virtualizing lab experiments with
integrated educational content and gamification approaches. This integration of creative science
communication offers a holistic approach to self-paced, explorative learning with perseverative
and sustainable learning success.
By now, there are various experiments implemented with remote access and used in a practical
lab-training course of a MSc Photonics program at the Friedrich Schiller University in Jena,
Germany. In the future, we will concentrate more on the integration of educational and
gamification layers as introduced in this paper. By doing so, the applications and resources are
207 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

adaptable to various user groups, allowing us to offer state-of-the-art research from the lab to
non-university curriculums and science communication.

REFERENCES

[1] J. Ma, J. V. Nickerson “Hands-on, simulated and remote laboratories: A comparative

literature review” ACM Comput. Surv. 38, 3 (2006)
[2] D.A.H. Samuelson, O. Graven “Remote laboratories in engineering education – an
overview of implementation and feasibility” 2016
[3] S.A. Shanab, S. Odeh, R. Hodrob and M. Anabtawi “Augmented reality internet labs versus
hands-on and virtual labs: A comparative study” Proceedings of 2012 International
Conference on Interactive Mobile and Computer Aided Learning (IMCL), 2012
[4] J. A. Marquez, A. Borrero, M. Marquez “Augmented Reality for the Improvement of Remote
Laboratories: An Augmented Remote Laboratory” Education IEEE Transactions, 2011
[5] Farinella, M. “The potential of comics in science communication” JCOM 17(01), Y01., 2018
[6] J. Kretzschmar, C. Henkel, J. Domke et al. “A DIY Approach towards Remote Labs in
Photonics Education” International Conference on Remote Engineering and Virtual
Instrumentation 2023, Thessaloniki, Greece
[7] S. McCloud “Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art”, Harper Perennial, 1994
208 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Novel Approach for Teaching AI in Entry Level Education

Samuel Kübler1, Christian Bildhauer-Buggle2, Thomas Schiepp3

Furtwangen Hochschule University, Faculty of Medical and Mechanical Engineering,

Campus Schwenningen, Jakob-Kienzle-Straße 17, 78054 VS-Schwenningen,
Germany1,2,3

Abstract

The proliferating fielding of artificial intelligence in various but especially industrial applications
increases the need for pupils, students and employees in STEM areas and leads to a new job
profile, the AI engineer, who does not necessarily require a full study in computer sciences.
Extensive efforts are undergone to improve education at the K-12 level, but even at the university
level educators are struggling to keep pace with the development of AI. At the same time, a
continuous stream of presentations in digital media reveal an unbroken fascination with industrial
robots, even though their emergence dates back decades. Our approach to stimulate students'
interest in AI education leverages the appeal of physical interaction with an AI via a 6-DOF robot
rather than an auditory or purely visual interface. In order to keep access to robot programming
as a hurdle as low as possible, we expand the graphic programming ability of an industrial robot
user interface with a self-designed game-card concept and combine this with an AI hard- and
software that is either pre-trained or trained as part of a problem-solving exercise. We present a
step-by-step approach for artificial intelligence in education (AIED) that is characterized by
increasing complexity of the exercises and can therefore be adapted to offer different levels of
interactive learning environments (ILE). Part of this step-by-step approach is also the presentation
of the development of information processing from strictly linear (the robot control) via object-
oriented (in the interaction of the AI with the robot) to the AI itself in an overall project that
combines all stages and concepts. This interactive learning environment thus enables an
adjustment in both the level of difficulty and - by selecting the sub-areas - the amount of time in
teaching the application of AI in a real-world scenario.

Keywords: Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM), Artificial intelligence in education
(AIED), Interactive learning environments (ILE)

1. Introduction

The demand for qualified AI professionals is high and steadily increasing. Yet particularly in
Germany, industry has issues in recruitment of skilled personnel to staff mid-level technical
positions already since years which is aggravated by the local demographic situation of an aging
population [1]. Therefore, education in STEM subjects competes with other fields of study for a
small pool of possible students. In order to increase the attractiveness of STEM studies and boost
the popularity of AI in university level studies, new approaches for AI education in K-12 level are
sought after already since the late 1980’s [2]. The primary hurdle is to attract students and those
interested in studying these subjects in the first place and many efforts are pointed in this direction
[3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10]. Given the high public interest in technological innovations, artificial
intelligence and the popularity of robots among young people [11], we use this attractivity as focal
points of our teaching strategies and try a hands-on-approach.
This is not dissimilar to approaches using mobile robots [12], [13], [14], the main difference is our
employment of a professional, industrial robot, which stresses the connection to industrial
installations with robots and attempts to “solve real-world problems” [15] but with the focus on the
application not on the engineering of a robot. A common AI application in an industrial context is
the identification of faulty parts within a large set, such as those that are not of the correct colour
or have visible defects, an area where weak-AI is dominated by machine vision (MV) and deep-
learning (DL).
By integrating such real-world applications, young people can understand not only the theoretical
foundations but also the practical relevance and the impact of AI on future industry and
production, summarized under the term industry 4.0. Such image recognition systems are often
used in post-production quality control, in order to remove faulty parts from an assembly line,
209 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

before they are packaged. For the removal, robots are not the first choice, since removed parts
are to be discarded and the more cost-effective solutions are preferred for that purpose.
With their great precision in pick-and-place applications, robots are ideal to collect components
from trays or palettes on which such components are shipped, and place them into an assembly
line. This application is so common that the programming interfaces of most if not all robot
manufacturers offer a purpose-made function “depalletize” [16]. Such a function cycles the pick-
up coordinates for a robot in a pick-and-place process through all available slots - typically in a
2D array - until the tray is empty, which removes the necessity to program 2 nested loops from
the user.
This scenario is only one out of many, and it does not require AI, if the programmer can assume,
that all positions in the palette are occupied with good parts in the correct orientation. While this
application is also in the field since decades, the manufacturers of robots strive to improve the
interface to their robots such, that the necessary training requires ever less skill and time for the
shop-floor personnel to create such simple applications without help from more qualified – and
expensive - experts. Since robots operate mostly in shop-floor environments and spend by far
most of their time without any interaction with a human operator, there is no need for desktop-like
control computers. In order for the operator to observe a robot’s actions closely, the controller is
a handheld device wired to the robot control electronics, which also contains safety related
switches, which mandates cable connections.
The improvements in display quality, size, resolution and the advent of large touch screens has
allowed such robot control handheld units to develop from handheld teach pendants (HTP) with
a single line, black-and-white LCD display and the look-and-feel of oversized pocket calculators
via HPT’s with large, full-colour TFT screens to tablet teaching pendants (TTP) with touchscreens
rivalling tablet PC’s and only a few physical buttons remaining for safety reasons. Sensors within
the robot arms have allowed the rise of COBOTS and yet another method of robot programming,
but those are not discussed in this paper. As the computing power of the processors within the
units are also dramatically rising, more effort can and is being dedicated to improving ease of use
via graphical representation of a robot’s functionality and programming with the abovementioned
goal of ease-of-access for less skilled personnel.
These modern operating concepts allow users to create program sequences through graphical
elements without deep prior knowledge, similar to the program flow diagrams like in DIN 66001,
but simpler.
As a side effect, this makes such robot-GUIs also suitable for use in teaching exercises with pupils
within K-12 education, as we intend to verify in our setup. Since a robot can physically execute
only one command at a time with the synchronous motion of all 6 motors to move from one pose
to another counted as one, this also suits the explanation of the workings of procedural
programming. Here, program flows are handled linearly, which bears similarities to, for example,
assembler programming. It has become a common improvement to a robot’s capabilities to outfit
it with machine vision (MV) and AI, so the robot can perform less well-defined tasks as the
abovementioned depalletizing within a fully defined environment.
With the help of AI and MV, a robot can pick objects from an unsorted heap or a conveyor belt
and arrange them into a palette, to “palletize” parts. To enable this functionality, software must
organize the data flow between the MV, the AI and the robot, which is typically done with object-
oriented text-based programming languages.
Offering the creation of this software as a task to students poses a significantly higher challenge,
since here prior knowledge is required. Compared to this, the teaching of the AI itself is easier,
since the algorithms for teaching of an AI are hidden behind a convenient user interface. Also
here, commercial providers strive to improve ease-of-use to their customers, so that less skilled
personnel can perform this task with as little training effort as possible.
Such interfaces offer all the comfort of standard desktop applications with menus, graphical items,
intricate graphical representation and analysis of the AI’s performance.
This level of ease-of-use again makes it possible to teach pupils, how to configure and teach an
AI. In this paper, we present our newly set up integrated learning environment (ILE) which
incorporates a 6-degree-of-freedom (6DOF) robot, machine vision (MV) with a deep-learning AI
and all necessary hard- and software to handle data flow between them. Borrowing from the user-
concept of the robots GUI, we introduce also a card-game of robot-programming.
The idea is, to offer as much physical interaction as possible both on the input as well as on the
output side.
210 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2. Methodology

2.1 Setup

For the experimental setup, we have installed an industrial robot model Horst600 (Fruitcore
Robotics GmbH, see fig. 1a [17]) with a graphical user interface (HorstFX, see fig. 1b).
In order to replicate the GUI functionality along with its look-and-feel and make a cooperative
working environment possible, we created laminated cards of about 30 cm length with a selection
of robot commands and provide them in sufficient numbers. The purpose of this is to circumvent
the limitation of the TTP’s size of 30 by 20 cm which allows only one person at a time to use the
panel. With the larger cards, it is possible to request groups of pupils to discuss cooperatively,
which command-cards to choose and in which order to arrange them, in order to plan the entire
program before entering it on the TTP. This can result in a column of dozens of cards arranged

Fig. 1a (left): Setup with robot, camera, target palette with balls and repository (raised profile)
Fig. 1b (right): partial screenshot of a GUI program, notice the sequential structure of commands

on the floor with pupils walking around them, which is supposed to stimulate a cooperative
working pattern for the group. As objects for a depalletizing task serve a sufficient number of
metallic balls from a commercial provider (Gravitrax by Ravensburger) with 12 mm diameter in 4
different colours. As a palette containing these balls we engineered and 3D-printed a palette with
9 fixed positions in a 3x3 grid (spacing 50x50 mm). This palette is fixed to the base platform on
which the robot rests as well (see on the right in fig. 1a). A pre-defined drop-off point is provided
by a simple construction profile that is mounted on the base platform at a slight angle to make the
balls roll down towards a mechanical stop (see on the left in fig. 1a); this rail can serve also as a
fixed position to pick up balls when the lowest position of balls next to the mechanical stop is
chosen. Here all balls are dropped off at roughly the mid-point of the rail. As an effector the robot
is equipped with an electromechanical gripper, which is modified with a pair of spoon-like grippers
shaped to ideally match the balls used here (see fig. 1a). To enable machine vision an industrial
camera system is mounted at the robot's last arm before the effector flange (with the gripper).
211 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The robot model offered no means of fixation, so we engineered a 3D printed clamp-like base
with an aluminium plate that serves as a heat sink for the camera. We did not choose a position
of the camera next to the effector, since it’s intense motion would stress the data cables whereas
the standard imaging position is always the very one, shown in fig.1. To acquire an image for use
in the AI, the robot must move into this pose and trigger the camera via a digital pulse from the
DIO-interface of the robot control computer. The camera data connection is wired to an industrial
computer (IPC-631, I-Mation GmbH [18]) with appropriate machine vision hard and software. This
software passes the image to an AI module, that is running on an internal, dedicated, powerful
graphics card and retrieves the information, reported back from that AI. The analysis of the
reported data, essentially a list of discovered objects, their classification and their position within
the image is performed by a series of C# scripts that execute on the normal CPU of the computer.
These scripts can access a DIO (Digital Input/Output) interface, which is wired to the DIO
hardware of the robot control hardware. By setting the TTL states, the system can thus convey
information from the AI to the robot. The AI module is loaded into the graphics card dedicated to
the AI, but must be pre-trained and provided as a local file. In order to train this AI module, we
use a commercial software package (Cognex Deep Learning Studio, Cognex LLC [19]). This is
done solely using image files from the hard-disk and is performed locally on the computer. The
robot and the machine vision hardware at this stage is only needed to acquire a sufficient number
of images beforehand, but not during the AI training. Theoretically, the AI training can be
performed even on a separate computer, or multiple ones as a general AI training exercise in a
PC equipped class room, with the image files and the trained AI being transferred by LAN or USB.

2.2 Procedural Program (For Pupils in School Education)

The entry-level for pupils the task is to create a procedural program with the graphical user
interface of the robot to depalletize all balls from the palette to the drop-off point. To provide some
background knowledge, a brief and concise introduction with a duration of about 15 minutes to
the basic concepts of robot operation is offered in a classical lecture like format. The basics deal
with the role of robotics in industry and society, robot electromechanics, different movement
possibilities, coordinate systems, orientation of the effector in 3D-space and the basic structure
of the robot GUI. We demonstrate these concepts by allowing the students to use the direct
control interface to try out motions of the robot in the direct drive mode. Here, each student can
move and rotate the effector while observing the GUI displaying position and orientation of the
effector. This inevitably leads occasionally to collisions of the gripper with the platform, but the
3D-printed parts have weak-points engineered into them, which protect the rest of the hardware;
eventually, we replace the broken piece in about a minute. Then, the task is explained and the
cards from fig.2 are handed out.

Fig. 2. Print-template for cards

The lecturer keeps in the background during the discussion and allows the students to find the
right order of instructions by themselves. The entire sequence of commands is laid out on the
floor, sometimes over a distance of about 3 meters. A crucial detail introduced in this phase is the
implementation of a loop, which must automate the traversal of the nine fields of the palette with
a counter. This loop allows the process of moving and gripping to be repeated, with the target
point being adjusted with each pass. This cycling through is provided by the HortsFX GUI through
the “pallet” function. This representation allows students to visualize and understand the
sequence of commands on an algorithm level and how individual steps are sequentially
processed to achieve the set goal. The developed algorithm is transferred to the robot interface's
control, once the teacher deems it appropriate. This can still take some time, since all positions
of the effector must the taught one by one. If successful, program execution will steer the robot
to depalletize all balls correctly, offering the pupils an element of suspense and joy. Also, an
interesting detail can then be demonstrated: in this operation mode, the robot will execute the
212 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

pick-up and drop-off sequence even if no ball is located at the pick-up point, or any other mishap
like a collision happens.

2.3 AI-Assisted (For Entry Level Students)

The task in this level is to repeat the task to depalletize as described above, but now the robot
should skip over empty slots and avoid “bad” parts. In our exercise environment we introduce the
distinction of “good” vs. “bad” part through the colour of the balls, arbitrarily choosing one as
“good” and all others as “bad”. This builds on the program flow created before and that program
can be expanded upon. Firstly, the camera must take an image of the palette, so the robot must
move the camera into the correct position and trigger the image acquisition. The camera transfers
the image automatically to the machine-vision PC, which triggers also the C# scripts mentioned
above. However, this might require a second to start. The scripts will set output flags in the DIO,
to signal the robot, that processing is underway, and reset the flag, once the processing is
complete. The robot must wait a second unconditionally for processing to start, and then continue
to wait until processing is completed, i.e., the according flag is reset. Otherwise, the robot might
query the DIO outputs before they are correctly set. As mentioned before, the AI module is
executed within a dedicated graphics card. This module is either pre-trained by the supervisor or
trained by students as explained in chapter 2.4. It is noteworthy that the AI module only identifies
objects and returns this information in an ASCII data table. The decision, which slot in the palette
should be visited or ignored by the gripper has to be programmed in the C# script that analyses
this table. The identification of each object is done via a string of letters, that the user defines
while training the AI, so the scripts essentially do an ASCII comparison. Part of this task is also
to identify the position of the balls at least by a coarse estimate sufficient to assign a colour to a
certain tray slot or identify an empty one. The last change in the robot program concerns the
activation of the gripper; the robot must query the inputs of the robot DIO interface, which convey
the result of the AI analysis. We implement this by using 9 digital lines for each of the 9 slots in
the palette. The graphical programming method does not offer a simple way to skip over a slot to
be visited, but the decision of closing or not closing the gripper can be easily linked to the DIO
lines. The creation of the object-oriented C#-scripts that handle the data-flow between the
camera, the DIO-interface and the AI can also serve as a programming exercise itself. This
represents a challenge in coding and requires some skills in software development and data
representation. Therefore, we provide this code ready-made for pupils in the groups 1 and 2; it is
however an appropriate task for students at university level.

2.4 Training the AI (For Advanced Students / Bachelor Candidates)

As mentioned above, we choose the colour of the balls as the distinction with arbitrarily one being
defined as “good” i.e., to be picked up. Finding all “good” ones is the key task of the AI-module. It
is not strictly necessary to identify also all other colours and empty slots, but we pose the task
with this requirement anyway, because then it is easy to switch from one “good” colour to another
one within the scripts handling the AI output. On discovering one or more objects (an empty slot
is to be considered an object as well) the AI returns an ASCII-table of those objects and their
position within the pixels of the image. This AI module must be trained prior to using it in
conjunction with the robot. This task is executed via a commercial GUI that is primarily dedicated
to machine vision purposes and offers extensive functionality and a convenient interface for deep
learning. The modules of the DL application offer a larger number of AI functions; however, for
the task described herein, only the object recognition feature is required. The task for the students
next to getting a grip on the interface and training the AI, is to collect a sufficiently large set of
images of the target palette with the installed camera system featuring a sufficient diversity in the
settings. These images should vary in exposition time, to emulate different light conditions,
experience actually changed lighting the room to modify reflections and intentionally slightly
misalignment of the camera. These images can be taken independently from the DL-GUI and be
stored on a hard drive for later use. As the DL-GUI runs independently with these stored images,
all training can be conducted by students independently of the robot. Once the AI module
performs satisfactory within the GUI, it can be exported into a separate file, which can be activated
and used independently from the DL-GUI. Once the AI module is activated and works
cooperatively with the robot, the actual experiment can be run, i.e. a few - up to 9 - balls of different
colours, can be placed on the palette and the robot program can be launched. If the task is
correctly solved, the robot will depalletize only the balls with the chosen colour, which again adds
an element of suspense and enjoyment to the students, if the robot operates correctly.
213 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

3. Student’s Response

We envision 3 levels of students, out of which we gained experience with 2, where both are from
secondary level school education. One group of students is comprised of about 13 years old, the
other of about 17 years old school pupils, the third is comprised of bachelor level students. At the
time of the editing of this paper, we gained experience only with the first 2 groups, but we are
currently planning to work with experienced students in the next semester and further expand our
experience with larger groups. Both managed to solve the card game preliminary exercise and
program the robot to successfully depalletize the pallet and solve the task without AI assistance
within less than 45 minutes. We retrieved feedback from these pupils by handing out
questionnaires that were returned with about 2 months delay. The replies indicated great
satisfaction and “fun” with the exercise and confirmed our hope that the interaction with the robot
is more joyful than with an internet-based text AI. To our surprise, the pupils requested even more
advanced explanations in the initial lecture part, seemingly, we have underestimated the pupils’
skills in computing concepts. It remains to be seen, if this holds for all groups, since the total
number of subjects in our teaching experiment is below 30, and more statistics is desirable.

4. Conclusions and Outlook

We present an ILE that combines an industrial robot and an AI with a game-card-like teaching
approach to robot programming. Using a physical interaction rather than an internet-based text
or speech-based AI greatly enhances the interest and ‘fun’ factor in the lecture. Furthermore, our
approach is recreating one of the most common real-life industrial’ application. On completing the
exercise, students have acquired basic skills in programming a robot, and have understood, how
an AI is integrated with an industrial setup. Our approach has received very positive feedback
and serves as a basis for further expansion of this program. The course will be expanded into a
1 semester course for introduction to AI in industrial applications on bachelor level, where the
herein described setup will expand a traditional lecture with a real-life-exercise.

REFERENCES

[1] Niggemann, M. "Künstliche Intelligenz in Produktion und Maschinenbau", VDE Verlag,

2022.
[2] Brady, M. “Artificial intelligence and Robotics”, Artificial Intelligence, p. 79, 1985.
[3] Kandlhofer, M. et al. “Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science in Education: From
Kindergarten to University”, in IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE), 2016, p.
16.
[4] Dodds, Z. et al. “Components, curriculum, and community: robots and robotics in
undergraduate AI education”, AI Magazine, p. 11, 2006.
[5] Roll, I. et al. “Evolution and Revolution in Artificial Intelligence in Education”,
Int.J.Artif.Intell.Educ., p. 582, 2016.
[6] J.E. Aoun, J.E. "Robot-proof: higher education in the age of artificial intelligence”,
Cambridge: MIT Press, 2017.
[7] Chassignol, M. et al. “Artificial Intelligence trends in education: a narrative overview”,
Procedia Computer Science, p. 16, 2018.
[8] Chen, L. et al. “Artificial Intelligence in Education: A Review”, IEEE Access, p. 75264,
2020.
[9] Huang, J. et al. “A Review on Artificial Intelligence in Education”, Academic Journal of
Interdisciplinary Studies, p. 206, 2021.
[10] Tedre, M. et al. “Teaching Machine Learning in K–12 Classroom: Pedagogical and
Technological Trajectories for Artificial Intelligence Education”, IEEE Access, p. 110558,
2021.
[11] Grubbs, M. “Robotics intrigue middle school students and build STEM skills”, Technology
and Engineering Teacher, p. 12, 2013.
[12] “Robocup”, [Online]. Available: http://www.robocup.org/. [Zugriff am 2023].
[13] R. Raj, R. et al. “A Comprehensive Study of Mobile Robot: History, Developments,
Applications, and Future Research Perspectives”, Applied Sciences (MDPI), p. 6951,
2021.
[14] Chu, S.T. et al. “Artificial intelligence-based robots in education: A systematic review of
selected SSCI publications”, Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, p. 100091,
2022.
[15] Khanlari, A. "Robotics integration to create an authentic learning environment in
engineering education”, IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference, p. 1, 2016.
214 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[16] Shake, M. “Ten popular industrial robot applications”, Jabil, 2023. [Online]. Available:
https://www.jabil.com/blog/ten-popular-industrial-robot-applications.html.
[17] FruitCore Robotics, [Online]. Available: https://www.fruitcore-robotics.com/en/. [Zugriff
am 2024].
[18] I-Mation, [Online]. Avai Fig. 2. Print-template for cardslable: https://www.i-mation.de/.
[Zugriff am 2024].
[19] Cognex, [Online]. Available: https://www.cognex.com/. [Zugriff am 2024].
[20] Raj, M. et al. “Primer on artificial intelligence and robotics”, Journal of Organization
Design, p. 8, 2019.
[21] Asemi, A. et al. “Intelligent libraries: a review on expert systems, artificial intelligence, and
robot”, Library Hi Tech, p. 412, 2020.
[22] Ahmat, S.F. et al. “Artificial Intelligence and Its Role in Education”, Sustainability (MDPI),
p. 12902, 2021.
215 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Smart Building Engineering: Challenges and Opportunities

of an Interdisciplinary Course Concept for Engineers in the
Field of Technical Building Equipment

Lina Schulze-Buxloh1, Rolf Groß2

FH Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Germany1,2

Abstract

The share and sales of technical building equipment in construction projects is constantly growing
[1], so that engineers for technical building equipment are increasingly needed for demanding
construction and renovation projects. The classic engineering courses such as for example, civil
engineering, supply technology or electrical engineering often only cover their respective sub-
areas, although specialists are needed for these interface areas, especially for planning and
design of technical building equipment. The bachelor's degree program “Smart Building
Engineering” is successfully implemented in an interdisciplinary manner by the three departments
of civil engineering, architecture and electrical engineering and information technology. Both in
the organization and in the development of the curriculum, new challenges and opportunities arise
for innovative training of specialized young engineers for technical building equipment. In
particular, the different work and approaches of the trades involved in the construction process
require a high level of interdisciplinary communication and knowledge of the different perspectives
later in the job in order to realize a successful construction process. The methodology of Building
Information Modeling (BIM) is also taught and directly applied during the course for getting the
students used to this collaborative way of thinking.

Keywords: Smart Building Engineering, BIM, interdisciplinary curriculum development

1. New Requirements Because of More Building Technology

Buildings are not only made of concrete, steel and wood, but the proportion of technical
components such as heating, lighting and information technology, the technical building
equipment, is constantly increasing [1]. Here, water and air, energy and information move through
structured pipe networks, creating good living and working conditions inside the building. The
times when technical systems such as heating, power supply or control technology were largely
planned and carried out independently of each other are now finally over. On the one hand,
modern information technology links the individual trades with one another, and on the other hand,
the increasing coupling of energy conversion processes (e.g., fuel cells, photovoltaics, solar and
geothermal energy or heat pumps) lead to a much closer interaction of the components than
before. In addition, the design of the buildings has a major influence on energy consumption and
the level of building technology installed inside. The intelligent linking of technical components
with one another is increasingly leading to “smart” buildings. So, the planning and construction of
such smart buildings requires, more than ever before, interdisciplinary collaboration between the
classic disciplines of civil engineering, architecture, electrical engineering, information and energy
technology as well as technical building equipment.

2. How Can These Requirements Be Implemented in a Curriculum?

In order to be able to specifically implement these new requirements in a single degree program,
the bachelor's degree program “Smart Building Engineering” (SBE) was developed at the FH
Aachen and has been successfully implemented since 2018. For this purpose, a completely new
concept was developed in which three separate and independent faculties at Aachen University
of Applied Sciences (civil engineering, architecture, electrical engineering and information
technology) offer and operate this course of study together and across disciplines. In order to be
able to tailor the range of courses as precisely as possible to the needs of the construction industry
and thus to future employers, industry representatives from the sector were asked for their opinion
on relevant content and methods and the requirements profile was defined accordingly: In order
to qualify new employees for complex issues in technical building equipment, the Smart Building
216 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Engineering course contains essential areas of building and supply technology, electrical
engineering and modern control technology. It also includes classic subjects such as building
construction and architectural history. Modern planning methods such as BIM (Building
Information Modeling) and working with various simulation tools are also taught and practiced
during the course.

3. Career Fields for Smart Building Engineers

In his professional life, the Smart Building Engineer has the task of understanding all the
companies and actors involved in the construction as part of an interdisciplinary planning team
made up of architects and specialist planners and of taking on the processing of interdisciplinary
issues relating to design, construction, technical equipment and system integration. Technical,
economic and ecological criteria must be considered and optimally implemented. This demanding
task can be carried out both in a general manner in the area of concept development or system
integration or in a more specialized manner in individual subject areas within the technical building
equipment.
With the increasing introduction of BIM methodology into construction projects and planning,
simulation and the comparison of different planning variants are becoming increasingly important
in order to identify the best solution for a specific construction project and then implement it
successfully.
The development and optimization of products and technical components by the relevant
manufacturers is also an interesting field of employment for Smart Building Engineers.

4. Support from Industry

The “Smart Building Engineering” foundation has set itself the goal of supporting business and
research in this area and of networking scientific institutions with companies in the industry. By
providing financial resources for two endowed professorships for the course, the foundation has
supported the SBE course at the FH Aachen from the very beginning. Every year it also presents
the three best theses with the SBE Award.
Both the foundation companies and numerous other companies from the construction industry
actively support the course and its students through lectures on the companies' activities as part
of the course of study, with excursions to companies, with the supervision and implementation of
internships and final theses.
In this way, students get to know potential employers during their studies and gain valuable
insights into their future professional life.
The network “Aachen Building Experts” (ABE) also actively supports the SBE course through
numerous events in the construction industry, specialist lectures, a job portal also for students
and excursions to member companies [2].

5. Challenges in Implementation

There are diverse and sometimes new challenges for a course of study in which many different
disciplines and perspectives come together. Basically, these can be grouped into technical and
organizational problems:

5.1 Content Specifics of the SBE Course

When it comes to the technical characteristics, it should be taken into account that the many
different specialist disciplines also bring in many different perspectives, terms and sometimes
their own “technical language”, which are not always congruent. The sometimes very different
roles in the construction process of the specialist disciplines involved also mean that role-specific
experiences, prejudices and the weighting of individual subject areas are very different. The
limitation to a curriculum with 7 semesters of standard study time, in which the focus is on an
overview of the entire construction process, makes it necessary to narrow down and select from
a large range of topics.
Since the construction industry is changing towards digital planning methods such as BIM and
towards a further development of digital models into digital twins of buildings, a solid basis should
also be provided in this area in the interests of future viability. In this way, the sometimes-blatant
planning and execution errors and massive communication problems between those involved in
the construction can be avoided and converted into collegial cooperation.
217 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

5.2 Organizational Specifics of the SBE Course

A course of study that is implemented jointly by three independent departments requires a high
degree of organization and coordination in order to be carried out successfully. Small differences
between the departments that are not even noticeable in degree programs in a single department
can become challenges: At the FH Aachen there are no uniform exam and lecture times, which
greatly complicates the timetable and exam planning due to different time periods and deadlines.
Due to the postponed lecture and examination times, many students on the SBE course felt very
stressed, as there were hardly any fixed times during which no courses or examinations take
place. Planning vacations, external internships or work during the semester holidays could only
be done spontaneously in the beginning of the course.
The sometimes completely different examination offerings of the departments involved (2 or 3
examination dates per year, examinations within two examination weeks, examinations over a
period of up to 8 weeks) also contributed to this problem. In some cases, there even was an
overlap between lecture time in one faculty and exam time in the other faculty.
Due to the high coordination effort, planning a semester took longer than usual and students could
sometimes only be informed late and often had to accept “special solutions” (recorded courses
due to overlaps in the timetable, long breaks between individual courses, etc.)
Joint lectures with students from other courses such as architecture or civil engineering lead to
couplings in the timetables because these courses are attended together. The use of teachers in
more than one course also sometimes leads to overlaps in the timetable.

5.3 Optimization as a Process

Some of the problems just became apparent during the course, so some adjustments were
necessary to solve them and ensure that everything runs as smoothly as possible: In order to
have clear responsibilities without duplication, the course is organizationally affiliated with one of
the three faculties involved. This means, for example, that only one office is responsible for
registering for examinations and there is a specific contact person for the students and less
confusion. The supervision and organization of the SBE course is also supported by a research
assistant, so that the information comes together centrally with one person, who can therefore
better keep track of things and act as a contact person for colleagues and students.
In order to improve the exchange of information between the faculties, a contact person is
appointed from each of the faculties involved who takes part in regular (digital) meetings and then
informs colleagues in their own department.
In addition, the lecture and exam times are better coordinated between the departments, so that
there are less overlaps and better planning for the students.

6. Conclusion and Outlook

During their studies, the SBE students gained their first practical experience in external
internships in industry and made valuable contacts with future employers. This led to good
networking in the industry right from the start, so that the first SBE graduates had no problems
starting their professional lives with their first job successfully. The feedback from industry is
consistently positive and the graduates are very satisfied with their degrees and the opportunities
on the job market. The basic idea of training the most “suitable” engineers for technical building
equipment in a practical manner and using digital planning methods seems to fit well with the
needs of the construction industry and should be continued in an industry-oriented manner.
In the future, it would be desirable if the SBE bachelor's degree program could be supplemented
by a thematically suitable master's degree program at the FH Aachen, so that students who are
aiming for a master's degree do not necessarily have to change universities. The first coordination
between the involved faculties has just begun.
Research is being further advanced by the Institute for Smart Building Engineering (ISBE),
founded in 2023 at Aachen University of Applied Sciences [3]. In addition to student jobs and
interesting topics for theses, the research projects there also provide input for the degree program
via research partners from industry, from which students can benefit during their studies. There
is now also the possibility of doing a doctorate in the field of Smart Building Engineering at the
FH Aachen through the Doctoral College NRW. [4]
These good opportunities will certainly be interesting and promising for many students and will
enable them to start a career in the field of technical building equipment successfully and
sustainably.
218 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

REFERENCES

[1] https://www.tga-fachplaner.de/meldungen/tga-marktdaten-haus-und-
gebaeudetechnikbranche-waechst-weiter, 19.02.2024
[2] https://aachenbuildingexperts.de, 03.03.2024
[3] https://www.fh-aachen.de/forschung/institute/isbe/, 03.03.2024
[4] https://www.pknrw.de, 04.03.2024
219 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Enhancing Student Engagement

220 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Situational Interest in Geology Learning: What Learning

Strategies Promote Student Interest in Geological Topics?

Jitka Kopecká

Palacký University, Faculty of Education, Department of Biology, Czech Republic

Abstract

This study examines the various factors that may influence students' interest in studying geology.
It is based on the experience that the geology learning content is often perceived by students and
teachers as complex and difficult for students to understand. The research involved 9th-grade
students in randomly selected elementary schools completing various tasks focused on
geological observation, modelling, and timing in geology. They worked in groups on all tasks and
had the opportunity to discuss the problem among themselves and with the teachers. The
research investigation aimed to find out how significantly a particular teaching situation can
influence the formation and development of students' interest in a learning topic and,
consequently, in learning subject. We looked at the role of situational interest development, which
can be triggered by a range of factors from appropriately chosen teaching strategies to the
personality of the teacher. The results showed that high student interest was stimulated by
methods that led to their direct involvement in the learning process. Methods based on modelling
and observation of geological objects and phenomena were the most appreciated, while methods
based on inductive deductive procedures with a higher degree of abstraction and numerical
operations were slightly less appreciated. The instructional strategies that most engaged students
also demonstrated a higher interest in the learning topics conveyed by these strategies. Thus, the
research investigation highlighted the importance of deliberately shaping the learning
environment in favour of developing situational interest to further stimulate deeper student interest
in specific learning content.

Keywords: interest in geology, situational interest, students’ activation, learning topics, learning strategies,
learning environments

Introduction

The importance and development of students' interest in science has long been a key aspect of
science education research. The process of forming interest in a particular content or object is
complex and involves a range of psychological and pedagogical factors. An important concept in
this discourse is situational interest, which can be a key aspect in fostering long-term student
interest and engagement. Situational interest is characterized as a short-term interest activated
by various external factors (cf. [1], [2], [3]).
Geology education has a complex position among science subjects in terms of student interest.
It is difficult for students to perceive the spatiotemporal relationships between geological objects
and processes; the learning content becomes too remote for their understanding ([4], [5]). Other
studies point to the problem of forming students' research skills, where students have difficulty
making scientific observations and connecting observed features to scientific terminology ([6],
[7]). These difficulties make students feel dissatisfied and disinterested.
In the context of geology, situational interest can be elicited by teaching strategies that allow
students to interact directly with geological objects and phenomena. The present research,
conducted among students in selected elementary schools, aimed to identify the key factors that
influence students' interest in geology and whether different teaching strategies can foster this
interest.

Theoretical Background

A comprehensive understanding of how students develop an interest in a topic or discipline can

provide invaluable insights for refining pedagogical strategies, improving teaching and curriculum
development. At the heart of this discourse is the conceptualization of interest as a multifaceted
221 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

construct encompassing different dimensions and developmental trajectories. Hidi and Renninger
[3] view interest as a relationship between an individual and an object or content in his or her life
context, characterized by emotional and evaluative valences. Interest acts as an intrinsic
motivator that enhances cognitive attention and effort within specific activities [8], thereby
promoting effective learning and deeper understanding. In addition, interest often leads to
increased intrinsic motivation and a sense of autonomy, which increases emotional engagement
and goal attainment. Ryan and Deci [8] emphasize that intrinsic motivation, as opposed to
extrinsic motivation, is key to sustaining long-term interest in an activity. This is supported by
empirical studies that consistently demonstrate a link between intrinsic motivation, increased
engagement, and sustained interest in specific objects or activities (e.g., [9], [10]; [11], [12]).
Developmental psychologists argue that the transformation of a transient, often emotionally driven
interest in an object or content into a sustained interest is a gradual process. Krapp [2] offers an
ontogenetic view of the emergence and development of interest and presents theoretical models
that characterize its structural and dynamic aspects. He describes a natural development of
interest involving the gradual differentiation and complexity of the relationship between the
individual and objects of interest, typically based on personal meaning and emotionality (the
"growth model"). However, this can further evolve through the principle of functional autonomy
(cf. [13]), whereby initially peripheral or instrumental activities become central or internal drivers
of interest ('channeling model'). This can lead to the emergence of a spectrum of interests based
on qualitatively different relationships between individuals and their objects of interest, which
potentially overlap and foster sustained interest in particular content or objects ('overlapping
model'). For example, Krapp [2] illustrates how an initial interest in nature, driven by aesthetic
appeal and emotional interaction, can evolve into more active exploration, cultivating other
aspects of that interest (e.g., reading, information processing, observation, and documentation).
Such a predisposition to nature may extend to a broader range of interests, including disciplines
such as biology, geography, or physics, while synergistic integration may deepen the level of
interest in specialized fields such as astronomy or medicine.
A framework for understanding the genesis of interest in the context of the learning environment
has been proposed by Hidi and Renninger [3]. It is a four-stage model of interest development,
examines the development and maintenance of interest from a psychological and pedagogical
perspective, and delineates how interest in specific content may develop and deepen. It
emphasizes the situational development of interest (stages (1) "elicited" and (2) "sustained
situational interest") as the initiating stages of individual and sustained interest development
(stages (3) "developing" and (4) "well-developed individual interest"). The authors emphasize that
interest is a dynamic, developmental phenomenon susceptible to a variety of influencing factors,
involving affective and cognitive components significantly affecting attention, goals, learning
levels, and self-regulation. Situational interest can be triggered by external stimuli such as
surprising information, identification with a particular person, or personal meaning. Such factors
in educational settings tend to be, for example, interesting learning topics, activating learning
strategies or practical experiences. These can further reinforce and continuously develop the
interest generated. Hidi and Renninger [3] also point out that such transient interest can serve as
a precursor for repeated engagement with specific content in the future.
In respect to the educational environment, it can be concluded from the above that the
attractiveness of the educational environment, the relevance of educational topics and the
personality of the teacher have a key influence on the formation and maintenance of students'
interest in science education ([2], [3], [14], [15], [16], [17]).

Methodology

The design of the research inquiry into students' interest in geological topics was a qualitative
research based on grounded theory (cf. [18]). A total of 168 Year 9 students from three elementary
schools who had taken a geology course during the school year were involved in the inquiry. The
lessons were taught individually for each of the six participating school classes (there were always
two classes from each elementary school) in a specialized classroom for geology instruction.
For our research, we created a set of nine tasks of an inductive-deductive nature, which were
designed to help students gradually figure out how geological data are acquired and interpreted.
Each school class always participated in a two-hour classroom session in which its students
worked in groups of four to five on the assigned tasks. At the end of the learning activities,
students were asked to evaluate in their own words, in writing, how they found each learning task
interesting and why. The students' responses were then analysed, and open coding was used to
identify key concepts and categories influencing students' interest in different research methods
and ways of knowing in geology. Based on this, three main categories and their key concepts
were identified and evaluated in some way by the students (see Table 1). The statistical
significance of student responses divided into individual categories was statistically evaluated
222 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

using the chi-square goodness-of-fit method, and the possible dependence of a particular type of
response on individual schools, and the resulting statistical differences between the responses of
students from each type of school, was tested by analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Table 1. Assessment categories of student interest in selected geological topics identified by grounded
theory coding.
Categories Concepts
Learning topic Rock formation and properties
Geological processes and structures in the
landscape
Time in geology- relative ages of rocks
Time in geology- absolute timing
Learning strategy Observations
Geological sketch of observed structures
Modelling of geological structures
Inductive-deductive methods
Learning environment Time consumption of the learning activity
Teaching style
Teacher's personality
Students' relationship to geology

Results

The first task the students had to work on was about the properties of rocks. Students were
presented with different types of rocks (e.g., coarse-grained granite, fine-grained sandstone,
limestone with fossil remains) in work groups. Their task was to observe the rock, describe its
structure and, based on what they described, try to deduce how the rock might have formed. To
support their deliberate observation, the students were also asked to draw the observed rock and
its structure. In completing the task, the teacher supported them with guiding questions to
encourage students' thinking about the problem. The majority of students positively evaluated
both the thematic focus of the learning task (82 % of relevant responses) and the chosen teaching
strategies. Observation was rated positively by 81 % and drawing by 73 % of valid responses.
The activity was viewed negatively by an identical 2 % of students for both the learning topic and
the chosen teaching strategy. The remainder of the valid responses did not rate the activity.
The second task was designed to introduce students to the importance of modelling in geology.
At the beginning, students were shown photographs of wrinkled sediments in the landscape.
Students were asked to name this structure (a fold), and to think about how such structures form
in the landscape. After discussing the problem together, the students were asked to model the
process that leads to the formation of a furrow using plasticine. In total, 84 % of the students were
interested in modelling, and 67 % in the issue of geological processes and their form in the
landscape.
This was followed by tasks focusing on the relative determination of the age of rocks. The third
task contained three questions, which the students had to answer on their own and/or after a
group discussion: Q 1: What can all fossils be? Q 2: What effect does time have on the formation
and preservation of fossils? Q 3: Why do we find fossils in some rocks and not in others? After
that, the students shared their answers with others and discussed them with the teacher. This
was followed by a fourth task that allowed students to work directly with specific fossils. Using a
simplified atlas and a stratigraphic table, they were asked to identify three fossils each within the
group, identify the period of their occurrence and rank them from oldest to youngest fossil using
the stratigraphic table. In the fifth task, they had to use a picture of a sequence of rock layers to
infer which layers are the oldest and which are the youngest and explain why. This group of tasks
and the way of solving them interested 63 % of students, while 4 % of respondents found it
uninteresting.
The last, sixth task focused on the absolute dating of rocks. After a common introduction to the
subject and an introduction to the basic concepts, the principle of half-life was explained to the
students using a visual animation. They were then asked to solve the following numerical
example: Radiometric measurements have shown that exactly 25 % of the radioactive carbon
nuclei are present in rock A (the half-life of carbon is 5 730 years)? How old is this rock? Students
showed the lowest level of interest in this task, with only 51 % of students finding it interesting.
Conversely, a full 10 % said they were not interested in the task at all.
The following table provides a quantified view of the students' perceptions of the individual
learning activities and topics that received attention. The highest values for a positive relationship
are achieved for the learning topic the way rocks are formed and their properties (74.1 %), and
223 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

for a negative relationship for the topic time in geology- absolute timing (10.0 %). For the
instructional strategies evaluated, activities observation (81.1 %) and modelling geologic
structures (81.4 %) are highly positively rated. The frequency of expressing negative attitudes is
balanced and ranges approximately between 1% and 2% of the relative abundance of student
responses. (Table 2).

Table 2. Students' interest in geological learning topics and strategies.

Relative frequency of student
Categories Concepts interest ratings in relation to the
concept (%)
Positive Negative Neutral
attitude attitude attitude
Rock formation and 74.1 2.2 23.3
properties
geological processes and 66.7 1.1 32.2
Structures in the landscape
Learning topic
Time in geology- relative 63.3 4.4 32.2
ages of rocks
Time in geology- absolute 51.1 10.0 38.9
timing
Observations 81.1 2.2 16.7
Geological sketch of 73.3 1.1 25.6
observed structures
Learning strategy Modelling of geological 84.4 2.2 13.3
structures
Inductive-deductive 61.1 1.1 37.8
methods

Statistical significance of differences in the frequencies of positive and negative evaluations of

individual learning activities was also tested by chi-square goodness-of-fit test at the significance
level of p < 5. Statistical significance was confirmed for highly positive evaluations of all learning
topics and strategies. At the same time, a statistically significant difference was confirmed for the
negative evaluation of the learning topic time in geology- absolute time determination when
compared to the negative evaluation of the other instructional topics. The possible dependence
of students' ratings of interest in instructional topics and strategies in relation to school types was
tested by ANOVA analysis of variance. However, this test did not confirm statistical significance.
In addition to the actual assessment of interest in specific learning topics and strategies, students
often cited other influences that affected their interest. Thus, students rated the overall teaching
style and approach of the teacher, the inclusion of teaching methods they were not used to from
regular classes, the interest of the chosen topics, their understanding of the content, and whether
or not they liked geology. These responses were then conceptualized and structured into a
category identified as learning environment. The quantification of each response is presented in
the following table (see Table 3).

Table 3. Possible influence of selected factors of the learning environment on students' interest in the
geological learning topics
Relative frequency of occurrence
Category Concepts
in student responses (%)
Of which Of which
positively negatively
total evaluated evaluated
Time consumption of the 7.8 0 7.8
learning activity
Learning content 23.2 11.1 12.2
Teaching style 12.2 12.2 0
Learning environment
Teacher's personality 3.3 3.3 0
Students' relationship to 12.3 0 12.3
geology
224 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Many of the students were concerned with learning content, with 23.2 % of the students, with the
ratio of positive and negative responses more or less even. Approximately 12 % of students'
responses were negative about timekeeping in geology, particularly the activity based on
calculating half-lives. The reason often cited was reluctance to count and tiredness, as this activity
was only included at the end of the teaching block. On the contrary, 11.1 % of the students
appreciated the interestingness of the chosen topics positively. Time-consuming was mentioned
in less than 8% of the students' answers. Its negative evaluation was related to the overall length
of the lesson and the fatigue they felt at the end. Overall, they also commented positively on the
teaching style (about 12 % of the responses) and the personality of the teacher, which was
mentioned by about 3 % of the students. In the teaching style, students appreciate most group
work and sharing ideas with classmates in the group and with the teacher. The last concept
evaluated was the students' relationship with geology. Students who mentioned this rated it
negatively overall (all 12.3 % responses). However, about 7 % of these students also stated that
although they did not enjoy/enjoy geology, the teaching topics and tasks presented were
interesting.

Discussion

This study shows an insight into the teaching of geology with an emphasis on the impact of
different teaching strategies on interest in geological content. One of the key findings is that
students value demonstrative and hands-on methods that allow them to work directly with rock
material or visualize geological processes. This is supported by positive evaluations of tasks that
focused on hands-on exploration of rocks and geological processes. This is particularly evident
in the evaluation of the teaching strategies of observing and modelling geological structures,
which aroused the interest of more than 80% of all students interviewed. This high situational
interest in observing and modelling geological objects may be influenced by how these teaching
strategies directly engage students and allow them to engage in hands-on exploration and
experimentation. For example, students were surprised by how the structure of a rock can provide
information about the nature of the environment in which it was formed. Thus, direct interaction
with the natural world, combined with group work and appropriately guided discussion, can
significantly aid deeper understanding and make connections between theoretical concepts in the
students' learning process (cf. [7], [19], [20]). At the same time, it can be stated that the student's
interest in observing rocks and modelling geological structures also stimulated their interest in the
content of the curriculum presented by these learning activities. Teaching focused on the structure
and formation of rocks, identification of fossils and geological processes was positively evaluated
by a significant majority of students. This fact could indicate the interconnection of situational
interest, which arises primarily as a student's personal interest in an interesting or unusual
situation, with the student's deeper engagement with the learning content related to the situation
(cf. [3]). It is interesting to note that although some topics, such as absolute timekeeping in
geology, may be difficult for students, there is still a level of interest. The difficulty of this topic is
due to its high level of abstractness in understanding the spatial-temporal relationships of
geological events and objects, which is reflected in students' disinterest and overall dislike of the
topic (cf. [4], [5]). In our research, it did not go unnoticed that although a statistically significant
10% of students reported that the task aimed at calculating the absolute age of a rock did not
interest them, half of the students were still interested in the topic. This may indicate that even if
some activities are more challenging, they can still provide a valuable learning experience for a
proportion of students. The interest of some of the students here may have stemmed from the
interest in the issue of determining the age of rocks, which is not commonly included in
mainstream teaching, and the overall interdisciplinary approach of geology to investigating the
Earth's geological past.
Another key aspect that emerges from the results is the importance of the learning environment
and the role of the teacher in the learning process. Students often reported that the teaching style,
the personality of the teacher and their own relationship with geology influenced their interest and
perception of the learning activities. For the most part, the lessons were based on a problem-
based learning style, and students had many opportunities to discuss their ideas and validate
their relevance with the teacher and other classmates. By making the individual learning tasks
logically related to each other, allowed students to appropriately use inductive-deductive learning
strategies and to become aware of the interrelationships between the findings.
Some of the students who stated that they had never been interested in learning about geology,
yet were intrigued by the learning unit illustrate the importance of situational interest here. This
highlights the importance of pedagogical skills, the motivational role of the teacher, and the
adaptation of teaching strategies to the needs and interests of the students.
225 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Conclusion

Based on the results and discussion provided, here are five key points summarizing the main
conclusions of the study:
(1) Hands-on exploration increases engagement: tasks that involved direct interaction with
geological materials, such as observing rocks and modelling geological structures, significantly
increased student interest. More than 80% of students found these activities engaging,
highlighting the importance of hands-on, demonstration-based methods in geology education.
(2) Positive acceptance of hands-on strategies in teaching topics: Activities focused on a rock
formation, geologic processes, and modelling received high positive ratings from students,
indicating that teaching strategies that allow students to visualize and directly engage with
geologic concepts promote deeper understanding and interest.
(3) Tasks with abstract concepts: while the hands-on tasks received considerable interest, topics
such as absolute time measurement in geology presented a challenge due to their abstract
nature. Despite this difficulty, approximately half of the students found value and interest in these
topics, suggesting that even complex topics can find resonance with some students.
(4) The importance of the learning environment and pedagogical skills: the study highlights the
key role of pedagogical skills and the need for teachers to adapt their strategies to the needs and
interests of students. Although some students were initially uninterested in geology, effective
teaching methods could stimulate their curiosity, highlighting the motivational role of the teacher
in shaping the learning experience.
In essence, the study emphasizes the value of hands-on teaching methods and problem solving
in geology while highlighting the key role of the learning environment and teacher's approach in
promoting student engagement and understanding.

Acknowledgment

This study received financial support from the institutional grant GDF_PdF_2023_06 provided by
the Faculty of Education, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic.

REFERENCES

[1] Ainley, M., Hidi, S., & Berndorff, D. (2002). Interest, learning, and the psychological
processes that mediate their relationship. Journal of educational psychology, 94(3), 545-
561.
[2] Krapp, A. (2002). Structural and dynamic aspects of interest development: Theoretical
considerations from an ontogenetic perspective. Learning and instruction, 12(4), 383-
409.
[3] Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (2006). The four-phase model of interest
development. Educational psychologist, 41(2), 111-127.
[4] King, H. (2012). Student difficulties in learning geoscience. Planet, 25(1), 40-47.
[5] Cheek, K. A., LaDue, N. D., & Shipley, T. F. (2017). Learning about spatial and temporal
scale: Current research, psychological processes, and classroom implications. Journal of
Geoscience Education, 65(4), 455-472.
[6] Dove, J. E. (1998). Students’ alternative conceptions in Earth science: A review of
research and implications for teaching and learning. Research Papers in Education,
13(2), 183-201.
[7] Remmen, K. B., & Frøyland, M. (2020). Students’ use of observation in geology: towards
“scientific observation” in rock classification. International Journal of Science Education,
42(1), 113-132.
[8] Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments
examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin,
125(6), 627–668.
[9] Harackiewicz, J. M., & Sansone, C. (2000). Rewarding competence: The importance of
goals in the study of intrinsic motivation. In Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (pp. 79-103).
Academic Press.
[10] Simpkins, S. D., Fredricks, J., Davis-Kean, P., & Eccles, J. S. (2006). Healthy minds,
healthy habits: The influence of activity involvement in middle childhood. In A. Huston,
&M. Ripke (Eds.), Developmental contexts in middle childhood: Bridges to adolescence
and adulthood (pp. 283–302). New York: Cambridge University Press.
[11] Wigfield, A., Eccles, J. S., Schiefele, U., Roeser, R. W., & Davis-Kean, P. (2006).
Development of Achievement Motivation. In N. Eisenberg, W. Damon, & R. M. Lerner
(Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality
development (pp. 933–1002). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
226 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[12] Lavigne, G. L., & Vallerand, R. J. (2010). The dynamic processes of influence between
contextual and situational motivation: A test of the hierarchical model in a science
education setting. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(9), 2343-2359.
[13] Seward, J. P. (1963). The structure of functional autonomy. American Psychologist,
18(11), 703–710.
[14] Hidi, S., & Berndorff, D. (1998). Situational interest and learning. In Interest and learning:
Proceedings of the See on Conference on Interest and Gender (pp. 74-90). IPN, Kiel,
Germany
[15] Krapp, A. (1999). Interest, motivation and learning: An educational-psychological
perspective. European journal of psychology of education, 14, 23-40.
[16] Hidi, S. (2001). Interest, reading, and learning: Theoretical and practical
considerations. Educational psychology review, 13, 191-209.
[17] Schraw, G., Flowerday, T., & Lehman, S. (2001). Increasing situational interest in the
classroom. Educational Psychology Review, 13, 211-224.
[18] Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1994). Grounded theory methodology: An overview. In N. K.
Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 273–285). Sage
Publications, Inc.
[19] Balliet, R. N., Riggs, E. M., & Maltese, A. V. (2015). Students' problem-solving
approaches for developing geologic models in the field. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 52(8), 1109-1131.
[20] Kang, J., & Keinonen, T. (2018). The effect of student-centered approaches on students’
interest and achievement in science: Relevant topic-based, open and guided inquiry-
based, and discussion-based approaches. Research in science education, 48, 865-885.
227 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Extra Curricula Activities

228 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Let's Go Out!

Popular Outdoor Education - Limiting Factors Versus Positives

Dagmar Vašutová1, Irena Vrbová2

Department of Biology, Faculty of Education, Palacký University in Olomouc

Czech Republic1,2

Abstract

Outdoor education (OE) has been seen as a powerful teaching strategy in recent years, especially
in science education. Numerous types of methods and forms of teaching can be used, and several
authors have reviewed their descriptions. Hence, the authors of this article decided to analyse the
situation with outdoor science education in Czech schools, where it is not yet mapped in detail.
The research was performed by using a questionnaire study, to which several teachers from
elementary schools in all regions of the Czech Republic responded. Two hundred and sixty-one
questionnaires were received in an online form (by Survio platform) and then they were
processed. The authors focused on four main points - namely the location of the school (rural
versus urban) and the effect of school location on the frequency of OE. Next, on the barriers and
positives of OE. The regular frequency of OE at the shortest evaluated intervals (once a week)
was up to 10 times higher in village schools (it was also statistically confirmed by the Chi-square
test). The Likert scale was used to discuss the limiting factors of OE. Teachers most often marked
the weather as the very inhibiting element (169 respondents). On the other hand, the risk of
accident or injury during lessons was cited as the least limiting (16 respondents). The respondents
mentioned twenty-eight positive effects of OE. The authors classified these 28 points into three
areas: improved learning methods, health benefits, and improved pupils' education. Our
respondents chose that the biggest benefit of OE is being in the fresh air (56 % of respondents).
The second classification was based on different types of teaching and learning strategies. The
authors identified three main types of learning / teaching activities: 1) place-based education, 2)
experience-based learning, and 3) real-world learning. From the results, and not only from our
research, it is also evident that OE is a form of teaching and learning that has many positive
aspects and, although it has its limits, it should be fully powered in schools for all age pupils'
categories.

Keywords: science education, outdoor education, frequency of outdoor education, positives, and limits of
outdoor education

1. Theoretical Background

Science education is an essential part of the curriculum in elementary school education in Czech
Republic. Various methods and education forms can facilitate teachers' education processes of
science subjects. Outdoor education (OE) is one of them. Through direct experience in the
outdoors, people learn about nature, themselves, and their place in their community [1]. It can be
realized in various forms by different methods – as an excursion, field education, field trips, being
at school gardens or schoolyard, outdoor activities, outdoor working, or by outdoor education
programs [1], [2], [3], [4]. Several authors discuss being outdoors during school education in
connection with sustainability and environmental education (in connection with environmental
education itself [1] or as a “sustainability education” which is obtained from all forms of
environmental education, education for sustainable development, and sustainable development
education mentioned by Jeronen et al. [5]. Another group of authors highlights the health benefits
of outdoor learning (promoting physical activity; promoting healthy youth development; and
promoting positive effects on learners' healthy style and food literacy [6], [7], [8], [9], [10]). Another
important benefit of OE is providing better learning conditions [6], [11] or it can positively affect
science achievement [12]. In summary, OE focuses on the role of nature, risk, adventure, skill
development, and social-interpersonal development [13] and outdoor activities include overall
interdisciplinary aspects of the world outside the school and support developing a relationship
with nature [1].
229 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

With OE, we can also cross-refer with innovative learning methods and forms used nowadays
during science education – placed-based education, real-world learning, experience-based
learning, garden-based learning, or problem-based learning, which is part of all discussed forms.
Whereas OE leads to exploring the world outside the classroom and develops, and deepens the
relationship of pupils to the place where they live, it can be possible to link it with place-based
education (PBE) [10]. According to Sobel [14] is a place-based education process of using the
local community and environment. Smith [15] mentioned that this type of education serves to
strengthen children's connection to others and to the region in which they live. Both publications
point out that place-based education is closely connected with real-world learning (RWL).
Because of obtaining a lot of new knowledge, skills, and experience in real life [15]. Sobel [14]
talked about using a local community and an environment with a focus on hands-on learning and
just on real-world learning. Morley & Jamil [16] discussed RWL as a long-term, experiential, and
applied learning. These authors referred again to the close relationship between this type of
learning and sustainability and environmental education. It also exists the “Real-World Learning
Network” (RWLn), which developed the “Hand model” to support educators in the development
of “Outdoor Learning for Sustainability” (OLfS) and to help prepare a deeper and more meaningful
learning experience in outdoor environmental education programs [17], [18], [19]. “The
importance of being experienced” is a central part of the ethical philosophy of Aristotle (referenced
in Saugstad [20]). Experience plays an important role in how knowledge is learned. Saugstad [20]
published a representative motto of experience-based learning (EBL) – “Practise makes perfect!”.
About same idea also talked Kolb [21] in his book “Experiential Learning: Experience as the
Source of Learning and Development”. The common usage of the term “experiential learning”
defines a particular form of learning from life experience – which often contrasts with classroom
learning.
There are several positives of OE cited by the authors mentioned above – positive effect on social
and personal competence, positive effect on environmental competence, better memorizing of
information, providing of long-term learning, evoking empathy for nature, healthy bodies, and
positive lifestyle, giving meaningfulness to the topic, etc. [2], [4], [9], [10]. Waite [9] also reports
that his study shows that different types of OE appear to be linked to different positives (visiting
national parks or nature reserves promotes care for others and the environment; natural
environment play, or outdoor adventure education promotes a healthy and positive lifestyle). On
the other hand, there are many barriers to the realization of OE. For example, tradition and
stereotypes in schools, poor biology teachers' training, financial possibilities of schools, etc. [4],
[9]. Oberle et al. [22] identified from their research major themes regarding barriers and supports
for OE - teacher characteristics, systemic factors in the education system, culture, and
environment.
Finally, OE and its realization in elementary, secondary, or higher education are mapped in
several countries, most often by meta-studies [1], [2], [4], etc. Outdoor education (named in this
case as “out-of-school learning”) in selected European countries, including Czech Republic, was
described in a large study by Bilek et al. [10]. Widely research was conducted by Waite [9] –
dozens of respondents from nineteen states evaluated OE.

2. Methodology

Hence, due to the importance of strengthening the position of outdoor learning in Czech schools
and adding information about the real implementation of this, the authors of this paper try to map
the situation about outdoor education by questionnaire study in elementary schools across the
Czech regions. Research on OE was done among biology teachers (respondents) from Czech
elementary schools in the form of a questionnaire study. The questionnaire consisted of 26
questions and was self-constructed. In this present study, four selected questions that were part
of the questionnaire mentioned above are discussed. The questionnaire was anonymous, for
easy distribution was made in the online platform Survio (by email, and through social networks).
In this way, 261 questionnaires were returned from addressed respondents and then they were
processed. Respondents were from 14 regions; 93 % were female, and 7 % male. The length of
teaching practice was from zero to more than 32 years and 89 % of teachers had biology
approbation.
Firstly, the location of the elementary school was asked – in the form of a dichotomous question
with the choice of "town" or "village" (this question was a part of the questions leading to the
characteristics of the study group). The second question evaluated the frequency of OE in
elementary schools in Czech Republic depending on the location of the school (rural, urban) (the
main research question). The next two questions focused on the limiting factors and positives of
outdoor education (other goals of the present research). The authors specified the eight main
limiting factors for OE and respondents then rated their importance using a five-point Likert scale.
Positives of OE were asked in the form of an open question with a simple cognitive difficulty.
230 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Respondents' answers were coded in MS Excel and further sorted by selected characters. The
resulting data of all questions were processed in MS Excel and MS Word and were evaluated
using the descriptive statistics method [23]. The types of questions, the specific text of the
questions, and other questionaries’ points are presented in Table 1. The main objective of the
present research was to map the frequency of OE in elementary schools among biology teachers
mostly based on whether the studied school is in a town or a village. The authors worked with the
specified hypothesis: “Outdoor education is more often realized in rural elementary schools than
in urban schools.” This hypothesis was statistically confirmed (see results). The other research
questions were: “What are the most common limiting factors and positives of OE identified by
teachers?”.

Table 1. Selected valued questions from the questionnaire focused on OE in elementary schools in Czech
Republic

Number Research Type of The specific Offered answer

of Interest question formulation of the
questions question
characteristics of 1) town
a dichotomous Where is the school 2) village
1. the research
question where you teach?
group

characteristics of 1) once a week

the research a closed What is the frequency of 2) once a month
2. group; testing the multiple-choice outdoor education at
3) quarterly
main research question your school?
4) once a year
question
5) different
1) weather
2) outdoor school
facilities
3) attitude and support
a closed of school
multiple choice management
research What do you think are
question
questions on the the limiting factors in the 4) the lack of time
3. (assessment of 5) the absence of
limiting factors of implementation of
opinion using a specific tools
OE outdoor education?
five-point Likert 6) the teacher's
scale) preparing
7) the risk of accident
or injury
8) unsuitable dressed
pupils

Which are the three free responses (the

research
an open biggest positives of authors coded 28
4. questions on the
question outdoor education in responses from the
positives of OE
your opinion? questionnaire results)

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. The Frequency of OE Influenced by the Location of the School – The Differences
Between Urban and Rural Schools

Two hundred and sixty-one questionnaires from biology teachers (respondents) were evaluated
in this research. One hundred and seventy-seven respondents were from urban schools (68 %)
and eighty-four were from rural schools (32 %). The question examining the frequency of OE at
these schools was designed as a closed-multiple choice question. Respondents chose from
specified five answers (once a week, once o month, quarterly, once a year, and different
answers). The main results are seen in Figure 1. This figure clearly shows that rural schools
reached a higher frequency of OE realized once a week than urban schools (20 % versus 2 %).
Rural schools generally showed a lower frequency of responses for decreasing the frequency of
OE (teachers were most likely to respond that they realized outdoor education once a month (26
%); they marked zero percent for realization of OE once a year). The opposite trend was observed
for urban schools, with the highest percentage of teachers in these schools responding that they
most frequently realized OE quarterly (38 %). Teachers of both types of schools presented also
231 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

different answers, for example: “According to weather”; “Only in warm months or days”; “Several
times a year”; “Twice a year” or “Twice a month”.

50%

Relative values of corresponding

45%
40% 38%

35%
29%

responents
30% 26% 25%
25% 20% 20% 20% 21%
20%
15%
10%
5% 2% 0%
0%
once a week once a quarterly once a year different
month
Frequency of outdoor learning
town village
Linear (town) Linear (village)

Figure 1. The frequency of realization of OE depends on the location of the studied schools.

This research question was also statistically significant. The null hypothesis ("The location of the
school does not affect the frequency of implementation of OE.") was rejected based on the result
of the Chi-square test. There is less than a 1% probability that such frequencies are random.
Thus, there is a statistically significant effect of the frequency of OE on whether the school is in
an urban or rural area. Selected manuscripts compared the rural versus urban schools within the
other education areas – especially the area of physical activity. For example, Tian et al. [24]
compared physical fitness, and out-of-school physical activity among pupils in towns and villages.
Their findings revealed that the physical activity of urban schools was lower than the fitness of
rural children. Differences between the effects on the frequency of children's direct natural
experiences of rural or urban school locations were presented in the paper of Mustapa et al. [25].
Rural children have slightly more direct experiences with nature compared to children in urban
areas. Nevertheless, this study finally highlighted the importance of reconnecting both urban and
rural children with nature.

3.2. The Limiting Factors and Positives of Outdoor Education

The third question stated selected limiting factors for OE design by authors. Most of them are also
often presented in published papers [4], [9], [22]. The list of factors with the statements is available
in Table 2. The respondents reacted to the question of what is the most limiting about OE by
expressing their level of agreement or disagreement using a five-point Likert scale (very limiting
– limiting – neutral – unlimiting – totally limiting). Respondents cited weather as the most limiting
factor. The statement “Weather” was marked the most often in the first Likert scale item "very
limiting" - 169 times (65%). In this item, the respondents marked as a totally unlimiting statement
“The risk of accident or injury” (only 16 respondents / 6 %). On the other hand, as a totally
unlimiting factor (the last item according to the Likert scale) teachers indicated the first-place
statement “Attitude and support of school management” (119 respondents / 46 %). Various
barriers appeared across the nations represented in the survey publication by Waite [9]. The
respondents from several countries (Canada, UK, Ireland, Poland, etc.) mentioned lacking
confidence in working outside in the first place as the main barriers for OE. As other barriers were
mentioned uncertainty about linking to curriculum, the need for volunteer support, and some
respondents discussed health and safety concerns. However, this barrier reported only three
people from 80 tested respondents (it was less than four percent) - which is a similarly low number
as in our research. Surprisingly, there were no references to bad weather conditions. The effect
of the environment, in the form of extreme temperatures or extreme weather conditions but
mentioned by Oberle et al. [22]. In this paper, there were listed other barriers according to the
environment – e.g., no transport to outdoor spaces available. Various meta-studies, for example
Činčera & Holec [4] presented general problems of outdoor education as self-efficacy of teachers,
financial limits, pupils' safety, and more, and they focused on barriers to massive implementation
of fieldwork in education. They recommended erasing boundaries between indoor and outdoor
education. The specific values for the external items on the Likert scale are given in Table 2. A
232 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

detailed view of the responses in the individual Likert scale items to each statement is shown in
Figure 2.

Table 2. Respondents' values of external Likert scale items – very limiting and totally unlimiting factors for
the realization of OE

The list of limiting factors (ranked by Very limiting Totally unlimiting

how respondents answered what they Absolute Relative Absolute Relative
found most limiting) values values values values
1. Weather 169 65% 2 1%
2. The lack of time 99 38% 27 10%
3. Outdoor school facilities 69 26% 31 12%
4. The teacher's preparing 51 20% 42 16%
Attitude and support of school
45 17% 119 46%
5. management
6. The absence of specific tools 42 16% 58 22%
7. Unsuitable dressed pupils 22 8% 51 20%
8. The risk of accident or injury 16 6% 70 2%

Unsuitable dressed pupils

Various limited factors of outdoor learning

The risk of accident or injury

The teacher's preparing

The abscence of specific toolls

The lack of time

Attitude and support of school management

Outdoor school facilities

Wheather

0 50 100 150 200 250

The number of correspondig responents (absolute values)

very limiting limiting neutral unliming totally unlimiting

Figure 2. The view of all respondents’ attitudes to selected limiting factors for the realization of outdoor
education.

The last evaluated question was asked as an open question. The respondents answered the
question “Which are the three biggest positives of outdoor education in your opinion?”. In total
780 responses were obtained from 261 teachers. The authors coded 28 items. They are
summarized in Table 3. Learning in the fresh air was listed in the first place (147 respondents /
56 %). Other positives that were mentioned within the first three positions are demonstrative
learning (111 respondents / 43 %) and learning in nature (88 respondents / 34 %). On the other
side, the lowest number of teachers mentioned “the benefits of solar radiation” as a positive effect
of OE (4 respondents / 2 %). Interestingly, the last places are also occupied by opinions such as
“exploring the surroundings” and “relaxed pupils” or “getting out of the comfort zone” (which lists
only the units of teachers). According to references, the positives outweigh the barriers of OE.
The large-scale survey [9] discussed various forms of outdoor education (forest school, field
studies, school gardening, etc.) with the context of various positive effects on pupils (healthy
bodies, connected people, creative learners, care about the environment, etc.). The highest
number of statements were obtained for the statement “Healthy bodies and positive lifestyle” (90
% of respondents connected this statement with early years outdoor activities, which fits in part
with our most valued “learning in fresh air”). The second statement with the highest number was
“Care for others and the environment” (92 % of respondents connected this statement with visits
to national parks, which corresponds with our value of “learning in nature”). In addition, large
meta-studies, e.g., Činčera & Holec [4] reported a positive effect on students' knowledge,
memorization, attitudes, skills, and behavior. They reported a more positive effect on social and
personal, and environmental competencies. Like Rickinson et al. [2], they pointed out that careful
planning and adequate content are especially important for high-quality outdoor education.
233 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Subsequently, in the second step of the evaluation of this question, the authors decided to
categorize the coded positives according to two criteria. The first criterion was based on which
target group was most affected by the activities that had positive effects mentioned by the
teachers. The authors determined three groups – 1) activities, that improved learning methods
(meaning activities that provide better learning conditions for students); 2) health benefit activities
(for both – students and teachers); 3) activities, that improved pupils' education (meaning
activities that provide better teaching conditions). The most presented positives, according to the
authors of this article, are related to improving learning methods. In summaries of all the positives
of outdoor education, several authors list the strengthening of teaching strategies at the top of
their lists [1], [10], [11].
The second criterion was inspired by selected points mentioned by teachers, which directly (or
indirectly) corresponded to specific teaching strategies described in the literature. For example,
exploring the surroundings (place-based education (PBE); e.g. [15]), getting out of the comfort
zone (specific characterization of experience-based learning (EBL), e.g. [20]), and points
corresponding with real-world learning (RWL) (for example outdoor working, learning in nature,
multidisciplinary, etc, e.g. [17]). Both criteria are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3. The list of coded items that were characterized by teachers as the most positive factors affecting
outdoor education (the table also contains a classification of the items into different groups according to
the target of action and according to the different teaching methods by authors).

The list of positive factors (ranked Absolute Relative Target group Education forms**
from most frequently cited to least values values criterion*
frequently cited)
1. Learning in fresh air 147 56 % HB RWL, EBL, PBE
2. Demonstrative learning 111 43 % LMI EBL, PBE,
3. Learning in nature 88 34 % LMI, HB RWL, EBL, PBE
4. Modification of learning 76 29 % LMI RWL, EBL, PBE
5. Practical application 39 15 % LMI, PEI RWL, EBL, PBE
6. The opportunity to move 30 11 % HB RWL, EBL, PBE
7. Using the living exhibits 30 11 % LMI, PEI RWL, EBL, PBE
8. The relationship to nature 26 10 % PEI, LMI RWL, EBL, PBE
9. Connecting theory with practice 23 9% LMI, PEI RWL, EBL, PBE
10. Learning with humour 20 8% LMI RWL, EBL, PBE
11. Better memorizing 19 7% LMI, PEI RWL, EBL, PBE
12. Availability of nature tools 19 7% LMI RWL, EBL, PBE
13. Interest for learning 18 7% LMI RWL, EBL, PBE
14. Active pupils 15 6% PEI RWL, EBL, PBE
15. Interdisciplinarity 15 6% LMI RWL, EBL, PBE
16. Outdoor working 13 5% HB, LMI RWL, EBL, PBE
17. Pupils' experiments 12 5% PEI RWL
18. Pupils enjoy it more 11 4% PEI RWL, EBL, PBE
19. Freedom 11 4% PEI, LMI, HB RWL, EBL, PBE
20. The opportunity to explore 11 4% LMI PBE, RWL
21. Pupils' attention 7 3% PEI, LMI EBL, RWL, PBE
22. Pupils’ relaxation 7 3% PEI, HB RWL, EBL, PBE
23. Pupils' cooperation 6 2% LMI, PEI RWL, EBL, PBE
24. Meaningfulness 6 2% PEI, LMI RWL, EBL, PBE
25. Getting out of the comfort zone 6 2% LMI EBL, RWL
26. Relaxed pupils 5 2% PEI, HB RWL
27. Exploring the surroundings 5 2% LMI PBE, RLW, EBL
28. The benefits of solar radiation 4 2% HB PBE, RLW, EBL
Explanatory notes:
*Various types of target groups: HB (health benefits); LMI (learning methods improving); PEI (pupils'
education improving).
**Various types of education forms: PBE (place-based education); EBL (experience-based learning);
RWL (real-world learning).
234 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4. Conclusion

The data obtained from research on outdoor education in several Czech regions is very valuable
and can be used to conclude some important aspects of outdoor learning practiced in our
education process. In this paper, we evaluated the frequency of OE in rural and urban schools. It
was statistically confirmed that outdoor education is more often implemented in schools in
villages. In other steps, we discussed the limiting barriers and positives of OE. It is highly
questionable, that respondents mention being outdoors / being in fresh air as the biggest positive
of outdoor learning, and at the same time, they speak about weather as the most limiting factor
for them. It is therefore evident that the Czech teachers' view of outdoor education can be very
controversial. Furthermore, the authors were able to show that OE is more often realized in rural
schools. This may be caused by the fact that rural schools are much smaller than urban schools
and have the possibility of closer contact with nature. Perhaps, teachers in rural schools are more
used to spending time outdoors and the weather is not as limiting for them. The authors of the
article also processed the coded positives mentioned by the respondents and classified them into
several groups. The results show that most positives fall into the potential of outdoor learning to
strengthen teaching strategies and to implement real-world learning and other modern strategies
through it. Either way, outdoor learning is an important teaching strategy for science education
and will be given more and more emphasis in the future, regardless of the limiting factors of the
outdoor environment.

Acknowledgement

This study received financial support from the institutional grant GFD_PdF_2023_06 provided by
the Faculty of Education, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic.

REFERENCES

[1] Gilbertson, K., Ewert, A., Siklander, P., & Bates, T. Outdoor education: Methods and
strategies. Human Kinetics. 2022.
[2] Rickinson, M., Dillon, J. Teamey, K., Morris, M., Choi, M. Y., Sanders, D. & Benefield, P.
A review of Research on Outdoor Learning. London, National Foundation for Educational
Research and King’s College London. 2004.
[3] Dyment, J. E. & Potter, T. G. Is outdoor education a discipline? Provocations and
possibilities. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 15(3), 2015, 193 –
208.
[4] Činčera, J. & Holec, J. Terénní výuka ve formálním vzdělávání. Envigogika, 11(2), 2016.
[5] Jeronen, E., Palmberg, I. & Yli-Panula, E. Teaching methods in biology education and
sustainability education including outdoor education for promoting sustainability - A
literature review. Education Sciences, 7(1), 2016.
[6] Ozer, E. J. The effects of school gardens on students and schools: Conceptualization and
considerations for maximizing healthy development. Health education & behavior, 34(6),
2007. 846 – 863.
[7] Becker, C., Lauterbach, G., Spengler, S., Dettweiler, U., & Mess, F. Effects of regular
classes in outdoor education settings: A systematic review on students’ learning, social
and health dimensions. International journal of environmental research and public health,
14(5), 2017.
[8] Williams, D. Garden-based education. In Oxford research encyclopedia of education.
2018.
[9] Waite, S. Where are we going? International views on purposes, practices and barriers
in school-based outdoor learning. Education Sciences, 10(11), 2020.
[10] Bilek, M., Rusek, M. & Milanović, V. Out-of-School Learning in the Czechia. Out-of-School
Learning in European Countries: Cases from Turkey, Czechia, Slovakia, and Germany,
48, 2021.
[11] Nadelson, L. S., & Jordan, J. R. Student attitudes toward and recall of outside day: An
environmental science field trip. The Journal of Educational Research, 105(3), 2012, 220
– 231.
[12] Rios, J. M., & Brewer, J. Outdoor education and science achievement. Applied
Environmental Education & Communication, 13(4), 2014, 234 – 240.
[13] Potter, T. G. & Dyment, J. E. Is Outdoor Education A Discipline? Insights, Gaps and
Future Directions. Journal Of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning,16(2), 2016,
146 – 159.
[14] Sobel, D. Place-based education: Connecting classroom and community. Nature and
listening, 4(1), 2004, 1 – 7.
235 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[15] Smith, G. A. Place-based education: Learning to be where we are. Phi delta kappan,
83(8), 2002, 584 – 594.
[16] Morley, D. A., Jamil, Md G. Introduction: Real world learning—recalibrating the higher
education response towards application to lifelong learning and diverse career paths.
Applied Pedagogies for Higher Education: Real World Learning and Innovation across
the Curriculum, 2021, 1 – 17.
[17] Winks, L. Real World Learning: toward a differentiated framework for outdoor learning for
sustainability. Envigogika, 10(3), 2015.
[18] Činčera, Jan. Real World Learning: a critical analysis. Envigogika, 10(3), 2015.
[19] RWL. https://www.rwlnetwork.org/, 2020
[20] Saugstad, T. The importance of being experienced: An Aristotelian perspective on
experience and experience-based learning. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 32,
2013, 7 – 23.
[21] Kolb, D. A. Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.
FT Press, 2014.
[22] Oberle, E., Zeni, M., Munday, F., & Brussoni, M. Support factors and barriers for outdoor
learning in elementary schools: A systemic perspective. American Journal of Health
Education, 52(5), 2021, 251 – 256.
[23] Chráska, M. Metody pedagogického výzkumu. Grada Publishing as. 2016.
[24] Tian, Y., Liu, L., Wang, X., Zhang, X., Zhai, Y., Wang, K., & Liu, J. Urban-rural differences
in physical fitness and out-of-school physical activity for primary school students: A
county-level comparison in western China. International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health, 18(20), 10813, 2021.
[25] Mustapa, N. D., Maliki, N. Z., Aziz, N. F., & Hamzah, A. The differences of nature
experiences between urban and rural children. Geografia, 14(4), 2018, 225 – 237.
236 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Regarding Collaborative Efforts among Universities, High

Schools and Boards of Education to Develop Scientific Skills

Mika Tsuyukubo1, Masayuki Takahashi2, Mariko Haraguchi3

Naoko Yamada4, Takuya Mochida5

Toyo University, Japan1

Saitama Prefectural board of education, Japan2,3
Saitama Prefectural Ina Gakuen Comprehensive Upper Secondary School, Japan4
Saitama Prefectural Sugito Agricultural High School, Japan5

Abstract

In order to increase high school students' interest in science and deepen their understanding, it
is thought that not only regular classes but also organizational efforts in collaboration with
universities and boards of education are effective. Therefore, universities, high schools, and the
Board of Education have collaborated to hold a course that aims to explore the appeal of science
beyond regular classes, and I would like to report on this initiative. The target schools were two
schools in Saitama Prefecture, and the study was conducted for half a day. Participants were
informed and recruited from the Saitama Prefectural Board of Education and the participating
schools, and the content was related to cooking science, which is the specialized field of university
instructors, and included instrumental measurement and measurement of the various
physicochemical changes that occur during cooking. The analysis included sensory evaluation.
For example, in a course on puffed cooking, we used cupcakes as the subject matter and
conducted experiments to clarify the effects of different amounts of added sugar on the finished
product. We started the experiment by first thinking about what kind of differences would emerge,
and encouraging participants to take an observational perspective during the experiment.
Objective comparative verification was carried out by observing the air bubbles in the dough using
a microscope, measuring the hardness of the baked dough using a hardness meter, and
measuring the color of the dough using a colorimeter. After the experiment, they explained the
mechanism behind the effect of sugar on differences in leavening properties, and shared
knowledge about the denaturation of egg proteins, thermal expansion of air bubbles, and the
Maillard reaction. The high school students who participated were very interested in the course,
which had a different structure from their regular classes, and had a high level of satisfaction after
taking the course. It has been suggested that the course, which was realized through collaboration
between universities, high schools, and boards of education, is effective as a system that allows
students to approach science beyond the framework of academic subjects while still being based
on the high school curriculum.

Keywords: Collaboration, high school, cooking science

1. Introduction

Various learning methods are used in class to increase high school students' interest in science
and deepen their understanding, but it is also effective to arouse further interest and increase
motivation for learning through learning that goes beyond the framework of the subject. In
addition, as a method for realizing curriculum management and career education as indicated in
the new course of study for high school, there is a perspective of fostering qualifications and
abilities while collaborating and collaborating with society [1]. However, in order to make this a
reality, there are limits to what high schools can do alone, and collaboration with outside parties
is essential. The author has been working with third-year junior high school students since 2019
to explore a single theme for one year. By conducting research activities in collaboration with on-
site faculty, it is possible to pursue deep learning that goes beyond the framework of regular
classes and subjects, but it is important to build the foundation of a system for this purpose [2]. It
would be great to be able to share some of the highly specialized learning that universities offer
with high school students, but in many cases, it is difficult to link the supply and demand of both
high schools and universities. I have heard that even if a high school has a request for
collaboration with a university, it is difficult to directly contact university instructors with whom they
have no acquaintance, and they may hesitate. In the first place, it may be unclear where
237 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

universities or university instructors with the expertise to respond to requests are located. In this
way, there are few opportunities for high school and university teachers to interact with each
other, and creating opportunities for collaboration is often a challenge. In such cases, one
effective countermeasure would be for the board of education, which is aware of the needs of
high schools, to take the lead and approach universities to promote collaboration. Promoting
coordination related to collaboration by the Board of Education indicates that the foundation for
collaboration between high schools and universities is stable, and will also lead to securing high-
quality educational opportunities. This is considered to be a very important perspective in future
education. Therefore, in order to achieve these goals, university, high schools, and boards of
education collaborated to hold two special courses aimed at approaching the appeal of science
that goes beyond regular classes. I would like to report on the details of these efforts, including
the state of the activities and the impressions of those involved.

2. Case 1

2.1 Implementation Details

Implementation date: Tuesday, August 29, 2023

Location: Toyo University Itakura Campus Cooking Room
Target: 16 students from Saitama Prefectural Sugito Agricultural High School, Food Distribution
Department and Life Technology Department
Theme: Kitchen Lab: The delicious world of cooking science
Overview: Cooking science experiments on dashi soup and cupcakes, tour of university research
facilities
(1) Experiment 1: Dashi (stock)
We approached the “dashi” that is familiar at Japanese dining tables from a scientific perspective,
and conducted quantitative experiments using analytical equipment and reagents that are only
possible at a university. Specifically, we prepared “Kombu Dashi (kelp stock)” and “Awase Dashi
(mixed stock)” and investigated the difference in the amount of glutamic acid. The main purpose
of this report is to summarize the students' experiences and impressions of the special courses
that were realized through collaboration, as well as the impressions of those involved. Therefore,
details of the experimental methods and results conducted in the course will be omitted.
【material】
A (kelp stock) 600g water, 18g kelp, 2g salt, 15mL soy sauce
B (mixed stock) 600g water, 6g kelp, 6g dried bonito flakes, 2g salt, 15mL soy sauce
A contains 3% of the total kelp, and B only 1% of the total, but we began the experiment while
anticipating how this would affect the final flavor.
[Reagents and experimental equipment used]
L-glutamic acid measurement kit “Yamasa NEO”
【Method】
①Pour the respective amounts of water and kelp into two pots and let stand for 30 minutes
(Figure 1).
② Take 1/2 teaspoon of the liquid and use it as a sample for measuring the amount of glutamic
acid.
③ Heat the pot and remove the kelp just before it boils.
④ Turn off the heat for A (kelp stock). Measure the weight and adjust it to 600g. Set aside 1/2
teaspoon as a sample for measuring glutamic acid.
⑤B (mixed stock), keep boiling without stopping the heat.
⑥When it boils, add the bonito flakes and heat for 30 seconds, then turn off the heat.
⑦After straining the bonito flakes, adjust the weight to 600g. Set aside 1/2 teaspoon as a sample
for measuring glutamic acid.
⑧Measure the amount of glutamic acid using the L-glutamic acid measurement kit "Yamasa
NEO” (firure 2).

Figure 1. Soak the kelp Figure 2. Measure glutamate

238 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

(2) Experiment 2: Cupcake

In this experiment, two types of cupcakes were made with different amounts of sugar added, and
the condition of the dough and finished product were compared. We investigated how different
amounts of sugar affect appearance, aroma, taste, texture, etc.
【material】
A: 50g eggs, 50g sugar, 50g soft flour, 10g milk
B: 50g eggs, 15g sugar, 50g soft flour, 10g milk
【Method】
① Beat the eggs with a hand mixer (high speed) for 3 minutes. Add sugar and beat for 10
seconds.
② Add the milk and sifted soft flour and mix with a rubber spatula in a cutting motion until the
mixture is no longer powdery (Figure 3).
③ Divide the batter into 3 equal parts into each muffin cup.
Place a small amount of the fabric on a glass slide, cover with a cover glass, and observe under
a microscope.
④ Bake in an oven preheated to 180℃ for 15 minutes.
⑤ After observing the appearance, measuring the height with a caliper, measuring the hardness
with a hardness meter, and measuring the color with a colorimeter, taste and record.

Figure 3. Preparing the batter Figure 4. Cake after baking

Upper: high in sugar. Under: low in sugar

2.2 Student Status and Comments

In Experiment 1, it seems that the cooking operations themselves were not difficult for the high
school students enrolled in a course where they had a lot of experience with cooking in their
regular classes. However, this was the first time they had used the micropipette used to quantify
glutamic acid, and it was impressive to see how serious they were as they practiced operating it.
It was also first time to work with the unit “µl” and to use microplates and microplate readers. This
type of experiment was one of the things that could only have been carried out in collaboration
with a university. In addition, the measurement results showed that the highest amount of glutamic
acid was found in the kelp stock after boiling, but the sensory evaluation showed that the umami
was most felt in the kelp stock after boiling. This is due to the synergistic umami effect of glutamic
acid contained in kelp and inosinic acid contained in bonito flakes. In addition to quantifying
glutamic acid, the students also learned about how the taste changes when two types of umami
components are combined, and the importance of evaluating food by combining objective
measurement results with human senses was conveyed. When I told them that it takes effort to
fully enjoy the various information that food contains using their five senses, the high school
students seemed to be serious about the soup stock and focused on feeling the flavor.
In Experiment 2, the students, who are familiar with cooking, demonstrated their skills and skillfully
prepared the cake. When the batter was observed under a microscope, it was found that the air
bubbles were inserted in different ways, and many people were surprised to see the difference.
Furthermore, the moment they took the baked cake out of the oven, they were again surprised to
find that the way it swelling and the color of the cake was noticeably different.
The reason why the cake with more sugar rose better is that the air bubbles contained in the
beaten eggs were stabilized in a fine state by the sugar. In addition, when amino acids and sugars
react at high temperatures, an aminocarbonyl reaction (Maillard reaction) occurs, producing
melanoidins, giving the food a brown color and a fragrant aroma. As a result, the color and aroma
of baked goods changed depending on the amount of sugar added. When I explained the
differences between the two types of cakes, I was impressed by the way they listened intently.
Furthermore, when I told the students that they could control the dishes they wanted to make by
scientifically understanding how food is prepared, the students looked satisfied.
239 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2.3 Student Impressions

・I used a pipette for the first time in my dashi experiment. She was able to experience the
unknown quantity of microliters and learned a lot. I had a lot of fun doing experiments that I
couldn't experience in high school.
・In experiments using pipettes, it was found that even a small amount can greatly affect the
results. I now understand that precision is important when it comes to cooking and experimenting,
so I hope to utilize this knowledge in my future dishes.
・Although I study food in my regular high school life, I was able to gain a deeper understanding
through this experiment. The cupcake experiment led to me reconsidering the role of sugar, which
sparked my interest in research.
・The cupcake experiment made me realize once again the importance of sugar. Even when
making food for others, I found that simply reducing the amount of sugar to make it low in calories
doesn't make it delicious. By understanding the role of sugar correctly, I can use it meaningfully
in future dishes, which has broadened my enjoyment of cooking.
・I learned a lot because I was able to see equipment that I couldn't see at high school. I also
became interested in university research. That was very fun.

3. Case 2

3.1 Implementation Details

・Implementation date: Monday, December 18, 2023

・Location: Saitama Prefectural Ina Gakuen Comprehensive Upper Secondary School, cooking
room
・Target: Saitama Prefectural Ina Gakuen Comprehensive Upper Secondary School, 35 second-
year life science students
・Theme: Science of deliciousness ~ Approaching cupcakes ~
・Summary: Cooking science experiment related to cupcakes
The cupcake experiment method is the same as Case 1, so it will be omitted.
Before starting the experiment, the teacher asked the students what differences they thought
would appear between cakes with different amounts of sugar. We then described the expected
differences in as much detail as possible. Here, I encouraged the students to think on their own
without consulting with others. Afterwards, there was time for each group to share their
predictions. In this way, it is thought that having enough time to make predictions is effective in
allowing participants to have an observational perspective during the experiment. It is hoped that
experiments will be more than just work and will encourage the development of the ability to
understand phenomena from a scientific perspective. In the notes written by the students who
actually participated in the course, we found the following record about making predictions before
starting experiments. "Be sure to make predictions before conducting an experiment → Doing so
will clarify your perspective.", "Imagining and considering the results will help you develop a
perspective that allows you to notice differences → You will be able to observe carefully."

3.2 Student Impressions

・I was very surprised at how the finished product could change so much depending on the
amount of ingredients. Also, I would have been happy if my prediction of what would happen in
advance turned out to be correct, and even if it was wrong, I was able to find a new perspective.
I was also able to realize the importance of thinking while working.
・I once made cupcakes and cut the amount of sugar in half because I didn't want to gain weight.
I remember it being delicious at that time. In this experiment, I realized that this was the cause. I
was surprised that the hardness, color, and texture could change so much just by changing the
amount of sugar.
・Although there was a big difference between the two cakes, it doesn't mean that the one that
didn't rise was any less delicious; both were delicious. In response, the teacher said that the cake
that didn't rise didn't mean it was a failure, and I thought she was right.
・It was new to me because I had never made predictions before when cooking. As the teacher
said, when I tried cooking based on my own predictions, I became more interested in the cooking
process, wondering why things turn out the way they do and why things change the way they do,
and I was able to do the practical training.
240 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

・I found it very interesting when I came into contact with cooking science. It was my first time
trying to quantify color and measuring hardness, so I had a lot of fun trying it out. Through this
class, I wanted to know more about culinary science, and I was very interested in it.
・I realized that confectionery and cooking have a lot to do with science. We used microscopes
and other equipment to attend lectures in the cooking room, which I thought was a bit like taking
a chemistry class and enjoyed it. Until now, I had only known about jobs such as nutritionists and
cooks, but I learned that there are such fields.
・Science is often given the impression that it is difficult, but I found it very interesting and fun to
do it with something familiar to me, and I was able to get a lot of interest out of it.
・Until now, we had only learned about changes in results based on chemical basis in classroom
lectures, and there were many parts that were difficult to visualize. However, when we conducted
this experiment, we learned a lot from observation under a microscope and various
measurements.
・It was interesting to be able to immediately see the differences numerically using various
specialized equipment. I learned that various physical and chemical changes are deeply involved
in cooking, and that these are what create our delicious taste.

4. Views of High School Teachers and Boards of Education Regarding Collaboration

4.1 What Expected from the Collaboration

We asked the board of education and two high school teachers involved in the collaboration to
look back on this activity from three perspectives. Comments from each person are listed below.
[High school teacher ①]
First, I thought that by experiencing university classes, I would be able to clarify my career goals
and expand my career options. We believe that by studying with university students, it will be
easier to imagine what kind of content you will be learning at university, and there will be fewer
gaps after entering university.
The second is that you can gain deep learning that is difficult to learn in high school classes. You
will have the opportunity to attend live lectures from professors at the cutting edge of research
and have the opportunity to ask questions directly. We also thought that it would be possible to
learn experientially the skills and learning methods required after entering university.
[High school teacher ②]
For students to acquire the knowledge to conduct manufacturing training that incorporates a
scientific perspective. To conduct manufacturing experiments using analytical equipment.
[Board of education]
・For students
Introducing a researcher's perspective to high school students and learning solutions based on
scientific evidence
Connecting to career development by allowing students to experience university learning
・For faculty and staff
Make people realize the benefits of connecting high school and university (improved instruction,
network of human resources)
knowledge update

4.2 What Felt After Collaboration

[High school teacher ①]

Cooking experiments can be conducted in high schools, but they do not have the equipment to
analyze the experimental results or the skills to handle the equipment. For this reason, up until
now, it has not been possible to conduct experimental verification using actual objects or actual
experiences. This time, the university provided equipment, which enabled the students to
understand the correct method of verifying experimental results, and allowed them to consider
the experimental results they had seen and experienced with their own eyes.
At our school, the purpose of learning tends to be “studying to pass the entrance exam” Since the
goal of learning is to get a score on a paper test, students are accustomed to studying input and
output. However, I feel that many students graduate without being able to acquire the ability to
set up and solve problems on their own, which is necessary after entering university. Students
who are not used to learning in an independent manner tend to lack the ability to verify that they
do not know the answer. I was worried that even if I could get into university, I wouldn't be able to
keep up with my studies. I strongly felt that if there were more opportunities to collaborate with
universities like this one, students would be able to learn active learning methods from high school
students.
241 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

In addition, there are many things that are useful not only for students but also for high school
teachers to improve their classes, and I learned a lot about how to ask questions to students,
conduct experiments, and verify methods, all of which I would like to incorporate into future
classes. I was able to learn how to teach students to formulate a hypothesis, experiment, and
think about it, rather than just showing them the answer right away.
[High school teacher ②]
I think it was very good that the students became interested in analytical instruments, listened
seriously to teacher talk, and were able to take the initiative to try to solve their own problems. I
believe that thanks to teacher advice, we were able to conduct high-quality experiments. As a
result, I think I was able to connect with the students themselves and have a good educational
effect. I would like to request continued cooperation between high schools and universities.
[Board of education]
・To students
They found issues on their own and took initiative to solve them.
I am now able to conduct evidence-based considerations from a scientific perspective.
・For faculty and staff
They felt the effectiveness of practicing lessons from a scientific perspective.
For example, in the cooking training, we taught students not only that the food was delicious, but
also had them think about the rationale behind it, which led to improvements in the lessons. I felt
that this would be an opportunity to improve the quality of teaching staff.
Through this collaborative project, faculty and staff are now updating their knowledge.

4.3 What Hope for in Future Collaboration

[High school teacher ①]

Public high schools have detailed annual lesson plans, so if you incorporate this into your lesson
plans at the beginning of the school year, I think more schools will want to participate and
cooperate. We believe that joint classes and joint research with university students throughout
the year, rather than one-time spot collaboration, can further increase student interest. I also
believe that if not only students but also high school teachers participate in university classes
(rather than training for teachers), more teachers will be able to improve their classes from a new
perspective.
[High school teacher ②]
Through continuous collaboration, students will become aware that experimental results from a
scientific perspective are important, and will become accustomed to the process of accumulating
data and summarizing experimental results.
I would like to increase the number of students who are interested in food science by thinking
about collaborative content that will interest students in the main course.
[Board of education]
We will make many schools understand the significance of high school-university connections
and expand the number of schools implementing them.
Classes are not one-off lessons, but deepen learning through continuous learning.
“Second Kitchen Lab” I want to connect it to continuous learning

5. Conclusion

By collaborating with high schools, universities, and the Board of Education, it has become
possible to conduct highly specialized courses that go beyond academic subjects, which would
be difficult to implement in regular classes alone. In the future, we plan to collect data and
quantitatively analyze how students' interests and understanding have changed as a result of
implementing these courses. We plan to continue this research so that we can demonstrate
meaningful results as practical research.

Acknowledgment

This research was partially supported by the Cosmo Bio Co., Ltd. Public Lecture Support Group.
Thank you very much.
242 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

REFERENCES

[1] Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, “The course of study for
high school”, 2018
[2] Tsuyukubo, M. Naiki, K. “Individual Power Rised by Working Together As aTeam: By
Exploring Cooking Science Around Us”, Science Education Monthly, 2023
243 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Preschool and Primary Education

244 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The Level of Scientific Literacy Among Primary School

Pupils: Preliminary Results

Petr Kovarik1, Romana Adamkova2, Milan Kubiatko3

J.E. Purkyne University, Faculty of Education, Department pf Preschool and Primary

Education, Czech Republic1,2,3

Abstract

Scientific literacy is a term which is often mentioned in the context of contemporary problems and
in the current society in general. Scientific literacy is a term used since the 1950s to describe the
scientific knowledge of broad public; although almost 75 years have passed, its definition is still
not unanimous; the term lacks a single universal definition. The main aim of the research was to
determine the level of scientific literacy among primary school pupils and also to determine
differences in the level of scientific literacy with regard to the relevant grade and gender. The total
of 112 pupils from 3 primary schools selected from the schools available participated in the
research. The research tool was designed from published TIMSS 2019 tasks aimed at the
scientific literacy with 4-grade pupils. The test tool consisted of 12 questions diversified according
to their difficulty to 2 – 5, similarly as in the TIMSS test. I used 3 tasks in every category of difficulty.
In order to fulfil the research aims, the inductive statistical methods were used, specifically the
student’s t-test for independent selections. If we focus on the results of the scientific literacy test
from the age perspective (or the relevant grade), we concluded that 9-grade pupils achieved
statistically much better results in all test areas and there were no statistically significant
differences in the success rates of boys and girls.

Keywords: primary school pupils; quantitative approach; scientific literacy; test

1. Introduction

Scientific literacy is a term which is often mentioned in the context of contemporary problems and
in the current society in general. Scientific literacy, similarly as many other kinds of literacy, is a
phenomenon in modern school systems, not only in the Czech Republic but worldwide. School
systems all over Europe, but not only there, compete in the development of this skill and strive to
achieve the best possible results. A whole set of test tools was developed to compare them; I will
mention one of them – the most well-known, the infamous international PISA (Programme for
International Student Assessment) examination; OECD countries participate in it every 3 years;
its aim is to measure and compare the level of this skill with 9-grade pupils in member countries.
The test tool used to measure scientific literacy is the TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics
and Science Study) assessment; it focuses, among other things, on primary-school pupils,
specifically on 4-grade pupils. It was used the published TIMSS tasks for 4-grade pupils as a test
tool in this study – to find out the level of scientific literacy with 8-grade and 9-grade primary school
pupils. The aim was to find out whether a test tool, which was primarily aimed at testing 4-grade
primary school pupils, would also work with 8-grade and 9-grade pupils on the second level of
primary schools.

1.1 Definitions of Basic Concepts

Scientific literacy is a term used since the 1950s to describe the scientific knowledge of broad
public [1]; although almost 75 years have passed, its definition is still not unanimous; the term
lacks a single universal definition. Scientific literacy encompasses a broad understanding of
scientific concepts and processes, which enable individuals to make informed decisions,
participate in social and cultural events and contribute to economic productivity [2]. Fives et al. [3]
emphasized the changing and specific situation dependent nature of scientific literacy, including
the ability to co-operate and communicate with others in the course of scientific work. Moreover,
scientific literacy is not focused solely on individual’s knowledge and skills, but also includes social
and cultural aspects of science. It includes understanding of the nature of science, mutual
relations between science and society and the ethical aspects of scientific work [4]. It
245 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

encompasses the ability to critically assess scientific information, participate in scientific discourse
and apply scientific know-how in the real world [5]. Scientific literacy can be considered a social
fundament enabling citizens to participate in social and economic development, cultivate
innovative talents and better face complex global challenges [6]. The concept of scientific literacy
has developed over time as a result of scientific, technological, social and political changes in
contemporary societies [7]. In general, we can say that scientific literacy is a constantly changing
and evolving understanding of science, which starts by learning natural sciences in both formal
and informal educational environments and continues lifelong [8].
TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) is a comparative testing carried
out by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), which
measures pupils’ achievements in math and natural sciences in various countries [9]. The aim of
TIMSS is to provide insights into educational systems of participating countries and assess the
knowledge and skills of pupils in math and natural sciences [10].

1.2 Current Stage of Knowledge

Widyasari and Hermanto [11] carried out a study on the influence of cognitive abilities in problem-
based learning on the ability – scientific literacy of 4-grade primary school pupils. The research
discovered a significant positive influence of cognitive abilities on the ability – scientific literacy.
This indicates that pupils’ cognitive abilities play a crucial role in the development of their scientific
literacy. Akilli and Kutur [12] examined the correlation between the belief in own efficiency in
relation to teaching natural sciences and the level of scientific literacy with primary school
teachers. The research used structural equation modelling and found a significant positive
correlation between the belief in own efficiency and the scientific literacy, similarly as Öztürk [13].
Several studies examined the relationship between gender and scientific literacy. Osborne et al.
[14] carried out a summarizing study on attitudes to natural sciences and found out that gender
plays a crucial role in forming attitudes to natural sciences. This finding is confirmed by
Nurramadhani’s [15] study, in which boys achieved better results than girls. The study by Akpinar
et al. [16] came to the same conclusion. On the other hand, we can find studies which discovered
no significant differences between girls and boys, which is confirmed, for example, in the work by
Jia et al. [17].
Mullis et al. [18] referred about not statistically significant difference between 4-grade boys and
girls in 33 countries; in 18 instances girls achieved statistically more significant difference in the
level of scientific literacy, in 7 instances (including the Czech Republic), boys were better than
girls. With 8-grade pupils, girls achieved a statistically more important difference compared to
boys in 15 instances; in 18 instances there was no statistically important difference between boys
and girls; in 6 instances, boys achieved a statistically more important difference in the test of
scientific literacy compared to girls.
The research aims were:
- to determine differences in the level of scientific literacy with regard to the relevant grade;
- to determine differences in the level of scientific literacy with regard to gender.

2. Methodology

2.1 Research Sample

The total of 112 pupils from 3 primary schools selected from the schools available participated in
the research. The pupils in the schools are educated without the use of alternative teaching
methods; the learning is not focused in one particular direction. The questionnaire was completed
by 53 (47.32 %) 8-grade pupils and 59 (52.68 %) 9-grade pupils. From the gender perspective,
the research sample can be divided into 52 (46.43 %) girls and 60 (53.57 %) boys. The average
age of respondents was 14.34 years.

2.2 Research Tool

The research tool was designed from published TIMSS 2019 tasks aimed at the scientific literacy
with 4-grade pupils [19]. The test tool consisted of 12 questions diversified according to their
difficulty to 2 – 5, similarly as in the TIMSS test. I used 3 tasks in every category of difficulty. From
the perspective of tested abilities, tasks in the research tool were divided as follows: 3 reasoning
tasks, 4 knowledge demonstration tasks and 5 knowledge application tasks. The research tool
intentionally used the tasks in which 4-grade Czech pupils were the least successful; the tool
adhered to the rule that every category of difficulty used the same number of questions. The test
tool consisted of both open and closed questions. In the evaluation of results, similarly as in the
TIMSS test, correct answers received 1 point and incorrect or incomplete answers received 0
246 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

points. The test was distributed among pupils by the researchers and teachers. The pupils were
assured about anonymity an it took nearly all teaching lesson.

2.3 Data Analysis

After the tests were acquired, the data were entered into MS Excel. In order to fulfil the secondary
aims, the inductive statistical methods were used, specifically the Student’s t-test for independent
selections due to the fact that each variable included only two groups. This procedure was
possible to find out in other studies like Capinding [20].
To determine internal consistency, the Cronbach’s alpha (α) coefficient was used; its value was
0.71, which documents the overall internal consistency of the test in scientific literacy with regard
to the number of items and the number of respondents. Reliability values were also determined
for individual groups (with regard to exploratory factor analysis) as well as for groups of questions
divided according to the examined ability. The reliability values are in Table 1. The values enable
us to state that every dimension showed reliability, even if it achieved the limit according to the
alpha value.

Table 1. Cronbach’s alfa values for individual dimensions

Dimensions Values of Cronbach’s alpha
Dimension according to items difficulty
Difficulty I 0.51
Difficulty II 0.53
Difficulty III 0.51
Difficulty IV 0.52
Dimension according to abilities
Applying 0.53
Reasoning 0.51
Knowing 0.59

3. Results

The level of scientific literacy was on moderate level (x = 0.59), when we focused on categories
according difficulty and abilities, it was possible to observe some differences. The worst score
was achieved in the most difficult category of the tasks and also categories of tasks focused on
applying and knowing were problematic for all pupils.
If we focused on the results of the scientific literacy test from the age perspective (or the relevant
grade), we concluded that 9-grade pupils achieved statistically much better results in all test
areas. Figure 2 makes it clear that the most important difference p < 0.001 in the favour of 9-
grade pupils can be seen in the overall score of the scientific literacy test, where 9-grade pupils
achieved 66 % success (51 % success with 8-grade pupils) and also in knowledge demonstration
tasks, where 9-grade pupils achieved 61 % success whereas 8-grade pupils achieved 43 %
success. As far as the average score with regard to the difficulty of individual tasks is concerned,
9-grade pupils also achieved a statistically more significant success in all instances. In the
categories of difficulty 2 – 4 the value was p < 0.01. This section of the chart also makes it clear
that both categories of pupils achieved the best results in the least difficult tasks; on the contrary,
both groups were the least successful in the most difficult tasks.
From the perspective of tested abilities, pupils in both groups (8-grade and 9-grade) achieved the
best results in reasoning tasks (based on TIMSS 2019). The success rate of 9-grade pupils in
these tasks was 84 %, the success rate of 8-grade pupils was 72 %, p < 0.05. In knowledge
application tasks and knowledge demonstration tasks, 9-grade pupils shoved the same success
rate of 61 %. In the category of knowledge application questions, the statistically significant
difference was p < 0.01, also in favour of 9-grade pupils. In the knowledge demonstration category
of questions, the difference was statistically the most significant, p < 0.001 (figure 1).
247 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

8th grade 9th grade

1,00
** *
0,90
**
*** **
0,80
** ***
0,70
Average score ± SE

0,60 *
0,50
0,40
0,30
0,20
0,10
0,00
Total score Difficulty 2 Difficulty 3 Difficulty 4 Difficulty 5 Applying Reasoning Knowing

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

Figure 1. Average score from the perspective of the relevant grade

If we focus on all characteristic monitored in the test, which we mentioned above with regard to
gender (figure 2), we come to the conclusion that in 4 instances there were no statistically
significant differences in the success rates of boys and girls, specifically in questions in difficulty
categories 2 and 4, and also in reasoning questions and knowledge application questions. On the
contrary, the biggest statistically significant difference p < 0.01 was in favour of boys in the most
difficult questions. The boys’ success rate in these questions was 39 % compared to 22 % with
girls. From the perspective of the overall score, again the statistically significant difference p <
0.05 was in favour of boys, also in questions in the difficulty category 3 and knowledge
demonstration questions.

Female Male

0,90 NS
NS
*
0,80 NS
*
0,70 NS
*
Average score ± SE

0,60
**
0,50

0,40

0,30

0,20

0,10

0,00
Total score Difficulty 2 Difficulty 3 Difficulty 4 Difficulty 5 Applying Reasoning Knowing

NS – non-significant difference, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

Figure 2. Average score from the fender perspective

248 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4. Discussion

The level of scientific literacy achieved moderate level, could be caused by the relatively lower
level of scientific lessons in the primary schools. Also, it could be caused by the teaching style of
teachers on first and second level of primary schools. The memorization style of teaching is
predominant in many schools, so it could be reason, why the tasks focused on the applying and
also knowing are problematic for the pupils. Pupils are probably not able to solve tasks, where
they should connect knowledge from various topics and also from different subjects. In this place
it is important to say, that concept of gamification has got a significant effect on the level of
scientific literacy. As authors quoted the using of computers and games could increase the level
of scientific literacy among pupils of all age [18, 19]. As [18] wrote, the pupils were able to
understand also abstract topics as nanotechnology are, by the using of games. On the basis of
these facts, it is possible to say, that the level of scientific literacy is possible to improve by the
using of tools, methods, forms or techniques, which could increase the level of understanding and
motivation toward any of scientific subjects. The scientific literacy, as it was mentioned in many
studies and also in this text, is an important concept for the future life and career of the pupils.
The teachers and also researchers are trying to think and use different methods, forms and tools,
which could be helpful for the better understanding of the scientific complex. Before the
application of these activities, it is important to find out the level of scientific literacy among every
age cohort of pupils.
From the gender perspective, boys achieved better results than girls in general, which is
confirmed by the results of the TIMSS 2019 assessment - Czech boys were truly more successful
than girls in the scientific literacy tests [20]; this trend is also obvious in PISA tests, however, only
when compared to the results of 4-grade pupils, because 8-grade pupils did not participate in the
TIMSS 2019 assessment. The PISA 2018 survey found that in scientific literacy, girls in OECD
countries achieve slightly better results (by two points) on average; the results of Czech girls and
boys are similar. As already mentioned above, in the international comparison of 4-grade and 8-
grade pupils, boys had statistically much better results than girls in a lower number of instances
[20]. In USA and other 21 educational systems, no significant differences in average results
between 8-grade boys and girls in natural sciences were found in 2019. However, significant
differences in results between boys and girls, most often in favour of girls, were found in 24
educational. On average, girls exceeded boys in natural sciences by two points in OECD
countries and the Czech Republic; approximately in half of OECD countries, girls were better than
boys. According to Tomasek et al. [21], boys were generally more successful in the knowledge
demonstration category – they achieved significantly better results than girls in 13 countries. Girls
were not better in either country. This finding was also confirmed in our research – boys were
better than girls in this category. In the knowledge application category, the results of boys and
girls are equal. Here, the results of this research also conform to this finding. Girls only achieved
better results in 3 countries; on the contrary, boys were more successful in 2 countries.
Furthermore, as discovered by Tomasek et al. [21], girls were more successful in reasoning tasks
on general – they had statistically much better results in 9 countries; this was not confirmed in our
research. When assessing scientific literacy with regard to gender, we can observe a trend where
girls achieve a higher score than boys, provided that we take into account primary schools. The
aforesaid results can be found in researches of the following researchers: Shazhaadi and
Nasreen [23] or Yuliana et al. [24]. The reason for the differences can be found in the research
tool used. Certain research tools put more focus on biology, other on chemistry or physics. This
may result in differences between boys and girls.
Another variable monitored in the research was the relevant grade; although we focused on close
age groups, we could observe differences in results. 9-grade pupils achieved a higher score –
this could also be observed in individual dimensions. Similar results can be found in other
researches as well, such as Turiman et al. [25]. We did not want to mention the studies confirming
this finding, but it is generally known and confirmed that older pupils achieve better results than
younger pupils. The reason for it is obvious and foreseeable – older pupils have more knowledge,
experience and skills therefore, they regularly achieve higher score. Within the scope of the
research, we need to stress the fact that the research only focused on the last two grades of
primary schools. It is because this is a methodological study; in further research, we will take into
account all grades in primary schools, so than we can identify the turning points in scientific
literacy. This variable was also mentioned in other studies. For example [26] found out that
digitalisation of achievement process had got a positive effect on the level of scientific reasoning,
which is the inseparable part of the scientific literacy. On the basis of this, it is possible to say,
that process of digitalization of learning a detaching could improve the level of scientific literacy.
249 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

5. Conclusion

The preliminary results showed the moderate level of scientific literacy among primary school
pupils. The older pupils achieved higher score in comparison with younger ones, but it did not
mean, that the level of their scientific literacy is sufficient. In some categories, also older pupils,
achieved insufficient level of scientific literacy, in the most difficult tasks used in the test and also
tasks focused on knowing and applying were problematic as for younger even for older pupils.
The similar trend is possible to observe in the gender, where in majority of categories boys
achieved higher score, the problematic categories were similar as in grade variable.
On the basis of the findings is possible to suggest some implications to pedagogical practice,
some of them could be focus on the application tasks, which are the most problematic for the
pupils in every grade of study and also this trend was possible to find in gender variable. The
pupils had got also problems with the tasks, which were more difficult- All these aspects could be
caused by relatively lower interest in scientific subjects by the pupils in the all levels of education.
This effect is probably caused by the predominant style of teaching, which is in many topics
focused on memorizing without any aspects of applying and reasoning. This is connected also
with the preparation of future teachers, where the modern aspect of teaching behaviour is not
applicated in many cases. The further research will show the actual level of scientific literacy
among primary school pupils, where the number of sample size will be higher and other variables,
which could influence the level of scientific literacy will be take into consideration.

Acknowledgement

This study was supported the Grant Agency of the J. E. Purkyne University in Usti nad Labem
grant SGS no. UJEP-SGS-2022-43-003-2.

REFERENCES

[1] DeBoer, G. E. (2000). Scientific literacy: Another look at its historical and contemporary
meanings and its relationship to science education reform. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 37(6), 582-601. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2736(200008)37:63.0.co;2-l
[2] Selin, N. E., Stokes, L. C., & Susskind, L. (2016). The need to build policy literacy into
climate science education. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 8(3), article
455. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.455
[3] Fives, H., Huebner, W. W., & Nicolich, M. J. (2014). Developing a measure of scientific
literacy for middle school students. Science Education, 98(4), 549-580.
https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21115
[4] Laugksch, R. C. (2000). Scientific literacy: A conceptual overview. Science Education,
84(1), 71-94. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-237x(200001)84:13.0.co;2-c
[5] Ryu, M., & Daniel, S. M. (2020). How did we engage resettled chin youth in critical stem
literacy practices? Asia-Pacific Science Education, 6(2), 319-345.
https://doi.org/10.1163/23641177-bja10008
[6] Chen, G., Ratana-ubol, A., Sonchaeng, P., Sumritdee, C., & Paonariang, M. (2022).
Policy perspectives of challenges and factors in promoting science literacy In Thailand.
Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 43(1), 245-250.
https://doi.org/10.34044/j.kjss.2022.43.1.33
[7] Costa, A. F. D., Loureiro, M. & Ferreira, M. E. C. (2021). Scientific literacy: The conceptual
framework prevailing over the first decade of the twenty-first century. Revista Colombiana
de Educación, 81(1), 195-222. https://doi.org/10.17227/rce.num81-10293
[8] Jack, B. M., & Lin, H. (2014). Igniting and sustaining interest among students who have
grown cold toward science. Science Education, 98(5), 792-814.
https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21119
[9] Ciftci, S. K., & Yildiz, P. (2019). The effect of self-confidence on mathematics
achievement: The metanalysis of trends in international mathematics and science study
(TIMSS). International Journal of Instruction, 12(2), 683-694.
https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2019.12243a
[10] Teig, N., Scherer, R., & Nilsen, T. (2019). I know I can, but do i have the time? The role
of teachers’ self-efficacy and perceived time constraints in implementing cognitive-
activation strategies in science. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, article 1697.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01697
[11] Widyasari, A., & Hermanto, H. (2023). The effect of cognitive ability in problem-based
learning on science literacy ability of grade 4 elementary school students. AL-ISHLAH:
Jurnal Pendidikan, 15(1), 719-728. https://doi.org/10.35445/alishlah.v15i1.1612
250 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[12] Akıllı, M., & Kutur, K. (2023). Does science literacy affect self-efficacy in science
teaching? An analysis with structural equation modelling. Revista Romaneasca pentru
Educatie Multidimensionala, 2(5), 487-502. https://doi.org/10.18662/rrem/15.2/745
[13] Öztürk, F. (2017). The impact of science-fiction movies on the self- efficacy perceptions
of their science literacy of science teacher candidates. Educational Science: Theory &
Practice, 17(5), 1573-1603. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2017.5.0058
[14] Osborne, J., Simon, S., & Collins, S. D. (2003). Attitudes towards science: A review of
the literature and its implications. International Journal of Science Education, 25(9), .
1049-1079. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069032000032199
[15] Nurramadhani, A. (2020). Analysis of students’ stem literacy based on gender differences
in science learning. Journal of Humanities and Social Studies, 4(1), 21-25.
https://doi.org/10.33751/jhss.v4i1.1903
[16] Akpinar, E., Yildiz, E., Tatar, N., & Ergin, Ö. (2009). Students’ attitudes toward science
and technology: An investigation of gender, grade level, and academic achievement.
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 2804-2808.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.498
[17] Jia, C., Yang, T., Qian, Y., & Wu, X. (2020). The gender differences in science
achievement, interest, habit, and creativity: A national representative evidence from
China. Science Education International, 31(2), 195-202.
https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v31.i2.9
[18] Dorouka, P., & Kalogiannakis, M. (2023). Teaching nanotechnology concepts in early-
primary education: An experimental study using digital games. International Journal of
Science Education, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2023.2286299
[19] Kalogiannakis, M., Papadakis, S., & Zourmpakis, A. I. (2021). Gamification in science
education. A systematic review of the literature. Education Sciences, 11(1), 22.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/educsci11010022
[20] Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Foy, P., Kelly, D. L., & Fishbein, B. (2020). TIMSS 2019
International results in mathematics and science. Boston College: TIMSS & PIRLS
International Study Center.
[21] Tomasek, et al. (2021). Inspiration for timss skill development: Math and science tasks.
Praha: CSI.
[22] Capinding, A. T. (2023). Construction and validation of mathematical satisfaction
questionnaire: An exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Problems of Education in
the 21st Century, 81(3), 327-339. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/23.81.327
[23] Shahzadi, I., & Nasreen, A. (2020). Assessing scientific literacy levels among secondary
school science students of district Lahore. Bulletin of Education and Research, 42(3), pp.
1-21.
[24] Yuliana, I., Cahyono, M. E., Widodo, W., & Irwanto, I. (2021). The effect of ethnoscience-
themed picture books embedded within context-based learning on students' scientific
literacy. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 92, 317-334.
https://doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2021.92.16
[25] Turiman, P., Omar, J., Daud, A. M., & Osman, K. (2012). Fostering the 21st century skills
through scientific literacy and science process skills. Procedia-Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 59, 110-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.253
[26] Nagy, M. T., & Korom, E. (2023). Measuring scientific reasoning of fourth graders:
Validation of the science-k inventory in paper-based and computer-based testing
environments. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 22(6), 1050-1062.
https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/23.22.1050
251 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Heritage and Computational Thinking: Intersections for

Meaningful Learning in Primary School

Cristina Maia1, Paula Quadros-Flores2, Dárida Fernandes2, António Flores3

School of Education of the Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Portugal; CITCEM –

Research Centre Transdisciplinary "Culture, Space and Memory" - FLUP; InED -
Centre for Research and Innovation in Education1
School of Education of the Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Portugal; InED - Centre for
Research and Innovation in Education2
Superior Institute of Engineering of Porto, Portugal, Polytechnic Institute of Porto3

Abstract

As the school is a place of culture, oral and material heritage can play an important role in a close
connection with the historical past and linguistic development. Integrating this work into a
disciplinary articulation with computational thinking can be an initiative that promotes meaningful
learning and stimulates the development of cognitive and creative problem-solving skills. Based
on the current curricular guidelines of the Profile of Students Leaving Compulsory Schooling [1]
and the Core Learning Frameworks for Environmental Studies [2] and Maths [3], we sought to
investigate how the different components of computational thinking promote the construction of
historical and cultural knowledge experienced by children in the classroom. To this end, lesson
plans were drawn up in which the articulation of knowledge was the fundamental axis of the
learning experiences outlined, with the child constructing their own learning through observation,
critical analysis and problem-solving, mobilising knowledge to make decisions and thus build
more solid learning.
From a qualitative perspective, this research was carried out in the context of initial teacher
training for Professional Master's programmes, based on the trilogy of planning, intervention and
after-action reflection, and on an interpretative process that allowed us to consider categories of
analysis highlighted in the discussion of results. The following categories will be presented in this
article: connecting computational thinking with history and culture, connecting computational
thinking with the present and the future, stimulating problem-solving skills with the use of a robot.
The results show that connecting computational thinking with oral and material heritage fosters a
reality-simulating environment that makes learning meaningful and gives meaning to curricular
content. It also favours interdisciplinary learning in a problem-solving environment in which
students understand the past and present of the context in which they live, building knowledge,
attitudes and values for life.

Keywords: cultural heritage; computational thinking; interdisciplinarity; initial teacher training

1. Introduction

The need to understand learning processes and reflect on the challenges of the 21st century
indicates the need for pedagogically renewed, contextualised and meaningful lessons, and
therefore challenge future teachers to be creative and up-to-date. This is also reflected in the
Portuguese Curriculum [4], which integrates the Essential Learning of the different curricular
areas, the Profile of Students Leaving Compulsory Education [1] and Curricular Flexibility. These
documents show the need to connect education with culture and science in an attitude of knowing,
doing, being and being, considering the person we are; they reflect inclusion as a requirement
and the contribution to sustainable development as a challenge; they reinforce the connection
between the individual and society, the past and the future and warn of the reconfiguration of the
school to respond to the demands of these changing times. In this scenario, the curriculum points
towards meaningful training and intervention in the social environment.
This study, which is part of initial teacher training, especially Supervised Teaching Practice as
part of a professional master's degree, aims to analyse two educational practices carried out in
primary school in order to understand how the different components of computational thinking
promote the construction of historical and cultural knowledge experienced by children in the
classroom. It involved around 40 children between the ages of 6 and 8. This is a qualitative study
252 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

whose data was collected by analysing photos and documents that were collected during class
observations.

2. Theoretical Framework

Cultural heritage, whether immaterial or material, has the potential to define the society in which
it was born, and therefore becomes unique. We can therefore understand the growing body of
theory around cultural heritage as a historical source and teaching resource, which reveals the
extent of awareness of its importance in education [5], [6], [7]. This is linked to a veritable
"research revolution" in heritage education [8] that took place between the 1990s and the first
decade of the 21st century. The usefulness of cultural heritage for building citizenship and
understanding collective identities was realised, and cultural heritage began to be understood in
a holistic way, as part of an educational process and even as part of the goals set for education,
particularly citizenship education [6].
Heritage education is able to promote the valorisation of cultural identity and respect for a society's
historical heritage [9]. By learning about local and national cultural heritage, children are
encouraged to value and preserve these assets for future generations. It is a question of
awakening in children a respect and concern for the preservation and conservation of cultural
heritage as principles of citizenship [10].
Therefore, the use of cultural heritage as a first-rate resource for teaching the humanities and
social sciences is fundamental to creating a living connection between children and the past, as
well as promoting the development of historical skills and respect for this heritage [10]. Intangible
cultural heritage is also fundamental in the formation of historical awareness [11], and this study
also takes this into account in the learning experiences it has outlined. For all these reasons,
heritage education offers children the chance to analyse material and sometimes even oral
evidence from the past and to develop skills in processing information and using sources. They
can thus examine artefacts, study historical documents and analyse the architecture of historic
buildings. It should be noted that computational thinking integrates reasoning and understanding
the world, since it is through reasoning that problems are solved and the world is better
understood. For Wing [12], computational thinking (CT) is a fundamental skill for anyone, it
involves understanding human behaviour, "it is reformulating an apparently difficult problem into
one that we can solve, perhaps by reduction, incorporation, transformation or simulation" (p. 2),
"it is using heuristic reasoning to discover a solution. It is planning, learning and scheduling in the
presence of uncertainty" (p. 3), and it contributes to everyday life, communication and interaction
with others. Citing Wing (2006), Liu and Wang (2010), Voskoglou and Buckley (2012), Barr and
Stephenson (2011), Kanaki and Kalogiannakis (2018), Lee et al, (2011), Psychicar and
Kotzampasaki, (2019), Weese (2017), Weese and Feldhausen (2017) and Asa (2006), Ntourou,
Kalogiannakis and Psycharis [13] show that CT is a skill to be developed at school, as it is a
hybrid form of thinking that challenges students to build complex thinking and creation, so it is
important to understand how it is applied in the classroom, namely the use of programming that
favours its cultivation. In this sense, computational thinking contributes to training people who
not only identify the problem but also find ways to solve it, understanding society and everyday
life. This topic is currently covered in the Primary School Maths curriculum [3] with five associated
practices: abstraction, decomposition, pattern recognition, algorithm and debugging.
The growth of research into heritage education has also been accompanied by developments in
the Primary School Curriculum, specifically in the document Essential Learning for Primary School
Environmental Studies [2]. There we find specific content relating to cultural heritage, specifically
in Year 3, in the Society domain with the performance descriptor "Recognise traces of the local
past: buildings; old tools and the activities to which they were linked; customs and traditions" [2]
(p. 5) and in Year 4, in the Society/Nature/Technology domain with the performance descriptor
"Recognise and value natural and cultural heritage - local, national, etc. - by identifying natural
features in the landscape (sites, etc.). identifying natural elements in the landscape (geological
sites, Natura Network areas, etc.) and material traces of the past (buildings, bridges, mills and
statues, etc.), customs, traditions, symbols and events" [2].
It is essential that heritage education is present in the teaching of Environmental Studies, as it
contributes to the integral formation of the student, promoting the recovery of cultural identity, the
development of values and awareness in relation to the preservation of heritage. It also makes
learning more meaningful and connected to the students' reality. In this sense, using cultural
heritage in learning about environmental studies allows identities to be generated. By exploring
heritage, children have the opportunity to understand the history and culture of their region,
developing a sense of identity and belonging [10]. At the same time, it allows children to get to
know and value the heritage of their environment.
In this sense, we developed a project in which heritage education involved various areas of
knowledge, in an interdisciplinary process, promoting a dialogical, reflective and critical heritage
253 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

education [14]. Among the areas of knowledge, we highlight Maths, specifically the topic of
computational thinking. In the context of Supervised Teaching Practice, the study by Santos et al.
[15] shows that computational thinking, combined with a collaborative and interdisciplinary
process based on robotics, promotes abstract thinking and fosters students' interest and
involvement in the problem-solving process, stimulating various personal and social skills. The
study by Dinis et al. [16] also reveals the potential of computational thinking with reality and
emphasises the ability to reason mathematically to solve problems, forming informed,
autonomous and responsible individuals. In line with these results is the article by Papadakis,
Kalogiannakis, e Gözüm [17] which refers to some studies showing that robotics favours student
involvement in the task and promotes computational thinking, improving student performance.

3. Methodology

Methodologically, this is an exploratory case study of a qualitative nature, integrated into the area
of Social Sciences, which aims to produce knowledge about real phenomena [18] that occurred
in the context of Supervised Teaching Practice. For data collection, we used participant
observation, carried out by institutional supervisors, and recorded memories, such as
photography and video. The students in the practices were asked for their informed consent to
carry out this study, as required by the Ethics Committee of the InED (Centre for Research and
Innovation in Education). Reading the records enabled the following categories to be constructed:
connecting computational thinking with history and culture, connecting computational thinking
with the present and the future, stimulating problem-solving skills with the use of a robot.
It involved a group of participants from the 1st Cycle of Basic Education, around 40 children
between the ages of 6 and 8, and two different school groups. Each of the classes was fairly
homogeneous and there was no need for pedagogical differentiation.

3.1 Report on Educational Practices

Plan 1 for 3rd grade - The main objectives of this lesson were to develop concepts related to
heritage and local history in connection with the progression of the children's reasoning and to
encourage savings in connection with computational thinking. To this end, it was assumed that
the children had prior knowledge of the addition and subtraction algorithm with and without
regrouping, with natural numbers and decimals, as well as operations involving money. The
methodology was based on simulation as a pedagogical tool for experiential learning. The aim
was to respond to a local reality: Cruise ships full of tourists often arrive in Leixões. How can we
make our city known to tourists? The following map of disciplinary articulation was then planned:
i) the subject of Environmental Studies was centred on the treatment of the Society and
Society/Nature/Technology Domain of the Essential Learnings of the 1st CEB. With regard to the
Society domain, the following knowledge, skills and attitudes were to be developed: recognising
the units of time: decade and century; relating dates and facts that are important for understanding
local history; recognising traces of the local past (buildings; old tools and the activities they were
linked to; customs and traditions). With regard to Society/Nature/Technology, the aim is to
develop the following knowledge, skills and attitudes: identify differences and similarities between
the past and present of a place in terms of social and cultural aspects; recognise the potential of
the Internet, using information and communication technologies safely and respectfully, keeping
personal information confidential; know how to ask questions, raise hypotheses, make inferences,
check results and know how to communicate them, recognising how knowledge is built;
ii) for Maths, the themes, topics and subtopics selected were Geometry and Measurement
(Measurement: Money) and plans were made to develop the following knowledge, skills and
attitudes: drawing up and analysing shopping lists for different purposes, including estimating
costs, recognising the importance of money when purchasing goods, choosing the best route,
developing computational thinking skills to be verified in robotics.
The educational practice began with the presentation of the problem question that would guide
the work of the class by watching the video 'Being Porto is...' which poses the following question:
'What is being Porto?' (Figure 1). To this end, the video was explored through an open dialogue
about some of Porto's monuments and how the children felt about being from Porto. The class
was then divided into four groups of five and each group was given a computer with an avatar to
guide the task, a mesh, a Blue-bot and a Travel Diary.
254 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 1. Educational Practice "What it means to be Porto"

The work proposal was entitled 'A hop to Porto!', structured with a set of challenges, launched
using the PowerPoint tool, and recording all the calculations and answers in the Travel Diary.
Each group was responsible for a different theme: Baroque Porto, Medieval Porto, 19th century
Porto and Porto Tiles. The children had to carry out the following tasks: i) check how much money
they had in their wallets to visit the sites in Porto; ii) calculate the price of the tickets for each site;
iii) choose the monuments they wanted to visit, as well as the order in which they would visit them,
by drawing an itinerary on the grid handed out earlier; iv) discover each site, using the Blue-bot
and moving it on the grid by answering a set of challenges associated with each site. All the
answers had to be recorded in each group's Travel Diary. This was followed by each group
presenting their itinerary, i.e. all the places they had visited and the amount they had spent, using
a PowerPoint, built by the students, based on a previously defined structure. Finally, the children
had to create a tour itinerary of the monuments on cardboard and present it to the class, at the
end of which they were given a ribbon recognising them as Official Guides of Porto.
Plan 2, for 1st graders - Based on the story "Peek Through the Window" by Katerina Gorelik, a
story that uses characters that refer to traditional oral tales, the lesson aimed to develop problem-
solving skills through computational thinking in a dynamic sphere of traditional oral characters
whose actions refer to family spaces in close connection with the construction of ethics and
citizenship. It was assumed that the children had prior knowledge of understanding numbers and
the characteristics of the characters in oral heritage stories, as well as the concept of family. The
following disciplinary articulation map was then planned: in order to understand a narrative text
and the need to make evaluative judgements by developing critical, argumentative and creative
skills, connections were made with the area of environmental studies under the domain Society,
content Family, and with the area of mathematics under the theme Mathematical Skills with the
topics Problem Solving and Computational Thinking.
To stimulate curiosity, the lesson began with the following question: What's behind our window?
In theatrical form, the students peered through a window and met the characters from the oral
tradition, characterising them in a participatory dialogue. The stories included Red Riding Hood
and the characters of Granny and the Wolf. This moment enriched the exploration of the
paratextual elements and the analysis of the work's illustrations. The work was explored in a card
game format, making it easier to identify the problem (abstraction) and was carried out
autonomously under the guidance of an audio (avatar) to be played on a grid using a robot, Blue-
Boot (Figure 2). It should be noted that, given the complexity of the algorithm, the avatar
presented appropriate representations to facilitate understanding of the problem. Thus, each code
to be chosen represented a route from one image to another, meaning that the students had five
challenges to fulfil in order to reach the final objective. Stopping at the houses led to reflections
on history and the need to solve some maths problems in connection with the theme of family and
citizenship, such as the oral tradition story "Little Red Riding Hood".
255 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 2. Stages of educational practice

So, to get to the debugging stage, where the student makes sure the code works with the robot,
or corrects the error, they had to recognise patterns and make decisions beforehand in the face
of the challenges proposed by the avatar and these were recorded in a script to be finally
materialised by the use of the robot (Fig. 3).
At each obligatory stop on the grid, there is an image that corresponds to a challenge and provides
an opportunity for large group dialogue about the story. The operationalisation of the itineraries
allows for the creation of a new story.

Figure 3. Computational thinking

4. Discussion of Results

Based on the analysis of the description of the two lesson plans, table 1 was created with three
categories corresponding to an overview of the connections of computational thinking.
256 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 1. Computational thinking connections

Educatio Connecting Connecting computational Stimulating problem-solving skills using a robot
nal computationa thinking with the present
practice l thinking with and the future
history and
culture
Plan 1 - Baroque - "choosing the - "checking the amount of money, they had in
Porto, monuments, they wanted their wallets to be able to visit the places in
Medieval to visit, as well as the Porto"
Porto, 19th order in which they would - "calculating the price of tickets for each place"
century Porto visit them" "Blue-bot - moving it around the grid by
and Porto - "discovering each site" answering a set of challenges associated with
tiles. - "creating an itinerary for each location"
visiting the monuments"
Plan 2 Traditional -"Family spaces in close - "identification of the problem (abstraction)
oral tales: connection with the and was carried out autonomously under the
-the oral construction of ethics and guidance of an audio (avatar) for execution on
tradition story citizenship"; a mesh using a robot, Blue-Boot";
"Little Red - "the characters of the oral - "the avatar presented appropriate
Riding Hood" tradition, characterising representations to facilitate understanding of
them in a participatory the problem";
dialogue"; -"he had to recognise patterns and make
-"reflections on history and decisions beforehand in the face of the
the need to solve some challenges proposed by the avatar and these
mathematical problems in were recorded in a script to be finally
connection with the theme materialised through the use of the robot"
of family and citizenship"; - "...each code to be chosen represented a
- "The operationalisation of route from one image to another";
the itineraries allows the - "the student makes sure that the code works
creation of a new story". with the robot, or corrects the error".

Computational thinking integrates skills such as the ability to identify the problem, break it down
into simpler parts, find patterns and build solutions that can be debugged using a robot. Analysing
the table shows that this topic benefits from an interdisciplinary vision with connections to culture,
tangible and intangible heritage, as well as fostering skills that allow us to learn about the past
and present in order to make better decisions for the future. It thus serves to educate citizens so
that they can enjoy social opportunities.
This topic is also versatile enough to be adjusted to the students' level of learning: in 1st grade,
the proposal is to make the algorithm available in simpler parts for the student to select and
discover the final algorithm for verification in debugging, and in 3rd grade, the student
understands the decomposition, finds patterns and builds the algorithm for debugging.
Throughout the process, the children were able to express themselves and communicate the
knowledge they had built up. The representations created about the value of heritage will allow
them to assume an attitude of respect and conservation in the future. Also, the imagination to put
themselves in the other person's shoes, understanding conceptions and arguments, fosters an
understanding of reality.

5. Final Considerations

With the aim of understanding how the different components of computational thinking promote
the construction of historical and cultural knowledge experienced by the child in the classroom,
this study, based on supervised teaching practice, shows two educational possibilities adjusted
to two different levels of schooling: In the 1st plan, the students were guided towards discovery
throughout the stages of computational thinking; in the 2nd plan, the students had simplified
solutions to make decisions and finally find the algorithm to debug with the robot. In both cases,
the permanent connection with the material/immaterial heritage, in a reflective dialogue, involved
the student in learning intentions about everyday phenomena as a resource for critical learning
and the development of mathematical reasoning. Expressing value judgements develops
analytical and communication skills. This scenario shows the potential of interdisciplinarity in
promoting meaningful learning and stimulating the development of cognitive and creative
problem-solving skills.
257 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Acknowledgments

This work is funded by national funds through the FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology,
I.P., under the projects UIDB/05198/2020 (Center for Research and Innovation in Education, inED
- https://doi.org/10.54499/UIDB/05198/2020) and UIDB/04059/2020 (Center for Research
Transdisciplinary Culture, Space and Memory – CITCEM - DOI
https://doi.org/10.54499/UIDB/04059/2020).

REFERENCES

[1] Oliveira-Martins, G. et al. (Coord.). (2017). Perfil do aluno à Saída da Escolaridade

Obrigatória. Ministério da Educação. ISBN 978 972 742 420-0.
[2] Ministério da Educação (2018). Aprendizagens Essenciais 1.º Ciclo do Ensino Básico.
Estudo do Meio. https://www.dge.mec.pt/aprendizagens-essenciais-ensino-basico.
[3] Canavarro, A.P., Mestre, C., Gomes, D., Santos, E., Santos, L., Brunheira, L., Vicente,
M., Gouveia, M. J., Correia, P., Marques, P., & Espadeiro, R.G. (2021). Aprendizagens
Essenciais de Matemática no Ensino Básico. ME-DGE.
https://www.dge.mec.pt/noticias/aprendizagens-essenciais-de-matematica
[4] Ministério da Educação. DL n.º 55 de 2018, 6 de junho. Diário da República, 1.ª série —
N.º 129 — 6 de julho de 2018. Currículo Nacional.
[5] Hernández Cardona, F. X. (2003). El património como recurso de la enseñanza de las
ciências sociales. In Ballesteros, E. et al. (coord.). El património y la didáctica de las
ciências sociales (pp. 455-466). Cuenca: AUPDCS.
[6] Cuenca, J. M. (2014). El papel del património en los centros educativos: hacia la
socialización patrimonial. Didáctica de la Lengua y la Literatura, 19, 76-96.
[7] Fontal, O., & Ibáñez, A. (2015). Estrategias e instrumentos para la educación patrimonial
en España. Educatio Siglo XXI, 33 (1), 15-32.
[8] Molina Puche, S.; Guerrero, L. R. (2017). El patrimonio, un recurso de primer orden para
la enseñanza de la historia. In Puche, S. M.; Guerreo, L. R. (coords.). El Patrimonio en
la Enseñanza de la Historia: materiales didácticos sobre la región de Murcia. Col. Ensayo
(pp. 11-22). Ediciones Enkuadres.
[9] Molina Puche, S. (2015). Identidades colectivas y enseñanza de la historia en las
sociedades multiculturales actuales. In L. H. Lima Muñiz; P. Pernas (coord.), Didáctica
de la historia. Problemas y métodos (pp. 223-258). El Dragón Rojo.
[10] Molina, S.; Llonch, N.; Martínez, T. (2016). Las três piezas de un difícil rompecabezas:
identidade, ciudadanía y património. In S. Molina Puche, N. Llonch Molina; T. Martínez
Gil (eds.). Identidad, ciudadanía y património. Educación histórica para el siglo XXI.
Ediciones Trea.
[11] Santacana, J.; Llonch, N. (2015). (edit.). El patrimonio cultural inmaterial y su didáctica.
Gijón: Trea.
[12] Wig, J. (2006). O pensamento computacional. Revista temática sobre Pensamento
Computacional 162, 2-4. Educação e Matemática (2021).
[13] Ntourou, V., Kalogiannakis, M., & Psycharis, S. (2021). A Study of the Impact of Arduino
and Visual Programming In Self-Efficacy, Motivation, Computational Thinking and 5th
Grade Students’ Perceptions on Electricity. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science
and Technology Education, 17(5), em1960, 1-11. ISSN:1305-8223 (online).
https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/10842
[14] Müller, A. J. (2017). Educação Patrimonial e Memória na Escola 24-27. In A. Bueno; E.
Crema; D. Estacheski; J. M. Neto (org.). Jardim de Histórias: discussões e experiências
em aprendizagem histórica. Edição Especial Ebook LAPHIS/Sobre Ontens.
[15] Santos, M., Quadros-Flores, P., Fernandes, D., & Mascarenhas, D., (2023). Inovar a
Educação com o pensamento computacional: Uma experiência didática no 4.º ano de
escolaridade. Sensos-e, 10(2),49-66. https://doi.org/10.34630/sensos-e.v10i2.4920.
[16] Dinis, R., Quadros-Flores, P., Mascarenhas, D., & Fernandes, D., (2023). Chapter 13.
Developing Computational Thinking in Primary Education. New Trends and Research on
Digital Education, Technopedagogy and Curriculum (pp. 226-245). Editorial DYKINSON.
ISBN: 978 -84-1170-659-9.
[17] Papadakis, S., Kalogiannakis, M., & Gözüm, A. I. C. (Eds.) (2023). Stem, steam,
computational thinking and coding: Evidence-based research and practice in children’s
development. Lausanne: Frontiers Media SA. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/978-2-83251-
168-8
[18] Yin, R. (2001). Estudo de caso: planejamento e métodos. Trad. Daniel Grassi - 2.ed.
Bookman. ISBN 85-7307-852-9.
258 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The Teachers' Action for Health – Teachers’ First Aid

Intervention
in Emergency Cases at School

Irina Gheorghiu1, Loredana Danaila2, Alexandra Hanu3,

Claudia Dinu4, Ovidiu Ursa5, Stefan Colibaba6

Albert Ludwigs Freiburg University, Germany1

EuroEd School Iasi, Romania2,3
University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi, Romania4
University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, Romania5
Al. I. Cuza University Iasi, Romania6

Abstract

The article is based on the TA4H project - funded by the European Commission under the
Erasmus+ KA220-SCH - Cooperation partnerships in school Education. The project is being
implemented by the EuroED kindergarten and primary school, Iasi, Romania, within a partnership
of schools, NGOs, universities, and health institutions from Turkey (coordinator), Bulgaria,
Greece, Latvia, Lithuania and Romania. The main goal of the project is to support teachers in
primary and preschool education to improve their knowledge and increase awareness of
situations in which students may need first aid intervention or emergency response in case of
chronic diseases, through the use of digital educational materials. Furthermore, the project aims
to ensure the continuity of this knowledge and skills. Understanding the importance of first aid
and chronic disease management in schools is crucial to ensure the safety, well-being, and
academic success of children. The project stems from a rigorous needs analysis carried out in all
partner countries to identify the top priority issues in the field of first aid that teachers face and the
current state of preparedness, the availability of resources, and the effectiveness of training
programs. The project´s goal is to develop training programmes for pre-primary and primary
teachers that address the specific needs and challenges identified. The article looks into the
findings of the needs analysis in Romania and provides some insights into the project's objectives,
target users, and main deliverables.

Keywords: kindergarten and primary school, first aid intervention, emergency, teachers

1. Introduction

Ensuring a safe learning environment is paramount for both educators and students. One crucial
aspect often overlooked is teachers' awareness of emergency situations and proficiency in first
aid. The unpredictable nature of emergencies, ranging from medical incidents to unforeseen
accidents, necessitates a proactive approach. When teachers are well-informed and trained in
handling emergencies, they become vital first responders, capable of swiftly and effectively
addressing critical situations. This not only safeguards the well-being of students but also
contributes to a sense of security and preparedness within the educational setting.
Raising teachers' awareness of emergency situations and first aid in schools as well as equipping
them with knowledge and competences to handle such incidents has been a growing and
important topic recently [1, 2,3]. The TA4H project is in line with this tendency, which recognizes
the critical role that teachers may play in ensuring the well-being of students in various situations
[4]. To this end, it aims at equipping teachers with the knowledge and skills to respond effectively
to emergencies.

2. TA4H Project

2.1 Project Objectives and Target Group

Through the use of digital educational resources, the Teachers' Action for Health (TA4H - 2022-
1-TR01-KA220-SCH-000089892) project aims to support preschool and primary school teachers
in enhancing their knowledge, awareness, and experience of students who may require first aid
intervention or emergency response in chronic diseases in school contexts [4].
259 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2.2 Project Partnership

The TA4H project's challenges need a multinational approach to be solved. The partnership is
coordinated by Cigli Ilce Milli Eqitim Mudurlugu (Türkiye) and made up of schools and universities
(Yildiz Technical University, Türkiye, University of Latvia, Latvia, Vilniaus Kunigaikscio Gedimino
progimnazia, Lithuania) as wel as education, research and training organizations (Ekoloqijakm
Ood, Bulgaria, Fundatia EuroEd, Romania, Educom+ The community for the “plus” in education,
Greece). These institutions care for the overall safety and health of the school community,
positively impacting academic performance and fostering a supportive learning environment.

2.3 Project Results

The key subjects and their subtopics to be included when devising the main structure of the
deliverables were determined by a mixed team of teachers, trainers, and technicians working
within the project consortium in order to produce the project's results [4].
The main project deliverables are:
• an online course with modules on school-based first aid and intervention in physical injury
and chronic diseases
• a network aiming at increasing institutional capacity and professionalism to work at
EU/international level.
The project enables early and primary school teachers to acquire digital skills and intervention
methods in first aid and chronic illnesses through an online course, which comes with an e-book
illustrated by videos [4].

3. The Findings of the Research

The main project deliverable (the online course) was created based on the findings of the needs
analysis relative to first aid and chronic diseases in schools carried out in the six project countries
(Latvia, Lithuania, Greece, Turkey, Romania, and Bulgaria). The research was based on surveys
administered to teachers and students. The findings reflect a genuine panorama of the current
state of preparedness, availability of resources, and effectiveness of training programs and offer
essential information to develop the project materials.
This paper focuses on the findings reflecting the opinions of Romanian teachers about the role of
first aid, management of chronic diseases, and the availability of resources and training in
schools.
The surveys identified the participants’ demographical features and explored their training and
experience in first aid and chronic disease management. It also inquired into the availability of
first aid kits in schools, common emergency incidents teachers faced in the school context as well
as recommendations for improvement in relation to first aid instruction. There were 67 teachers
who participated in the survey in Romania. They had to complete a Google Form questionnaire,
which ensured a standardized approach to data collection.
The results of the research show that the participants' levels of teaching experience vary widely
(Figure 1). The vast majority of participants (55/77.6%) have more than 10 years of teaching
experience, followed by teachers with 1-6 years of teaching experience (7/11.9%) and teachers
with 6-10 years of teaching experience (5); the smallest group was teachers with less than 1 year
of experience (2 participants) Thus the most significant group was made up of teachers with
experience (similar to the general report), who can contribute to guiding the development of
training materials.

Legend

• Less than a year

• 1-5 years
• 6-10 years
• More than 10 years

Figure 1. The participants' levels of teaching experience

As for the teaching levels (Figure 2) there were 41 primary school teachers (61.2%), 22
kindergarten teachers (32.8%), and five teachers for both early childhood and primary school
(7.5%). The distribution of participants across different teaching levels helps us understand the
260 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

unique requirements and difficulties at each level and pinpoints particular areas that might need
more resources or training.

Legend

Both= Ambele
Primary school= scoala primara
Early
education/kindergarten=educatie
timpurie/gradinita

Figure 2. Teachers’ current teaching levels

The participants had diverse educational backgrounds (Figure 3), with the majority holding
bachelor's (30/43.3%) or master's degrees (30/43.3%). Nine participants (11.9%) had vocational
or non-university degrees and one had a PhD. With the use of this data, educational materials
and interventions may be created that are appropriate for teachers from a variety of educational
backgrounds, promoting inclusive and thorough teacher preparation.

Legend

• Vocational
studies/preuniversity studies
• Bachelor’s degree
• Master’s degree
• PhD

Figure 3. Teachers’ educational backgrounds

The participants could be classified into four age categories: 21–30, 31–40, 41–50, and 51+. The
age group with the highest percentage of respondents (25) is 51+, followed by 41-50 (Figure 4).
The smallest age group was 21-30, suggesting fewer participants in the early stages of their
careers.

Figure 4. Teachers’ Age

Regarding the participants' gender distribution, the majority of the respondents (62) are women
(Figure 5), which is consistent with global patterns that have historically seen a higher percentage
of female educators in the teaching profession. This gender gap may be caused by elements
including cultural standards, job preferences, and societal expectations.
261 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Legend
• Female
• Male

Figure 5. Gender distribution

In terms of First aid training, only a small number of teachers (23/65.7%) received formal first aid
training (Figure 6), mostly completed years ago. The duration varied from eight to one hour and
the training was done by either public (12) or private (11) institutions. Basic First Aid training is
the only reported category when it comes to the type of first aid training received by participants.
The above- mentioned findings emphasize the need for standardized guidelines and suggestions
to ensure teachers receive comprehensive training in handling various first aid situations.

Legend
• YES
• NO

Figure 6. Teachers’ previous first aid training

According to the research findings, chronic diseases were not generally covered by teachers'
training (Figure 7). Only 13 (21.3%) participants indicated that their training gave them valuable
tips on diabetes (the most commonly reported), asthma, epilepsy and allergies. This shows that
there is a need to close the current gap in teachers' medical emergency preparation related to
various chronic conditions.

Legend
• YES
• NO

Figure 7. Coverage of chronic diseases in teachers’ previous first aid training

Regarding circumstances necessitating first aid, the majority of participants stated they have had
to cope with various instances: injuries (most common), asthma attacks, fainting, cuts and
wounds, allergic reactions, nosebleeds, seizures, choking incidents, panic attacks, diabetes or
epilepsy. These findings emphasize how crucial it is for teachers to be trained in providing rapid
assistance in a range of critical situations. They draw attention to how important teachers are to
guaranteeing students' safety and wellbeing while they are in class. When faced with an
emergency, teachers who possess first aid knowledge and abilities may react quickly and
efficiently, giving students the care and support they need until more medical assistance can be
provided. If they have the required training and resources, teachers can also efficiently address
a variety of medical emergencies and give students the prompt care they need.

When asked about the factors that prevented their intervention in a first aid incident, the teachers
who completed this column (25) mentioned: lack of practical knowledge (12), lack of theoretical
knowledge (8), legal restrictions (3) or risk of exposure to communicable diseases (2).
262 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Considering the crucial role teachers play in ensuring students' safety and well-being in various
emergency situations, all participants agreed on the need to improve their knowledge and abilities
in handling emergencies. They highlighted the necessity of participating in standardised
comprehensive first aid training courses promoting scenario-based learning, technology and
multimedia tool utilization, hands-on practices, and interactive techniques.

4. New Developments

Based on the suggestions provided by both teachers and students regarding first aid training,
several key insights have been adopted to enhance the effectiveness and relevance of the online
training course created within the project. A number of significant insights revealed by the
research have also been considered to improve the efficacy and applicability of the online training
course developed as part of the project.
The project's results (the online course with its interactive videos, scenarios, storyboards, e-book,
and LMS content) are designed to specifically address the gaps and challenges that have been
identified. These resources will help teachers and students become more knowledgeable,
proficient, and self-assured in responding to emergencies and helping students with chronic
illnesses.

5. Conclusions

First aid and chronic disease management in schools are essential components of a
comprehensive approach to student well-being. They contribute to the overall safety and health
of the school community, positively impacting academic performance and fostering a supportive
learning environment.

The findings revealed by the surveys carried out in Romania were similar to those of the
partnership and highlighted the following, which we used to create the online training course:
- the importance of incorporating comprehensive first aid and chronic disease education into
school curricula and its potential impact on student well-being, safety, and overall educational
experience.
- the need for improved first aid training among teachers with practical, hands-on training,
scenario-based learning, use of technology and multimedia tools and interactive methods.
- a growing awareness of the importance of accommodating diverse student needs and creating
equal learning opportunities for all.
- the need to include topics such as chronic diseases (asthma and diabetes) in teachers’ training.
- the essential role of teachers and school staff in providing first aid assistance and managing
chronic diseases.
- areas where teachers and students may have limited knowledge or misconceptions. The
project's materials thus focus on these specific areas to provide accurate and comprehensive
information.
- the need for collaboration between schools and healthcare professionals (nurses or medical
experts) to enhance the effectiveness of first aid and chronic disease education.

Acknowledgements
This article is based on a study of The TA4H the Teachers' Action for Health (TA4H - 2022-1-
TR01-KA220-SCH-000089892), which is developed in the framework of the Erasmus+
Programme, KA2 - Strategic Partnerships for School Education.

REFERENCES

[1] Ilha, A. G., Cogo, S. B., Ramos, T. K., Andolhe, R., Badke, M. R., & Colussi, G “Educational
actions on first aid for early childhood education teachers: a quasi-experimental
study”. Revista da Escola de Enfermagem da USP, 2021, pp 55.
[2] De Buck, E., et al., “Evidence-based educational pathway for the integration of first aid
training in school curricula”, Simulation and education/Vol94/P8-22, DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resuscitation.2015.06.008,2015,
https://www.resuscitationjournal.com/article/S0300-9572(15)00253-1/fulltext
[3] Mamatha, H. & Bhat, N. & Prakash, J. & Sumalatha, S. & Ankolekar, V., “Knowledge and
Training of Primary School Teachers in First Aid - A Questionnaire Based Study”, The
Kurume Medical Journal. 66. 10.27, 2020. 39/kurumemedj.MS662001.
[4] The TA4H project, https://ta4h.sosschool.eu/about/
263 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

How Much Students in Primary School Know about Waste

Sorting? (Pilot Research)

Igor Dobrača

Primary school Juraj Dobrila Rovinj, Croatia

Abstract

The Croatian education system incorporates sustainable development as one of its seven cross-
curricular topics. The cross-curricular theme mentioned above encompasses the three
dimensions of sustainable development, namely environmental (reduce and reuse), social
(respect, rethink and reflect), and economic (recycle and redistribute) and can be connected to
the European competence framework for sustainability GreenComp. The objective of the pilot
study was to assess the knowledge level of 60 students of 6th grade primary school. This
assessment was conducted after they had completed the waste management activities covered
in the second educational cycle, which typically takes place in the 3rd, 4th, and 5th grades of
elementary school. The analysis was conducted utilising Jamovi software, and based on the
findings of the pilot study, it was ascertained that a majority of the students lack proficiency in
waste sorting, hence highlighting the need for additional education in this domain. The majority
of responders provided accurate responses regarding the weight of bio-waste. It can be inferred
that the assessment of educational objectives, even though brief evaluations, is vital for
enhancing knowledge adoption.

Keywords: primary school, sustainable development, waste sorting

1. Introduction

The Croatian education system incorporates sustainable development as one of its seven cross-
curricular topics. The cross-curricular theme mentioned above encompasses the three
dimensions of sustainable development, namely environmental (reduce and reuse), social
(respect, rethink and reflect), and economic (recycle and redistribute). These dimensions are
interconnected and aim to equip students with the necessary skills to engage in responsible
societal behaviour, ultimately leading to personal and overall well-being. Cross-curricular themes
are achieved through the integration of educational domains and instructional subjects across all
mandatory and elective courses, as well as within the classroom setting, through the
implementation of diverse projects, extracurricular or field teaching, and extracurricular activities.
Waste management is a compulsory subject in all three dimensions of the 2nd cycle of education,
which encompasses the 3rd, 4th, and 5th grades of primary school [1].
The European Framework of Competences for Sustainability operates at the European Union
level. The adoption of GreenComp [2] aims to establish a comprehensive framework of
competencies for sustainability that ought to be incorporated into educational curricula. This
framework seeks to facilitate the cultivation of knowledge, skills, and attitudes among students
that foster empathetic thinking, planning, and action, as well as a sense of responsibility and
concern for the well-being of our planet and public health. Proficiency in sustainability empowers
students to embody the principles of sustainability and embrace intricate systems in order to
actively restore and preserve the well-being of the environment and promote fairness, thereby
fostering a vision of a sustainable future.
To enhance students' comprehension of sustainable development, it is advisable to employ
collaborative learning methods such as outdoor teaching, different creative and dynamic
activities, and practical work. In these approaches, the teacher's role is not solely to instruct, but
rather to inspire and exemplify the learning process [3-6]. By incorporating instruction on
sustainable development into their studies, students gain a comprehensive understanding of the
significance of sustainability. This enables them to comprehend the intricate nature of the
environment and make predictions about the future status of the planet depending on human
actions.
264 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Certain educational institutions have been branded as eco-schools, with the primary objective of
imparting knowledge to the younger generation on environmental concerns and equipping them
with the skills to make informed judgements for societal progress in the future. Eco-schools
incorporate environmental instruction throughout all facets of the educational system and
incorporated into the everyday routines of students. However, the findings of the study [7] indicate
that children attending schools with eco-school status do not exhibit a significantly greater degree
of waste awareness compared to students attending schools that are not affiliated with the eco-
school system.

2. Methodology

The objective of the pilot study was to assess the knowledge level of sixth-grade elementary
school students following their completion of the waste management tasks outlined in the second
educational cycle, which typically occurs in the third, fourth, and fifth grades of elementary school.
The measurement of knowledge acquisition was conducted using a brief online survey
questionnaire, which was administered on a voluntary basis, while adhering to the research norms
for children. The pilot study had a total of sixty sixth-grade children, with 38 (63.3%) being boys
and 22 (36.7%) being girls. The Jamovi software package [8-12] was utilised to analyse the
gathered data.

3. Results and Discussion

There are two inquiries pertaining to multi-layer packing and the presence of fruit remnants as a
form of trash. The brochure, which was published by the Rovinj utility company as a component
of the waste management education initiative in the city of Rovinj-Rovigno and the municipalities
of Bale, Kanfanar, and Žminj, outlines the proper disposal of multi-layer packaging waste in a
designated container for plastic and metal [13]. Additionally, it is mentioned that fruit peel is
classified as a form of biowaste [14].
Table 1. What type of waste does a tetrapack of milk belong to?

Tetrapack - type of waste?

Drink milk at school? paper plastic Total

Yes Observed 37 13 50
% within row 74.0 % 26.0 % 100.0 %

No Observed 8 2 10
% within row 80.0 % 20.0 % 100.0 %

Total Observed 45 15 60
% within row 75.0 % 25.0 % 100.0 %

Based on the responses obtained (Table 1), it is apparent that a significant proportion of
participants (75.0 %) hold the belief that multi-layer packaging ought to be disposed of in a paper
container, whilst a minority of respondents (25.0 %) advocate for the disposal of such trash in a
plastic container. No statistically significant differences were found (ꭓ2 = 0.160, df = 1, p = 0.689).

Table 2. What type of waste do peels of bananas belong to?

Type of waste

Gender bio-waste mixed municipal waste Total

Female Observed 20 2 22
% within row 90.9 % 9.1 % 100.0 %

Male Observed 32 6 38
% within row 84.2 % 15.8 % 100.0 %

Total Observed 52 8 60
% within row 86.7 % 13.3 % 100.0 %
265 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

When queried about the categorization of the banana peel (Table 2), a significant proportion of
participants (86.7 %) accurately identified it as bio-waste, although a minority (13.3 %) held the
belief that it constituted mixed municipal waste. No statistically significant differences were found
(ꭓ2 = 0.117, df = 1, p = 0.733).

Figure 3. Weight of banana peel

According to the research [15-18], it has been reported that the peel of a banana typically
constitutes approximately 30-40 % of the overall weight of the fruit. Hence, in the case of a banana
with a weight of 200 grammes, the accurate response would fall between the range of 60 to 80
grammes. Based on the findings of the pilot study (Figure 3), it is evident that, on average, female
participants perceive the weight of a banana peel to be 70.7 grammes (M = 70.7, Me = 54.0, SD
= 29.8), whereas male participants perceive it to be 72.04 grammes (M = 72.4, Me = 50.0, SD =
36.4). These results align with the existing literature on the weight of banana peels. There is no
statistically significant difference between the two groups (Mann–Whitney U = 417, p = 0.987).

4. Conclusion

Based on the findings of the pilot study, it was ascertained that a majority of students lack
proficiency in waste sorting, hence highlighting the imperative for more educational initiatives in
this domain. The pilot study additionally shown that students possess the ability to assess the
quantity of waste generated by banana peels, constituting approximately 30-40% of the overall
weight. Hence, it is imperative to provide students with further information regarding the proportion
of biowaste derived from non-consumable fruit components. The aforementioned information will
also prove beneficial to individuals in their future roles as consumers, enabling them to make
more educated purchasing decisions. It can be inferred that the assessment of educational
objectives, even though brief evaluations, is vital for enhancing knowledge adoption.

REFERENCES

[1] Ministarstvo znanosti i obrazovanja. (2019) Kurikulum međupredmetne teme održivi razvoj
za osnovne i srednje škole. URL: https://narodne-
novine.nn.hr/clanci/sluzbeni/2019_01_7_152.html
[2] Bianchi, G., Pisiotis, U., Cabrera Giraldez, M. (2022) GreenComp – Europski okvir
kompetencija za održivost. Bacigalupo, M., Punie, Y. (urednici), EUR 30955 HR, Ured za
publikacije Europske unije, Luxembourg, doi:10.2760/41834, JRC128040
[3] Garašić, D., Sertić Perić, M. & Smojver, B. (2023) Obrazovanje za održivi razvoj – priručnik
za učitelje i nastavnike. Zagreb: Školska knjiga.
[4] Halkos, G., Petrou, K. N. (2020) The relationship between MSW and education: WKC
evidence from 25 OECD countries. Waste management 114, 240-252, DOI:
10.1016/j.wasman.2020.06.044
[5] Eslami, S., Kabir, G., Ng, K.T.W. (2023) Waste Generation Modeling Using System
Dynamics with Seasonal and Educational Considerations. Sustainability 15, 9995. DOI:
10.3390/su15139995
266 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[6] Quijano, S.A., Cerón, V.A., Guevera-Fletcher, C.E., Bermúdez, I.M., Gutiérrez, C.A.,
Pelegrin, J.S. (2023) Knowledge in Regard to Environmental Problems among University
Students in Cali, Colombia. Sustainability, 15, 15315, doi: 10.3390/su152115315
[7] Riastini, P. N., Wati, C. S., Prodjosantoso, A. K. & Suryadarman I. (2019) Is There any
Difference in Waste Consciousness between National Eco-Schools and Others?
International Journal of Instruction, 12(4), 513-528, DOI: 10.29333/iji.2019.12433a
[8] The jamovi project (2023) jamovi. (Version 2.4) [Computer Software]. Retrieved from
https://www.jamovi.org.
[9] R Core Team (2022) R: A Language and environment for statistical computing. (Version
4.1) [Computer software]. Retrieved from https://cran.r-project.org. (R packages retrieved
from CRAN snapshot 2023-04-07).
[10] Wickham, H., Chang, W., Henry, L., Pedersen, T. L., Takahashi, K., Wilke, C., Woo, K., &
RStudio (2018). ggplot2: Create Elegant Data Visualisations Using the Grammar of
Graphics. [R package]. Retrieved from https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=ggplot2.
[11] Patil, I. (2018). ggstatsplot: 'ggplot2' Based Plots with Statistical Details. [R package].
Retrieved from https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=ggstatsplot.
[12] Serdar Balci (2022). ClinicoPath jamovi Module DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.3997188. [R
package]. Retrieved from https://github.com/sbalci/ClinicoPathJamoviModule.
[13] Komunalni servis Rovinj – Servizio comunale Rovigno. (2018) Projekt edukacije o
gospodarenju otpadom u gradu Rovinj-Rovigno i općinama Bale, Kanfanar i Žminj. URL:
https://www.komunalniservis.hr/hr/usluge/cistoca/vodici-i-brosure/
[14] Komunalni servis Rovinj – Servizio comunale Rovigno. (2018) Biootpad – zakonske
smjernice i upute o postupanju s biootpadom u objektima pripreme i posluživanja hrane.
URL: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1w7OmXTK8VM7oxt0JlbaLr1IsbRLsC4Kv/view
[15] Amini Khoozani, A., Birch, J., & Bekhit, A. E. A. (2019) Production, application and health
effects of banana pulp and peel flour in the food industry. Journal of food science and
technology, 56(2), 548–559, DOI: 10.1007/s13197-018-03562-z
[16] Arunakumara, K., Walpola, B. C., & Yoon, M. H. (2013). Banana Peel: A Green Solution
for Metal Removal from Contaminated Waters. Korean Journal of Environmental
Agriculture, 32(2), 108-116, DOI: 10.5338/KJEA.2013.32.2.108
[17] Putra NR, Aziz AHA, Faizal ANM, Che Yunus MA. Methods and Potential in Valorization
of Banana Peels Waste by Various Extraction Processes: In Review. Sustainability. 2022;
14(17):10571, DOI: 10.3390/su141710571
[18] Verma, M., Singh, V. & Mishra, V. (2023) Optimization of banana peel waste based
microbial fuel cells by machine learning. Biomass Conv. Bioref, DOI: 10.1007/s13399-023-
04344-0
267 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Science and Environment

268 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Accessible and Enriched Community-Engaged Learning: A

Botanical Virtual Classroom Field Trip

Poh Tan1, David Zandvliet2

Simon Fraser University, Canada1

Simon Fraser University, Institute for Environmental Learning, Canada2

Abstract

The Bloedel Conservatory, located on the unceded traditional territories of the xʷməθkʷəy̓əm
(Musqueam), Sḵwx̱wú7mesh (Squamish), and səlilwətaɬ (Tsleil-Waututh) Nations in Vancouver,
Canada, serves as an educational resource for the province’s schools. The peak of the COVID-
19 pandemic posed challenges for schools, teachers, and educators to access the Conservatory.
In response, a collaborative effort with the educational group at the conservatory led to the
creation of a curricular-aligned virtual classroom field-trip online teaching resource. This
community-connected learning initiative features pre-recorded storytelling and semi-immersive
videos showcasing the Conservatory's unique plant species, accompanied by curriculum-aligned
lesson plans. Using the ArcGIS Story Map platform, the project maps the global origins of plants,
integrating video, audio, and 360-degree content for an engaging virtual experience accessible
through Wi-Fi-enabled devices. The project aims to achieve three objectives: 1) overcoming
accessibility challenges for province-wide student and teacher access, 2) fostering deeper
connections between individuals and plants (especially non-native species), and 3) engaging in
community-based research and collaboration to promote scientific and environmental literacy.
The experiences include a general virtual tour, an activity booklet, a virtual hibiscus-focused
encounter and banana-themed exploration, and a blended/hybrid virtual learning lesson. These
experiences weave together science, storytelling, singing, and dancing, contributing to an
appreciation of biocultural diversity Coined by Luisa Maffi, biocultural diversity recognizes the
interconnectedness of biodiversity and cultural diversity, emphasizing the integral relationship
between nature and culture. This approach underscores the significance of understanding and
preserving the multifaceted tapestry of life on Earth, encompassing biological, cultural, linguistic,
and ecological dimensions. By transcending geographical boundaries, the project invites
exploration and learning about the rich biodiversity within the Conservatory's dome, fostering a
deeper understanding of the intricate relationship between biology, culture, and language.

Keywords: biocultural diversity, science education, scientific literacy, environmental literacy, virtual
classroom, Indigenous science.

1. Introduction

Biocultural diversity represents a multidimensional framework that intertwines biological diversity

with cultural diversity, emphasizing the interconnectedness between nature and culture.
Originating from the interface of diverse ecosystems and evolving human societies, biocultural
diversity reflects the dynamic relationships between biodiversity and the diverse cultures shaped
by their environments. This concept transcends the traditional boundaries of conservation and
anthropology, providing a holistic understanding of life's intricate tapestry.
Scholars have critically examined the historical development and paradigms framing biocultural
diversity, exploring its conceptual evolution and implications [1][3][4]. Researchers have delved
into the novel applications of biocultural diversity, such as its assessment in urban environments
and its relevance in educational frameworks [2][5][6].
As we navigate the complexities of the twenty-first century, understanding and preserving
biocultural diversity emerge as imperatives for sustainable development and conservation efforts.
This paper aims to contribute to ongoing research by further exploring the nuances, challenges,
and opportunities embedded in the dynamic interplay between biological and cultural diversity
through collaborations with community and an urban garden located within a conservatory,
specifically by exploring the learning affordances in K-7 classrooms using ArcGIS’s Story Map
platform.
269 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2. ArcGIS Story Maps

ArcGIS Story Maps is a platform for creating interactive and engaging stories by combining digital
maps (i.e., Google Earth), text, images, and multimedia content for a powerful impact through
digital storytelling. Maps can be incorporated into stories to provide context, highlight locations,
and connect readers relationally through place-based geographical learning. Additionally, the
platform encourages students to explore and understand their world through virtual settings that
they would not be able to access otherwise. ArcGIS Story Maps also allows educators a means
to teach scientific content that go beyond traditional methods by fostering technical skills such as
multimedia proficiency, digital storytelling, and topography [7]. In collaboration with the Vancouver
Botanical Gardens Association’s (VBGA), education team, four curriculum-aligned virtual
classroom visits were created for Kindergarten to Grade 5 classes to learn about tropical plants
in VBGA’s Bloedel Conservatory.

3. Bloedel Conservatory: Virtual Classroom Experiences

The Bloedel Conservatory is located on the traditional territories of the xʷməθkʷəy̓əm Musqueam
people, situated on top of Little Mountain, Vancouver’s highest point in Queen Elizabeth Park. It
is a glass dome-shaped structure and designated as a historic place. This botanical garden is
home to a spectrum of flora and fauna with a variety of free-flying avian species and diverse exotic
plants. The conservatory serves as a living laboratory, facilitating in-person field trips that enable
students to engage with its diverse micro-ecological environment. Moreover, the conservatory
became a place where students learned about biocultural diversity through stories shared by
educators and the virtual visits. Specifically, the four virtual experiences were created by aligning
with teachers’ curriculum and classroom teaching approaches, where stories were shared from
community members, students, scientists, artists, and educators to help connect science and
culture and non-native plants to local plants.
The first virtual classroom visit offers a general overview and tour of the conservatory, introducing
participants to specific plants under the dome: banana, hibiscus, spiral ginger, turmeric, and
cinnamon. This experience gives students and teachers an immersive virtual experience akin to
visiting the conservatory in real-time. The second virtual experience focuses on the hibiscus plant,
accompanied by cultural stories from Hawai’i and Malaysia and Hawaiian hula dance. It includes
curriculum aligned lesson plans and extensions for elementary students and teaching notes and
prompts for the teacher (Figure 1, Figure 2).

Fig. 1. Screenshot of the virtual classroom experience with a focus on hibiscus in ArcGIS Story Maps.

Fig. 2. Screenshot of the hibiscus virtual experience on ArcGIS Story Map capturing a video snippet of the
art of storytelling through hula dance.
270 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Similarly, the third experience centers around the banana plant with classroom activities, and
stories from Indonesia and Malaysia. These virtual experiences collectively aim to enhance
engagement, learning, and appreciation for the plants in the Bloedel Conservatory (Figure 3,
Figure 4).

Fig. 3. Screenshot of a virtual classroom visit focused on the story, science and economics of bananas.

Fig. 4. Screenshot of a section of the teaching notes for the virtual classroom experience.

The fourth virtual experience combines elements from previous experiences and includes a
downloadable activity booklet to guide a blended experience to Bloedel Conservatory. The
blended experience contains curriculum-aligned lesson plans and provides suggestions and
guidance for activities before, during and after the experience (Figure 5).

Fig. 5. Example pages from the activity booklet designed with curriculum aligned activities.
271 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4. The Hibiscus

Connections to plants highlighted in the virtual tours are shared through science, stories, singing,
and dancing. Stemming from an understanding of biocultural diversity – “the diversity of life in all
its manifestations: biological, cultural, and linguistic — which are interrelated (and possibly
coevolved) within a complex socio-ecological adaptive system” [8] the virtual experience of
Bloedel intends to bring visitors closer to experiencing the plants and animals under the dome.
Through a biocultural diversity lens, non-formal educational spaces become reflexive where
students acknowledge, engage, and immerse in the cultural diversity of plants through stories.
This project was designed to weave Indigenous science and western science together where
science becomes contextualized so that, scientific knowledge becomes relational and relevant.
For example, in the hibiscus virtual classroom visit, the meaning of the hibiscus moved from being
a symbol of the author’s heritage and hula dance to all the possibilities for how science can be
shared inside and outside the classroom. With this project, the hibiscus, represents much more
than a tropical flower with its striking colors and delicate petals; it is a living testament to the
marvels of adaptation, diversity, and the intricate web of life that educators have the privilege of
sharing with their students as science educators. Educators learned that the hibiscus plant thrives
in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate environments worldwide, exhibiting its ability to adapt to
different climates and conditions. This ability to adapt to different environments through genetic
diversity reflects biodiversity we find in ecosystems and ourselves. In addition, the hibiscus's
cultural significance from Malaysia to Hawaii emphasizes the intertwining of nature and human
culture. This intertwining underlines the importance of relationships with the natural world towards
shaping one’s beliefs about teaching science and connecting to the world. Through the hibiscus,
a deep connection formed to the natural world. The virtual classroom experience helped enriched
an educator’s approach to teaching and deepened an appreciation for life's interconnectedness.

5. Conclusion

In conclusion, the concept of biocultural diversity serves as a multidimensional framework that

interweaves biological and cultural diversity, emphasizing an interconnectedness between nature
and culture. Collaboration with community, educators, students, and artist in the conservatory by
using ArcGIS’s Story Map as a platform, enriched the stories by connecting them culturally and
geographically. The platform allowed digital storytelling to come from a place-based approach
and together with curriculum-aligned activities and lesson plans, help educators bring their
students closer to plants by deepening their relationships through stories. These experiences,
focusing on specific plants like banana, hibiscus, spiral ginger, turmeric, and cinnamon found in
the conservatory, are examples of how plants contribute to the creation of cultural significance.
More importantly, these experiences move students away from hegemonic ways of teaching
science by encouraging students to explore, understand and appreciate their relationship with
nature, culture and the ecosystem.

REFERENCES

[1] Bridgewater P, Rotherham ID. A critical perspective on the concept of biocultural diversity
and its emerging role in nature and heritage conservation. People Nat. 2019; 1: 291–304.
https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10040
[2] Batista, Bruna & Andrade, Ana Isabel. (2021). Educating for Biocultural Diversity and
Sustainable Development in First Years of Schooling: An Analysis of Documents from
the Portuguese Educational System. Frontiers in Education. September 2021. 652196.
10.3389/feduc.2021.652196.
[3] Cocks, Michelle. (2006). Biocultural Diversity: Moving Beyond the Realm of ‘Indigenous’
and ‘Local’ People. Human Ecology. 34. 185-200. 10.1007/s10745-006-9013-5.
[4] Elands, Birgit et al. (2018). Biocultural diversity: A novel concept to assess human-nature
interrelations, nature conservation and stewardship in cities. Urban Forestry & Urban
Greening. 40. 10.1016/j.ufug.2018.04.006.
[5] Zandvliet D, Leddy S, Inver C, Elderton V, Townrow B, York L. Approaches to Bio-Cultural
Diversity in British Columbia. Sustainability. 2023; 15(8):6422.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su15086422
[6] Elands, B.H.M., Wiersum, K.F., Buijs, A.E. et al. (2015). Policy interpretations and
manifestation of biocultural diversity in urbanized Europe: conservation of lived
biodiversity. Biodiversity Conservation 24, 3347–3366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-
015-0985-6
[7] Kerski, J. (2022). Teaching and learning with ArcGIS Story Maps. ArcGIS Story Maps.
URL: https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/4ac3784538064850bcea91ae588e6392
272 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[8] Maffi. L (2007). Biocultural diversity and sustainability. The SAGE handbook of
environment and society, 267 – 278.
273 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Creating Field Experiences to Promote Scientific Learning

Melissa Caspary1, Diane Boothe2

Georgia Gwinnett College, United States1

Boise State University, United States2

Abstract

Scientific learning in our complex world is undergoing rapid transformation. Field experiences to
promote scientific learning are at the forefront of best practices as science educators strive to
inspire students with hands-on active learning strategies that foster innovation, creativity, and
revitalize the educational experience. Field experiences in the sciences also promote the
development of place-based understanding. Students who engage in field experiences have
greater opportunity to cultivate critical connections to real places that transform abstract concepts
into tangible realities [1]. Students engaged in the field of biology were positively impacted by field
experience. Through their work in the field, the students were able to enact science
autonomously; they engaged with peers and teachers in specific ways and developed new
understandings about research and epistemology founded on their experiences in the field [2].
The goals of this presentation and paper are to share knowledge of creative field experiences
relating to the biological sciences. The multidimensional aspects of field experiences as essential
components to scientific learning are comprehensive and provide strong links and valuable
information that contribute to expert teaching and learning. Emphasis is placed on the creation of
field experiences that will challenge students and encourage them to excel as they tackle complex
curriculum topics. The presenters will provide resources to support students and educators as
they share knowledge, best practices, and strategies for success in field experience design.

Keywords: Field experience, Scientific learning

1. Introduction

In the natural sciences, field experiences are a transformative right-of-passage, enabling the
translation of skills and knowledge for students wishing to pursue a professional or academic
career [3]. They are essential for community building and networking. These experiences
emphasize applied knowledge, critical thinking, and transferable skills that are critical to future
employers. While the value of these experiences can translate across a range of educational
audiences, in this paper we focus on Undergraduate Field Experiences (UFEs). UFEs are created
to optimize engagement with the natural world or to mimic a field experience in the lab or virtually
[4]. These opportunities provide hands-on learning that is integral and essential to scientific
training [5]. They also have been shown as a way to foster belonging and create a sense of
community. Studies have shown that building a sense of community is a critical factor for
improving student retention rates [6].
While the demand for STEM professionals has never been greater and more students than ever
are seeking an education in the sciences, support in higher education for high-impact practices
has diminished. Provisioning for long-term research projects and facilitation of field experiences
by institutions of higher education has also declined [7]. UFEs often require educators with a high-
level of expertise paired with mentorship responsibilities that demand a singular level of
commitment. To experience the greatest learning outcomes, students need academic institutions
to actively support field stations and promote field experiences, but the litigious nature of these
institutions is impeding support for off-campus or out-of-the-classroom activities.
At the same time, the global pandemic that transformed lives and workplaces also had a lasting
impact on increasing the reliance of online educational activities. While a crisis in field learning
grew due to a scarcity of support, expertise, and resources, COVID-19 shifted the focus of higher
education to a virtual world. This change promoted an independent, solitary educational model
that makes offering and accessing field research more challenging [8]. The COVID-19 pandemic
interrupted STEM education and brought innovative methodologies with field approaches that
required shared transport or travel to a standstill. Community building accompanied the loss of
those opportunities [9], however the increasing red-tape of liability grew during this global
disruption. Here, we present several examples of ways to incorporate hands-on and field learning
back into the modern classroom.
274 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2. Building Field Programs

Undergraduate field research can provide transformative experiences and has been shown to
increase engagement and belonging, improve learning outcomes, and enhance career
development. However, when developing field programs, it is necessary to consider place- and
project- based goals, accessibility, and inclusion to promote best practices. Programs must
promote diversity, equity, and inclusion. Field experiences are an opportunity to expand rather
than contract those differences by taking advantage of engagement among students and with
their communities. Inquiry-based research can help overcome barriers to participation and
increase representation [8]. For students from underrepresented groups, barriers may be
financial, physical, cultural or social [10]. By carefully cultivating field experiences and the
curriculum surrounding those learning opportunities, those barriers can be overcome. Broadening
participation and incorporating cultural and racial perspectives will benefit ecological research
planning, implementation and teaching because those individuals asking research questions are
a part of the social, ecological, community and need to be a part of the natural resource
management conversation [11].
In the natural sciences, a connection to the landscape in a place-centered education is critical for
a knowledge transmission and mastery of skills relating to ecology, natural resource, and
conservation careers [3]. This focus on place-based education fosters an understanding that
emphasizes solving real-world problems [8]. This connection to field stations and research sites
has been shown to positively correlate with scientific literacy and future career planning [5].
Students in the sciences need to develop transferable skills that aid in job acquisition. However
potential employers have stressed that there is a noticeable gap in student capacity and employer
expectations with regard to field training [12].

3. Examples of Undergraduate Field Experiences

The natural sciences have always fostered a community of research focusing on the acquisition
of skills through application. When reviewing the benefits of field experiences while comparing
the learning outcomes of knowledge, affect, behavior, and skill, knowledge gains consistently
reported as improving factual and conceptual understanding, metacognition, and concept
retention [7]. We will discuss examples of field experiences from laboratory, domestic field
courses, international study abroad, and teaching programs.

3.1 Laboratories and Campus Open Space

Many college and school campuses have gardens, arboreta, and natural areas that can be utilized
for field skill acquisition in the natural sciences. Going outside offers a welcome change of pace
and students are often relieved to explore beyond the traditional classroom space. These spaces
also encourage educators to develop creative activities that are not constrained by an indoor
space. STEM disciplines have the unique advantage of being designed with specific laboratory
time that is designated for hands-on experimentation and exploration. Laboratories offer science
instructors the freedom to explore inquiry-based curriculum and demonstrations to reinforce
conceptual ideas. Science labs are built around the construct that active learning is necessary for
knowledge acquisition.

3.2 Domestic Study Away

Domestic study away programs offer all of the rich opportunities of a study abroad experience but
have the added advantage of training our student populations in landscapes they may need to
work in for the long-term and provide more accessibility to those students who are prohibited from
participation in international activities due to timing, distance, or expense. Cost has been
documented to be a repeated barrier to student participation in field experiences [7].
At Georgia Gwinnett College, a field experience exploring the varied and distinct natural
communities within the state of Georgia was developed into a Temperate Biology field course.
This course has been carefully designed to expand biological learning in the biological and
environmental sciences through the expansion of collaborative and hands-on learning. In the
class, students have the opportunity to visit and study a wide range of landscapes including the
varied biodiversity that calls those natural communities, home. Expenses are a fraction of the cost
of an international experience, eliminating the barrier of cost that might be prohibitive for many
students. Students participate in cooperative research activities which promote belonging and a
sense of community that extend beyond the length of the course and provide them with a network
of cohorts that serve as a support system throughout their degree program. In each of these
275 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

areas, students collect artifacts and complete hands-on investigations of the environment. These
intense, connected and cooperative activities culminate with field collections resulting in a
portfolio and final presentation of the accomplishments and endeavors.

3.3 Study Abroad: Thailand and Ecuador

Study Abroad experiences offer a unique opportunity to encourage students to participate in

diverse and varied biological areas, while also building a sense of community with their cohort.
Interacting with diverse cultures and communities, aids in the development of essential skills
required to critically engage with the scientific issues of our time.
In a Math, Chemistry, and Biology Study Abroad Program in Thailand, Georgia Gwinnett College
students had the opportunity to participate in a water quality assessment research project that
integrated curriculum goals from statistics and applied statistics courses, along with tropical
biology and chemistry to assess water quality in different river systems throughout the country.
Students were then able to present their field experience findings at a conference hosted at the
International Student Research Conference on Science, Mathematics, and Technology at
Kamphaeng Phet Rajabhat University. In a Study Abroad Program through Georgia Gwinnett
College on International Conservation Biology, students have the opportunity to participate in a
variety of field experiences in Amazonian Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands. These students
volunteer at an animal rehabilitation site and at research stations in the Galapagos. In these
international field experiences, students’ experience with a unique place and culture transforms
learning beyond learning about something into a visceral experience where they have ownership.

3.4 Boisie State University: Field Experiences for Idaho Teaching Certification

Field experiences in Teacher Education programs at Boise State University are designed to
promote the continual development of teachers with a compelling emphasis on increasing student
learning. The programs provide candidates with the knowledge, skills, and dispositions necessary
for teaching. Candidates have multiple opportunities for field experiences in various subject areas
and grade levels. These experiences are also designed to include working with diverse student
populations. Guided reflection of field experiences from a variety of perspectives fosters the self-
analysis and evaluation skills essential for ongoing professional development [15]. Boise State
College of Education field experiences support the conceptual framework as the College strives
to develop knowledgeable educators who integrate complex roles and dispositions in the service
of diverse communities of learners. Believing that all children, adolescents, and adults can learn,
educators dedicate themselves to supporting that learning. Using effective approaches that
promote high levels of student achievement, educators create environments that prepare learners
to be citizens who contribute to a complex world. Educators serve learners as reflective
practitioners, scholars and artists, problem solvers, and partners. The activities connected to
teacher education field experiences are designed to help foster an inquiry stance toward teaching
and are designed to promote the continual development of teachers with an emphasis on
increasing student learning. Field experiences incorporated within educational coursework and
programs provide candidates with in-depth experiences, which include exposure to all grade
levels and the opportunity to work with a multiplicity of diverse student populations. Classroom
field experience is the link between formal preparation and full-time, independent teaching.
Guided reflection of classroom experiences from a variety of perspectives fosters the self-analysis
and evaluation skills essential for continued professional development [15]. Field experiences
also support the Idaho Core Teacher Standards in that they ensure that the preservice teacher
works with others to create environments that support individual and collaborative learning,
encourage positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.
Through field experiences, students in teacher preparation programs have the opportunity to
interact in the classroom, understand and use a variety of instructional strategies to encourage
learners to develop an understanding of content areas and their connections, and to build skills
to apply knowledge in meaningful ways [15].

4. Conclusion

Undergraduate Field Experiences provide opportunities for first-hand experiences that encourage
“critical thinking, long-term retention, transfer potential, positive attitudes toward science,
appreciation for nature, and increased scientific curiosity” [13]. Students who participate in these
experiences consider them to be pivotal in their academic careers. Field courses have been
shown to reduce equity gaps and promote retention and self-efficacy of students from historically
underrepresented groups [14]. In the case of teacher education preparation, field experiences are
essential in providing teacher candidates with the knowledge, skills and dispositions required to
276 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

engage with others and become a certified classroom teacher. Additionally, school districts will
be willing to hire educators who have been prepared by responsible colleges of education that
emphasize field experiences and ensure the quality of their graduates. Beginning teachers will
have the confidence that they need to begin their own careers because they have had the
opportunity to engage in field experiences that prepare them to for their own professional
endeavors. Not only will teacher preparation candidates be positively impacted, but the students
in their classrooms will benefit from their experiences and opportunities to collaborate with other
quality educators who have increased knowledge and experience in the field of education. There
is an imperative need to collect more empirical data to demonstrate just how important these
experiences are in our educational system. If we don’t make an effort to quantify the value of
these high-impact practices, they will be lost [4].

REFERENCES

[1] Fleischner, T. L. (2017). The Natural World: Why Field Studies Matter. Research and
innovation News. Retrieved on November 12, 2023
from https://www.openaccessgovernment.org/the-natural-world-why-field-studies-
matter/39279/">The natural world – Why field studies matter
(openaccessgovernment.org)
[2] Torstein, N.L. (2018). Working and Learning in a Field Excursion. CBE Life Sciences
Education 17(2). Retrieved on November 11 from https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.17-08-
0185">https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.17-08-0185
[3] Milam, E. L. (2022). Making Place in the Field, Isis, 10.1086/718149, 113, 1:121-127.
[4] Shortlidge, E. E., Jolley, A., Shaulskiy, S., Geraghty Ward, E., Lorentz, C. N., O'Connell,
K. (2021). A resource for understanding and evaluating outcomes of undergraduate field
experiences, Ecology and Evolution, 10.1002/ece3.8241, 11(23):16387-16408.
[5] Shaulskiy, S., Jolley, A., O’Connell, K. (2022). Understanding the Benefits of Residential
Field Courses: The Importance of Class Learning Goal Orientation and Class Belonging,
CBE—Life Sciences Education, 10.1187/cbe.21-08-0201, 21, 3.
[6] Boyd, N. M., Liu, X., & Horissian, K. (2022). Impact of Community Experiences on Student
Retention Perceptions and Satisfaction in Higher Education. Journal of College Student
Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 24(2), 337-365.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1521025120916433
[7] Shinbrot, X. A., Treibergs, K., Arcila Hernández, L. M., Esparza, D., Ghezzi-Kopel, K.,
Goebel, M., Graham, O. J., Heim, A. B., Smith, J. A., Smith, M. K., (2022). The Impact of
Field Courses on Undergraduate Knowledge, Affect, Behavior, and Skills: A Scoping
Review, BioScience, 10.1093/biosci/biac070, 72(10):1007-1017.
[8] Valliere, J. M. (2022). Cultivating scientific literacy and a sense of place through course‐
based urban ecology research, Ecology and Evolution, 10.1002/ece3.8985, 12, 6.
[9] Race, A. I., De Jesus, M., Beltran, R. S., Zavaleta, E. S. (2021). A comparative study
between outcomes of an in‐person versus online introductory field course, Ecology and
Evolution, 10.1002/ece3.7209, 11(8):3625-3635.
[10] Morales, N., O'Connell, K.B., McNulty, S., Berkowitz, A., Bowser, G., Giamellaro,
M., Miriti, M. (2020). Promoting inclusion in ecological field experiences: examining and
overcoming barriers to a professional rite of passage. Bull Ecol Soc Amer. 101: e01742.
[11] Bowser, G., Cid, C. R. (2023). Knowing Your Field Community: Elevating the Human
Dimension in Ecological Research and Teaching, Integrative and Comparative Biology,
10.1093/icb/icad036, 63(1):128-135.
[12] Alwin, A., Geleta, Y., Mourad, T. (2021). Toward Conceptualizing Student Outcomes in
Undergraduate Field Programs and Employer Expectations for Field Positions, The
Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America, 10.1002/bes2.1820, 102, 2.
[13] Manner, B. (1995). Field Studies Benefit Students and Teachers. Journal of Geological
Education. 43:(2)128-131.
[14] Beltran, R. S., Marnocha, E., Race, A., Croll, D. A., Dayton, G. H., & Zavaleta,
E. S. (2020). Field courses narrow demographic achievement gaps in ecology
and evolutionary biology. Ecology and Evolution, 10(12), 5184–
5196. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6300
[15] Teacher Education Early Experience Field Guide (2023-24). Boise State University
College of education.
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1QI5e_E1279yE0a5YLbnBVN3UhJ8UeXyuUk5KL
xD1i30/edit
277 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

CO2 Monitoring to Enhance Digital and Green Competences

in VET

Mariaconcetta Canino1, Enrico Cozzani2, Francesco Marucci2, Gabriela Carrara3,

Stefania Marzocchi3, Stefano Zampolli1, Francesco Suriano2

CNR-IMM, Via P. Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy1

Proambiente Scrl. Via P. Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy2
“Dario Nobili” CNR Library, Area della Ricerca di Bologna, Via P. Gobetti 101, 40129
Bologna, Italy3

Abstract

This contribution presents the results obtained within the KA2 Erasmus Plus project CO2
Monitoring in Schools for digital and green competences (CHANGE) [1]. The consortium, made
up of an Italian Research Institute and four VET schools in Bulgaria, Italy, Romania and Spain, is
developing, testing and optimizing a didactic pathway centered on Indoor Air Quality [2] in
schools. The pathway combines digital skills, i.e. system integration, programming and data
processing, with socially relevant topics such as IAQ monitoring, energy efficiency, greenhouse
gases and climate change, raw materials and open data, in order to provide students with
competences useful to meet the requirements of the labour market and to foster their critical
thinking on scientific basis. The experimental section consists in the assembly of CO 2 monitoring
stations controlled by a Raspberry PI microcomputer with open-source code programmed in
Python, and in its use for the continuous monitoring of the CO 2 concentration in the classroom.
The acquired data, as well as the metadata needed for their interpretation, are collected in an
open data repository [3] based on CKAN [4]. Mid-term monitoring (approx. 1 month) has been
carried out in different indoor spaces and the results, analyzed by the students themselves, will
be presented. The outcomes of the first project year (2022-23), testified by questionnaires and
CO2 monitoring reports, show a general satisfaction towards the pathway and the Erasmus Plus
dissemination activities. As a drawback, the metadata annotation, needed to obtain reliable and
reusable monitoring data, shows some weaknesses. The mitigation solutions that are going to be
tested within the second year (2023-24) of the project include teachers’ training on open data
management, software interface simplification, and increase of the detail in the annotation and
reporting guidelines provided to the students. This presentation will eventually discuss their
effectiveness and ease of implementation. Indeed, the ultimate goal is the establishment of a
reliable action chain connecting monitoring with open data in order to enhance further elaboration
and citizen science initiatives involving schools.

Keywords: indoor air quality, digital, sensors, open source, data, citizen science

1. Introduction

Indoor air quality monitoring (IAQ) is expected to play a great role in the field wellbeing and green
buildings in the next years. While societal issues such as the COVID-19 pandemics and the
methane shortage, highlighted, on the one side, the importance of IAQ and, on the other side, the
need for energy saving. However, the achievement of both objectives might be in contrast, since
the fresh air supply required for the maintenance of good IAQ standards induces higher energy
consumption in buildings [1], while the domestic heating sector is responsible for greenhouse gas
emission and air pollution. Addressing these issues by providing adequate behavioural indications
and innovative market solutions requires a comprehensive analysis of IAQ data obtained in
different environments, including e.g. houses, schools, offices, hospitals, as well as the work of
trained professionals. Commercial IAQ systems often incorporate carbon dioxide (CO 2) sensors,
because, even if it cannot properly be defined as a pollutant, the CO 2 molecule is relatively easy
to detect, and a high CO2 concentration is indicative of poor room ventilation with respect to the
number of occupants, which, in turn, might favour the presence of other potentially harmful
pollutants [2].
The project “CO2 Monitoring in Schools for digital and green competences” (CHANGE) [3] has
the scope to release a didactic pathway that introduces the growing IAQ market to VET students.
The students involved in the pathway are expected to monitor the CO 2 concentration in selected
278 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

school environments by making use of monitoring stations assembled by themselves, made up

of commercial components, programmed with open-source software. The monitoring data are
made open through the publication on a public repository [4,5]. The pathway includes theoretical
sections that highlight connections of IAQ with themes such as environmental monitoring, climate
change, assembly and software development for an electronic system, reuse of obsolete
electronic devices, and open data, in order to generate digital and green competences and foster
critical thinking on scientific basis. Having students familiar with digital skills and topics – software
development, system installation and maintenance, programming, data processing – which are
more and more required by the labour market (“90% of future jobs will require digital skills” –
Digital Education Action Plan, 2021) provides solid credentials for a successful labour market
entry.
The scientific content of the didactic pathway has been conceived and optimized by the National
Research Council of Italy (CNR) and Proambiente S.c.r.l., a consortium of the CNR Technopole,
in the framework of the self-financed Italian project CO2Lab (COOL), 2021-2022, and of the
currently ongoing KA2 Erasmus Plus Project CO2 Monitoring in Schools for digital and green
competences (CHANGE), since 2022 November. In the latter, four Schools in Europe are
adapting the pathway to their own specific curricular requirements, and testing it in selected
classes, in order to provide suggestions for optimization.
This work presents the pathway and discusses the features that have been objective of
optimization. The pathway has been proposed to 19 classes in different locations of Italy and 6
classes in Europe (Bulgaria, Romania and Spain). The presented optimization has been achieved
by implementing the input acquired from the teachers by informal discussion since 2021, and by
filling pathway evaluation questionnaires in 2023.

2. The Pathway

The didactic pathway has been developed by following a modular approach and consists of
different materials (e.g., tutorial video and presentations, pdf manuals, report sheets and
templates) available to be used and customized by the teachers. The core activities consist in: a
theoretical section, covering the meaning of the CO2 concentration in air, its relevance towards
IAQ and climate change, the CO2 measurement principle; a practical section dealing with the
assembly and use of CO2 monitoring stations based on low-cost commercial components and
open-source software; CO2 continuous monitoring; and evaluation of the acquired knowledge.
Figure 1 shows the CO2 monitoring station (a) and the two display modes of its WebApp interface
(b, c).

Fig. 1. CO2 monitoring Hardware and Software: assembled station (a), main WebApp page (b), chart
WebApp page (c) with selectable timescale and date.

The main WebApp page (b) displays the actual CO 2 value (gauge) as well as the temperature
and relative humidity values. In (c) is reported the trend of CO 2 - the orange line with the scale on
the left axis – and the temperature - the blue line with the scale in the right axis.
279 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2.1 CO2 Monitoring Stations and Webapp

The monitoring station is made up of: a Sensirion SCD30 dual channel sensor, a single board
computer Raspberry Pi Zero W equipped with supply and SD card with Python code on board, a
3D printed support, and accessories for the system assembly.
SCD30 detects the CO2 concentration by the non-dispersive infrared absorption principle [6], and
is equipped with temperature and relative humidity sensors. The measured values are acquired,
every 5”, by a Raspberry Pi Zero mini-PC via an open-source Python code that exploits a specific
two-wire communication bus (I2C). Finally, the acquired data are sent via wireless connection to
a remote server, stored in a dedicated database and displayed through the project WebApp. Two
visualization modes are possible: a three-colour CO2 gauge with CO2 level intervals below 800
sccm, between 800 and 1200 ppm, and above 1200 ppm; and a graph displaying the CO 2
concentration and the temperature vs time, with a selectable time interval between 1 and 12
hours. It is also possible to select previous measurement days and download the corresponding
.txt files by clicking on the date buttons. Other information displayed are: temperature, relative
humidity, window status, and position where the station is located. These parameters can be set
via the administrator page.
The didactic material includes instructions and tutorials for station assembly, and a user manual
for station usage and maintenance, data acquisition and visualization, in order to allow for an
autonomous use of the stations by teachers and students.
In order to familiarize with the use of the stations, several experiments producing CO 2
concentration variations are performed in the classroom: 1) CO 2 increase in a closed box via a
chemical reaction or the introduction of a glass containing sparkling water; 2) CO2 decrease under
a glass dome containing a plant or performing a mechanical ventilation (using a small electrical
fan); 3) CO2 increase induced due to people crowding near the monitoring station; 4) CO 2
decrease in consequence of window opening. These experiments are not intended to provide
information on chemical reactions; nevertheless, the range of possible experiments was enriched
thanks to the collaboration of teachers of chemistry. The analysed chemical reactions include
acid/base reactions, such as the one between lemon juice or vinegar and sodium bicarbonate,
fermentation, such as the reaction between yeast and sugar, and the visualization of the effect of
CO2 variations, i.e., balloon inflation or flame extinction. Coupling the CO2 sensors with chemistry
experiments is an added value for the pathway, because it provides connections with the
chemistry curricular program. Nevertheless, the added value can be increased thanks to the
multidisciplinary didactic material that fosters the connections with the computer science and
mechanics teachers.

2.2 Thematic Didactic Modules

The choice of visualizing the data via a WebApp, allows to avoid the use of a dedicated display
and reduces the amount of electronic devices required for the activity. Data visualization can be
achieved by using hardware that is already available, such as the classroom PC, the students’
mobile phones, or an old mobile phone that can be reused for the activity, in a circular economy
perspective. This observation opens to the additional module “materials in electronic devices and
planned obsolescence”, a specialist lecture on electronic fabrication technologies, material and
chip shortage, and professional skills addressing the chip market. This is an example of digression
from the main topic that can be added to the pathway modular structure. Other specialist lessons
cover topics such as: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report; IAQ and health;
IAQ and building materials; open source and open data. Practical activities are covered within the
following modules include: python programming for system integration (sensors interface, data
retrieval and storage, connection and data management); CSS and Javascript programming for
WebApp development (data visualization and pages customization); mechanical CAD design for
3D-printing for system support or case realization.

2.3 CO2 Monitoring in Classrooms

The modular structure allows to tailor the pathway to the school, class and expected outcome.
The teachers who carry out the pathway in their class may be focusing on experiments involving
CO2 chemistry, Python coding, peer to peer education, outreach events promoting the school
projects, while CO2 monitoring in classrooms is the outcome recommended by the research
institutions proposing the activities.
280 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig. 2. Example of a daily CO2 monitoring in a classroom: CO2 graph (a), event log (b) and classroom map
with info (c)

Fig. 2 shows an example of CO2 monitoring report: the CO2 concentration curve vs time (a);
related data annotations (b, c): event log describing the situation and the events occurring at
specific times (b); classroom map (c). It is apparent at a first glance that the CO 2 concentration
curve (a) does not provide enough information for a successive interpretation. Data acquisition is
carried out between 8:30 and 11:44. At the station start, the CO2 concentration is < 400 ppm
(section 1 of the curve). At TIME the CO2 concentration undergoes an instant increase to about
420 ppm (instant 2 on the curve). At 9:00, the CO2 concentration starts rising at 17 ppm/min rate
(section 3 of the curve). At 9:50 the CO2 undergoes a steep decrease (section 4), followed by an
8 ppm/min rise (section 5) until about 10:20. Finally, the CO 2 slowly decreases (section 6) till the
end of the monitoring (instant 7 on the curve). These CO2 trends can be related to the annotated
events: during section 1, the measured CO 2 concentration is lower than the atmospheric one: it
is necessary to calibrate the station, and this is done at 8:59, i.e. instant 2; after the lesson start,
at 9:00, the CO2 increases (section 3) until the break, that starts at 9:50; the window and door
opening during the break induces the rapid decrease observed in section 4; the lessons begin at
10:00 with less students in the classroom: indeed, the slope of the CO 2 increase recorded in
section 5 is lower than the one in section 3; also the door opening at 10:44 produces a smoother
CO2 decrease (section 7) then the one recorded during the pause, because in this case the
students are in the classroom. At 11:00 data acquisition is stopped. Further analyses can be made
to discuss a CO2 concentration curve with respect to the classroom map (c). Examples are
provided in Fig. 3:
- extract the CO2 rise rate as a function of the unit area and unit volume occupied by each student
(Figs. 3a and 3b);
- calculate the percentage of time spent by the students in a CO 2-rich environment with respect
to the time spent in a healthy environment (Figs. 3c and 3d) having also the possibility to compare
days with random (Fig. 3c) and scheduled (Fig. 3d) windows opening. The latter is approx. 10’
every hour;
- compare the obtained results as a function of the station location in the classroom, by changing,
for example, its distance from the windows and from the students, or its height from the floor (Fig.
3c);
- find correlations between CO2, temperature, and relative humidity trends, as a function of
annotations and eventual Heating and Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems
schedule.
281 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig. 3. Output examples by the students: graph mathematical analysis (a) and related info calculation (b),
analysis of spent time vs CO2 value having random (c) and scheduled windows opening

Such analyses might provide behavioral indications for the occupants of school spaces, thus
increasing awareness towards measures that can be taken to improve IAQ. Furthermore, the
calculations needed to extract the results represent an example of “authentic task” that improves
the students’ digital competences, while changing the station location is an example of creation
of an experimental setup, that opens to explain statistical errors and to identify proper working
conditions for low cost sensors, in order to avoid measurement artifacts. The whole continuous
monitoring activity, that includes decision on station location, data acquisition and metadata
annotation, data analysis, and, eventually, reporting, increases the scientific literacy of the
students.
Of course, the balance between the continuous monitoring activity and the use of the CO 2 sensors
as a didactic tool in laboratory activities is a teacher’s choice. However, we noticed that the
attention caught by the pathway is higher among the teachers of chemistry and biology, who, in
turn, realize the connection between the pathway and the curricular program, and, consequently,
emphasize the experiments involving CO2 reactions also in the evaluation of the learning. For a
complete exploitation of the CO2 monitoring station potentialities both as a support for the
experiments and as an IAQ data source, the class can rely on a document outlining CO 2
monitoring report guidelines.

2.4 CO2 Monitoring Report

The CO2 monitoring report is a written document. It must be made by the students and can be
made either as a document or as a presentation. The function of the monitoring report is dual: it’s
a learning evaluation tool and a data source. Much attention has to be dedicated to the data
presentation and elaboration.
The CO2 monitoring report must contain one plot of the CO 2 concentration as a function of time
for each day of continuous monitoring in classroom. The plot can be drawn with a program (e.g.
Excel, OpenOffice Calc) or can be a screenshot of the WebApp. The suitable XY scale must be
chosen in order to highlight the reported phenomena.
The information that must be correlated to the graphs in order to appropriately validate the data
are:
- classroom size: surface (m2), volume (m3).
- CO2 monitoring station position: it can be accompanied by a photo or by a map of the
classroom. The height and the distance from the closest CO 2 source, usually a person,
are useful information.
- Useful information can be also the activities carried out in the room (e.g., sport, lunch,
cleaning), mainly in case the monitoring is carried out in a place other than a classroom.
- Each datum, i.e., each point, should be correlated to the number of people in classroom
(students + teachers) and to the window status (open/closed).
- Correlation between the window status and temperature.
282 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

This report can be verified by researchers or a peer-to-peer verification system can be setup in
the class, by using this checklist as a guide. Verified data can be published on the project data
open portal according to the Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable (FAIR) data
principle.

3. Discussion on the Optimization

This section deals with the issues encountered in the achievement of the set objectives and
presents the refinements made to conform to the expectations of the researchers who first
outlined the learning pathway. The core need addressed by the pathway is to provide VET
students with up-to-date making (electronics and system integration) and digital (programming,
WebApp development, data visualization) competences that can be useful in future green
professions. As stated in section 1, IAQ represents a growing market and is then suitable for
competence development, starting from an easy-to-understand marker as CO2.
Moreover, the public release of the data from CO2 monitoring in different schools carried out within
the CHANGE project, is expected to contribute to the generation of knowledge about IAQ in
schools, directly connected with pupils’ wellbeing [7] and attention [8] and which is also sensitive
to site-specific features [9].
The advantage from the collection of such data increases by increasing the number of involved
classrooms. However, a tradeoff is required, since the numerical impact of this action would be
modest if the researchers were meant to be directly involved all along the pathway, and on the
other hand, the contact between with researchers might stimulate pupils’ interest towards
advanced electronic devices and their use in innovative applications. The tradeoff might be
offered by establishing a close collaboration with researchers in the data acquisition, in order to
allow students to act “as researchers”, while having the teachers lead the pathway in their classes,
using the CO2 monitoring stations as a didactic tool for the provision of both knowledge and
competences. Besides, supporting the teachers to autonomously use the CO2 monitoring stations
lays the foundations of the project durability: trained teachers might keep on using the stations as
didactic instruments also after the end of the project. To this purpose, some teacher training
actions have been held or scheduled along the CHANGE project duration. The training consists
in an overview of the teaching material and a session of station assembly and use to get familiar
with these tools. Trained teachers have access to the modular teaching material, free for reuse
and adaptation; additionally, the CO2 monitoring stations have been equipped with a detailed user
manual, that allows for problem solving during operation. This supporting document has been
appreciated by the teachers attending the training course. It is worth noting that this supporting
document is not necessary if the pathway is implemented having the researchers give the
lessons.
Besides the impact on pathway spread and durability, teacher involvement has been recognized
as a positive element for the effectiveness of the continuous monitoring. In our experience,
punctual metadata annotation and high-quality reports were achieved by the classes where
teachers were directly involved in analysing the monitoring data. Similarly, A. Di Gilio et al., who
carried out a study on CO2 concentration in schools upon random window opening or after the
establishment of a ventilation protocol, observed that an overall improvement of CO 2 levels was
indeed registered for all classrooms where teachers were compliant and helpful in the
management of the air ventilation strategy and that the real-time visualization and monitoring of
CO2 concentrations allowed for effective air exchanges to be implemented [10].
It is worth to remark that though the interest in CO2 concentration in schools raised after the
COVID-19 pandemics, the interest in indoor air quality is high in the scientific community, and the
collection of data from schools across Europe can contribute to outline behavioural protocols [9].
For this reason, effective event annotation correlating monitoring data is mandatory. A first step
that was implemented to obtain complete data reports was the release of monitoring report
guidelines. This document proposes a scheme for the reports on the CO 2 monitoring experiments
carried out in school environment. As a second step, the pathway didactic material was completed
with the addition of a seminar on the FAIR data concepts [11], in order to raise awareness on the
importance of metadata for the successive use of the produced monitoring data. As a third
improvement, the WebApp can be implemented with the possibility to set the metadata, i.e.
location, number of people, window status, in the moment of the data analysis. This trick allows
to just write down the window opening/closing instants during the lesson in order not to interrupt
it, while maintaining the possibility of saving annotated data.
283 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4. Conclusions

The availability of low-cost sensors for indoor pollutants enables widespread measurement
campaigns that are carried out in several research projects, also involving citizen science. In
particular, CO2 is relatively easy to detect, and, even if it is not a pollutant, it can be indicative of
poor room ventilation with respect to the number of occupants, which, in turn, might favour the
presence of other potentially harmful air pollutants. For this reason, CO 2 sensors are often
employed in commercial indoor air monitoring systems, whose use was recommended also in
schools after the COVID-19 pandemics. This work presented a didactic pathway which uses CO 2
monitoring stations made up of commercial and open-source material that can be used both for
CO2 monitoring, according to the citizen science concept, and as a didactic tool for monitoring
chemical reactions involving CO2, or as an informatics lab. Coupling CO2 monitoring with green
and digital competences allows for maintaining the durability of this topic beyond the interest
raised by the COVID-19 pandemics.
The pathway was developed by two research institutions in Italy, and optimized thanks to the
contribution of teachers of different disciplines in Italy and Europe. The pathway optimization
concerned the contents, the supporting material, and the management method of the pathway.
From this experience, we believe that the key elements for a successful implementation of the
pathway are the contribution of teachers from different disciplines leading the pathway, and the
direct contact between students and researchers in the data collection and evaluation stage.
Further developments might involve the use of multi-sensors IAQ monitoring systems, adding for
instance Particulate Matter (PM) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). These can be simply
seen as an enrichment of the proposed CO2 monitoring system while providing a more
comprehensive picture of IAQ in schools.

REFERENCES

[1] Moghadam, T.T., et al., “Energy efficient ventilation and indoor air quality in the context
of COVID-19 - A systematic review”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 182,
2023, p. 113356. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2023.113356
[2] Prill, R. et al., “Why Measure Carbon Dioxide Inside Buildings?”, Washington State
University Extension Energy Program (2000).
https://www.energy.wsu.edu/documents/co2inbuildings.pdf last consulted on January
29th, 2024.
[3] https://www.co2lab.it/change-erasmus/
[4] https://dalia-bo.cnr.it/organization/change.
[5] https://ckan.org/
[6] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nondispersive_infrared_sensor
[7] Peng, Z., and Jimenez, J., "Exhaled CO2 as COVID-19 infection risk proxy for different
indoor enironments and activities", Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. vol 8, 2021, pp. 392–397.
DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00183
[8] Daisey, J.M., et al., “Indoor air quality, ventilation and health symptoms in schools: an
analysis of existing information”, Indoor Air, 13, 2003, pp.53-64. DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-
0668.2003.00153.x
[9] Sadrizadeh, S., et al., “Indoor air quality and health in schools: A critical review for
developing the roadmap for the future school environment”, Journal of Building
Engineering, 57, 2022, 104908. DOI: 10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104908
[10] Di Gilio, A., et al., “CO2 concentration monitoring inside educational buildings as a
strategic tool to reduce the risk of Sars-CoV-2 airborne transmission”, Environmental
Research, 202, 2021, 111560.
[11] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAIR_data
284 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Sustainable and Healthy Nutrition – How Do Young People

Eat?

Julia Holzer1, Doris Elster2

Institute for Science Education - Biology Education, University of Bremen, Bremen,

Germany1,2

Abstract

The production, processing and consumption of our food play a decisive role in the consideration
of human resource consumption. Against the current climate change, increasing land
consumption, decreasing water availability and a growing world population, the review and
adaptation of food systems in terms of social, ecological and economic sustainability is one of the
central tasks both for politics and for the agricultural and food industry. Our nutritional habits are
an important field of action for promoting ecologically sustainable development. However, it is not
always easy for individuals to make the right decision in terms of a healthy and sustainable
nutrition. Our eating behavior is highly complex and linked to other everyday activities in many
ways. The following study attempts to uncover the extent to which young people eat sustainably
and healthily. This question is considered in terms of the theory of planned behavior. The intention
of young people to eat healthily and sustainably is considered, as well as other motivational
factors such as attitude (ATT), subjective norm (SN) and perceived behavioral control (PBC). In
addition, the level of knowledge on the topic and its influence on the intention is measured. A total
of 171 students (age ø: 17.3; n= 96 ♀/ n =75 ♂) from Bremen completed a questionnaire. The
results clearly show that especially ATT and PBC toward sustainable and healthy nutrition
correlate positively and significantly with intention. There is also a significant and positive
correlation between knowledge (amount of information, system-knowledge and action-related-
knowledge) and intention to eat healthily and sustainably. The results of the regression analysis
also show that the theory-internal factors (ATT, SN and PBC) together explain 53% of the
intention to eat healthily and sustainably. If knowledge is also taken into account in the model
(self-evaluation of knowledge), the model explains a further 2% of the intention. In the extended
model, ATT, PBC and knowledge are the key determinants of intention. It is clear from these
results that these influencing factors should form the starting points in subsequent studies in order
to sensitize students to healthy and sustainable eating habits.

Keywords: Theory of planned behavior, attitudes, knowledge, sustainable and healthy nutrition

1. Introduction

The production, preparation and consumption of our food play a significant role regarding people's
consumption of resources. Around 28% of the resources consumed and 17% of greenhouse gas
emissions in Europe are attributed to the European food industry [1]. Eating and drinking are
elementary basic needs of humans. The sum of individual nutritional decisions and thus the
demand for certain foods influences supply. A more productive agricultural and food industry is
therefore needed. The food sector must therefore be reviewed and adapted in terms of
sustainability. When it comes to nutrition, the personal, individual level meets the major challenge
of reducing environmental pollution and resource consumption more clearly than in almost any
other field of action.
Therefore, our diet is an important field of action for promoting ecologically sustainable
development. However, it is not always easy for individuals to make the right decision in terms of
a healthy and sustainable diet. Our eating behavior is highly complex and linked to other everyday
activities in many ways. On the one hand eating behavior is strongly influenced by habits and
eating decisions are not always made rationally. On the other hand, it is not always clear which
food need only a few resources in their production and which need much more. The way the food
is composed and presented also influences people's health and well-being. Balanced and high-
quality food is one of the most influential factors in nutritional behavior [1].
285 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Young people often do not prefer a healthy and sustainable diet. Often this decision does not
depend on personal preferences but on social norms emanating from their peers. For example,
young people tend to eat fast food, which is not only harmful to the environment, but also bad for
their health (high in caloric value and low in nutritional value) [2]. There are also young people
who tend to choose harmful and strict diets in order to approximate certain ideals of beauty.
Malnutrition is often the result [2]. This study examines the factors that have a major influence on
young people's decision to eat healthily and sustainably. This study uses the theory of planned
behavior to explain young student’s nutritional habits and behavior towards a healthy and
sustainable diet. Before the theory of planned behavior is presented, the concept of healthy and
sustainable nutrition is defined.

2. Theoretical Background

2.1 Nutritional Recommendations for a Sustainable and Healthy Diet

A healthy, sustainable diet means eating in such a way that the overall health, ecological,
economic and social effects of our eating style are positive as possible. The primary goal of
sustainable nutrition is to manage resources in a way that is sustainable for all generations: The
living situation of today's generation should be improved without endangering the living situation
of future generations [3]. Sustainable nutrition is therefore part of sustainable development, as
set out by the United Nations in 2015 with the 2030 Agenda as a shared vision of sustainability
[4].
Health and nutrition are closely linked. The aim of a sustainable diet is not only to avoid illness,
but also to live as long as possible in complete or predominantly good health [5]. Several recent
studies have shown positive effects of certain specific food on health [6,7,8]. Dietary
recommendations have been derived from this. If such dietary recommendations are
implemented, this maintains the individual's physical and mental fitness, prevents diet-related
diseases and is a prerequisite for quality of life and well-being. Food that have positive effects on
health are also correlated with positive effects on the environment. For example, minimally
processed food from cereals, fresh vegetables and fruit, pulses as well as seeds and some nuts
should be consumed more both in terms of their health effects and their low environmental impact
[9]. Recommendations that focus on a plant-based, needs-based diet are therefore also of great
benefit to the environment [10]. Another key area of action in food policy for sustainable nutrition
is the appreciation of food, accompanied by a reduction in food waste and the resources required
for its production. In principle, organically produced food contributes to environmental protection,
even if the climate impact can vary depending on the displacement effects. Depending on the
production and distribution process as well as storage, regionally produced food can have a better
environmental impact than goods transported over long distances. This applies in particular to
seasonal products from the region. At the level of citizens, energy-efficient purchasing and
resource-efficient food preparation are also fields of action for a sustainable lifestyle [11].

2.2 The Theory of Planned Behavior

The theory of planned behavior (TPB) concerns itself with the prediction and explanation of
behavior. TPB is based on a rational conception of human nature and the rational determination
of behavior. According to this, a person behaves rationally and uses the information available to
them in such a way that they recognize the consequences of an action before they carry out an
action or a certain behavior [12].
According to the theory, actions are directly controlled by intentions, which makes intention the
only direct determinant of behavior [13]. Intention is understood as the attempt to perform a certain
behavior. Three determinants exert an influence on intention, namely "attitude toward the
behavior" (ATT), a personal and attitudinal factor, "subjective norm" (SN), a social and normative
factor, and perceived behavioral control (PBC), a factor that reflects a person's degree of control
in performing the behavior [14, 15].
Ajzen and Fishbein [12,16] define attitude towards behavior as a one-dimensional, affective and
evaluative concept. Here, a person makes an individual evaluation of the performed behavior or
action by reacting approvingly or disapprovingly to this action. The attitude is in turn determined
by behavioral beliefs in relation to a specific behavior. These beliefs mark the specific behavior
with different attributes, such as characteristics, objects or events [17] (see figure 1).
286 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 1. Theory of planned behavior ([15]; modified by authors).

Ajzen [15,18] defines the determinant "subjective norm" as a person's individual perception of
social environmental support with regard to the behavior of interest. The subjective norm thus
deals with the perceived social consequences of the behavior, whereby these are made up of the
expectations of important reference persons and groups of this person. Ajzen and Fishbein [12]
write: "It refers to the person's subjective norm, that is, his perception that most people who are
important to him think he should or should not perform the behavior in question." (p. 57). These
reference groups and persons (family members, friends, etc.) can vary depending on the
behavioral situation. The normative beliefs represent a person's perception of the extent to which
their relevant reference persons or groups would welcome or reject the performance of the
behavior (perception of the expectation of others). For the normative beliefs to become
behaviorally effective, the person must also evaluate the extent to which he or she wishes to
comply with these expectations of the important attachment figures [14]. Ajzen [15] refer to this
second component as motivation to comply. The willingness to comply thus indicates the extent
to which a person is motivated to behave in accordance with the presumed wishes of the
attachment figures.
Perceived behavioral control describes the extent to which a person perceives the behavior of
interest as controllable, or how easy or difficult the person considers it to be to perform the
behavior. As with the two previously described components of intention, beliefs form the basis for
perceived behavioral control, so-called control beliefs. Control beliefs include all resources
(abilities, skills, willpower, information) that a person possesses for the performance of the
behavior, as well as the existing restrictions that prevent the performance of the behavior [19].
Many external factors, such as time, opportunity to perform the action, potential situational
obstacles or dependence on other people, which may favor the performance of the behavior, can
also have a restrictive effect [15]. All of these beliefs or opinions of a person determine the
perceived behavioral control. In general, the more resources a person perceives or is able to draw
on and the fewer restrictions they believe they have, the more likely it is that the requested
behavior will actually be performed [19].
The intention to perform a behavior is greater the more positive the attitude and the more
supportive the subjective norm towards the requested behavior is, and also the greater the
perceived behavioral control or the stronger the persons are able to control their behavior [15,
18].

3. Research Questions and Methodology

The main aim of this study is to analyze the determinants of young people's intention to eat
sustainably and healthily and to determine the extent to which these determinants impact young
people's intention to eat. Three questions are answered in this article:

1. What are the attitudes, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control among young
people towards healthy and sustainable eating?
2. Which knowledge do young people have about healthy and sustainable nutrition?
3. What factors influence young people's intention to eat healthily and sustainably?
287 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fishbein and Ajzen [20] initially assumed that all predictors not included in the theory (TPB) only
had an indirect effect on behavior by influencing attitudes or subjective norms or perceived
behavioral control. For Ajzen [21], sufficiency therefore means that the predictive power of the
TPB cannot be improved by adding further predictors. Many studies have strongly questioned this
through their investigations in different behavioral domains. Finally, in 1991, Ajzen [18; also 22]
admits that it can make sense to include other factors in the theory if they contribute to the
variance explanation of intention or behavior independently of the three predictors already
included. In this study, in addition to the intention-determining predictors (ATT, SN, PBC), the
influence of knowledge on the intention to eat sustainably and healthily is also examined.
In this study, the focus was placed on knowledge, as many studies have shown that young people
only have a low level of knowledge about healthy and sustainable nutrition. However, knowledge
is positively associated with a healthy and sustainable diet [23,24,25,26].
Kaiser and Frick [27] distinguish between three forms of knowledge, namely system knowledge,
action-related knowledge and effectiveness knowledge. All three types of knowledge or some
combinations of them can have a predictive effect on behavior. The differentiation of knowledge
increases the degree of specificity in knowledge. System knowledge is described by Frick, Kaiser
and Wilson [28] in the context of ecological behavior as knowledge about the dynamics of (eco)-
systems and knowledge about (environmental) problems. Action-related knowledge includes
knowledge about possible options for action and provides an assessment of whether
corresponding actions can be taken and what "costs" they entail [28]. The effectiveness
knowledge indicates how effective an option for action can be and whether it is ultimately
worthwhile to bear the costs associated with taking action. Therefore, effectiveness knowledge
describes the potential of a particular action or the relative potential of different actions [27].
A total of 171 students (age ø: 17.3; n= 96 ♀/ n =75 ♂) participated in this study and filled in a
questionnaire. The collected data were processed in anonymous form in the present study. For
data analysis in SPSS mainly correlations und regression analyses were performed.
Measurement of behavioral intention, of ATT, SN and PBC follow closely the guidelines
recommended by Ajzen [29]. In addition to the constructs of the TPB, subject knowledge on the
topic of healthy and sustainable nutrition was operationalized. Two forms of knowledge were
operationalized, namely system knowledge and action-related knowledge. Furthermore,
participants were asked to indicate how well informed they were with respect to sustainable und
healthy nutrition (amount of information). All items are measured via 7-point-Likert scales (e.g.,
agree-disagree). An overview about scales (factors), item numbers and Cronbach´s alpha values
of the questionnaire is given in table 1.

Table 1. TPB-factors and model external factors (system knowledge and action-related knowledge).
Factor (number of items) Example Cronbach
´s α
Attitude (5) I think that a healthy and sustainable diet for the foreseeable ,855
future is a... (bad/ good)
subjective Norm (4) Most people who are important to me think that I should eat ,721
healthy and sustainably in the next foreseeable future.
perceived behavioral For me, a healthy and sustainable diet in the foreseeable future ,753
control (5) would be... (possible / impossible)
Intention (3) How likely do you think it is that you will actually eat more ,831
healthily and sustainably in the foreseeable future?
Subject knowledge A sustainable eating habits has a positive influence on your ,816
(system-knowledge) (9) own well-being and health.
Subject knowledge I am aware of the guidelines and eating recommendations for ,827
(action-related - a sustainable and healthy diet (e.g., increased consumption of
knowledge) (7) vegetables and fruit)
Subject knowledge I think I know a lot about the topic of "healthy and sustainable ,871
(amount of information) (2) nutrition".

4. Findings

What are the attitudes, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control among young
people towards healthy and sustainable eating?
The adolescents who participated in the survey show a moderate intention to eat healthily and
sustainably in the foreseenable future when looking at the 7-level response formats of intention-
items. Nevertheless, they tend to have a positive attitude (ATT mean=5.38) towards the intention
and they tend to be convinced that they can implement the desired action (PBC mean=4.96). SN
with a mean value of 3.78 is rather low among the young people (tab. 2).
288 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 2. Descriptive statistics.

N Mean SD
ATT 165 5.38 1.11
SN 168 3.78 1.27
PBC 160 4.96 1.09
Intention 168 4.32 1.43

Which knowledge do young people have about healthy and sustainable nutrition?
The participants estimate their own knowledge (amount of information) regarding healthy and
sustainable nutrition slightly above the mean (mean=4.80). Nevertheless, this value does not
exceed the scale value 5 on the 7-point Likert scale. The young people show the highest value in
system knowledge (tab. 3). The mean value of the action-related-knowledge construct
(mean=4.93) is just below 5.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics.

N Mean SD
System-knowledge 156 5.07 1.06
Action-related-knowledge 168 4.93 1.10
amount of information 171 4.80 1.27

What factors influence young people's intention to eat healthily and sustainably?
In order to identify influential predictors of intention, a hierarchical regression analysis is
performed (tab. 4). In the first block, the averaged attitude, subject norm as well as perceived
behavioral control are included in the model by using the enter-method. The averaged external
model factors as system-knowledge, action-related-knowledge and amount of information are
included in the model using the step-wise-method in the second block. Two models are proposed.
Table 4 demonstrates results of TPB-model (1 model) and the final model (2 model) or extended
model by including model external factors.
Around 53% of the intention to eat healthily and sustainably in the foreseeable future is predicted
by the model-internal TPB variables, namely ATT, SN and PBC (tab.4; model 1). The PBC is the
strongest predictor (b= 0.5; p≤.001), which is followed by ATT (b=.268; p≤.001). If model-external
factors (system knowledge; action-related-knowledge an amount of information) are
simultaneously considered in the model, in addition to the PBC (b =.492; p =.001) and ATT
(b=.226; p=.001) as well as amount of information (b =.183; p =.006) can be described as
influential predictors of intention. Overall, the extended model explains about 55% (R2 adj. = .549)
of intention (tab. 4). Two factors, namely system knowledge and action-related knowledge, are
not included in the model and are therefore not considered to be formative factors of intention in
the context of healthy and sustainable nutrition.

Table 4. Regression on intention. N= sample size; R2= goodness of fit [R2adj.= R2 adjusted]; F=F-value; T:
t-value; b= standardized coefficients (beta); p= significance (2-sided) [*: p ≤ ,05; **: p ≤ ,01; ***: p ≤ ,001]
Regression analysis (N=136)
2 2
Construct R R F (ANOVA) b T
adj.

TPB-model (enter)
ATT .268 4.096***
SN .120 1.967
PBC .549 8.512***
.536 .525 50.796***

extended model (step-wise)

ATT .226 3.454***
SN .112 1.878
PBC .492 7.456***
amount of information .183 2.808**
system-knowledge - -
action-related knowledge - -
.562 .549 42.056***
289 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Furthermore, the measured constructs (ATT, SN, PBC, system-knowledge, action-related-

knowledge and amount of information) were correlated with the intention to eat healthily and
sustainably in the foreseeable future. Table 5 shows the results, which show clearly that ATT (r
=.479) and PBC (r =.683) correlate strongly with intention, while SN (r =.196) can be assigned a
rather weak correlation. There is also a positive correlation between knowledge and intention: the
highest correlation can be assigned to the construct amount of information (r=.440). System
knowledge correlates with intention at r= .193, while action-related knowledge correlates at
r=.286.

Table 5. Results of pearson-correlation analysis. r =pearson correlation coefficient.

ATT SN PBC Amount of System- Action-
information knowledge related-
knowledge
Intention r =.479 r =.196 r =.683 r =.440 r =.193 r =.286
p.001 p=.011 p.001 p.001 p=.017 p.001
(N=162) (N=168) (N=158) (N=168) (N=168) (N=153)

5. Discussion and Conclusion

A healthy and resource-conserving diet is a key factor for future (global) food security. Increasing
ecologization of agricultural production has a positive impact on biodiversity and other
environmental factors. A plant-based diet is good for health and the climate. In order to make
healthy eating more widespread and support ecologically favorable developments in nutrition,
people's nutritional competence must be strengthened through targeted communication and
nutrition education programs. To this end, it is particularly important to consider formative
predictors of intention with regard to the behavior under consideration, as these are key factors
that can be addressed in order to raise young people's awareness of sustainable and healthy
eating.
The results clearly show that ATT and PBC as well as the construct amount of information
significantly influence the intention (mean=4.32) to eat healthily and sustainably. Although
attitudes (mean=5.38) and perceived behavioral control (mean=4.96) are positive, they are not
as high overall when the 7-point Likert scale is considered. The subjective norm is the lowest
compared to ATT and PBC. The construct amount of information (mean= 4.8) expresses the self-
assessment of knowledge regarding healthy and sustainable nutrition, whereby it is clear that this
is not rated particularly highly when the 7-point Likert scale is considered. Knowledge of healthy
and sustainable nutrition should be expanded among young people through intervention
programs so that it becomes behaviorally effective. The results of the correlation analyses also
reinforce this demand that knowledge correlates positively and significantly with the intention to
eat healthily and sustainably. Further studies [24] have also shown a positive correlation between
knowledge as well as healthy and sustainable eating habits, which also confirm the results of this
study. Consequently, the lack of basic knowledge about nutrition can lead to many
misconceptions, which are not limited to issues relating to food composition, but also extend to
eating habits (e.g., recommended portions) [25]. There is also a positive and significant correlation
between attitudes and perceived behavioral control and intention. The subjective norm correlates
only slightly with the intention, which means that it is not essential to focus on this construct in the
intervention programs.
The limitations of the study should be pointed out in the following. The sample size of 171 students
is relatively small and the gender distribution is also unbalanced with a preponderance of female
participants, which could affect the external validity of the results or the findings. A larger and
balanced sample in terms of gender distribution could improve the generalizability of the results.
This should be taken into account in a further study. Most of the data is based on self-reported
information such as attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and knowledge.
Self-reported data may be subject to bias and should be interpreted with caution. In further
studies, students could also be asked about measured constructs using qualitative methods (e.g.
interviews) in order to ensure the validity of the results. It should also be noted that in further
studies, other constructs such as cultural and social aspects should also be considered in addition
to TPB constructs and subject knowledge, as these could also influence the intention to eat
sustainably. This needs to be examined. However, the aim of this study was to investigate some
findings about TPB in the context of sustainable eating among young people.
290 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

REFERENCES

[10] Wupertal Institut, “Wandel in der Ernährungsbranche“, Report, 2024. Available from
https://wupperinst.org/themen/wirtschaft/ernaehrungsbranche/
[11] World Health Organization (WHO) “Spotlight on adolescent health and well-being. Findings
from the 2017/18 Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) survey in Europe and
Canada. International report”, Geneva, 2020. Available from
https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/332104
[12] Food, Agriculture and Organization (FAO) “Final Document – International scientific
Symposium biodiversity and sustainable diets – united against hunger”, Rom, 2010.
[13] United Nations (UN) “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development”, New York, 2015.
[14] Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung (DGE) “Thema Nachhaltigkeit.“ Das
Wissenschaftsmagazin der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Ernährung. 2020, 1-32.
[15] Schulze, M. B., Martínez-González, M. A., Fung, T.T., Lichtenstein, A. H. & Forouhi, N. G.
“Food based dietary pattern and chronic disease prevention”, BMJ, 361, 2018,
doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k2396
[16] Schwingshackl, L, Knüppel, S., Michels, N. et al. “Intake of 12 frood groups and disability-
adjusted life years from coronary heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and colectoral
cancer in 16 European Countries”, Eur J Epidemiol, 34, 2019, 765-775.
[17] Fresan, U., Sabaté, J. “Vegetarian Diets: Planetary Health and its Alignment with Human
Health” Adv Nutr, 10, 2019, 380-388.
[18] Wissenschaftlicher Beirat für Agrarpolitik, Ernährung und gesundheitlichen
Verbraucherschutz (WBAE) des BMEL “Politik für eine nachhaltigere Ernährung: Eine
integrierte Ernährungspolitik entwickeln und faire Ernährungsumgebungen gestalten“, 2020.
[19] Clark, M. A., Springmann, M., Hill, J. et al. “Multiple Health and environmental impacts of
food”, Proc Natl Acad Sci, USA, 2019, DOI: 10.1073/ pnas.1906908116
[20] Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (BMEL) “Konzept zur Förderung einer
nachhaltigen Ernährung“, 2021, 1-13. Available from https://www.bmel.de/DE
[21] Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. “Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior”, New
Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, 2002.
[22] Frey, D., Stahlberg, D. & Gollwitzer, M. P. “Einstellung und Verhalten: Die Theorie des
überlegten Handelns und die Theorie des geplanten Verhaltens” In D. Frey & M. Irle (eds.),
Kognitive Theorien-Theorien der Sozialpsychologie., pp. 361-398, Bern, Hans Huber, 2001.
[23] Eagly, A. H. & Chaiken, S. “The psychology of attitudes”, Belmont, Wadsworth cengage
learning”, 1993.
[24] Ajzen, I. “Attitudes, Personality and Behavior (2nd ed.)”, New York, Open University Press,
2005.
[25] Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. “Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of
empirical research”, Psychological Bulletin, 84, 1977, 888-918.
[26] Ajzen, I. “Nature and operation of attitudes.”, Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 2001, 27-
58.
[27] Ajzen, I. “The theory of planned behavior”, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes, 50(2), 1991,179-211.
[28] Ajzen, I. “Cosumer attitudes and behavior”, In C. P. Haugtvedt, P. M. Herr & F. R. Kardes
(eds.), Handbook of consumer psychology, pp. 525-548, New York, Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, 2008.
[29] Fishbein M. & Ajzen I. “Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and
research”, Reading, Mass Addison-Wesley, 1975.
[30] Ajzen, I. “Attitudes, personality and behavior.”, Stony Stratford, Open University Press, 1988.
[31] Ajzen, I. “The theory of planned behavior: reactions and reflections”, Psychology & Health,
26(9), 2011, 1113-1127.
[32] Saribay, A. K., & Kirbas, S. “Determination of nutrition knowledge of adolescents engaged in
sports”, Universal Journal of Educational Research, 7(1), 2019, 40-47.
[33] Pirouznia, M. “The association between nutrition knowledge and eating behavior in male
female adolescents in the US”, International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 52(2),
2001, 127-132.
[34] Kostanjevec, S., Jerman, J. & Koch, V. “The influence of nutrition education on the food
consumption and nutrition attitude of schoolchildren in Slovenia”, US China Education
Review, 11, 2012, 953-964.
[35] Mizia, S., Felińczak, A., Włodarek, D., & Syrkiewicz-Świtała, M. (2021). Evaluation of eating
habits and their impact on health among adolescents and young adults: A cross-sectional
study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(8), 2021,
3996.
291 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[36] Kaiser, F. G. & Frick, J. “Entwicklung eines Messinstrumentes zur Erfassung von
Umweltwissen auf der Basis des MRCML-Modells”, Diagnostica, 48, 2002, 181–189.
[37] Frick, J., Kaiser, F. G., & Wilson, M. “Environmental knowledge and conservation behavior:
Exploring prevalence and structure in a representative sample”, Personality and Individual
Differences, 37(8), 2004, 1597–1613.
[38] Ajzen, I. (2006a). “Constructing a TpB questionnaire: Conceptual and methodological
considerations”, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 2006, available from
http://people.umass.edu/aizen/tpb.measurement.pdf
[39] Barzegari, A., Ebrahimi, M., Azizi, M., & Ranjbar, K. “A study of nutrition knowledge, attitudes
and food habits of college students”, World Applied Sciences Journal, 15(7), 2011, 1012–
1017.
[40] Sakamaki, R., Toyama, K., Amamoto, R., Liu, C. J., & Shinfuku, N. “Nutritional knowl- edge,
food habits and health attitude of Chinese university students–a cross sectional study”,
Nutrition Journal, 4(1), 2005, 1–5.
292 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The Crystal Lake's Mystery:

Interactive Eco-Crime Game for Learning about Environmental
Sustainability

Denise Galante1, Michela Tassistro2, Armida Torreggiani3

CNR-SCITEC, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Technologies “Giulio Natta”,

National Research Council, Italy1,2
CNR-ISOF, Institute for Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity, National Research
Council, Italy3

Abstract

Implementing measures to mitigate the impacts of climate change and its consequences is
crucial. Safeguarding, restoring, and promoting the sustainable management of terrestrial
ecosystems are essential to combat the decline in biodiversity. This comprehensive action plan
aims to enhance the well-being of people, protect the environment, and foster global prosperity.
These critical themes can be thoroughly examined within the framework of “The Crystal Lake’s
Mystery”, an educational eco-crime game, set up for high schools’ students. This educational
game is a useful tool for making youngsters aware of the complexity and interrelation of science
with environmental sustainability issues and with the benefits of the scientific method and multi-
disciplinary knowledge.
In fact, “The Crystal Lake’s Mystery” incorporates a blend of STEM subjects, emphasizing
chemistry and biology, to navigate the investigation so it acts as interdisciplinary educational tool.
Participants are organized into teams and tasked with probing four companies near the lake,
aiming to uncover the cause, culprit, and process behind the fish mortality that suddenly occurred
in the lake. By using a "detective board," teams strategize and evaluate evidence obtained by
chemical and biological laboratorial analyses.
This interdisciplinary activity offers a rich learning experience to the participants, merging scientific
concepts from chemistry, biology, and environmental subjects, aiming to enlighten students about
sustainability, environmental conservation, and responsible resource utilization, fostering a
generation committed to a sustainable future. In addition, the playful approach supports students’
engagement, motivation, and the creation of a conducive learning environment.
The session culminates in a quiz, determining the successful detective team, encouraging active
participation, critical thinking, and problem-solving abilities. This initiative may be a valuable
educational tool, capable to promote sustainability and environmental awareness in high schools.

Keywords: Serious game, chemistry, biology, environmental protection, cross-curricular learning.

1. Introduction

The urgent need to address the multifaceted impacts of climate change and counter the alarming
decline in biodiversity stands as a pivotal challenge confronting humanity in the 21st century.
These global phenomena reverberate across ecosystems, disrupting natural balance and
significantly impacting human societies on multiple fronts [1], [2].
Climate change, primarily driven by human activities such as excessive carbon emissions,
deforestation, and industrialization, is evidenced through rising global temperatures, erratic
weather patterns, extreme weather events, and ocean acidification. The consequences, from
community displacement due to rising sea levels to the worsening of natural disasters, demand
urgent action.
This imperative underscore the critical need for innovative and comprehensive approaches not
only to educate but also to galvanize and inspire action among present and future generations,
becoming proactive stewards of the planet. The urgency is not merely to understand these
challenges but to promote the key role that STEM subjects and scientific methodological approach
play to solve environmental issues. In fact, bridging knowledge across diverse scientific domains
is essential for tackling environmental issues.
293 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The scientific method plays a pivotal role in this process, guiding systematic inquiry,
experimentation, and evidence-based decision-making. A successful strategy in the realm of
education is the incorporation of gamification – the integration of game elements into non-game
contexts – to enhance engagement, motivation, and knowledge retention among students [3].
The utilization of game-like features such as points, badges, challenges, and rewards has been
shown to captivate learners and foster a deeper understanding of complex subjects [4], [5], [6].
This means that in addition to the famous phrase "learning by doing," there is an essential playful
and enjoyable aspect, which is central to effective education. Gamification's potential in
educational settings lies in its ability to transform learning into an immersive and enjoyable
experience, making it a compelling tool for addressing critical issues such as sustainability and
environmental awareness. The Crystal Lake’s Mystery educational game has been developed in
the framework of the project titled "Change the Game: playing to be trained for the challenges of
a sustainable society" [7]. The latter aims to develop new educational tools based on gamification
strategy, to link official curricula developed at school with the European challenges of our society
and enhance student motivation in tackling STEM subjects and supporting their future scientific
career paths. In fact, the methodological strategy is to create and promote educational games for
schools on topics such as sustainability and circular economy, offering young people more
motivating learning starting from school, which shows them the fundamental role of science for
sustainable development.

2. The Crystal Lake’s Mystery

This mystery game, specifically tailored for high school students aged 14-18, is an innovative way
to develop deductive reasoning and problem-solving skills while encouraging students’
cooperation. In this game, players assume the role of detectives forming 4 or 5 investigative teams
(comprising 2 to 5 students each) to investigate an enigmatic fish mortality occurred at Crystal
Lake. This allows for a maximum of 25 players to participate, an ideal number for a student class.
The objective of the game is to gather and decipher as much information as possible to uncover
the cause, culprit, and process behind occurred fish mortality incident. The Crystal Lake’s Mystery
is structured around a detective board (Figure 1) whose enable students to question suspects by
listening to audio dialogues between the detective and the four suspected companies, as well as
clue cards offer scientific evidence like laboratory analysis reports or consultations with experts
(Figure 2). These clues can be in the form of physical documents or audio dialogues. Besides
uncovering clues, captivating participants also entails an intricate plot and interwoven character
relationships that build the perfect suspense and allure for unraveling the mystery.
Since the four suspected companies work in different fields, students explore various topics during
the investigations to solve the case, such as the dynamics of dissolved oxygen in surface water,
the mechanisms underlying fertilizers, the characteristics of cyanobacteria, the phenomenon of
eutrophication, and the distinct habitats of salmonid and cyprinid fish. In details:

- Plast&BIO is a leading company engaged in the development and production of sustainable

bioplastics from renewable plant resources
- Sulfur Corporation offers products and services for the inorganic chemical industry and
oenology, and many others.
- The Grapes', is an agricultural company that produces high-quality wines obtained exclusively
from its own vineyards.
- Luxe Soil produces bio-stimulants and products with specific action, organic and organo-mineral
fertilizers, for both conventional and organic agriculture.

The game can conclude either after 50 minutes, allowing adaptation to standard school timing, or
upon the examination of all cards placed on the detective board.
294 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig.1. The Detective Board with the four suspected companies.

Fig.2. An example of a clues: analytical report related to the analysis of the Crystal Lake water.

To find, mitigate, and eliminate potential issues, so reaching a good quality in the prototype
developed, some tests were implemented. In fact, testing is one of the critical processes
accompanying the design and development of an educational game. The testing process was
carried out by organizing some Focus Groups which played a role, especially in the initial stage
of game design. These focus groups consisted of meetings with CNR researchers and students
providing feedback, likes, and dislikes on the upcoming game topic and allowed iterating on
existing ideas more effectively (Figure 3A). In addition, these groups allowed to perform a simple
Quality Assurance Testing aimed not to play and enjoy the game but to identify all the major
295 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

problems and make sure the game meets all the predetermined requirements as well as check
the educational contents.
The final prototype of the game was used with success in two informal settings, such as a science
fair and a conference for schools which offered the opportunities to the participants for learning
beyond traditional or “formal” schooling. In fact, the Crystal Lake’s Mystery was officially
presented at the Genoa Science Festival, a fixed point of reference for science dissemination in
Italy (26th October_5th November 2023, engaged more than 580 students) and during a
workshop organized for high schools during the XX Conference of the Research Language
organized at the CNR Research Area in Bologna for the celebration of the centenary of CNR
(Figure 3B). The students were observed while playing the game and making some comments
about their experience.

A B

Fig.3. A) Game testing session with a Focus Group and B) Game session during the XX Conference of the
Research Language.

3. Learning Goals

The objectives of this serious game encompass a variety of aspects. Primarily, the game intends
to serve as an educational tool for high school students, aiming to familiarize them with the critical
importance of safeguarding, restoring, and promoting sustainable management practices for
terrestrial ecosystems. By doing so, it addresses the pressing challenges posed by environmental
issues like climate change and biodiversity decline and it establishes a direct link to the European
Union Green Deal [8], its Zero Pollution Action Plan [9], and the United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals [10].
Secondly, this game serves as a platform that provides valuable insights and opportunities for
students to explore and deepen their understanding of fundamental concepts in chemistry,
biology, and environmental science. Additionally, the game covers aspects of the circular
economy. It is structured in a way that facilitates learning about bioplastics and the methods used
to reclaim waste from the wine industry's supply chain. The specially designed plot of the game
serves as an engaging tool through which students can practically apply these scientific principles
within interactive scenarios. This hands-on approach aims to deepen their understanding and
foster a more contextual grasp of these subjects.
Furthermore, the game is designed to foster the development of crucial skills among students. By
engaging with the gameplay, students have the chance to improve their ability to interpret complex
results derived from investigations. Additionally, they will learn effective techniques to extract
essential and pertinent information from various sources, thereby honing their analytical skills.
Moreover, this gaming experience aims to actively stimulate and enhance students' critical
thinking abilities. By navigating through the challenges presented in the game, students are
encouraged to analyze situations, make informed decisions, and think critically to solve problems
effectively within the context of the game's scenarios.
Considering the conventional compartmentalization of school activities into distinct disciplines,
exists a specific need for connections between subjects and interdisciplinary programs that reflect
the ever-changing and intricate nature of today's society. The game covers a spectrum of fields
including chemistry, geology, biology, and environmental science.
This emphasis on multiple disciplines and interdisciplinary learning aims to bridge the gaps
between narrowly focused school subjects and the real-world scenario, naturally interconnecting
these fields and mirroring the complexities of the world.
296 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4. Conclusions

Overall, The Crystal Lake's Mystery stands as an engaging, interdisciplinary educational tool
fostering environmental awareness, scientific knowledge, critical thinking, and practical skills
among high school students, addressing pressing environmental issues while aligning with global
sustainability goals.

Acknowledgements

This activity was developed in the project Change the Game: playing to be trained for the
challenges of a sustainable society” funded by progettidiricerca@CNR
(https://www.changegame.cnr.it/)

REFERENCES

[1] “United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Making Peace with Nature: A scientific
blueprint to tackle the climate, biodiversity and pollution emergencies.” 2021.
[2] “Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate change 2022: Impacts,
adaptation and vulnerability.” IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 2022.
[3] J. Looyestyn, et al. “Does gamification increase engagement with online programs? A
systematic review,” PLoS One, vol. 12, no. 3, p. e0173403, Mar. 2017, doi:
10.1371/journal.pone.0173403.
[4] L. G. Bellucci, et al. “Minecraft-BetterGeo agli eventi per il pubblico e la scuola: incontro
tra teen-ager, bambini e geologia attraverso il gaming,” Quaderni di Comunicazione
Scientifica, vol. 2, p. 163, 2022, doi: 10.17454/QDCS02.15.
[5] A. Torreggiani et al., “10th International Conference New Perspectives in Science
Education,” in RAWsiko – Materials around us: A Digital Serious Game to Teach about
Raw Materials’ Importance for the Transition towards a Low-Carbon Economy,
©Filodiritto Editore, Ed., 2021, pp. 322–328.
[6] E. Benvenuti, et al. “International conference ‘The future of education 2020’,” in Eco-
CEOTM: Understand the Circular Economy by Playing, 2020, pp. 162–167.
[7] https://www.changegame.cnr.it/
[8] https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-
deal_en
[9] https://environment.ec.europa.eu/strategy/zero-pollution-action-plan_en
[10] https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/
297 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Science and Society

298 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Librarians in Bulgaria and the Trends in the Information

Environment

Elena Popova1, Tania Todorova2

University of Library Studies and Information Technologies, Bulgaria1,2

Abstract

The paper presents the results of the survey, titled ‘Library professionals in Bulgaria and the
changing information ecosystem’, implemented among Bulgarian librarians in March 2022. The
survey aims to examine the level of awareness about the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
and the changing global information environment among professionals working in Bulgarian
libraries. The research methodology includes the implementation of an empirical online survey
and analyses of the dataset of answers of 200 respondents (equivalent to above 10% of all the
employees working in the Bulgarian libraries according to the Bulgarian Statistics Institute and its
data out of 2022) using standard statistical methods and online desk research. The goal of the
paper is to show the findings and to analyze them in the context of the LIS research and practical
field.

Keywords: Librarians, Bulgaria, Sustainable Development Goals, IFLA Trend Report

1. Introduction

The awareness and attitude of library specialists regarding trends in the changing information
environment is an extremely important factor for the process of change and development of the
library system in Bulgaria. Human resource is a leading force when it comes to building better
communication models, modern social environment and information management mechanisms.
Initiatives in the direction of improving the knowledge and skills of library employees should be a
priority for library management. It is very important to expand their access to up-to-date
information about the development of the profession in our country and around the world. Also
being aware of their opportunities to contribute to the achievement of the UN Sustainable
Development Goals (UN SDGs), as well as creating conditions for communication and exchange
of experience. One of the goals of the present study is to establish the level of awareness
regarding the main trends in the changing information environment and the role of libraries in
achieving the UN SDGs among Bulgarian information specialists. Their attitude towards these
trends is also explored.
Solutions to many questions and challenges already exist and are easily applicable in practice,
according to the directions of the different libraries. The problem is that specialists need to be well
informed to be able to successfully apply them in their work.

2. Literature Review

The study is theoretically based on some of the most important documents, in relation to the
development of modern libraries in the last decade. These are the IFLA Trend report 2013 and
its Updates from 2018, 2019, 2021 and Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development by the UN [4, 5]. Based on the knowledge and perspectives that these documents
provide, the questionnaires for the online survey were built and its results were analyzed.

3. Research Methods

The paper summarizes the results of the survey ‘Library professionals in Bulgaria and the
changing information ecosystem’ using standard statistical methods. Research efforts examine
the level of awareness about the Sustainable Development Goals and the changing global
information environment among professionals working in Bulgarian libraries. The questionnaire
was built to check the knowledge of the Bulgarian librarians and their ability to communicate
internationally.
299 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The questionnaire contains questions in a Google form sheet and has been sent to over 500 email
addresses. Most of the questions are multiple choice, 6 are with the possibility to select more than
one answer and only 1 question is optional.
The target group are specialists, working in different Bulgarian libraries – national, public,
academic, school etc. The total respondents are 200, which is relevant to above of 10% of all the
employees working in the Bulgarian libraries according to the Bulgarian Statistic Institute and its
data out of 2022 [2]. The paper shows the results briefly for each of the questions.

4. Findings

The first question aims to gain information on how familiar the respondents are with the United
Nations Agenda for Sustainable Development entitled "Transforming our World" 2030 and its
relationship with libraries [5]. Out of a total of 200 respondents, only 18% stated that they are
familiar with the UN SDGs and participate in related initiatives. 20% indicate that they are familiar
with the Goals, but do not participate in initiatives and projects related to them. Of all respondents
- 26% note that they are poorly familiar with them, 32% are not familiar at all. These answers
show a very low level of awareness of the Bulgarian librarians regarding the SDGs and the
importance that information specialists and libraries have in achieving them. By answering the
second question, respondents specify whether their library has participated in a project or initiative
in support of any of the 17 SDGs [3]. The answers are logically linked to the low level of awareness
of the respondents, evident from the first question. More than half of the respondents 52.5%
shared that the libraries they work in do not participate in initiatives and projects related to the
SDGs, and 20.5% found it difficult to answer. The third question on the survey asks librarians who
have noted participation in SDG-related initiatives to indicate exactly which of the Goals they were
targeting. Only 83 people answered this question, and 53% of them stated that the initiatives in
which they participated were related to Goal 4 - Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education
and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. The next most popular Goal in which
respondents participated is Goal 3 - Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all
ages. The remaining Goals are significantly under-selected. Through the fourth question,
librarians provide information about the form of participation. There are 171 answers total and
36.8% of them confirm that they have not taken part in projects related to the SDGs in any form.
35.7% indicate that they participated through exhibitions, 29.8% via library collections and 24.6%
by providing access to information for the benefit of SDGs-related projects. This shows that the
Bulgarian specialists are more focused on local and national performances and less often on
international ones. As an answer to the fifth question, the survey participants indicate the most
used ways to stay informed about global changes related to the library sector. 59.9% noted that
they read and follow library-related news in mass information channels – news broadcasts, online
media, newspapers, etc.; 49% of all 200 respondents indicate that they follow websites, news in
social media and blogs of libraries - Bulgarian and foreign; 44.5% read specialized periodicals
such as “Library” magazine, online magazine of the Bulgarian Library and Information Association
(BLIA), “Publisher” magazine, etc.; 41% are mostly using the website of BLIA [1]. The responses
show poor use of international information channels. The sixth question also confirms what was
established in the previous one - Bulgarian libraries rarely participate in international initiatives.
38.5% confirm that they only work at the local and national level. 22% of respondents state that
they do not take part in international projects, but are involved remotely as listeners or trainees
whenever possible. Approximately the same number indicated that they often participate in
international projects or one project a year - 18%. The rest of the participants gave free answers,
some of which can be distributed to the non-participating libraries. The results indicate that there
is no active participation of Bulgarian libraries on the international scene which is mostly caused
by the low level of awareness established by the previous questions. The seventh question is
interested in the participation of libraries in projects with national funding - 37% of 200
respondents confirm that they are often involved in national projects. 35% indicated that they take
part in at least one project per year, and 9.5% confirmed remote participation as listeners or
trainees. The results show that at the local and national level librarians manage to communicate
and become more actively involved in projects. An eighth question is asking about the
communication methods librarians use to inform themselves for opportunities to participate in
projects and initiatives. The most preferred among them are the website of the Bulgarian Ministry
of Culture, Ministry of Education and Science (MES), the Scientific Research Fund as part of
MES, other ministries and state institutions (69.5%) and the website and online magazine of -
44%. As it became clear, Bulgarian specialists mainly take part in local and national initiatives
and projects. A significantly small percentage of respondents indicated the use of official websites
of international organizations and institutions.
300 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The ninth question asks whether librarians know the logos of several international organizations
and initiatives of key importance in the library sector (See Fig. 1). 53% indicated that they know
the logos, the institutions behind them and their activities. 29.5% of respondents recognize almost
all logos, but do not find a direct connection with their daily work.

Fig.1. Logos from Question 9

The tenth question of the survey is interested in the level of awareness of employees in Bulgarian
libraries regarding IFLA Trend Report 2013 and the Five Trends that it points for the future and
changes in the global information environment and also for the respondent’s awareness about
the Report’s updates published in 2018, 2019 and 2021 [4]. A total of 29% of the respondents
indicated that they were slightly familiar with the Reports, 22.5% are not familiar at all, and 5.5%
are hesitant. 21.5% state that they are aware, and 21% confirm that they are also interested in
the updates of the Report. The answers show that the Bulgarian specialists are not sufficiently
interested in the current discussions of the international library community. Raising their
awareness would support the process of applying modern management approaches for the
implementation of their library and information functions in our country and for more effective
cooperation in international terms. 179 respondents answered eleventh question, which inquired
whether librarians in the country found the IFLA Reports useful in meeting the challenges of the
changing information ecosystem. Almost half of them (45.8%) state that the Reports are useful,
but it is necessary to rethink them according to the Bulgarian reality. 19% are convinced of its
usefulness, and 27.4% cannot answer. The relatively large percentage of people who cannot
judge its usefulness is related to the low level of awareness, and in this case also of
understanding. Interpreting these types of documents is a challenge, especially when librarians
communicate primarily at local and national level.
The respondents are quite sure regarding the twelfth question - 49% answered with conviction
that the creation of a specialized information online portal for librarians in the country would be
useful, and 43% supported its creation. The next question asks about respondents' preferences
regarding different headings in such an information portal.

The most preferred are the following:

• News from the library and information sector (75.5%)
• Professional experience - "Shared by colleagues" (70%)
• National projects and competitions (52%)
• A library of useful open access professional resources (57.5%)
• Normative documents and strategies (54%)
• International projects and competitions (52%)
• IFLA trends in the information environment (50%)
These preferences show that library specialists in the country need up-to-date information and a
space for exchanging ideas and good practices. There is a little less interest in international
projects and news, but this is rather related to the language barrier that stands in front of many of
the librarians.

5. Conclusions

The focus of the future work should be on the communication of the Bulgarian librarians with their
international colleagues from countries all over the world, exchange of good practices for
developing the library services, participation in projects and initiatives on international level and
collaboration with LIS academic education for lifelong learning activities.
301 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

REFERENCES

[1] Bulgarian Library Information Association. (2022). Retrieved from https://www.lib.bg/en/

[2] Bulgarian Statistical Institute - Staff at the libraries (2022). Available at
https://www.nsi.bg/en/content/3615/staff-libraries-education-statistical-regions-and-
districts (accessed 15 July 2023).
[3] Do you know all 17 SDGs? (2022). Retrieved from <https://sdgs.un.org/goals>
[4] IFLA Trend Report. (2013). Retrieved from
<https://trends.ifla.org/files/trends/assets/insights-from-the-ifla-trend-report_v3.pdf>
[5] Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. (2022). Retrieved
from <https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda>
302 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Misconceptions about Current Biotechnology in Society:

What to Focus On in School and Lifelong Education?

Michaela Horniaková

Department of Biology, Faculty of Education, Palacký University Olomouc, Czech

Republic

Abstract

The progress of biotechnology is unstoppable and its impact on society is unquestionable.

Consequently, it is imperative to grasp the prevailing awareness not only among students but also
in the larger societal framework. The study used interviews as the primary research method,
employing a semi-structured format for flexibility beyond pre-defined questions. A total of 40
respondents participated in the research, and the collected data underwent both qualitative and
quantitative analyses. For qualitative analysis, the Grounded Theory [1] was applied, categorizing
coded segments from transcribed interviews into four key concepts: biotechnology, genetic
engineering, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and cloning. Across these concepts, many
respondents expressed a negative connotation. Misconceptions were diverse with the prevalent
idea being that biotechnology and genetic engineering produce or are akin to robots or machines,
unrelated to living organisms. Additionally, respondents associated biotechnology, genetic
engineering, and GMOs with breeding. Quantitative analyses revealed notable gaps in
awareness. Almost 30 % of respondents had limited awareness of biotechnology, and nearly 33
% lacked information on genetic engineering. Regarding GMOs and cloning, respondents were
unaware of their nature. The misconceptions that emerged from the research may help in the
future to identify critical areas that need to be addressed in raising awareness of biotechnology
in society. This is vital for both academic settings and lifelong education.

Keywords: biology instruction, education, biotechnology awareness, lifelong learning

1. Theoretical Background

Nowadays, when the flow of information from every side is enormous, it is especially important to
have valid information, especially when it comes to such a controversial phenomenon as
biotechnology is. Correct concepts are the starting point for the constructive debate that today's
society needs to have on the subject. It is necessary to engage in critical thinking in the face of
the large amount of information that comes from various media outlets. Of course, the media are
not always conducive to constructive debate. For instance, media extensively covered genetic
engineering, often portraying scientists with stereotypical depictions as rigid, indifferent, and
unsympathetic individuals [2]. Biotechnology is a rapidly advancing field with widespread onto
whole society. When we think of society as a product of the education system, it is necessary to
look at the state of society's knowledge of the phenomenon. Discussing benefits or drawbacks is
becoming more and more common [2,3]. Biotechnology, exemplified by DNA technologies, is
often perceived with a high level of risk akin to other technologies involving chemical substances,
nuclear energy, radioactive waste, and electromagnetic fields [4]. For example, while numerous
studies dismiss the likelihood of significant health risks associated with the consumption of
genetically modified (GM) foods, the focal point of misconceptions lies in the public perception of
GM products [5–7]. Therefore, there´s more of a shortage of enhancing critical thinking and
recognizing their preconceptions, and especially misconceptions about the subject matter.
Dawson & Schibeci [8, p. 66] ask a very important question: “If the science curriculum is to prepare
students to be citizens, can we continue to pay insufficient attention to this area of science?” This
creates a space for finding out what citizens really know. In this research, our objective is to
assess the public's knowledge of current biotechnology and identify the main preconceptions and
misconceptions they may harbour. Misconceptions are strongly held in minds, different from
accepted understanding [9]. Having correct concepts about any phenomenon is the most
important ability for making the right decisions in everyday life [10].
303 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2. Methodology

The aim of the research was to find out the preconceptions and misconceptions of laypeople in
the field of current biotechnology. The main research instrument used in the study is a semi-
structured interview with individual respondents [11]. Questions for the interview were designed
based on the content analysis [12] of Framework Education Program for Basic Education (FEP
BE; [13]) and school textbooks (20 textbooks and 7 workbooks) for lower and upper secondary
schools, with a focus on the field of biotechnology. Questions for the interview were validated by
4 experts in the fields of biotechnology, genetics, and biology educational research. Altogether,
the interviews consisted of 28 questions. The questions were divided into four concepts:
biotechnology, genetic engineering, genetically modified organisms (GMO), and cloning.
Interviews were administered by the author. The interviews were gathered from 40 respondents:
“laypeople” in biotechnology or another similar field. All the interviews were recorded on a
dictaphone and transcribed. The gathered data were analysed both qualitatively and
quantitatively. For the qualitative analysis, the Grounded theory [1]; inductive coding was used.
The data were analysed in MAXQDA 2022, a data analysis software. Furthermore, for the
qualitative analysis the modified Certainty of Response Index (CRI) method [9; p. 296]; see Table
1. The quantitative analysis was based on the absolute and relative abundance of a particular
category and subcategory obtained from the qualitative analysis and analysed in MS Excel.

Table 1. Modified 4 categories of Certainty of Response Index (CRI) [modified from 9; p. 296]
High Confident Answer Low Confident Answer
Know they know Don´t know they know
Correct Answer
(Scientific Concept; SC) (Low Confidence; LC)
Know they don´t know Don´t know they don´t know
Wrong Answer
(Lack of Knowledge; LK) (Misconception; M)

3. Research Results

The results of the qualitative analysis showed that the answers of the respondents were divided
into 4 main concepts and into subcategories according to the respondents' answers (see Table
2). Research results are divided into two parts. First is the relative abundance from MS Excel of
subcategories from the qualitative analysis.
Biotechnology in general was the most problematic concept, with 68 % of respondents in the
“Nothing to say” subcategory. Etymology played quite a large role when trying to determine what
biotechnology does. Almost 23 % of respondents derived the concept of biotechnology from the
combination of the words: "bio" and "technology". In the concept of biotechnology and genetic
engineering, respondents see their greatest potential for use in industry (73 %, 60 %) and
medicine (55 %, 73 %), they also see further use in science and research (both 28 %). Within
each of these 2 concepts, a subcategory emerged that indicated at least a partial negative
relationship or negative association between the respondent and the concept. Most responses
were related to exploitation for personal gain, utilitarianism, economic domination, and intent to
exploit. The survey showed that in the biotechnology concept, most misconceptions (23 %) were
related to mechanics, robotics, or the use of computers. Another very strong misconception (20
%) was that biotechnology products were considered to be bio products (organically grown
vegetables, fruits, etc.). Around 15 % of respondents claimed that genetic engineering is superior
to biotechnology. In the genetic engineering concept, 55 % of respondents considered only certain
kingdoms (only plants or only animals) of organisms as those on which it is realistic to perform
genetic modification. In addition, about 15 % of respondents associated genetic engineering with
robotics and non-living things.
When focusing on the subcategories of positives and negatives of GMOs (for society and
environment), 92 % of respondents are aware that GMOs bring benefits to humans. Respondents
see the potential for the use of GMOs in the field of agriculture in order to improve the quality of
life of people However, only 57 % of respondents are also aware of the benefits for the
environment and 70 % of respondents see more environmental disadvantages. Almost everyone
is also aware of the dichotomy in the sense that "there are two sides to every coin"; 83 % see the
possibility of use only for the individual's own benefit. With GMOs, respondents were most
concerned about the environment and misuse. They perceived the occurrence of GMOs in nature
as something unnatural that could disrupt ecosystems and food chains. Regarding genetically
modified organisms (GMOs), the most common misconception (23 %) was that it is the same
process as breeding or crossbreeding organisms.
The use of cloning is perceived by the majority of respondents as very questionable. The question
of ethics and law arose in the case of cloning. Although almost 93 % of respondents see cloning
304 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

as realistic, 80 % of respondents see the negative side precisely in terms of law and ethics.
Regarding cloning, a frequent response was that it would be misused in the military or to create
perfect individuals. Cloning had the most frequent misconceptions concerning its origin.
The second part shows us the relative representation (Table 2) of categories from Table 1, based
on the modified CRI method [9; p. 296].
The concept of biotechnology is very bipolar (see average in Table 2). This is because those
respondents who had the correct concepts about biotechnology in general usually always knew
both the application and at least one product. Those who had no awareness of what biotechnology
involves incorrectly included both its uses and products. A minimum of responses fell into the
category of Lack of Confidence. Respondents either knew or did not.
The concept of genetic engineering has an average of 51 % scientific concepts. Where the sub-
category relationship between biotechnology and tribal engineering was the least valuable; only
13 % scientific concepts. Genetic engineering contained 20 % of responses falling into the LK
category (Table 2). This is because 45 % of the respondents “Know they don´t know” (LK) what´s
the relationship between biotechnology and genetic engineering. The other subcategories
contained less representation in the LK category. Respondents admitted to having no knowledge
of the relationship between biotechnology and genetic engineering. This subcategory had also 40
% in the Misconceptions category.

Table 2. The results represent the resulting relative category (SC, LC, LK, M) values for each subcategory
from qualitative analysis. The table contains the average value for a main concept.
Scientific Lack of Lack of Misconc
CONCEPT SUBCATEGORY Concept Confidence Knowledge eption
(SC) (LC) (LK) (M)
Biotechnology Concept 38 % 0% 10 % 53 %
(BT) Use 48 % 8% 15 % 30 %
Product 40 % 3% 18 % 40 %
Average 42 % 3% 14 % 41 %
Genetic Concept 65 % 0% 10 % 25 %
engineering BT + GI 13 % 3% 45 % 40 %
(GI) Use 65 % 0% 13 % 23 %
Product 60 % 5% 13 % 23 %
Average 51 % 2% 20 % 28 %
Genetically Concept 80 % 5% 8% 8%
modified Making 43 % 13 % 25 % 20 %
organisms Product 53 % 18 % 15 % 15 %
(GMOs) Use 63 % 5% 18 % 15 %
Society - Positives 80 % 0% 5% 15 %
Society - Negatives 75 % 15 % 8% 3%
Environment - 73 % 3% 10 % 15 %
Positives
Environment - 70 % 5% 13 % 13 %
Negatives
GMO vs. Breeding 70 % 5% 8% 18 %
Average 67 % 8% 12 % 13 %
Cloning Concept 85 % 5% 5% 5%
Making 20 % 5% 55 % 20 %
Purpose 75 % 10 % 10 % 5%
Product 50 % 0% 40 % 10 %
Law and Ethics 75 % 3% 10 % 13 %
Average 61 % 5% 24 % 11 %

For the concept of GMOs, up to 80 % of respondents correctly identified what it represents.

However, with GMOs, the biggest problem was their origin. When asked how they could be
created, only 43 % answered correctly (SC) and 25 % said "Know they don't know" (LK) and 20%
fall in the category “Don´t know they don´t know” (M). The other subcategories (positives,
negatives, use, etc.) contained higher scores in the Scientific Concepts category. This can be
seen in the average score of 67 %, which is the highest among all 4 concepts.
When it comes to the subcategory of “what is a clone”, 85 % of respondents fall into the Scientific
Concept category. The most interesting subcategory is "making". 20 % of respondents have the
correct concept but the same number have a misconception in that subcategory. Up to 55 % of
respondents admitted that they that they “Know they don´t know” (LK) how a clone is created. On
average, the LK category has 24 %. This is because only 5 % of respondents said they did not
305 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

know what a clone is but 40 % did not know any example of a clone. Of the 50 % who could
identify the product, the majority answered Dolly.
The results show that the etymology of a term is the greatest help in defining what it entails. This
implies that concepts such as GMOs and cloning were most correctly defined. Concepts such as
biotechnology and genetic engineering are more abstract concepts and also cause more
problems.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

When we look at the research findings, we find that the more 'graspable' and practical the
knowledge of the area was, the more respondents mentioned it and regarded it as positive.
Respondents often reached for practical examples within all 4 main concepts. More abstract
examples such as production of insulin or growth hormone are almost non represented. But even
though respondents cited examples such as food, they were still sceptical of them. This was also
confirmed by the research of Usak et al. [14], that attitudes towards shopping for genetically
modified products are therefore negative. In our research, the positives of GMOs for the society
outweigh the negatives. This was confirmed by the research of Cavanagh et al. [15], which found
that 11 % of respondents definitely see more positives than negatives and 42 % of respondents
probably see more positives than negatives.
As mentioned, the etymology of a word brings an advantage in defining the phenomenon in
answering question. However, it also has a significant disadvantage. If respondents reached for
an explanation of a phenomenon through its etymology it happened that they ended up with
considerable misconceptions such as robotics, mechanics, machines and the like (especially for
biotechnology).
Misconceptions in other concepts were subsequently derived from this. For example, research
results show, some students stated that preservatives and chemical processing of food were
examples of genetic engineering [2, 14]. This misconception was confirmed in our research as
well, as 7 % of respondents stated that biotechnology and thus genetic engineering is a chemical
substance that is harmful to humans and the environment.
Medicine (60 %) and industry (73 %) were the most commonly considered uses of genetic
engineering in our research. Other research has confirmed that respondents most commonly
assigned its use to medicine, industry, or agriculture [2, 8, 15]. In our research, agriculture was a
frequent response when asked about the use of GMOs. Regarding the subcategory “GMO
products”, 15 % of respondents said that they “Know they don´t know” (LK) any example, but 18
% said that they don´t know any example of GMOs, yet in the interview they talked about an
example without realizing that they were talking about GMOs (Lack of Confidence; LC). In the
research of Dawson & Schibeci [8], 33 % of the respondents could not give an example of GM
food. In our re14 search, it was food (in general) that formed the basis of the GMO example. As
far as our research is concerned, quite a few respondents considered Dolly the sheep as an
example of a GMO. However, when asked for an example of cloning, Dolly the sheep was the
most well-known example of a cloned organism, and this has been confirmed by other researches
(e.g. [8]).
Looking at the results of the research, we can say that respondents have too little information
about the given phenomena to be able to deal with sometimes controversial issues. Most of the
respondents have not even been taught about biotechnology at schools at all. The most
knowledgeable respondents are those who are either actively interested in the field and the topic
is close to their heart. However, just because respondents have correct concepts about one
concept (e.g., biotechnology), does not mean that they are thinking correctly about genetic
engineering or cloning. Very often these concepts are strictly separated by respondents as
unrelated to each other.
Therefore, it seems to be necessary to include at least some information about the phenomenon
in the school curriculum or inform the society. There is compelling evidence that explicit teaching
of these issues improves understanding and reduces uncertainty [8]. Respondents also reported
feeling under-informed. Given the rapid evolution of this phenomenon, it is crucial to assess the
current level of societal awareness, with a particular focus on identifying knowledge gaps in this
area.

Acknowledgment

The research was carried out under a project called ‘Biodiversity’; Internal Fund of Faculty of
Education UP (GFD_PdF_2023_06).
306 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

REFERENCES

[1] Strauss, A. & Corbin, L. (1990). Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and
Evaluative Criteria. Zeitschrift für Soziologie, 19(6), 418–427
[2] Dawson, V., & Soames, C. (2006). The effect of biotechnology education on Australian
high school students’ understandings and attitudes about biotechnology
processes. Research in Science & Technological Education, 24(2), 183–198.
[3] Kooffreh, M.E., Ikpeme, E.V., & Mgbado, T.I. (2021). Knowledge, perception, and interest
regarding biotechnology among secondary school students in Calabar. Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology Education, 49(4), 664–668.
[4] Welser, J. R. (1991). An industrial perspective on biotechnology issues. Food Technology,
45(4) 102–109.
[5] Prokop, P., Lešková, A., Kubiatko, M., & Diran, C. (2007). Slovakian students’ knowledge
of and attitudes toward biotechnology. International Journal of Science Education, 29(7),
895–907.
[6] Jones, P., Clarke‐Hill, P., Hillier, D. & Shears, P. (2000). Food retailers’ response to GM
controversy within the UK. British Food Journal, 102(5/6), 441–448.
[7] López, R. C., & Carrau, J. G. (2002, August 28–31). The GMO Regulation in the EU and
the Commercial Conflict with the United States [Conference presentation]. International
Congress, Zaragoza, Spain. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.24924
[8] Dawson, W. and Schibeci, R. (2003). Western Australian school students’ understanding
of biotechnology. International Journal of Science Education, 25(1), 57–69.
[9] Hasan, S., Bagayoko, D., & Kelley, E. L. (1999). Misconceptions and the certainty of
response index (CRI). Physics Education, 34(5), 294–299.
[10] Harms, U. (2002). Biotechnology Education in Schools. Electronic Journal of
Biotechnology, 5(3), 5-6.
[11] Posner, G. J., & Gertzog, W. A. (1982). The clinical interview and the measurement of
conceptual change. Science Education, 66(2), 195–209.
[12] Mayring, P. (2014). Qualitative content analysis: theoretical foundation, basic procedures
and software solution. Klagenfurt, Austria. https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-
ssoar-395173
[13] Jeřábek, J. & Tupý, J. (2007). The Framework Educational Programme for Basic
Education. Ministry of Education Youth and Sport Czech Republic. https://edumedia-
depot.gei.de/bitstream/handle/11163/1586/782826296_2007_A.pdf?sequence=2
[14] Usak, M., Erdogan, M., Prokop, P., & Ozel, M. (2009). High school and university students'
knowledge and attitudes regarding biotechnology: A Turkish experience. Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology Education, 37(2), 123–130.
[15] Cavanagh, H., Hood, J., & Wilkinson, J. (2005). Riverina high school students views of
biotechnology. Electronic Journal of Biotechnology, 8(2), 1–7.
307 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

“Expli’CIT”: A New Serious Game to Strengthen

Science-Society Dialogue Making Explicit Research Processes

Juliette Anglade1, Pierre-Luc Marchal2, Jonas Durand3, Annick Brun-Jacob4,

Pascale Frey-Klett5

Université de Lorraine, INRAE, IAM, F-54000 Nancy, France1,2,3,4,5

Abstract

The international movement for Open science promotes accessibility, inclusivity and transparency
to help solve complex socio-economic and environmental challenges. An important perspective
of this movement, is to provide access to the practices and tools of the research cycle. We present
here a serious game designed by “Tous Chercheurs” to better understand science-in-the-making
and facilitate dialogue of knowledge. The aim is to explore the pathways that lead to the
production of new scientific knowledge. It makes visible the structuring elements of scientific
activity (reasoning, practices, professions, values, ethics, temporalities …). Players, supervised
by a scientific tutor, use word cards magnets to create a fresco by sharing different
representations of research and agreeing on a common language. This collaborative tool, named
Expli’CIT, can be used with citizens and in all training courses from secondary school to doctorate.
It was step-by-step designed through participant observation between 2020 and 2023 during 40
game sessions. We observed that the game greatly facilitated the dialogue between academics
and non-research actors in a variety of intermediation situations. The participants better
understood the answers that science is able to provide or not, and sharpened critical thinking
skills. In higher trainings settings, the game has proved effective in promoting interdisciplinarity
dialogue and reflexivity thanks to insights into the philosophy of science. Expli’Cit offers new
perspectives both in formal science education and in the development of participatory science
and research because it provides a solid basis to jointly explore problems with scientific rigor and
integrity.

Keywords: Critical thinking, serious game, interdisciplinarity, citizen science, research education, Tous
Chercheurs

1. Open Science, Post-Truth Era and Education About Research

The deepening of interactions between science and society is decisive for the progress of
knowledge, for the trust placed in scientific research by the public, and to allows citizens to be
involved in the production of knowledge on issues that concern them closely. The movement for
Open Science, framed internationally by Unesco's recommendations in 2021, is fundamentally
transforming the academic landscape. It aims to make scientific research from all fields accessible
to everyone by promoting the humanist values of equity, diversity and the free circulation of
knowledge. The issues of training and education are fully considered. It is about involving the
public in the research process, for them to better understand how it works, its constraints, its
powers and its limits. In return, academics need to acquire new skills and attitudes to make
science more accessible, transparent, inclusive, equitable and democratic.
An important lack of training in research methods and scientific approaches from primary school
to higher education, among both teachers and learners, has recently been pointed out by the
French ministries [1]. They recommend to go beyond the disciplinary content and purely
manipulative and procedural dimension of science practical courses content, to open up to
epistemic dimensions that concern the understanding of the nature and origin of scientific
knowledge and foster interdisciplinarity. For decision-makers and journalists, increasing
knowledge of the scientific process is another important democratic issue, especially in the global
context of post-truth era [2]. Indeed, public denial of well-established scientific facts and claims
along with acceptance of misinformation in line with ideological preferences, worldviews and
personal opinions are increasing. Thus, education has to deal with the massive confusion over
what is known, how to know, and who to trust [3]. Containing post-truth requires not only
“epistemological vaccine” but also a post-positivist vision of science, considering its social and
collective character, and the political, social, technological, cultural, ethical, economic contexts
308 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

with which science is produced [4]. In this paper we present the design, the content and the use
of a new collaborative game named “Expli’Cit”, which offers a view of a science-in-action and in-
practice. We expose how it allows to go deep into the scientific knowledge generation processes
with a large diversity of audiences.

2. A Continuous Design-In-Use Within an Open Lab

"Expli'CIT" has been developed since 2020 within the Tous Chercheurs (TC) open lab of Nancy
(France). TC is a national network of experimental spaces open to the public, rooted in academic
research, that provide hands-on education and training in scientific approaches [5]. Its main
missions are to: (i) educate the general public in the scientific process through practice; ii) train
young researchers in the transmission of scientific approaches and in mediation; iii) support
participatory science and research projects. The network is federated around a charter of values
for open science and collaborative and active pedagogies. Learning-by-doing is a flagship
practice at the heart of an original learning framework that involves citizens, students or teachers
in 3-day immersive research projects in real research conditions.
The idea of creating a game arose from a common TC mediation practice which involves asking
participants to share their vision of how research works and what researchers do. In our study,
the figure of the researcher often took the caricatural form of an isolated mad old scientist! And
the vision of the scientific process, was over simplified and modelled on controlled experimental
approach. We also noticed a confusion between “ready-made-science” and research, to a large
extent conveyed by a school habit of verifying “expected results”. It contradicts the open, non-
linear and exploratory research process and the scientific spirit of doubt and refutation. In line
with the thinkers of the new sociology of science [6], we believe that the mediation of science
should rather show “science-in-the-making”, i.e., make visible the intellectual, social, technical
and material pathways. This is the entry point of the game “Expli’CIT”, to explicit how scientific
knowledge is constituted.
The game was developed between 2020 and 2023 using a pragmatic inductive approach based
on “continuous design in use” within a cell of 4 regular practitioners of TC Nancy. The first version
was conceived in September 2020 to facilitate mediation with an audience of non-French-
speaking secondary school pupils. It was basically composed of a set of about twenty sheets of
paper with simple words relating not only to the stages of the scientific process but also to the
qualities and skills of the researcher. Since then, around forty sessions have been carried out,
based on the use of prototypes. A thesaurus of research approaches was step-by-step improved,
based on what posed problem and needed to be explained according to the different types of
users. We practiced observant participation during the year 2023 (notes, audio recordings,
photos) to capitalise on the game sessions and to stabilise a generic game format that can be
used within a wide variety of contexts. We followed an iterative didactic engineering approach
guided by the capacity of the game to make explicit “science-in-the-making”, encourage dialogue,
question the participants in their representations, and to accompany epistemic reflexivity.

3. A Multifaceted Tool for a Better Understanding of Science-In-The-Making

3.1 Components, Objectives and Principles of the Game

Expli'CIT aims to improve understanding of the practices reasonings that lead to the production
of new scientific knowledge. From simple discovery to in-depth reflection, it adapts to a wide
audience: secondary to higher education, citizens, elected representatives and decision makers,
journalists, professionals, academics (fig.1). It is a collaborative game for a small group of
participants (4 to 8 people) led by a scientific tutor who is familiar with the world of research and
trained in TC’s mediation practices. The tutor guides the participants so that they can share their
representations of research and construct a synthetic image from the various components of the
game, which are all magnetised, on a magnetic board or a table (fig.2,3).
309 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig.1. Aims of the game Expli’CIT according to the targeted audiences

o Research stages (37 cards)

o Values, attitudes and ethics (11 cards)
STAGES
o Hourglass tockens (30 pieces)

o Knowledge actors (10 figures -52 items)

o Jobs in research (13 figures-62 items)
ACTORS

o Quick start instruction Standard version (2023)

o Guide booklet (70 pages)

Fig.2. Expli’CIT’s components of the full standard version (2023)

The workshop is divided into 5 possible sequences to answer those questions: 1) What could be
the different stages in a research process? And how to organise them in a coherent way? 2) What
are the attitudes, values and ethics of research? 3) What are the timeframes for the different
stages of a research project? 4) Who are the different actors involved in the process of producing
scientific knowledge? 5) What are the different jobs in academic research and what do they
involve?
Games can last from 45 minutes to 4 hours depending on the audience, the time available and
the issues to be addressed. With doctoral students, half a day may be needed to go deeper into
epistemological issues. An in-depth guide is available in the game box for the tutor, where each
term is defined in a glossary, supplemented by reference documents. However, the definitions
are not set in stone and are open to interpretation. Nor is the position of the cards totally fixed and
310 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

the white cards exist to enrich the lexicon. The aim is not to define a standard of “good research
practices”, but to open the discussions and experience sharing around a rich ontology of research
approaches, both foundational (description of very generic concepts and normative ideals) and
applied (examples coming from the different backgrounds).

Fig.3. Expli’CIT game sessions with different audiences

3.2 Analysis of the Learnings About the Background to Research

As a preliminary window into participant’s learnings, we focused our analysis on academic

audiences, during four workshops in 2023 with respectively bachelor’s, master’s and PhD’s
students, and heads of scientific departments (Aix-Marseille University). During debriefings,
participants were asked to share 3 astonishments about the game (Fig.4). Among the testimonies
we identified 10 categories which show a strong match with the game design objectives.
Reflective enrichment through contributions in epistemology was highlighted for all participants,
they stressed that the tool had enabled them “to go beyond the obvious”, and “to ask themselves
new questions that they had never asked before”.
The teachers were logically marked by the pedagogical dimension, and students were very keen
to find out more about careers in research. The dialogical dimension and interdisciplinarity was
also emphasised by doctoral students and lecturers, especially regarding differences in
“methodological benchmarks”, “evaluation standards”, “thought structuring” and “worldviews”
between disciplines and individuals. For the most part, they have very few conceptual tools for
tackling ethical issues, which have only recently appeared in doctoral courses. Participatory
science and research were globally poorly known, and participants were surprised by the
possibility of involving non-scientists not only to collect data but also to co-construct research
questions, define and implement a scientific approach and jointly analyse their results.
311 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Higher education students

PhD students
% of participants testimonies 40 University heads of departement

30
20
10
0

Fig.4. Categories of astonishments expressed by participants (n = 87) during debriefing sessions with
academics

4. Conclusion

Expli’CIT offers an original exploration into knowledge production processes, "in and through"
research in educational, academic, professional, and third-places environments. It helps to
strengthen science-society dialogue, gain a better understanding of the reality of different
research practices and foster greater epistemic vigilance and critical thinking. The different game
sequences allow to clarify the nature of scientific knowledge, how it is intertwined with society and
how it is developed, stabilized without overlooking its limitations. The genericity of the tool makes
it possible to address inter/transdisciplinarity issues. It also has proven very useful to support
dialogue in hybrid groups bringing together academics and non-academics, to co-construct all or
part of the stages of the research process together, and to specify the possible contributions of
stakeholders at each stage.
The collaborative dimension of Expli’Cit nurtures a socio-cultural approach of contemporary
science as a way of sowing the seeds for participatory science and research toward a democracy
of knowledge.

Acknowledgement

This work was funded by the Grand Est Regional Council in France. It was also supported by
INRAE, the Lorraine University and the French National Research Agency as part of the “France
2030” project E&T (ANR-22-EXES-0002) as well as part of the following "Investissements
d'Avenir" programs: “Laboratory of Excellence ARBRE” (ANR-11-LABX-0002-01), “LUE-ORION”
(ANR-20-SFRI-0009) and “LUE-SIRIUS” (ANR-20-IDES-0008). We thank the Charly Lab platform
from the Lorraine University for its help in the prototyping of the Expli’CIT serious game.

REFERENCES

[1] IGESR. “La sensibilisation et la formation à la démarche scientifique de l’école élémentaire

au doctorat”, Rapport de l’inspection générale de l’éducation, du sport et de la recherche,
Minsitrère de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche, 2023.
[2] McIntyre, L. “Post-truth”, MIt Press, 2018.
[3] Chinn, C. A., et al. “Education for a ‘post-truth’ world: new directions for research and
practice”, Educational Researcher, 2021, 50(1), 51-60.
[4] Valladares, L. “Post-truth and education: STS vaccines to re-establish science in the public
sphere”, Science & Education, 2022, 31(5), 1311-1337.
[5] Thimonier, J. et al. “Les laboratoires ouverts Tous Chercheurs”, Médecine/Sciences, 2020,
36 (3), pp.271-273.
[6] Latour, B. “Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers Through Society”,
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987.
312 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The Post-Pandemic Takeaways on STEM Literacy

Nikolaos Fotou1, Marina Constantinou2

University of Lincoln, College of Arts, Social Sciences and Humanities, United

Kingdom1
Independent Researcher2

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic transformed the world at an unprecedented pace and still, to a lesser
extent, is changing people’s behaviours, decision making and lifestyle choices. Coping with the
challenges of this transforming world and understanding the changes in people's daily lives has
raised -or so it is widely argued- public awareness of the importance of STEM education and the
impact that scientific literacy has on personal decision-making and action. This has brought on
the ‘STEM education for all’ in the foreground in that there is a need for a STEM literate public to
function and respond to the unprecedented amounts of scientific, mathematical (mostly statistical)
and technical information exposed to during and post-pandemic. ‘STEM education for all’ can be
thus defined as someone having “… the ability to engage with science related issues, and with
the ideas of science, as a reflective citizen” [1, p. 22] which in the pandemic/post-pandemic era
would imply a critical consumption of COVID-19 information and scientifically informed decisions
by the non-scientist individual. Indeed, an understanding of, and engagement with, science can
undeniably affect both public and personal decisions. However, a question that reasonably arises
is how realistic it is for the average individual to have both breadth and depth of knowledge to a
sufficient level to collect and analyse evidence and validate claims to then form rational and
scientifically informed opinions on the science behind the COVID-19 or other contemporary issues
like climate crisis [2]. This opinion-based paper draws on previous work [3] that questions the
feasibility of ‘STEM education for all’ that would enable the non-scientist individual to make
rational and evidence-based decisions about a broad range of socio-scientific issues. It is argued
that this is both unrealistic and unachievable. However, the takeaways from the pandemic have
highlighted the need for widespread, functional, and meaningful health and biology literacy with
some coverage of chemistry and physics, and a greater focus in critical science literacy [5] for
individuals, and for society as a whole, to engage sufficiently with STEM knowledge and how
science operates. A more realistic approach to ‘STEM education for all’ with more appropriate
and achievable goals could thus enable the individual to function in the society and form informed
decisions on a number, yet limited in range, socio-scientific issues.

Keywords: Science Literacy, STEM for All, COVID-19 Pandemic

Introduction

The concept of 'STEM education for all' has gained prominence in the scientific and science
education community [6], advocating for universal STEM literacy to empower citizens in making
informed decisions. However, more recent dissenting voices [7,8] have questioned this shared
belief various grounds. The COVID-19 pandemic has further prompted a rethinking and re-
evaluation of the need for STEM literacy as per the extent to which preparing individuals to
meaningfully engage with the science behind socio scientific issues, like a pandemic and climate
crisis, is both realistic and achievable. This opinion-based paper critically examines the feasibility
of achieving an all-encompassing STEM education that would enable the individual to navigate
and respond to the dynamic challenges presented by socio-scientific issues and proposes a more
pragmatic shift in focus to foster a more realistic and achievable ‘STEM education for all’.
The role of, and need for, STEM education in preparing students to become STEM (with more
emphasis on the Science subject as opposed to Technology, Engineering and Mathematics)
literate citizens has been well argued in the literature [6] and embedded within curriculums across
the globe in justifying why students should learn STEM on the one hand, and what the processes
and products of such a STEM education should be on the other. For example, the framework for
K-12 Science which includes primary and secondary education up to the age of 17-18 in the US
states that [9 p.1] the goal is:
313 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[T]o ensure that by the end of 12th grade, all students have some appreciation of the
beauty and wonder of science [the cultural argument]; possess sufficient knowledge of
science and engineering to engage in public discussions on related issues [the
democratic argument]; Are careful consumers of scientific and technological information
related to their everyday lives [the utility argument]; are able to continue to learn about
science outside school; and have the skills to enter careers of their choice, including (but
not limited to) careers in science, engineering, and technology [the economic argument].

The five key arguments that have been put forth to support the importance of STEM literacy have
been questioned and challenged in previous work [7,2, 8]. In this paper, the focus is on STEM
literacy in fostering informed decision-making in a way that would enable the individual to engage
with STEM-related aspects of daily life (the utility argument) and civic participation in terms of
meaningful participation in democratic processes and decision making in socio-scientific issues
(the democratic argument). These two arguments align with the definition on ‘STEM education for
all’ by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in that STEM education
should enable the individual “…to engage with science related issues, and with the ideas of
science, as a reflective citizen” [1, p. 22]

The ‘STEM Education for All’ Utility Argument

The utility argument assumes that STEM literacy directly relates to and can be practically applied
in everyday life and decision-making such as health-related decisions about nutrition, but the
knowledge needed for health decisions would be more health and biology related which
emphasises the need for biology and health literacy than STEM literacy or what an all subjects
‘STEM education for all’ would entail. Similarly, basic knowledge would help in making decisions
about energy consumption and choices on the energy efficiency of household appliances but,
again, this would be more physics/science literacy.
As discussed elsewhere [10] and the pandemic showed, a more comprehensive and meaningful
approach is necessary for biology and public health literacy that would delve into the intricacies
of biology, such as influenza virus biology and the impact of epidemics and pandemics on society.
The focus should be on the basic, or as Nurse [11] put it, the “great” [p. 560], ideas of biology and
how these can be applicable to every-day lives thus empowering informed decisions. This should
encompass fundamental concepts such as immunology, epidemiology, and genetics to that level
that would also equip individuals to engage responsibly with public health measures, like physical
distancing during lockdowns and face covering.
Fostering health literacy would also enable the individual to find and make use of nutrition
information for a healthy behaviour and actions. The focus should again be on an adequate
understanding of basic mechanisms and concepts involved in daily activities like an
understanding on water, muscle, and fat aspects and how they relate to nutrition and the
importance of discipline in the diet and a healthy lifestyle for healthy living.
In a similar vein, mathematics education should prepare mathematics literate citizens to be in a
position to use mathematical knowledge and tools “to utilize mathematics for solving problems in
or describing aspects of specific extra-mathematical areas and situations, whether referring to
other subjects or occupational contexts or to the actual or future everyday lives of students” [12,
p. 43]. For instance, financial numeracy -i.e., knowledge and understanding of financial concepts
and respective skills- would be practically useful in making effective decisions regarding the
management of finance of the individual and their families. Similarly, an understanding of
mathematical models as formulations that can (with some approximation) represent phenomena
and situations could also be applicable in everyday life scenarios, thus enabling the individual to
make decisions about a number of issues. An understanding of models regarding the climate
change crisis, for example, and how people's daily practices relate to it, could be used in informing
use of power practices, use of means of transport and food waste that all contribute to greenhouse
gas emissions. Exponential models for virus contagion, and probability and statistics would, and
have been proven to be during the pandemic, useful in taking the right measures to reduce the
risk of catching COVID-19 and spread it to other people.

Revisiting the ‘STEM Education for All’ Utility Argument

The pandemic has indeed added the need for functional STEM education for all that would
promote necessary literacy levels for informed decision making in several everyday life situations.
Hence, a knowledge of basic STEM concepts with an emphasis on biology, health and
mathematics knowledge can be useful, but the entire spectrum of knowledge and its practical
applications are often too specialized for the non-scientist individual to grasp without an in depth
and extensive understanding and expertise. In other words, the assumption of the ‘STEM
314 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

education for all’ in terms of its utilisation in everyday life oversimplifies the complexity of
specialised STEM knowledge required for a number of issues on the one hand and its applicability
by the lay person on the other.
While an understanding of the efficacy of the vaccine and the need to wear masks has been
proven of particular importance and usability during lockdown, for example, an in depth-
understanding of the SARS-Covid 19 influenza and the specificities of the modes of transmission,
or an understanding of the epidemiological statistical evidence for a decision on wearing face
masks, social distancing and vaccination would be both unrealistic and, as argued in this paper,
not useful, at least not necessarily, to the lay person in their decision making to control the viral
spread.
As the COVID-19 pandemic showed, contemporary scientific issues necessitate a response
bringing together knowledge and expertise of highly qualified scientists from different disciplines
that rarely collaborated so closely in the past and often disagree on the best measures to address
these issues. Such responses require un understanding of multiple and often intertwined
processes, interlinked outcomes, and a consideration of different scenarios. This raises the
question as to what can be realistically achieved from a ‘STEM education for all’ so that the lay
non-scientist individual to make everyday life decisions with a school-level STEM knowledge and
when multiple process scenarios require specialism from different STEM areas to analyse and
understand. Such processes are very common in the science behind the current socio-scientific
issues like the climate crisis. Nevertheless, even STEM undergraduates struggle to analyse
multiple process scenarios whereas the outcomes are often counteractive to the average
individual-for example, an understanding of drought and floods as the results of anthropogenic
processes is for many an ‘either/or’ phenomenon when essentially is an ‘and’ one in that both
result from climate warming [13].

The ‘STEM Education for All’ Democratic Argument

The democratic argument suggests that ‘STEM education for all’ is a prerequisite for informed
participation in democratic decision-making regarding socio-scientific issues. An example
discussed elsewhere [20] is that knowledge of alternatives to fossil fuel power stations like wind
farms and nuclear power stations and an understanding of the extent to which these can address
the global climate crisis would enable the non-scientist individual to be able to engage in debate
and decision-making at local and national level for their implementation.
In a similar vein, and as the Covid-19 pandemic showed, ‘STEM education for all’ should aim at
equipping individuals with STEM knowledge that can be extended to the realm of the public health
and societal impact of scientific contemporary issues like infectious diseases. Thus, STEM
knowledge like the biology of Covid-19 and mathematical modelling for the consequences in
terms of mortality and morbidity as well as economic ramifications, would ideally enable the
individual to form an informed decision and engage in debates on measures to protect their
communities during pandemics and proactive measures for future threads.

Revisiting the ‘STEM Education for All’ Democratic Argument

The democratic argument overlooks the depth of knowledge required and the ability to interpret
this into applicable and actionable information for the lay, non-expert individual. The complexity
of current socio-scientific issues requires specialised cross-disciplinary expertise, and this is when
even highly qualified scientists from different fields may disagree on the effectiveness of nuclear
or wind farms’ power stations as an alternative to fuel fossil power stations to address the climate
crisis, for example [2].
An education for such “wicked problems” - i.e., problems defined by high complexity, uncertainty
and contested social and personal values [14] - would be both unrealistic and impossible. By this
definition, the COVID-19 pandemic seemed ‘extremely wicked’ as the climate change crisis also
is. Thus, a question that reasonably arises is what can realistically be expected of the non-
scientist individual, with a ‘STEM education for all’ knowledge and understanding to look at these
extremely wicked socio-scientific issues and appreciate them from multiple perspectives to make
scientifically rational informed opinions and engage in decision-making debates.

The Argument for ‘Critical STEM Education for All’

STEM is at its core a social endeavour and while heuristic/cue-based, processing is often
regarded as inferior to systematic, more deliberate, processing the expert scientists are involved
with in socio-scientific issues, it is undeniable that the lay individual relies heavily on such
heuristics instead. Echoing Priest [15], this paper argues for a redefinition of ‘STEM education for
all’ that would entail a comprehension of STEM knowledge as a social construct in that the
315 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

scientific community collectively arrives at consensus (disagreement, research-based evidence,

and derived conclusions through a rigorous process of open discussion, reassessment of
knowledge and different scenario, peer review, etc.) is needed.
This shift in perspective necessitates a fundamental change in how non-scientist individuals are
STEM-educated and how they approach STEM knowledge towards an understanding of science
operationalisation within its social context. This includes comprehending the inherent uncertainty
in scientific endeavours, the diverse specialisations within STEM disciplines and necessitation for
a cross-disciplinary approach in addressing current socio scientific issues. More importantly this
requires the recognition that science is inherently a social process that in most, if not in all, current
socio scientific issues is imperfect, but, on the other hand, generate the best available knowledge.
Critical STEM literacy should therefore encompass an understanding of the basic ideas in STEM
but also an appreciation for the uncertainties and complexities involved, the influence of vested
interests and discern, and trust expert consensus amidst diverse perspectives.

Conclusions

While acknowledging the undeniable impact of scientific understanding on public and personal
decisions, it is contended in this paper that expecting individuals to attain both breadth and depth
of knowledge sufficient for informed decisions across a spectrum of socio-scientific issues is both
unrealistic and unattainable. 'STEM education for all' thus requires a more pragmatic approach,
where both a broad understanding and appreciation for complexity is promoted. More importantly,
a recognition of the limits of this broad knowledge and, due to the complexity of the socio-scientific
issues, the need for trust in expert consensus needs to be understood and appreciated for the
individual to be in a position to navigate and address these challenges.
What is needed for such a function of ‘STEM education for all’, which, as we argue in this paper,
would mostly involve knowledge related to human health, biology, mathematics and some basic
chemistry and physics, is to ascertain the core STEM ideas and concepts to teach, rather than
necessitating depth of knowledge all four STEM subjects. It is also necessary to determine the
educational level up to which these are to be taught in order to enable individuals to make rational,
scientifically, informed choices and participate as citizens in the decision making of socio-scientific
issues. In addition, how to promote, model and scaffold an understanding of STEM knowledge as
a social construct is required while research-based evidence that such a ‘STEM education for all’
would enable the non-scientist individuals to engage meaningfully with socio-scientific issues and
contribute to address them is also necessary, in an attempt to promote a scientifically informed
and engaged society.

REFERENCES

[1] OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). “PISA 2015
Assessment and Analytical Framework: Science, Reading, Mathematics (Revised
Edition)”, Paris: PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2017.
[2] Abrahams, I., Constantinou, M., Fotou, N., & Potterton, B. "The relevance of science in
a ‘black box’ technological world", School Science Review, 2017, 98(365), 85-90.
[3] Fotou, N., & Constantinou, M. "The pandemic’s precipitate: reconsidering biology and
health literacy", School Science Review, 2020, 102(378), 13-15.
[4] Fotou, N., & Constantinou, M. "The role of health and biology literacy in the era of the
COVID-19 pandemic", ASE International, 2020, 11, 29-33.
[5] Braund, M. "Critical STEM literacy and the COVID-19 pandemic", Canadian Journal of
Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, 2021, 21(2), 339-356.
[6] Millar, R. “Towards a science curriculum for public understanding”, School Science
Review, 1996, 77(280), 7–18.
[7] Shamos, M. H. “The myth of scientific literacy”, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University
Press, 1995.
[8] Abrahams, I., Constantinou, M., Fotou, N., & Potterton, B. "Scientific Literacy: Who
Needs it in a ‘Black Box’ Technological Society?", New Perspectives in Science
Education Conference Proceedings. Filodiritto Publisher, 2019.
[9] National Research Council. “A framework for K-12 science education: Practices,
crosscutting concepts, and core ideas”, National Academies Press, 2012.
[10] Fotou, N., & Constantinou, M. "The role of health and biology literacy in the era of the
COVID-19 pandemic", ASE International,11, 2020, 29-33.
[11] Nurse, P. "The great ideas of biology", Clinical medicine, 2003, 3(6), 560-568.
[12] Blum, W, & Niss, M. "Applied mathematical problem solving, modelling, applications,
and links to other subjects—State, trends and issues in mathematics
instruction", Educational studies in mathematics, 22(1), 1991, 37-68.
316 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[13] Sepherd, M. “Wearing masks undermines the vaccine’ Narrative highlights a key
science literacy challenge”, Forbes, 2021 (August 8 th).
https://www.forbes.com/sites/marshallshepherd/2021/08/08/wearing-masks-
undermines-the-vaccine-narrative-highlights-a-key-science-literacy-
challenge/?sh=1ffcd84a63e7
[14] Sharma, A. "Phronetic science for wicked times", Journal for Activist Science and
Technology Education, 11(2), 2020, 7-15.
[15] Priest, S. "Critical science literacy: Making sense of science", Communicating Climate
Change: The Path Forward, 2016, 115-135.
317 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Concept of a Public Outreach Project on PCET Reactions

Christoph Weidmann1, Larissa Hahn2, Pascal Klein2, Thomas Waitz1

University of Göttingen, Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry

Education, Germany1
University of Göttingen, Institute for the Dynamic of Complex Systems, Department for
Physics Education, Germany2

Abstract

Reactions involving proton-coupled electron-transfer (PCET) steps are of enormous relevance for
processes in biology and chemical industry. Furthermore, PCET is the key to enable and optimize
the most important reactions for the transition to a sustainable future: Electrochemical nitrogen
fixation and CO2 reduction involves PCET and therefore its detailed understanding as well as the
development of optimized catalysts (both heterogenous and homogenous) is the overarching goal
of a proposed collaborative research center (CRC) based in Göttingen with participating
institutions from all over Germany.
However, despite the relevance of PCET for processes that are already taught in school e.g.,
photosynthesis [1] and water electrolysis, the importance of coupled proton and electron transfer
for these processes is rarely known and not explicitly mentioned. In this contribution, we will
present our science outreach strategy to make basic principles as well as recent results from
fundamental research on PCET more visible to the public. Our outreach measures include
teaching materials and educational offers targeting both school students and the general public.
They will consist of a “PCET portfolio” with curricular valid teaching materials ranging from
fundamental concepts and tools (“How to read a Pourbaix diagram?”) to adapted experiments
and literature [2] closely related to the actual research (e.g., electrochemical functionalization of
hydrocarbons [3]). Targeting the general public, we develop exhibitions for science museums and
public events in a close collaboration with participating researchers. In addition, impressions from
lab work, recent publications and the daily life of young researchers will be shared via social
media.
Overall, apart from communicating scientific content and to transfer knowledge about PCET, we
aim to strengthen the appreciation of fundamental research and to show how interdisciplinary and
collaborative research works. The latter is predominantly targeting young people to help them in
their vocational orientation and motivate them to become the scientists of tomorrow.

Keywords: Science Outreach, PCET, Science Exhibition

1. Introduction

The coupled transfer of protons and electrons is a common phenomenon observed in various
reactions with fundamental importance for nature and industry. Its understanding is crucial for the
development and optimization of reaction pathways and tailored catalysts to enable a transition
to a more sustainable society and industry Such processes make use of reactions which can be
described as the “grand challenges” of sustainable chemistry:

2 H + + 2 e– ⇌ H 2 (eq. 1)

2 H2O ⇌ H2O2 + 2 H+ + 2 e– ⇌ O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e– (eq. 2)

N2 + 6 H+ + 6 e– ⇌ 2 NH3 (eq. 3)

CO2 + 2 H+ + 2 e– ⇌ CO + H2O (eq. 4)

R3C–H + H–X ⇌ R3C–X + 2 H+ + 2 e– (eq. 5)

The immediate importance of water splitting with the associated reactions of hydrogen reduction
and oxygen oxidation (eq. 1) is well known even in the general public as it offers a great potential
318 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

for the storage of electrical energy from renewable sources (like e.g., wind or solar generators).
Less commonly known are the other reactions mentioned, like the electrosynthesis of hydrogen
peroxide as a safe and environmentally friendly oxidizing agent.
The next two reactions (eq. 2 and 3) describe the use of relatively inert atmospheric gases for the
synthesis of building blocks important for the production of fuels, fertilizers and a variety of
chemical compounds. In the case of carbon dioxide reduction (eq. 4), this also to decrease the
emission of the most prominent greenhouse gas or in combination with direct-air-capture the
active lowering of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. The selective C-X bond cleavage (X = O,
N, C) and the reversed process of C-H-activation described in eq. 5 focusses on converting
biopolymers from renewable feedstock to valuable chemical products.
Despite the described importance, the term “proton-coupled electron transfer” was not very well
defined in the scientific literature for a long time [4]. In general, when transferring both, an electron
and a proton, the transfer can either be concerted or consecutively with major differences in the
underlying mechanisms. Therefore, some authors coined the term electron-proton transfer (EPT)
exclusively for the concerted pathway and propose the use of “proton-coupled electron transfer”
(PCET) for the more general class of reactions [5]. We will follow the latter definition to broaden
the scope to an even wider range of reactions with profound educational potential. More
importantly, this is also consistent with the use of this term in the particular Collaborative Research
Center (CRC) described below.

2. The CRC 1633 - “Pushing Electrons with Protons”

The overarching research goal of the CRC is to unify physicochemical models about the three
main classes of catalysts (homogenous and heterogeneous as well as enzymatic catalysts) for
specific reactions and/or substrates. Catalysis plays such an important role for the mentioned
processes, as the substrates like nitrogen, carbon dioxide and C-H-bonds are very inert in nature
and need to be activated to overcome electrochemical overpotentials. The central approach of
the CRC is to understand PCET at the atomic scale which will enable the optimization of existing
solutions for the target reactions and develop new ones. This fundamental research is only
possible with the interdisciplinary work of chemists with expertise in organic synthesis,
electrochemistry, homo- and heterogenous catalysis, biochemists and experts on surface
science, theory and computational chemistry. The framework for such a comprehensive research
effort is given by the DFG (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, German Research Foundation)
which provides funding for these large interdisciplinary projects called “Collaborative Research
Centers” (CRC). In case of CRC 1633, 28 principal investigators from seven universities and
research institutions in Germany are granted a funding for a four year period, ensuring the
success of this project which then can apply to be extended for two additional funding phases of
four years each.
The CRC is subdivided into 16 projects researching on various aspects of PCET regarding the
“grand challenges” mentioned before, jointly lead by experts from the respective fields. These
projects are organized in the form of both “working groups” representing the research goals (I:
The PCET site, II: Enabling PCET Catalysis, III: Beyond Catalyst Design) and “project groups”
reflecting the type of reaction and catalysis investigated (A: Molecular PCET, B: Biological PCET,
C: Interfacial PCET).
The CRC steering committee highly acknowledges the value of public outreach for both,
communicating importance and basics of PCET science in an appropriate way to various target
groups as well as fostering the appreciation for (fundamental) research in general. Therefore, a
dedicated outreach project is funded as an integral part of the CRC. The outreach project closely
cooperates with the scientific projects with the help of a science outreach advisory board
comprised of three scientists representing their respective project group.

3. Outreach Approach and Strategy

To reflect the interdisciplinary structure of the CRC itself, the public outreach project is jointly
sustained by experts in physics and chemistry education, respectively.
The public outreach project will act as an important link between the CRC, the involved
researchers, and the obtained results on the one hand and the society as a whole on the other
hand. Crucial for its success is the intense and coordinated collaboration between research
groups and the departments of chemistry and physics education to develop and implement
attractive outreach activities which provide insights into scientific processes. These activities will
be developed for the interested general public and implemented on science fairs and local events.
However, to make the understanding for and appreciation of science in general and this CRC in
particular more sustainable, we focus on schools and school students as a central target group.
By connecting fundamental research to concepts and phenomena reflected in chemistry and
319 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

physics curricula, CRC related research can be widely distributed to a large audience of young
people in the age of 16 to 19 who are not only the next generation of society but can also be
motivated to become the scientists of tomorrow.
The planned public outreach activities will be developed in jointly supervised bachelor and master
theses and in workshops with PhD students. They will be designed with respect to preconceptions
of the selected target group, applicable educational standards, the learning environment and
expectations of the audience, respectively. The science outreach advisory board will support the
public outreach team in identifying topics suitable and relevant for outreach measures. These
include research questions of general interest in the context of sustainability and scientific results
reported in recent publications from CRC researchers. They will be selected with scientific advice
from the involved project concerning the possibility to develop adapted and simplified experiments
and other materials while preserving scientific correctness.

Figure 1. Examples from previous public outreach projects for formal education (Course at the XLAB, left)
and the interested public (exhibition at a science fair, right).

3.1 Educational Offers for Schools and School Students

Although PCET reactions play an important role in nature, science, technology and the everyday
life, their relevance is rarely known in the society and also in the formal education sector they are
only implicitly addressed at best. Important processes like the respiratory chain, photosynthesis
[1] as well as electrolysis and fuel cells are integral parts of school curricula but the involved
chemical reactions are in most cases not categorized as PCET. Therefore, the projects in this
section focusses on educational offers developed according to educational guidelines connecting
PCET reactions in general and CRC related research in particular to subjects covered in the
curricula and to implement corresponding materials and concepts for the formal education sector.
Apart from promoting scientific knowledge about PCET, further main objectives of these offers
are to provide insights into scientific processes and to support students in their vocational
orientation. To ensure a widespread dissemination of the respective offers, this science outreach
project will make use of established structures like the cooperation with contractual partner
schools, school laboratories and regular events on study orientation. To ensure a successful
communication of scientific concepts, methods and results we will evaluate and optimize
accessibility and comprehensibility of the developed materials using qualitative and quantitative
methods of educational research as well as eye-tracking techniques.
The developed educational materials like experiments, information texts, digital materials and
adapted primary literature (APL) are compiled into an expandable PCET portfolio which will be
available free of charge as an open educational resource (OER). To foster widespread use, we
will conduct further teacher trainings at the end of the funding period, where the participants are
introduced into how these materials relate to curricular standards and they can be used in upper
secondary education.
Additionally, courses at the student laboratory ‘XLAB – Experimental Laboratory for Young
People’ as extracurricular activities will provide school students with more advanced experiments
not readily viable for the use in most high schools. Several of these courses will be combined to
a science camp aiming at highly motivated school students with ambitions to study chemistry or
physics.
320 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

3.2 Offers for the Interested Public

Apart from the formal education sector, the focus in this project lies on enhancing the
communication between science and the interested public. In order to raise the interest and the
appreciation of science in the public’s eye and to contribute to a scientific literate society,
opportunities for an exchange between scientists and the general public will be created. To
achieve this, we will provide insights into the often-complex scientific system, increase
transparency of the structural organization of scientific institutions, explain interdisciplinary
research and the relevance of fundamental research for sustainable developments like a fossil-
free future. For this purpose, we will utilize existing and established outreach structures and
events at the University and explore new formats and ways for public outreach communication,
both on-site and online. These include for example the science fair ‘IdeenExpo’ with approx.
425.000 visitors, the Göttingen Night of Science with approx. 25.000 visitors and social media
channels with relevant posts about science and beyond called “Protons, Papers, PhD: Young
Scientists in CRC 1633”. The planned activities for these events and formats will be developed,
organized and implemented in close cooperation with scientific and educational personnel
through recurring joint workshops, a collaboration with the public relations department as well as
the “Forum Wissen”.

3.3 First Steps

The CRC is going to start in April 2024 and will be accompanied with the public outreach activities
right from the beginning: The general importance of PCET and the potential of fundamental
research in this field for a more sustainable future will be presented at local science
communication events like ‘Science goes City’ (May) in Göttingen and the ‘IdeenExpo’ fair in
Hannover (June). Simultaneously, the screening process to identify suitable subject matter for
developing the first building blocks of the PCET portfolio will take place in close collaboration with
the science outreach advisory board and the steering committee. Starting from general concepts,
methods and terminologies in PCET science will be adapted into teaching materials for school
students. This includes an already ongoing thesis focusing on the construction and use of
Pourbaix diagrams as a valuable tool to visualize the pH-dependence of redox potentials in
various redox systems.

4. Summary

Our approach to identify and select suitable topics, develop corresponding activities and materials
as well as disseminate them to the respective target groups can be summarized in figure 2.

Figure 2. Schematic diagram on the development and dissemination of public outreach measures.

The unique potential of PCET to connect complex fundamental research with apparently simple
reactions offers various opportunities to facilitate a dialogue between academia and the rest of
the society represented by the interested public, teachers and school students.
321 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

REFERENCES

[1] Mora, S. J., Odella, E., Moore, G. F., Gust, D., Moore, T. A., Moore, A. L. (2018). Proton-
Coupled Electron Transfer in Artifical Photosynthesic Systems. Acc. Chem. Res., 51, 445-
453
[2] Von Hoff, E., Aljets, H., Milsch, N., Waitz, T., Mey, I. (2019). Arbeiten mit Adaptierter
Primärliteratur im Chemieunterricht. CHEMKON, 26, 190-195
[3] Nikl, J., Hofman, K., Mossazghi, S., Möller, I. C., Mondeshki, D., Weinelt, F., Baumann,
F.-E., Waldvogel, S. R. (2023). Electrochemical oxo-functionalization of cyclic alkanes
and alkenes using nitrate and oxygen. Nat. Commun., 14, 4565
[4] Weinberg, D. R., Gagliardi, C. J., Hull, J. F., Murphy, C. F., Kent, C. A., Westlake, B. C.,
Paul, A., Ess, D. H., McCafferty, D. G., Meyer, T. J. (2012). Proton-Coupled Electron
Transfer. Chem. Rev., 112, 4016-4093
[5] Huynh, M. H. V., Meyer, T. J. (2007). Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer. Chem. Rev.,
107, 5004-5064
322 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fostering Citizenship: Systematic Refutation of False

Information in Social Media by Senior Pre-University Physics
Students Using a Pedagogical Tool

Süleyman Turşucu1, Maxime Jonker2

University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands1

Leiden University, The Netherlands2

Abstract

In recent years, citizenship gained significance in secondary education, aiming to equip students
for a changing society. This study explores the intersection of citizenship and STEM education,
focusing on combatting false information on social media. Specifically, we focused on Flat Earth
Society (FES) supporters, who promote beliefs conflicting with the spherical Earth concept taught
in physics class. Strengthening students' resilience against such false information is crucial. The
central research question addresses this challenge: "How can a pedagogical tool be developed
for senior pre-university physics students to systematically refute false information on social
media using their basic knowledge and skills?"
Prior to designing this tool, we investigated what grade-11 students already knew about FES. The
findings revealed, among other things, a deficiency in argumentative skills and confidence in
mathematical or physics knowledge related to the beliefs of FES supporters. Drawing on these
findings and a literature review, we identified an existing tool that we adapted to our context.
Subsequently, during a pilot study five grade-11 students applied this tool to counter specific
beliefs held by FES supporters about a flat Earth on social media. Following the outcomes of the
pilot study, we refined the tool. Thereafter, in the second and final study three different grade-11
students used the finalized tool to counter the same FES beliefs.
The findings following from the final study affirm the possibility of developing a pedagogical tool
for students to counter false information on social media. This involves formulating a reasoned
stance that includes applying basic physics knowledge, possessing sufficient argumentative skills
and demonstrating critical thinking. Importantly, this reasoned stance is an indicator of citizenship
in students.
We emphasize that applying basic physics knowledge to refute false information in secondary
education has not been sufficiently investigated. This research serves as a foundation for further
research. Our adapted tool, based on the work of other researchers, may serve as a starting point
to counter other forms of false information on social media.

Keywords: critical thinking, citizenship, false information, physics, pre-university education, social media

1. Introduction

Citizenship has become globally an increasingly significant theme in secondary education, aiming
to equip learners with knowledge and skills from the curriculum to navigate an ever more complex
society [1]. This trend is also evident in the Netherlands [2], where this research has taken place.
An issue closely tied to the complexities of contemporary society is the presence of false
information on social media and how citizens deal with it [3]. Some of this false information is
unintentional, but another part is deliberately crafted to deceive citizens, such as the spread of
false information about vaccines leading to autism [4] or the 2021 Capitol riot in the US [5]. These
developments can fuel division and mistrust among citizens, posing a threat to society. Therefore,
addressing this issue in schools and contemplating how to make students more resilient against
false information on social media is crucial. However, how does one become resilient as a
student?
In this study, resilience becomes evident when a student can form a reasoned stance and defend
it. Critical thinking, involving analyzing information first and then deciding to what extent that
information is true or false [6], plays an essential role. Unfortunately, forming a reasoned stance
proves challenging for many students [7]. This also applies to the structured articulation of
arguments. One way to address these challenges is by providing students with a pedagogical
323 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

tool, or simply a tool, in the form of a step-by-step plan, schema, table, or another aid. The tool
used in this study is presented in the next paragraph.

2. Specific Case for Students

This study addresses the central research question: "How can a pedagogical tool be developed
for senior pre-university physics students to systematically refute false information on social
media using their basic knowledge and skills?". Specifically, it focuses on the beliefs held by
supporters of the Flat Earth Society (FES) [8]. FES supporters firmly believe that the Earth is flat
and extensively use social media to disseminate their views.
For the physics students, a specific case involving Peter Flat, a dedicated FES supporter, is
presented. Figures 1 and 2 outline Peter Flat's beliefs about why the Earth must be flat.
To debunk Peter Flats beliefs, students need to formulate a reasoned stance. Importantly, this
reasoned stance is also an indicator of citizenship in students. To formulate a reasoned stance,
the tool in figure 3 was developed. Students navigate through this tool, which assists them in
thinking critically and structuring their arguments in an organized manner. The next section
discusses the development of this tool.

3. Methodology

Prior to designing this tool, we interviewed three grade-11 students and investigated what they
already knew about FES. The analysis of the results revealed, among other findings, that students
lacked argumentative skills and lacked confidence in their mathematical or physical knowledge.
These insights, combined with a review of the literature, led to the following design principles:
clarity and unambiguity, a natural facilitation of systematic construction of optimal arguments, and
effective encouragement of critical thinking in students. This, in turn, guided the selection of an
existing tool [9] that was adapted to our context.
Subsequently, in a pilot study, five grade-11 students used this tool to refute the beliefs of Peter
Flat above. In light of the findings, several improvements were implemented. Consequently, three
different grade-11 students – Alice, Cleo and Max – used this improved tool to counter the same
beliefs of Peter Flat about the flat Earth.

3.1 Navigating the Tool

First, in figure 3, students are asked why, according to Peter Flat, the Earth cannot be spherical.
Next, question 2 activates prior knowledge: students write down at least two formulas related to
Peter Flat's arguments. One formula or law is then chosen. At question 3, students counter Peter
Flat's argument and explain why the Earth can still be spherical. Before this, they are asked to
read the example in the appendix (separate sheet) on how to counter an argument. The example
of countering an argument is presented below:

Peter Flat makes the following statement: “Neighbor, close the door! Cold is coming in!”. You
can counter this statement as follows. In the chapter on heat transfer, you have learned that heat
flows from a place with a high temperature to a place with a low temperature. Therefore, it is not
cold that is flowing but heat. This refutes Peter Flat’s statement.
324 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

A control question follows: "Is your explanation convincing?" The idea here is for students to
critically assess their answers, providing a better foundation for question 4. Two answers are
possible for the control question: a "yes" allows the student to proceed to the final question, and
a "no" results in the selection of another formula or law, followed by a repetition of question 3. At
question 4, students write a clear and organized explanation, considering two focal points – one
of which is addressing what, according to Peter Flat, the problem is with a spherical Earth. Finally,
students are asked to construct a reasoned stance. To minimize the risk of students getting stuck
due to complex language, a brief explanation is included below the scheme. It clarifies the
meaning of scientific knowledge, concepts, and refuting an argument.

4. Results

Due to word limit restrictions, we will only discuss student Cleo and not all three. In her reasoned
stance in step 4, Cleo states: "According to Peter Flat, the Earth cannot be spherical because
water only flows downwards. This would mean that water cannot go towards the 'North.' However,
water doesn't seek a way downwards but rather the lowest point. This is because water is
influenced by gravity, which is reinforced by the formula. Water has mass and is therefore
attracted to the Earth's core, regardless of its location on the Earth's surface. As water is drawn
towards the deepest/lowest point, it can also flow towards the North." Cleo's response is coherent,
structured, demonstrates critical thinking, is scientifically accurate, and addresses Peter Flat's
arguments in figures 1 and 2. Thus, she refutes Peter Flat's arguments. Although qualitatively
somewhat weaker, the other students also constructed similar arguments.

5. Conclusion and Discussion

The answer to the central research question is a 'small yes', but only within our sample size of
N=3. This is particularly evident in the specific case concerning Peter Flat’s beliefs. Indeed,
different cases may lead to varying results.
In response to Peter Flat’s arguments about a flat Earth, the students countered with a reasoned
stance, employing critical thinking and adept argumentative skills to present their points
coherently and logically. Moreover, the students demonstrated heightened confidence in applying
their physics knowledge throughout the process. Overall, our findings highlight the beneficial
influence of the tool on students’ scientific reasoning (for N=3!).

5.1 Current State and Further Research

Limited research exists on scientifically grounded tools to refute false information in secondary
education. Therefore, this study may serve as a basis for further research in this area. Ideas for
further research include exploring tools developed by other researchers and adapting them to fit
various research contexts. Subsequent research could focus on the extent to which it is possible
to refute other false information on social media through slight modifications to our tool.
325 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig. 3. The pedagogical tool that students used to formulate a reasoned stance.
326 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

REFERENCES

[1] Goren, H., & Yemini, M. (2017). Global citizenship education redefined–A systematic
review of empirical studies on global citizenship education. International Journal of
Educational Research, 82, 170-183.
[2] Kampman, L., Driebergen, M., Van der Laan, A. (2022). Startnotitie kerndoelen
burgerschap. Retrieved January 20, 2024, from
https://www.slo.nl/publicaties/@21497/startnotitie-kerndoelen-burgerschap/
[3] Saurwein, F., & Spencer-Smith, C. (2020). Combating disinformation on social media:
Multilevel governance and distributed accountability in Europe. Digital journalism, 8(6),
820-841.
[4] Hoffman, B. L., Felter, E. M., Chu, K. H., Shensa, A., Hermann, C., Wolynn, T., ... &
Primack, B. A. (2019). It’s not all about autism: The emerging landscape of anti-
vaccination sentiment on Facebook. Vaccine, 37(16), 2216-2223.
[5] Walsh, D. R. (2021). Neutral isn't neutral: an analysis of misinformation and
sentiment in the wake of the capitol riots. West Virginia University.
[6] Black, M. (2018). Critical thinking: An introduction to logic and scientific method. Pickle
Partners Publishing.
[7] Sinnema, C., & van Joolingen, W. R. (2020). Designing argumentation tasks for
science education: A review of the literature. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
57(9), 1352-1378.
[8] The Flat Earth Society. (n.d.). Home. Retrieved January 11, 2024, from
https://theflatearthsociety.org/home/
[9] Bayram Jacobs, D., Henze, I., Evagorou, M., Shwartz, Y., Aschim, E. L., Alcaraz-
Dominguez, S., Dagan, E., & Barajas, M. (2017). Exploring the impact of educative
materials on teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge. In ESERA 2017.
327 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Science Teaching Models

328 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Conceptions of Inquiry-based Learning in High School

Biology in Japan and China

Jiamin He1, Kenichi Goto2

Toyo University, Japan1,2

Abstract

In the face of the ongoing globalisation of the world, changes in industrial structures and the
accompanying arrival of a knowledge-based society, countries around the world are searching for
a new vision of the future of school education under the name of educational reforms. Among
them, the speed of educational reform in Asian countries is tremendous, and it is a fact that Japan
and other East Asian countries (including Japan) are the most important countries in the world in
terms of educational reforms. Among them, the speed of educational reform in Asian countries is
tremendous, and it is a fact that Japan and other East Asian countries (South Korea, Taiwan,
Hong Kong, Singapore and China) have achieved in less than a century the modernisation of
education that took Western countries two or three centuries to achieve slowly, drawing on the
experience of Western countries. drawing on the experience of Western countries.
It was the first major revision in 10 years in Japan and the first in 16 years in China, and a major
It was the first major revision in 10 years in Japan and the first in 16 years in China, and a major
feature of the revisions in both countries was the trend towards a change in education that
emphasises student enquiry and practice in order to develop a From a historical perspective, both
countries have a top-down approach, with one teacher in charge of a class standing on the lectern
and teaching approximately 1,000 students. However, the educational reforms in both countries
aimed to move away from an However, the educational reforms in both countries aimed to move
away from an examination-oriented education and shift to competency-based education.
In this study, while the emphasis is on inquiry courses, we look back at the history of education
in both countries, focus on the meaning of inquiry activities as defined by each country and the
purpose of inquiry activities, explore what kind of inquiry education is unique to Japan and China,
and in the process, formulate a unit plan for high school biology that cultivates scientific inquiry
skills that fits the education in both countries, and develop a The aim is to create a high school
biology unit and a concrete lesson plan that fosters scientific inquiry skills that fit the education in
both countries. education in both countries.

Keywords: inquiry learning, history of education, teaching vehicles, curricula.

1. Research Background

The growth of a country's people has become essential for its prosperity, and the quality of
education in schools is one of the main factors, perhaps the biggest factor, in developing people.
Schools are therefore called upon to adapt to rapidly changing social conditions and to actively
educate children to acquire the qualities and abilities they will need when living in the future
society.
At present (2023), Japan's latest Courses of Study were revised in 2017 and fully implemented
at the compulsory education stage from April 2020 for elementary schools and April 2021 for
junior high schools. The 2017 Courses of Study emphasised the importance of "fostering the
qualities and abilities for life so that children can create their own future" and set up the "ability to
live" as one of the three pillars of the Courses of Study. In the specific curriculum to lead to the
'ability to live', it is stated that "the content of what is taught in each subject is important, but there
are many things that should be nurtured not only in specific subjects but also in all subjects, such
as the ability to use information, to find and solve problems and the qualities and abilities required
to deal with various contemporary issues" (omitted). Many of them are nurtured not only in specific
subjects but also in the context of all subjects." *1.
At the same time, from 2022, the Compulsory Education Curriculum Plan (2022 edition) and
Compulsory Education Curriculum Standards (2022 edition) were also fully implemented in China.
China's Curriculum Standards (2022 edition) speak of aiming for a holistic education, aiming to
develop the qualities and abilities for the following three points: having ideals, beliefs and a sense
329 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

of social responsibility; having scientific and cultural literacy; and having self-development,
communication and cooperation skills. A proposal for educational reform has been presented.
From a historical perspective, both China and Japan have reformed primary and secondary
education in a top-down fashion. In the past, education was mainly provided by a single teacher
in charge of teaching a class of about 40 students. However, the aim of the educational reforms
in both countries was to move away from an examination-oriented education and shift to
competency-based education. In the new classes, group work activities by students are also being
emphasised. This is because today's world demands people who can think and make decisions
on their own, rather than people who can do what has been decided in an organisation.
However, it is also a fact that major barriers stand in the way of a breakaway from conventional
school education and a shift in its role and function towards the training of human resources for
the future society. These challenges and issues require that the policies and systems surrounding
schools are revised to change the daily classroom teaching practices, and that not only the
national and school levels, but also the whole society, including teachers and citizens, become
active actors in pursuit of change at the level of practices in the classroom.

2. Objectives of the Study

In China, competitive schooling with an emphasis on exam preparation has continued, with the
popularity of self-funded study abroad in the 1990s at the forefront, and the use of cram schools
for children becoming more common, leading to intensified competition for examinations.
Learning, which also affects children's development, has become a major social problem, and the
Chinese Ministry of Education began to reduce the burden on students and reform education in
the 2000s. The focus of this educational reform has been on education to develop human
resources who can not only memorise knowledge, but also understand and utilise it.
Although inquiry-based learning has already been developed for a long time in the West, there
are still many challenges in integrating it into classrooms in Japan and China. One major problem
is that both countries are still dominated by passive teaching styles in school education rather
than active learning, due to the high level of competition in examinations, the large number of
students in relation to the number of teachers, and the lack of teacher skills.
The aim of this study is to draw attention to the implications and purposes of inquiry activities as
defined by each country since the 2000s, when both China and Japan began to encourage
inquiry-based learning, and to develop a unit concept and specific lesson plans for high school
biology that cultivates scientific inquiry skills to suit the education of both countries in this context.

3. The Process of Enquiry and Specific Examples of Enquiry to Conceptualise Enquiry-

Based Learning.

In the West, there has been a long history, spanning several centuries, of the creation of inquiry-
based learning. The origins of such pedagogic methods are attributed to the Socratic method of
question and answer in ancient Greece and to the work on inquiry by the educational thinker John
Dewey in the early 20th century.
Inquiry, as described by the US National Science Education Standards (Next Generation Science
Standards, NGSS) as of 2023, is a multidimensional activity that involves observation, problem
posing, reading materials, designing experiments, making predictions about experiments based
on prior research and experience, collecting and analysing data, and finally discussing results
and finally, it is a multidimensional activity involving discussion of results and interaction about
the experiment. Even if it is inquiry in an educational setting, inquiry learning is a learning process
in which students participate independently and actively acquire knowledge, and it is a way of
learning in which students themselves seek out what to do and how to do it.

3.1 The Process of Problem Solving and Exploration Activities as Presented in China

Since ancient times, China has been a country that places great importance on the education of
'courtesy' and 'morality'. Confucianism was the main source of education and taught students the
'Way of the Sovereign', which was mainly based on benevolence, propriety, courtesy and wisdom.
In this context, Daoism, which was born at the same time as Confucianism, followed the exact
opposite path to Confucianism. Education that inspires rather than instructs; education that makes
one feel nature rather than instructing etiquette; this is nature education in Taoism. The Taoist
philosophy of nature education had a great influence as a foundation for science education and
exploratory learning in China. What is the nature-based education that has been handed down
over the past 3,000 years?
Western nature education thought began with the ideas of ancient Greek philosophers. In China,
too, natural education thought began to be discussed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring
330 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

States Period, which was the same period as the ancient Greek period. The ideas that emerged
during the Spring-Autumn and Warring States Period are so numerous that they are said to be "a
hundred schools of thought". The representative schools are the Confucian school, which
emphasises education and etiquette, led by Confucius (B.C. 551-B.C. 479); the Taoist school,
which teaches the Way and nature, led by Laozi (B.C. 571-B.C. 471); and the Buddhist school,
led by Sumi (B.C. 476-B.C. 476). C. 476-B.C. 390), which emphasises political economy. Of
these, the Taoism narrated by the Taoists had a profound influence on nature and inquiry
education in later China and became the root of Chinese thought.
Just as there is a 'god' in Christianity and other religions, Taoism has its own beliefs. In Taoism,
there is a spirit in all things and a 'way' in all things. But the Way is not something that can be
interpreted and described collectively in words, and if it can be expressed in words, it is the
everlasting Way, which has no permanent significance; the same is true of names, which can be
named, but have no constancy. 'Nothingness' is the source of the universe, which represents
chaos, and the 'existence' (form) of all things in the universe is brought about by naming.
Therefore, it is important for us to experience the edge of the Way by observing 'existence'.
Observing 'nothingness' and 'existence' is the gateway to understanding the deepest and most
ineffable aspects of change in all things. This idea is very similar to entropy and chaos theory in
the West.
In human society, too, the Way exists in all areas of society, and human activities and the laws of
nature are based on the Way. Although the characteristic of education is to convey to people the
rules and norms of nature or society, it is also said that "the way, the way, the non-way; the name,
the name, the name, the very name." As is also said, many things in this world can only be learned
with the mind, but cannot be expressed concretely in words.
With the end of the Great Unification Era of the Han Dynasty, the imperial court underwent a brief
period of change and society began to become unstable. The Wei Jin Northern and Southern
Dynasties (A.C. 220-A.C. 581) was characterised by an era of openness of thought, rich
individuality and carefree elegance. Many natural educators arose, and people searched for a
new kind of education different from the Confucianism that had been promoted by the people.

3.2 The Process of Problem Solving and Exploration Activities as Presented in Japan

Unlike China, the history of Japan differs from that of China in that Japan has not fostered its own
civilisation within its own borders, but has developed into a unique culture through the fusion of
the wisdom of various countries and regions.
Ancient education in Japan was not as systematic as today's systematic school education, or
even as significant and concrete as that of the temple hut, but was a method of accidental
transmission of the educator's experience to the pupils. The people did not consciously have
ideals for education, but learned by following the example of adults in order to inherit the Shinto
rituals and professions. The culture of prehistoric Japan was Shintoism, known as koshinto or
pure Shinto. Shinto was a naturalistic and simplistic ideology, with the idea of loving and
worshipping nature and enjoying this life as much as possible. In ancient times, people regarded
all great and wondrous things in people, nature and natural phenomena as gods, and worshipped
them as the eight million gods. Although Japan has adopted many ideas from other countries in
later times, this natural simplicity of Shinto thought, which has existed since ancient times, has
always been an important part of Japanese thought.
The arrival of Confucianism and Buddhism in Japan brought about major changes in Japanese
culture and education. The previous ideology, which mainly focused on familiarity with nature,
was replaced by Confucian moralism, which emphasised the importance of people and their
behaviour.
The early modern period is the most important period for the development of inquiry and science
education in Japan. In early modern Japan, as in China during the Spring and Autumn and
Warring States Periods, many schools of thought developed and a variety of educational ideas
emerged. Christianity was introduced to Japan by Francisco Xavier, and new knowledge and
technologies related to various Western sciences and arts were introduced to Japan for the first
time. It was during this period that Western systematic education began to be introduced into
Japan.
The Japanese who first came into contact with Dutch studies were fascinated by the mysterious
and fascinating science and technology and the world they embodied. Education also underwent
major changes, including the use of Western forms of education and teaching systems as they
were.
A representative educational philosophy of the mid-Meiji period is that of Johann Friedrich
Herbart. Herbart is said to have been the first person to systemise education scientifically, and
his five ethical goals of inner freedom, perfection, goodwill, justice and fairness are said to have
been supported by the Confucian principles of benevolence, justice, propriety, wisdom and faith.
331 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The form of the educational method initiated by him was also appreciated by Japanese educators
at a time when there was a tendency to impose it into a mould.
In contrast to Herbart's neatly framed education, Friedrich Junge's theory of science education is
a theory of life co-existentialist education. The educational methods recommended by Junge
emphasised observation of actual living organisms such as animals and plants, taking up
materials from the land itself where children were present and children's experience, as well as
children's thinking to find laws and causal relationships in the natural world through the interplay
of observation and interpretation. Yunge's education on living togetherness may be considered
similar in some respects to the Chinese Taoist philosophy of nature education. However, whereas
Taoist nature education attempted to separate nature from life (human activity), Junge pointed
out that the concept of life lay at the heart of nature and that it was important to begin teaching
from the essence of life. Junge's teaching works from the child's rudimentary intuitive perceptions
to the discovery of laws in the living coexistence. However, the greatest drawback of Junge's
teaching method is that it does not realise the unitisation of the contents of the teaching material,
and, as in Taoist education, it is very difficult to understand how exactly the ideas should be
formulated in education.

4. The Necessity of Studying Biology in School Education

In modern society, it is difficult to make appropriate decisions and choices without a background
in biology, whether in daily life, industrial activities or in policy-making on the environment and
health. Advanced technologies based on biology, such as gene recombination technology,
pluripotent stem cells and genome analysis technology, exist everywhere in society, and new
technologies are constantly being created. When using advanced technologies, there are
concerns not only about the revolutionary benefits of the technology, but also about the possibility
that the use of the technology may lead to problems that are difficult to solve. In order for
individuals and society to make appropriate decisions and choices regarding the use of new
technologies, a deep understanding and up-to-date knowledge of biology and other disciplines is
essential.
Biology as a basic education is essential for the development of an ethical view of biology and
the environment, regardless of whether the subject is science or humanities. Organisms that have
undergone mutations, mutations and evolutionary processes have a history and uniqueness that
cannot be predicted from other disciplines alone, and there are also many phenomena that act
differently at different levels of the hierarchy. Therefore, there are many possible answers to the
5W1H question in biology that can be validated. Studying biology is expected to foster qualities
and abilities such as advanced cognitive, analytical and decision-making skills for understanding
complex subjects and solving problems, without being overly preoccupied with individual
specialist knowledge. *
Biological education is an important part of science education, and the objectives of science
education are also the objectives of biological education. The origin of living organisms is the
origin of science itself, which began when mankind tried to use nature to create his own place on
earth, his own dwelling place. In other words, the primary reason for teaching biology education
is to convey mankind's current position on the planet and to enable them to utilise nature in their
lives. It can be said that scientific knowledge is acquired by expanding knowledge through
experimentation and observation, finding problems based on the knowledge, devising methods
of experimentation and observation, and repeating the process of trying to acquire new
knowledge.

5. Elements for Conceptualising Inquiry-Based Learning

Inquiry science researcher Margus Pedaste, in 'Phases of inquiry-based learning: definitions and
theinquiry cycle', (2014), defined inquiry-based learning as, in other words, a teaching strategy in
which students are encouraged to construct concepts by defined as an instructional strategy in
which students follow the same methods and practices as professional scientists in order to
construct concepts. Inquiry-based learning is often seen as an approach to problem-solving and
requires the application of several problem-solving skills. It can also be defined as a process in
which learners formulate hypotheses and then test them through experimentation and
observation to discover new causal relationships. Various approaches to exploratory learning in
the West exist. In most cases, exploratory learning can be divided into five stages. Planning,
Conceptualisation, Investigation, Conclusion and Discussion.
Inquiry-based learning in China is a form of learning in which problems are discovered, analysed
and solved through inquiry activities in order to develop students' creative awareness and
practical skills, fully reflect students' independence and initiative, and aim for a deeper
understanding of knowledge and competence in science, humanities and other disciplines.
332 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Inquiry-based learning is a kind of integrated learning, which includes inquiry in the classroom
and inquiry-based learning including experiments and observations, inquiry in compulsory
subjects and inquiry in integrated practice (the subject of integrated learning time in China) and
thematic learning. Therefore, inquiry-based learning naturally includes not only knowledge within
the subject, but also content from the areas of morality, culture, sports, science, etc.
He also said that when conceptualising inquiry-based learning, Chinese educator Shi Liangfang's
Teaching Theory: 课堂教学的原理，策略与研究 should pay particular attention to the following
five points.

① Not singling out exploratory learning per se

② Both individual and group activities are important
③ Theory-based practice, theory developed in practice
④ Both independent student learning and teacher guidance are essential.
⑤ Emphasis on the concept of inquiry in general guidance and education.

Fig. 1. The learning process that should be emphasised to foster the development of qualities and abilities
(extracted from Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology - 2018).

The inquiry activity process is very similar to scientific research. However, there is a fundamental
difference between enquiry activities and scientific research. Inquiry activities are a kind of
learning method, a 'learning' activity that takes the form of 'research'. Such activities focus on the
research process rather than on the results of the research, and the most fundamental goals of
the students' activities are (i) the acquisition of knowledge and (ii) learning how to acquire and
use knowledge. Of these two goals, the second should be given the greatest importance.
Meanwhile, in Japan, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)
announced in March 2023, "The Development of Comprehensive Time for Inquiry to Enhance the
Skills Required Today: Enrichment of Inquiry and Realisation of Curriculum Management for the
Development of Solid Qualities and Abilities to Pioneer the Future Society (High School Edition)",
which describes inquiry-based learning in Japan as It is a learning process based on the
knowledge and skills acquired through studying the subjects up to now, and is a form of learning
that enables students to gain a deep understanding of the content of their studies in relation to
life and society, to acquire the qualities and abilities required in the future, and to actively continue
learning throughout their lives. The book also describes it as a form of learning that enables
students to continue to actively learn throughout their lives. There are two main points of guidance
for enquiry-based learning described in the book. One is to make the learning process a process
of inquiry, and the other is to make it a learning activity in which students work independently and
in collaboration with others.
In addition, as explicitly stated in the description, enquiry-based learning needs to emphasise
learning activities that seek to solve problems independently, especially in collaboration with
different and diverse others. The significance of collaborative learning in enquiry-based learning
is that it exposes students to a diverse collection of information. Even when learning activities to
research the same issue are carried out, different people focus on different directions, different
methods of collection, etc., so that a diverse and large amount of information can be obtained in
the process of cooperative learning. The type and quantity of information is an essential
prerequisite for the quality of the organisation and analysis of the exploratory activity, and the
combination of different perspectives and different ways of thinking can add depth to the
organisation and analysis of problems and issues. No matter how much material a student reads
333 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

and how much literature he or she researches, there is only so much that he or she can realise
and discover. Discussions, exchanges of ideas and debates, where decisions and judgements
have to be made, also help students to compare, categorise and relate the information they have
gathered.
Having identified the components of enquiry-based learning in Japan, China and the West, we
found that it was often written in terms of two aspects: the actual enquiry-based learning and the
methods used. Although inquiry varies from researcher to researcher, the most widely accepted
methods of Western and Japanese exploratory learning are often divided into four stages:
problem posing, information gathering, research and analysis, and summarising, with discussion
interspersed between these four stages. And in conducting exploratory learning. It has been found
that it is important to use the idea of enquiry in teaching, even during general instructional
teaching, rather than singling out enquiry-based learning per se. Although the term 'inquiry-based
learning' brings to mind experimental classes and classes with large-scale activities, actual
inquiry-based learning is a learning method that can also be used during general learning
activities, and it is desirable to use inquiry-based thinking to promote learning, even if there are
no experiments in the class.

6. Biology Unit Model Concept to Enable the Development of Scientific Enquiry Skills

Biomimetics is an interdisciplinary approach to developing new technologies, materials and

systems by mimicking the morphology, functions and processes of organisms in nature.
Biomimetics has long been a technology that has attracted worldwide attention, and there are
many examples of orcs in the world that actually use biomimetics technology. Biomimetics itself
was considered to be one of the very effective ideas to connect STEAM education with everyday’
and social life. Furthermore, although biomimetics belongs to the category of bioengineering in
terms of academic classification, a wide range of knowledge such as biology, chemistry, physics,
geology, mathematics, society and economics is required at the same time when studying this
subject in practice. Therefore, even if the education using biomimetics is a biology unit, its content
is linked to other subjects. Finally, biomimetics is considered to be a type of large-scale
exploration activity that can be carried out relatively easily, as research can be carried out using
familiar organisms as models.
In particular, the perspective of harmony with and learning from the natural world, which is
emphasised in religious traditions such as Taoism and Shintoism, is similar to the basic principles
of biomimetics. As mentioned above, Taoism has recognised the wisdom of the natural world and
the value of its imitation, and has taught that humans should learn from and be with nature.
Biomimetics applies this ancient wisdom to modern technological development, with the aim of
realising a more sustainable and harmonious society.
The process of problem-solving and exploration activities, which is widely practised in Japan
today, is largely divided into four stages: setting the task, analysing information, organising and
analysing, and summarising and expressing, and learning is considered to be a repetition of this
cycle.
Biomimetic thinking can be considered as one application of such exploratory thinking. In
biomimetics, it is said to be divided into six stages: 'design extraction', 'biological translation',
'discovery of biological models', 'imitation of nature' and 'invention of designs'.
The aim of this study was to clarify the following points when designing a biomimetics-based
biological unit model that can be used in high schools.

① Based on the concept of STS education, this paper identifies teaching methods to
promote understanding of how science, technology and society interact with each other.
② Allow students to identify the learning processes required in exploratory activities.
③ Clarify the reality of students' views and perceptions of nature and living organisms.

This paper describes two parts of the research methodology exercise and problem statement
using real-life examples of biomimetics.

6.1 Make Them Learn How to Think About Biomimetics Research

The basis of biomimetics is 'biomimicry'. The two essential aspects of biomimetics are (1) the
extraction of the features of biological models and (2) the development of design concepts that
reflect biological models. The aim is to identify the characteristics of organisms, investigate how
biological models utilise these characteristics, and fully understand and explain the functions and
strategies of organisms, using the following worksheets as practice for extracting the
characteristics of biological models.
334 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Mechanisms and functions of the features of the biological model without resorting to biological
terms. Also, draw an illustration of that design strategy.
Pearl layer is resistant to cracking: black-lip pearl oyster
The nacreous layer (also called mother-of-pearl) is a shiny biological material found on the inner
surface of many mollusc shells. It is composed of about 95% inorganic minerals (calcium
carbonate) and 5% organic matter (a mixture of proteins and polysaccharides, including chitinous
substances). The inorganic minerals make the material hard. Although inorganic minerals are a
very important component of the shell's supporting and protective structure, they also make the
material brittle and relatively easy to break (artificial glass is an example of a brittle material).
Due to its special composition and structure, the nacreous layer has high toughness and is
resistant to complete failure due to crack spreading. Higher toughness here means that more
energy is required to fracture or break the material. The hard microscale mineral layers of the
nacreous layer are "glued" together by the relatively soft nanoscale organic layer. This
arrangement is similar to the staggered layers of bricks held together by mortar in a brick wall.
When the nacreous layer cracks (e.g., due to predator attack), it immediately strikes the organic
layer, which is more easily stretched than the mineral layer. The cause of the tendency of the
organic material to stretch varies among different species of pearls: in some mechanisms, the
fibers are wavy or folded and straighten out before they feel significant tension.
The overall effect is that the elastic organic layer deflects cracks and provides a path for energy
absorption and dissipation. Cracks can be controlled and contained before they spread
throughout the shell and cause severe damage. It may seem counterintuitive, but the
incorporation of micro-scale weaknesses makes the entire material tougher on the macro scale.

Q1: Based on what you have learned from the excerpt, draw a drawing of a biological strategy.
Q2: Using the underlined words and phrases, write a "design strategy" that describes the key

The black-lipped mussel was used as a biological model for practice. The reason for this is that
the organisms in the larger taxon (shellfish) are relatively familiar to students, but have easily
recognisable characteristics, and because they are not familiar to them, they are unlikely to
interfere with future activities. In actual classes, it is also possible to use models of organisms
specific to the region and start with organisms that are familiar to the students.
As a point to note when carrying out this exercise. In learning this material, the aim is to make
your own or your team's ideas easier to understand. The best way to do this is to learn how to
draw out the biological strategies of a biological model and make them common knowledge within
the team, for example by using a tree diagram or a whiteboard. In addition, in learning to think
about biomimetics, it is important to know about previous biomimetics research and what kind of
research has been done.

6.2 Raise a Familiar Problem and Analyse the Factors that Cause the Problem and the
Environment that Influences It

Problem posing in biomimetics is an important step in generating solutions based on real-world

problems and is a highly effective approach in inquiry learning and practical teaching. It can help
students develop a deeper understanding of real-world problems and the ability to come up with
practical solutions. This is the stage in which students identify what they care about and what they
want to solve in everyday life and society, and determine their goals in subsequent activities.
The problem statement here is not about what to make or invent, but about understanding for
whom, in what circumstances and for what purpose the invention needs to be made. It needs to
be clear what problem you want to solve, what knowledge you need to solve this problem, what
background you need to know and what other fields are relevant to this problem.
Here, it is important to distinguish between 'problems' and 'issues'. The final destination of a
problem statement is to discover the issue, which is the specific action needed to solve the
problem. To do this, it is necessary to raise the problem at hand, analyse the factors causing the
problem and the influencing environment, and clarify where the challenge for solving the problem
should be set. This chapter describes the process from posing the problem to setting the problem
in the biomimetics inquiry class.
The first thing that needs to be done is to set up a problem or a 'goal to be achieved'. If there is
something that concerns you in your daily life or society, you can organise the problem, but not
all students are able to raise the issue easily. One way to raise the issue is to choose a familiar
goal from those already raised on social issues such as the SDGs.
For example, a starting point could be to do something that leads to the achievement of SDG 3
'Health and well-being for all', where target 6 of SDG 3 is to 'By 2020, halve the number of deaths
and injuries from road traffic crashes.' This is a topic that is familiar to high school students. Road
traffic accidents are a familiar topic for high school students, and in 2022, in the ranking of causes
335 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

of death by age published by the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, 'unintentional
accidents' ranked second as a cause of death among '15-19 years old'. The total number of
commuters who commuted to school by bicycle was 14.2 % of the total number of commuters in
the 2020 Census. From this it would be possible to derive the problem of 'reducing accidents
when commuting to school by bicycle'.
Once a broad problem has been found, the task is set from that problem. The scope of the
problem needs to be adjusted so that it is not too broad or too narrow. Teachers' guidance is
important in this area, as it is difficult for students to find just the right range of problems on their
own. In a first exploration activity, it may also be important to revisit the problem from time to time
and make modifications.

7. Future Outlook

The aim of this paper was to develop a unit concept for inquiry-based learning that corresponds
to the new educational guidelines available in both countries, as Japan and China set similar
educational goals at the same time. The educational philosophy of traditional inquiry activities in
both countries was investigated, and the importance of 'learning from nature' was set out. The
part of the enquiry activity using biomimetics, the study of 'learning from nature', was elaborated
in terms of exercises to make students understand the concept of biomimetics and the part of the
activity in which problems are posed. In the future, we would like to look at this activity in more
detail, discover the unique characteristics of inquiry in both Japan and China, propose inquiry
activities that can only be done in those countries, and create modules that can be used when
conducting biomimetics inquiry activities.

REFERENCES

[1] al.， M. P. (2015). Phases of inquiry-based learning: Definitions and the inquiry cycle. (Vol.
14). Educational Research Review.
[2] Barron， B. &. H. (n.d.). Teaching for meaningful learning: A review of research on inquiry-
based and cooperative learning. Powerful Learning: What We Know About Teaching for
Understanding.
[3] Barrow， L. (2006). A brief history of inquiry-From Dewey to Standards. (Vol. 17). Journal
of Science Teacher Education.
[4] Friesen， S. &. (2013). Inquiry-Based Learning: A Review of the Research Literature. the
Alberta Ministry of Education.
[5] Howard ， F. (1998). Wilbur and Orville: A Biography of the Wright Brothers. Dober
Publications.
[6] Kennedy， J. K. & Lee， J. C. (2010). Changing Roles of Schools in Asian Societies:
Schools for the Knowledge Society， Routledge， 2010 (Vol. 16). AAC&U: Association of
American Colleges & Universities.
[7] McCarty， M. (2009). Life of bionics founder a fine adventure. Dayton Daily News.
[8] R.K.ソーヤー. (2017). 学習科学ハンドブック 第二版 (第 1 巻). (秋田喜代美等， 訳) 北大
路書房.
[9] Ross， V. (2003). The Socratic method: What it is and how to use it in the classroom. (Vol.
13（1）). Standford University Newsletter on Teaching.
[10] Schwab， J. (1960). Inquiry， the Science Teacher， and the Educator".The School
Review. (Vol. 68(2)). The University of Chicago Press.
[11] Shulman， L. (n.d.). Joseph Jackson Schwab: 1909-1988. Remembering the University of
Chicago.
[12] Vincent， J. F. (2006). Biomimetics: its practice and theory (Vol. 3(9)). Journal of the Royal
Society Interface.
[13] 安達久. (1930). 日本教育思想史. モナス.
[14] 王弼. (无日期). 老子道德经注. 中国国家教育出版社.
[15] 王文礼. (2006). “道法自然”与“以天性为师”——中西方自然教育观之比较. 河南大学.
[16] 黄立志. (2001). 论中国自然主义教育思想. 当代教育论坛.
[17] 下泉重吉. (1956). 教師のための生物学. 河出書房.
[18] 金景芳. (1998). 《周易・系辞传》新编详解. 辽海出版社.
[19] 皇至道. (1955). 西洋教育史. 柳原書店.
[20] 高时良. (2003). 中国古代教育史纲. 人民教育出版社.
[21] 佐藤学. (2000). 『授業を変える学校が変わる－総合学習からカリキュラムの創造へ－. 小
学館.
336 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[22] 施良方，崔允主. (1999). 教学理论：课堂教学的原理，策略与研究. 华东师范大学出版社.

[23] 児玉幸多. (2022). 標準日本史年表（2022-2023 年版）. 吉川弘文館.
[24] 朱熹. (无日期). 四书章句集注-论语集注. 中华书局.
[25] 成玄英. (1988). 南華真経疏. 中华书局.
[26] 西城卓也. (日付不明). 正統的周辺参加論と認知的徒弟制 (第 43（4） 巻). 医学教育.
[27] 曹礎基. (2018). 庄子浅注・德充符第五. 中华书局.
[28] 曹大林. (1986). 略论反对绝对主义的庄子认识论. 复旦大学出版社.
[29] 多賀秋五郎. (1956). 近代日本教育史. 岩崎書店.
[30] 唐沢富太郎. (1968). 近代日本教育史. 誠文堂新光社.
[31] 日本学術会議. (2013). 大学教育の分野別質保証のための教育課程編成上の参照基準 生
物学分野. 日本学術会議.
[32] 波多野完治. (日付不明). ピアジェの発達心理学. 東京：国土社.
[33] 板倉聖宣. (1968). 日本理科教育史. 第一法規出版.
[34] 文部科学省. (2017). 中学習指導要領（平成 29 年告示）解説 総則編. 東京書籍.
[35] 北京大学哲学系中国哲学教研室. (2001). 中国哲学史 (1 版本). 北京大学出版社.
[36] 崔大华等. (2003). 道家与中国文化精神. 河南人民出版社.
[37] 滕大春. (1984). 卢梭教育思想述评. 人民教育出版社.
[38] 范春利崔国富. (2018). 超越他者性:道家哲学视角下的师生关系 (卷 3). 科教导刊.
[39] 刘黎明. (2004). 论西方自然主义教育思想的形成，演变及历史贡献. 河北师范大学学报（教
育科学版）
[40] 孙培青，李国钧. (1995). 中国教育思想史. 华东师范大学出版社.
[41] 张帆. (2008). 道教存神养生与系统科学 (卷 4). 宗教学研究.
[42] 聂志成. (2004). 卢梭的自然主义教育思想与主体性教育 (卷 24（3）). 零陵学院学报.
[43] 赵新国. (2009). 论柳宗元的教育思想及影响 (卷 8（2）). 湖南师范大学教育科学学报.
[44] 顾明. (2008). 论庄子的"行不言之教"的教育思想 (卷 84（6）). 现代教育科学（普教研究）.
[45] 顾泠沅. (1986). 改革数学教育的一项实验研究 (卷 4（7）). 华东师范大学学报（教育科学版
)
[46] 後藤顕一. (2019). 「資質・能力」を育む高校化学 探究で変える授業実践. 化学同人
337 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Problem Solving Processes in Science Education:

Integrating the Representational Pluralism Perspective

Alexandre Hagan1, Patrice Potvin2, Michel Bélanger3

Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada1,2

Université du Québec à Rimouski, Canada3

Abstract

Theoretical problem solving (PS) in science education is considered as a source of difficulties for
many students and a consequently an important challenge for teachers. We argue the activity of
PS in science can be considered as a modeling process in its essence. Recent studies highlighted
a link between inhibitory control processes and students’ difficulties during the PS. However, we
don’t know a lot about the epistemology of this link and how inhibitory control influences the
modelling process of PS. Moreover, in science education, several models of PS have been
proposed by researchers in science education and mathematics education. These models identify
a number of difficulties encountered by students in PS. However, to our knowledge, these models
do not integrate neither students’ plurality of representations nor a dual process approach to
reasoning. We believe that the perspective of representational pluralism can offer new
opportunities to a better understanding of the PS in science education.

Keywords: Problem solving, Modeling process, Science education, Inhibitory control, Representational
pluralism, Dual process of reasoning

Problem Statement

In science education, teachers essentially use theoretical problem solving (PS) to consolidate or
evaluate scientific knowledge supposedly learned, as well as to develop students’ scientific
reasoning [1]. Thus, we have traced in several scientific writings that theoretical PS in sciences
most frequently emphasizes the application and/or the evaluation of models and of PS strategies.
There is indeed a significant gap between the models and teaching strategies of PS proposed by
research and the way in which they are used in science classes [2].
When properly used by the student, PS models should allow them to improve their performance
during theoretical PS. However, for a large number of students in chemistry and physics, the
application of PS models does not always produce success and can even demotivate some [3].
Despite training students in PS by using prescriptive models of the PS process, several authors
have noted the persistence of students’ difficulties in problem solving. Three observations can be
made on this regard.
The first is that during PS, students are confronted with the task of selecting and adapting a set
of representations and concepts that can potentially be used to solve the problem [4,5]. The
second is that theoretical PS in science corresponds to a complex cognitive process in which the
student must reason, often in terms of epistemic games, using various resources [7]. The third
observation is that the theoretical PS models used for science teaching, in their conceptual
articulation, do not consider the activity of representations when modeling the PS. However,
certain authors have recognized that the difficulties of students in scientific PS are often of
representational nature [5].
In light of the presented findings, we put forward the hypothesis that part of the persistence of
students' difficulties during theoretical science PS could probably be attributable to a complex
management of representations and concepts explicitly evoked in a problem during a PS [2]. To
our knowledge, PS models used in science education do not integrate students’ plurality of
representations.

Research Object

Sharing the point of view of some science educators and philosophers of science, we consider
PS as complex reasoning activity characterized by the presence of a modeling process by which
students construct and use one or more models to understand the problem and to solve it. The
concept of “model” refers to representations used in an inferential manner [8]. As for the concept
338 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

of “representation”, the latter corresponds to a resource constructed by a student to think about a

target in a context of achievement of a task [9]. It is a sort of cognitive “stand in” of the studied
phenomenon, allowing students to initiate, pursue, or solve a task. For example, the ideas that a
student may have about the behavior of light (reflexion, refraction) are representations that could
be uses to solve an optical problem. A solution borrowed from a previous learning situation could
also be invoked. During a task, mobilized representations can (or not) be available (previously
constructed) or be constructed or adapted to current tasks.

What We Know About Theoretical PS in Science Education

In science education, many PS models use the same steps: 1) encode the information of the
target, 2) use model X by producing inferences and 3) decode the result to target X. Among the
models of PS we identified, we have not identified a single one that makes it possible to study the
role of representations during a theoretical PS. However, we find in some models [1,4,10] the
presence of representational plurality to varying degrees. In other words, in these models, we find
instances where students must select among different concepts, conceptions, models or
strategies to pursue PS. Like Domin (2000) [7], who is interested in the role of representation in
PS without moving toward a PS model, we agree that representational pluralism is an important
aspect of the process of modeling PS.
Still on the subject of the phenomenon of the persistence of difficulties during PS in sciences, we
have selected certain ideas which come from writings on conceptual change. What emerges is
that learning difficulties in science, and by extension, during theoretical scientific PS, would be a
matter of management of conceptions. A conception refers to an idea having the potential to
generate explanations plausible for the student [11,12]. In science learning literacy, two kind of
conceptions emerge: scientific conceptions and alternative conceptions (or wrong conception).
Since these conceptions could coexist [12], alternative conceptions, considered in a normative
context, should be inhibited in favor of scientific ones [11]. However, the exercise of inhibitory
control requires effort [12].

What We Know About PS in Mathematics Education

In mathematics education, among the PS models of interest for our purpose, we have selected
the model of Verschaffel, Greer & de Corte (2000) [13]. This model highlights the aspect of
plurality in the PS modeling process compared to other models. Moreover, it shows how this
process can be short-circuited and generate wrong solution. Finally, the model of Verschaffel &
al. (2000) makes it possible to consider elements of responses to explain potential difficulties of
students during theoretical PS in science.
In this model, students transform their initial understanding of problems statements into a more
advanced state depending on the specificities of the context. The author calls “situational model”
this new state of understanding the problem. Then students use resources to reach another state
of understanding the problem that allows it to be manipulated mathematically. This other state of
understanding the problem named “mathematical model” becomes the starting point for the
mathematical resolution of the problem [13].
Although the model of Verschaffel & al. (2000) does not elaborate on representational activity
during PS, we note that it is fully compatible with the inferential approach that we find in PS.
Furthermore, we note that this model suggests a certain form of representational plurality that is
intrinsic to the modeling of PS even though it is not labeled as such. Thus, we see this possibility
in different places in this model. Those are steps where students are called upon to make choices
to continue their resolution process.
Even if the model of Verschaffel & al. (2000) does not endeavor to explain how resources are
mobilized during scientific PS, it remains perfectible for use in the context of theoretical PS in
science education. Additionally, coming from mathematics education research, this model does
not consider some important ideas from the literature on conceptual change about science
learning. However, some of these ideas (coexistence of conceptions, inhibitory control) could be
considered to understand the PS processes in the scientific domain, which involves various
conceptions.

What We Know About PS in Cognitive Psychology

According to some authors [14,15,16], humans consciously or unconsciously use two reasoning
processes to accomplish a reasoning task. Type 1 refers to the use of automated and intuitive
thoughts [15,16], while type 2 refers to the use of working memory [16] and the mobilization of
the logical/algorithmic system [14]. According to dual reasoning processes models, an important
place is given to the embodiment of “mindware” [16] to motivational and situational factors [15] as
339 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

well as to the heuristic process [14]. According to the mentioned previously authors, two types of
correct responses could be observed in a PS type task: automated non-normative response (fast)
versus normative (slow) which is consecutive to an “override” of Type 1 reasoning [16].
In light of the literature consulted on PS in science and mathematics, modeling process would
possibly be a matter of managing representations of the problem involving dual reasoning
processes. Like some authors [14,15,16], we believe dual reasoning processes must also be paid
particular attention to understand the origins of certain difficulties during PS. Epistemologically,
reflecting on the PS modeling process in science provides a compatible and complementary
perspective with an important aspect of theoretical PS in science put forward in our discussion,
namely, representational pluralism. To our knowledge, PS models used in science education do
not integrate dual process approach to reasoning.

Further Research Avenue

Considering all above, future research should explore the PS modeling process for better
understanding of the phenomenon of the persistence of students’ difficulties and the phenomenon
of the persistence of initial conceptions during theoretical PS in science. We must remember that
the modeling process is inferential and that it involves representational work. Hence, the avenue
of representational pluralism should be considered because it allows us to construct explanation
about these difficulties. In short, the difficulties encountered during the theoretical PS can be
considered as being a matter of management of representations which probably involves dual
reasoning processes and activation of inhibitory control.

REFERENCES

[1] Orange, C. (2012). Enseigner les sciences : problèmes, débats et savoirs scientifiques en
classe. Bruxelles: De Boeck.
[2] Kanso, A. (2018). Effet de la méthode de résolution de problèmes par modélisation sur la
compréhension et la performance des élèves de la première année en électricité. Mémoire
de maîtrise. Université Libanaise-Faculté de pédagogie.
[3] Sidenwall, J., Palmberg, B. & Granberg, C. (2022). Supporting teachers in supporting
students’ mathematical problem solving. International Journal of Mathematical Education in
Sciences & Technology, DOI: 10.1080/0020739X.2022.2151067.
[4] Barroca-Paccard, M. & Chalak, H. (2020). Apprentissage par problématisation. Dans P.
Potvin, Patrice P. & al., Repères contemporains pour l’éducation aux sciences et à la
technologie (p. 21-27). Presses de l'Université Laval.
[5] Chinn, C. A., & Samarapungavan, A. (2008). Learning to use scientific models: Multiple
dimensions of conceptual change. In R. A. Duschl & R. E. Grandy (Eds.), Teaching scientific
inquiry (pp. 191-225). Sense Publishers.
[6] Walsh, L. N., Howard, R. G., & Bowe, B. (2007). Phenomenographic study of students’
problem-solving approaches in physics. Physical Review Special Topics-Physics Education
Research, 3(2), 020108.
[7] Domin, D. S. (2000). Mental models: The role of representations in problem solving in
chemistry. University Chemistry Education, 4(1), 42-30.
[8] Passmore, C., Gouvea, J. S., & Giere, R. N. (2015). Models in science and in learning
science: Focusing scientific practice on sense-making In M. R. Matthews (Ed.), International
handbook of research in history, philosophy and science teaching (pp. 1171-1202), Springer.
[9] van Fraassen, B. C. (2008). Scientific representation: Paradoxes of perspective. Oxford
University Press.
[10] Redish, E. F. (2005). Problem solving and the use of math in physics courses. World View
on Physics Education in 2005: Focusing on Change, Delhi, August 21-26.
[11] Potvin, P. (2013). Proposition for improving the classical models of conceptual change based
on neuroeducational evidence: Conceptual prevalence. Neuroeducation, 2(1), 16-43.
[12] Shtulman, A., & Valcarcel, J. (2012). Scientific knowledge suppresses but does not supplant
earlier intuitions. Cognition, 124(2), 209-215.
[13] Verschaffel, S., Greer, B. & de Corte, E. (2000). Making sense of world problems. Swets &
Zeitinger.
[14] Houdé, O. (2019). 3-system theory of the cognitive brain: A post-Piagetian approach to
cognitive development. Routledge.
[15] Evans, J. S. B. T. (2019). Reflections on reflection: The nature and function of type 2
processes in dual-process theories of reasoning. Thinking & Reasoning, 25(4), 383-415.
[16] Stanovich, K. E. (2018). Miserliness in human cognition: the interaction of detection, override
and mindware. Thinking & Reasoning, 24(4), 423-444.
340 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Special Needs
341 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The Self-Management of Home Therapy: When Creativity

and the Art of Doing Become Conditions to Be Amazed

Sabrina Grigolo1, Carla Bena2

PhD Student - University of Turin and Patient expert EUPATI - Accademia del Paziente
Esperto EUPATI, Italy1
Director Home Care Services, ASLTO4, Italy2

Abstract

The self-management model considers the dynamic and complex phenomenon of polytherapy
linked to three dimensions: context, process and outcome. In particular, contextual factors are
those that influence the involvement of individuals and families in their outcomes. The process of
self-management refers, however, to the use of self-regulation skills to manage chronic disease
conditions or risks associated with them. These processes include activities and goals, self-
monitoring, reflective thinking, decision making, planning, and engaging in specific self-evaluative
behaviors of several dimensions, including affective-emotional and cognitive, important for
behavior change. Furthermore, self-management can contribute to increasing the activation of
the patient and caregiver in the dimension of contextual adaptation to prescriptions in terms of
mnemonic strategies, drug conservation and self-care.
The aim of this research is to understand if the narrative interview should facilitate the
understanding of the features of therapeutic adherence.
Methods and materials: The real-world pragmatic research with mixed methods was conducted
in collaboration with ASLTO4-Regione Piemonte and University of Turin.
A simple of 23 patients and caregivers followed by the Home Care of the Chivasso District,
ASLTO4 was been recruited and involved by researchers.

Keywords: polypharmacy, therapeutic education, therapeutic adherence, narrative interview

Background

In developed countries, the adherence to therapies in the population is about 50%. This leads to
an increase in healthcare costs, co-morbidities and a progressive worsening of the patient's
general condition.
People over 75, who have comorbidities in 80% of cases, have to take numerous medications
throughout the day [1].
Adherence has been defined as “the extent to which a person’s behaviour, taking medication,
following a diet, and/or executing lifestyle changes, corresponds with agreed recommendations
from a health care provider” [2].
The concept of concordance has evolved from a narrower view, emphasizing an agreement
between the clinician and the patient, which takes into account each other’s perspective on
medication-taking, to a broader process consisting of open discussions with the patient regarding
medication-taking, imparting information and supporting patients on long-term medication. It is a
process, which entertains patients’ views on medication taking, and acknowledges that patients’
views have to be respected even if they make choices, which appear to be in conflict with the
clinician’s views [2].
The self-management model considers the dynamic and complex phenomenon of polytherapy
linked to three dimensions: context, process and outcome. In particular, contextual factors are
those that influence the involvement of individuals and families in their outcomes [3].
The process of self-management refers, however, to the use of self-regulation skills to manage
chronic disease conditions or risks associated with them. These processes include activities and
goals, self-monitoring, reflective thinking, decision making, planning, and engaging in specific
self-evaluative behaviours of several dimensions, including affective-emotional and cognitive,
important for behaviour change [3].
Furthermore, self-management can contribute to increasing the activation of the patient and
caregiver in the dimension of contextual adaptation to prescriptions in terms of mnemonic
strategies, drug conservation and self-care.
342 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The aim of this research is to understand if the narrative interview should facilitate the
understanding of the features of therapeutic adherence.

Methods and Materials

The real-world pragmatic research with mixed methods was realised by researchers of University
of Turin in collaboration with ASLTO4-Regione Piemonte.
A simple of 23 patients and caregivers followed by the Home Care of the Chivasso District,
ASLTO4, was been recruited and involved by researchers.
Each patient underwent an interview, a questionnaire and a reconciliation procedure on therapies.
Three issues are considered in management of adherence to therapy: daily habits; digital skills
and educational perspectives. An assessment tool was created by the working group aimed to
analyse these aspects. In order to validate this tool, e three phases intervention was conducted.
The questionnaire ad hoc has been used to the patients with the aim to collect the habits, values,
the perspectives and preferences on therapies, educational tools and digital skills.
At the same time, during the visit at home, researchers have collected numerous photographs on
how people adopt mnemonic, classification and drug storage strategies.
Furthermore, a literature review was carried out to identify the most effective educational narrative
interventions aimed at improving adherence to therapy in patients over 65 with polypharmacy and
comorbidities.

Results

Simple Size
The people enrolled with the exclusion and inclusion criteria was 93 from July 2022 to December
2022. The period of enrolment was Twenty-three patients and caregivers were interviewed. Each
of them was administered a questionnaire on drug consumption habits, educational preferences
and digital skills. With the collaboration of medical doctors, the researchers interviewed the
patients and collected the medication data to proceed with the reconciliation.
4 was caregivers and 19 was patients.
The patients and caregivers were signed the informed consent on data protection policy and on
participation at research.
For each patient and caregiver enrolled, medical doctor and social volunteer accompanied the
researcher.
The exclusions and inclusions criteria were the following:
- Over 65 old years
- Affected by comorbidity
- Prescribed more 5 medication/die
- Informed consent acquired

Many patients also have a good relationship with the drugs taken, as they rarely stop taking them:
63.6% say they never forget to take the therapy daily. The increase in adherence to therapy and
the use of digital devices is directly proportional to the increase in the patient's level of education.
Patients have a good doctor-patient relationship: 87.3% of patients have a family doctor who
knows the therapy in its entirety.
The main results collected by interview and questionnaires, classified in three dimensions (profile,
facilitators and mediators/tools) are the following:
Profile: age, type of diseases, comorbidity, socio-economic, status, level of education
Facilitators: treatments and medication, accessibility at medication, knowledge of medication,
patient activation and participation process and dynamics
Mediators/tools: Mediators: healthcare professional workers (medical doctors, nurses and
pharmacists), counsellors/clinical psychologist; parents and relatives, social network; Tools:
diaries, box, internet, pathways, procedures, checklists, reconciliation schemes
Dozens of photographs have been collected of how people handle therapy at home.
From a first analysis it is possible to divide the methods of classification and conservation of
medicines into three methods:
• transcription of the therapy on paper sheets by the patient himself;
• using tablet boxes
• division of medicines based on times (medicines stored, for example, in separate drawers
and/or in bags).

They demonstrate, with photographic material, the methods of taking medicines at home
implemented by the over 65s in polypharmacy
343 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 1. Diary of patient 76 old years

Figure 2. Box home-made of patient

Figure 3. Examples of scheme home made

Discussions and Conclusions

According to the World Health Organization (2003), therapeutic adherence can be defined as "the
degree of effective coincidence between the patient's individual behaviours and the therapeutic
prescriptions received from the treating healthcare personnel". It is divided into the stages of
initiation, persistence, implementation, cessation or interruption. With respect to persistence,
understood as "maintenance of a drug therapy over time", it is important to know the ways in
which people determine their own self-care. The photographic testimonies highlight the abilities
of the elderly to remember, separate and classify medicines at home, in order to minimize the
risks of forgetting and incorrect storage. The mnemonic strategies adopted by the interviewees
consist of transcribing the information on intake (time, between meals) directly on the package.
Some patients also report the indications for which that drug was prescribed. One patient,
however, reports that he writes down the therapy every day so as to "remember" what and when
he has to take the drugs.

The "Questionnaire on adherence to therapies and digital skills" was designed specifically to
assess adherence to drug therapy, analyzing in particular the importance of the patient's digital
skills and a path shared with the expert.

Thanks to the smartphone, it would therefore be possible to help the patient to take medications
as prescribed by the doctor: using an application it would be easier to keep track of the pills taken,
receive reminders on which ones to take and note any symptoms that have arisen.
344 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

It is useful to help awaken a person's interest in technology. It is therefore essential that the elderly
understand what the potential of technology is and how thanks to it they can improve their way of
life, solve problems and cultivate their personal interests.

REFERENCES

[1] Istat, & Direzione generale della statistica. (1918). Annuario statistico italiano. Tip.
Elzeviriana.
[2] Chakrabarti S. What's in a name? Compliance, adherence and concordance in chronic
psychiatric disorders. World J Psychiatry. 2014 Jun 22;4(2):30-6. DOI:
10.5498/wjp.v4.i2.30. PMID: 25019054; PMCID: PMC4087153)
[3] Settineri, S., Frisone, F., Merlo, E. M., Geraci, D., & Martino, G. (2019). Compliance,
adherence, concordance, empowerment, and self-management: five words to manifest a
relational maladjustment in diabetes. Journal of multidisciplinary healthcare, 299-314.
345 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

STEM Education
346 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

STEM Engaging Teaching and Learning for the Heart

in Bioscience Education

Marina BA Minoli

Biologists Order Federation - STEM DidaInnovaBiolab, Italy

Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom

Abstract

The aim of this this research and educational path was to involve high school students and
science teachers in STEM integrated teaching and learning in the anatomy and physiology of the
cardiovascular system with engaging, collaborative and innovative methodology to overcome a
mnemonic-notional learning. This STEM innovative project connects tradition and modernity in a
balanced way, guiding teachers and students in using in an integrated way different digital tools
and international scientific sites. Many questions about the heart were proposed in the classes to
create a “Digital Heart Debate” between the students and the group of teachers in interdisciplinary
methodology approaches using also chemical mathematical equation to interpret the excitability
of cardiac cells. A view of didactic work with contaminations between different disciplines and
methodological strategies to promote the development of skills in integrating, comparing,
identifying relationship between basic principles of the chemical, physical and biological sciences
with reasoned historical elements. Considering that at different levels of educational system the
learning of the anatomy and the physiology fascinate greatly, it proved very effective to create
and to realize an interactive and multidisciplinary learning by doing and coworking itinerary to
promote an innovative and dynamic vision of the human body in which the heart can be studied
in the structural and functional complexity and in the interrelationships with other systems, to
activate also original orientation teaching in Health Education. Innovative STEM and IBSE
itinerary also with the historical dimension of science which is fundamental to know the steps with
which science proceeds, revisiting the important discoveries useful to understand the physiology
of the heart. One important objective in this future research about educational activity for students
and teachers will be to promote the awareness that the life cannot be explained only at the
molecular and genetic level, but that’s the biological systems should be studied as complex
systems that derive from dynamic interactions that operate in a coordinated manner.

Keywords: Didactic Innovation; Heart Debate; STEM Digital Teaching; Systems Biology; Orientation
Teaching

Introduction

This STEM project started after presenting to the high school classes the study of chemical
equilibrium, the acid-base and electrochemical theories, treating both theoretically and
experimentally the Volta’ battery and the Daniell’ battery, the electrolysis process, therefore the
concepts of electromotive force, spontaneity or non-spontaneity of a chemical process. Different
ideas were proposed to the teachers with some questions: How can we lead students to
understand that basic principles of chemical-physics are the basis of the understanding of some
fundamental functions of living things, also identifying relationships between different sciences
that are too often presented in a fragmented and clearly separated way? It is not a question of
«closing» the chemistry programming to «open» that of biology, but of studying a system such as
the cardiovascular one, and the electrical conductivity of the heart, starting from the historical
research carried out on the electric current in living and non-living animals in the past. The
educational-scientific objective was to "get the scientists to talk" thanks to numerous attempts and
heated comparisons, for example between the followers of Galen of Pergamum and those of
William Harvey, led to understanding the anatomical structure and the physiology of the heart.

Materials and Methods

The analysis of historical experiments has made students and teachers aware of scientific
conquests realized in continuous comparisons, in real case with real diatribes, experimental
remodulations: alternation of success and defeats that should encourage people to get back into
the game with new projects. The different activities in the IBSE methodology started analyzing
347 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

from Luigi Galvani’s intuitions on soul electricity by reading the descriptions of the historical
experiments with frog and the lively narrations of the initial contrasts between Luigi Galvani and
Alessandro Volta. In conclusion was realized discussion about how science comes to conclude
that each cell behaves as a microscopic pile. The students took into consideration and retraced
phases of the experimental work of the two scientists in the laboratory, also building with poor
material, the historical Volta’ pile. The students “actors” then identified themselves with ideas of
Galvani or Volta and were protagonists and interpreters of an active dialectical confrontation
between the two scientists. Identify themselves in the scientists’ ideas, identify their strengths and
weakness, to present them in dialectical comparison: a real scientific debate between students-
protagonists. Starting from the scientific readings carried out in the classes with the guide of
science teachers, the students chose to interpret Galvani or Volta, favoring specific insights
relating above all to the different experiments carried out by two scientists. Another phase of
STEM itinerary was a brief analysis of their respective biographic and principal publications of the
two scientists. Subsequently were defined Galvani-Volta working pairs: students who must
support the ideas of the chosen scientist with strength of communicative conviction, proposing
criticisms to the antagonist who must respond in an argumentative manner. It was a sort of simple
"scientific theater" in which all the students, even those who normally display expressive
uncertainties, enthusiastically explained the work they had done. To guide the reworking the
researcher suggested to the students a series of questions including, for example: In what
historical context and with what premises do Galvani's experiments fit in?
What objections does Volta to Galvani's conclusions?
What experimental modifications are implemented by Galvani and Volta to demonstrate the
validity of their theories?
The students also discussed the answers to these stimulus questions:
How is it possible to reinterpret the principles of Galvani and Volta today, based on the current
scientific knowledge?
Is there a real contrast between the ideas of the two scientists?
Galvani and Volta definitively managed to demonstrate their conclusions through significant
experiments, thanks to which today it is known that both were right. Volta built the first pile: a pile
of copper and zinc disks separated by cardboard disks soaked in salt water. If the column was
tall enough, it was shaken: it had demonstrated the need for heterogeneous metals and wet
conductors for the production of electricity.
In relation of modern scientific knowledge, scientists believe that there is no gap between the
opinions of Volta and Galvani and that their experiments are complementary.
Both scientists made mistakes because Volta did not realize that what he was observing were
chemical oxidation-reduction reactions and Galvani believed that there was something completely
different about biological energy. Galvani, however, understood what years later scientists
somehow confirmed: every cell in our organism functions like a Volta battery. The salt-soaked
discs are similar to membranes, zinc and copper to ions inside or outside the membrane (charge
separation). The contraction is, therefore, due to an electric current flowing through the nervous
system and not to an ethereal life force. A reflection was realized together the students on the
quote by William Harvey: «All we know is infinitely less than what we have left to know» opened
the reading work to the classes of the chapter “The mysteries of the heart” of the book The ten
most beautiful by George Johnson.
In the third part of this cultural itinerary were very important the reflections on the functions of the
cardiocirculatory system in controlling the thermal and chemical homeostatic balance of our
organism, underlining above all the fact that the cardiovascular system serves to connect various
organs and systems located throughout the body, thus assuming a systemic function. An
important reference was to the fact that the blood maintains a constant pH value thanks to buffer
systems; blood that is too acidic would cause the denaturation of proteins which would no longer
be able to carry out their function. The heart was thus presented as a fundamental "component"
of the body system, a real "machine" that produces a constant beat until the individual's death.
The heart is an involuntary muscle which, with its contractions, converts chemical energy into the
mechanical energy necessary to carry out its main function: pumping blood to all regions of the
body. A chemical equation was so useful to interpret together with students the excitability of
cardiac cells is the equation that all students studied in the electrochemistry program; the Nernst
equation was explicitly used to interpret a biological phenomenon: the excitability of heart cells.
348 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Results

Interesting results of this project was obtained also in proposing to groups of students these
questions and in comparative analysis of the different answers: Why does the heart have such
a complex structure? Why does it work like a pump and not like a simpler reel, a device that
requires less energy consumption? The heart has a complex structure: is it a pump or a
whirlpool? What does it mean that the heart is autorhythmic?
Due to personal or family health needs, students increasingly carry out a diagnostic test such as
an electrocardiogram in their early years, also to be able to carry out sporting activities. They are
therefore intrigued to know the physiological findings of this test correlated with the systole and
diastole phases of the cardiac cycle for the health of the cardiovascular system: reasoned
research. At the end of the class project path was decided to make students aware of the causes
of some pathologies of the cardiovascular system by involving them in a reasoned analysis of
scientific sources that led to the writing of an abstract. Students in little groups therefore worked
reading of scientific articles (in Italian and English), their interpretation in light of the different topics
covered in class and the writing of a text. All students were given the text of the article realizing
also an analysis of cardiovascular risks at global health: science issues in which the main health
risk factors are also represented graphically with a digital descriptive aerogram: behaviors and
metabolic alterations especially in relation to the most important chronic diseases, including heart
disease. In this case, writing an abstract required the transition from numerical data, a form of
synthetic communication, to analytical and reasoned argumentation. Science teachers assigned
the students to search online the article Sugar restriction: the evidence for a drug-free to reduce
cardiovascular diseases, by S. Thornley, R. Taylor, K. Sikaris published in 2012 in the
International Medicine Journal. The students with better English skills read the article in its
entirety, preparing a short summary to present to the class; the other students in pairs chose to
read, analyze and summarize one or two sections of the article to integrate with information from
the Health World Organization, preparing a written digital interactive summary of two pages.

Discussion

In the terminal part of the teaching and learning itinerary the proposed text of scientific article,
some authors’ questions are used for a discussion in the classes about the dietary behaviors to
adopt to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, especially in relation to sugar consumption.
A section of the article focuses on diabetes was very interesting for the students; diabetes is a
pathology that has spread like a sort of epidemic wave initially in Anglo-Saxon countries, mainly
the United States.
The sections of the article entitled Physiology of fructose and Epidemiological association
between fructose and risk factors for cardiovascular disease were analyzed to understand a
positive correlation between the intake of sugary foods and genesis of cardiovascular diseases.
All biologist - teachers proceed with students to in-depth analysis of the data presented in the
Sources of fructose in the diet section, comparing the average quantities consumed in different
age groups in the countries of the Anglo-Saxon world, starting from a high consumption,
especially of sweetened drinks.
The students, very motivated regarding this topic, carry out in-depth research on sugar
consumption, consulting at least three scientific reliable sources, presented the results of the work
carried out on the problem of sugar addiction to others classes in a digital computerized way. The
classes thus become integrated communities of shared scientific learning, at the end of the
different presentations all the students realized a short-written report about the different and
significant results presented in the “Digital Heart Debate”.

Conclusion

Despite decades of research on the functioning of the cardiovascular system and the causes of
its pathological degeneration, we still find ourselves today with several obscure points in
understanding the physiology and pathology of the heart and the circulatory apparatus.
There is, for example, an enormous intellectual and material investment in experimentation on
the use of stem cells to make infarcted heart tissue active again. In fact, at the site of the "fracture"
a fibrous tissue forms which does not conduct electrical potential. Being able to make the infarcted
areas of the ventricle excitable again could prevent new traumas and expensive and demanding
operations such as transplants. From a prevention point of view, there is still enormous work to
be done in terms of nutritional and behavioral education.
The food we ingest practically accounts for 70 percent of our quality of life in terms of health. It is
therefore necessary to inform the communities both regarding correct nutrition and correct
physical exercise.
349 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Scientific research in these two fields has developed greatly in recent years and the trend is to
increase efforts in this direction. A population that eats well and is in good physical shape, as well
as having a better living condition, has an enormous economic return with significant savings in
healthcare costs. From this perspective, researchers are increasingly convinced that it is essential
to activate innovative paths in cultural educational planning that educate people to understand
that life cannot be explained only at the molecular and genetic level, that biological systems must
be studied as complex systems that derive from dynamic interactions at different levels of
components operating in a coordinated manner.

REFERENCES

[1] Marina BA Minoli, “Digital Technology and STEM Didactic”, Emmeciquadro, Milan, 06/2023
[2] Bilgin A. S., Molina Ascanio M., Minoli M. BA., “STEM Goes digital: how can technology
enhance STEM Teaching”, European Observatory, Bruxelles, 11/2022
[3] M.Minoli, “Innovation in science teaching”, in “Image of Biology” Guide Book, Pearson
Editor, USA, 2011
[4] Thornley, R. Taylor, K. Sikaris, “Sugar restriction: the evidence for a drug-free to reduce
cardiovascular diseases”, Internal Medicine Journal, 2012
[5] Marina Minoli, Against malnutrition, The Sciences - Scientific American, USA, 2/2002
[6] George Johnson, The ten most beautiful experiments, Bollati Boringhieri, Turin, 2009
350 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The impact of the Curriculum on the Teaching of Integrated

Learning (Inquiry) Time the Effects of Changing Attitudes and
Developing 'STEAM Education Skills'

Kenichi Goto1, Mika Tsuyukubo2, Yorikazu Nouchi3, Katsuji Ito4, Hiroshi Iida5，
Tomoko Yoshida6, Yoriko Ikuta7, Katsuko Sanai8

Toyo University, Japan1,2

Nihon University, Japan3
University of Teacher Education Fukuoka, Japan4
Shizuoka City High-School, Japan5
Ajime High-School, Japan6
Seisyo High-School, Japan7
National Institute for Educational Policy Research, Japan8

Abstract

In Japan, the Courses of Study, which will be fully implemented from 2022, set up "time for
integrated learning (inquiry)" [1] in elementary, junior high and senior high schools, which
integrates learning in academic subjects and other subjects. This is against the background of
the promotion of 'Japanese-style school education in 2021' [2], the enhancement of STEAM
education [3] and the aim to contribute to the SDGs through school education. To realize this, the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) has established
"Teaching Methods for Integrated Study (Inquiry) Time" as a teaching subject at universities, and
teacher training that enables teaching in school education is being promoted. Therefore, in this
study, we would like to examine what kind of changes in awareness there are in students who
have worked on the 'Methods of teaching time for integrated learning (inquiry)', including how the
'three qualities and abilities' that are shown in the 'STEAM educational ability' as qualities and
abilities to be fostered are transformed. In this study, the three qualities and abilities to be
developed are (i) the ability to step forward, (ii) the ability to think through, and (iii) the ability to
collaborate, each of which also has a subcomponent. The curriculum for the "Integrated Learning
Time Teaching Method" implemented in this report consists of 15 lessons, and the lesson plan
calls for a pre- and post-awareness survey and overall information sharing (3 lessons), as well as
experiential learning (4 lessons), mid-term reporting (2 lessons), lesson development (4 lessons),
final reporting (2 lessons) and making a video clip of about 8 minutes.

Keywords: SDGs, STEAM education, the period for integrated studies

1. Purpose of the Study

To develop an effective curriculum for the teaching subject 'Time for Integrated (Learning) Inquiry'
in order to develop human resources equipped with these competencies, based on the 'STEAM
educational competencies' that are required of school teachers in the future.
The 'three perspectives' and 'three qualities and abilities' are positioned as 'STEAM educational
competences'. The objectives of this study are twofold. One is to present a prototype for the
development of a new pedagogy that promotes leading, innovative and effective student
development as a foundational study in teaching subjects in our country. The other is to establish
a hybrid validation system to verify these initiatives.

2. Philosophy of This Study

This research will be implemented with four basic theories set out below.
1. psychological safety assurance: 'psychological safety', an idea presented by organisational
behaviour researcher Amy Edmondson of Harvard University in 1999. Attention to psychological
safety among students.
2. Kolb's experiential learning model: David A. Kolb (1984) is an American philosopher who
simplified John Dewey's learning theory (2004) into the experiential learning model and worked
351 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

to promote it as a theory that could be used in practice. The experiential learning model consists
of four stages.
(1) concrete experience, (2) reflective observation, (3) abstract conceptualisation, and (4) active
experimentation.
The theory states that learning is acquired by repeating these four stages: (1) concrete
experience, (2) reflective observation, (3) abstract conceptualisation, (4) active experimentation
and (5) active learning. In this project, the aim is to implement this theory.
3. Expectation-value model: Nasu (2014) organises the 'expectation-value model' from the
perspective of motivation to learn in motivational psychology. He states that in order to increase
motivation to learn, consideration should be given to maintaining and further increasing
expectations, and the cycle presented here is respected in this study.
4. peer assessment activities: Goto (2018) shows that deliberately incorporating initiatives that
utilise peer assessment, which is participatory assessment in which learners themselves
participate in assessment as learning, can deepen learning and increase the awareness of
learning independently, and can be effective towards improving problem-solving skills.

3. Practice of This Research

The 15 teaching opportunities will be based on group work, with peer evaluation throughout,
including mid-term and final presentations. The learners receive multifaceted opinions not only
from among themselves but also from the instructor. Through the experience of examining,
selecting, and improving these opinions within the group, the learners learn proactively and, as
instructors, aim to develop the ability to structure lessons in such a way that learners can take the
initiative.

4. Results and Discussion

The following questions were asked in the various surveys, but were of particular interest.

Table 1.
I think I can change
Question my country and society
item (% of positive
responses)
NF survey (2019) 18.3％
Positive responses n＝1000
(Ref.) Japan's
de 18 years old.
Nippon Foundation Survey 26.9％
(2022) Positive responses n＝1000
2023 Admission Cohort 22022 Admission Cohort
Students Students (Reference)
Practice A
University
Before
initiative 29.3％（N＝41） 20.5％（N＝39）
3rd year at
university ，N＝39
Practice A
University 71.8％（N＝41） 71.8％（N＝39）
After the
initiative
University,
3rd yearN＝39

Table2. Legend
Before
Before After Before after
Before Before Actively Actively
I have a
I consider I consider discussing discussing
social
I consider myself a myself a I have a social issues social issues
issue I
myself an responsible responsible dream for with family, with family,
want to
adult. member of member of the future. friends, and friends, and
solve in my
society. society. others others
country
FY 2023
39.0% 65.9% 79.5% 73.2% 87.8% 36.6% 64.1%
41 persons
FY2022
48.7% 87.2% 100% 82.1% 76.9% 46.2% 82.1%
39 persons
352 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

After the students' efforts, they were asked, "What is the most important skill you acquired in this
class?" The following responses are highly relevant to the STEAM educational competencies that
were established.

Presentation and communication skills

Presentation and communication skills improved through the process of theme selection,
research, discussion, presentation, and reflection with team members.
Information organization and expression skills
Information organization and effective expression skills were improved through the creation of
easy-to-understand PowerPoint presentations, and skills in writing concisely on the board were
emphasized.
Class structure and planning skills
Skills related to planning and class progression were developed in situations where class content
and structure were considered.
Ability to reconstruct and improve presentation materials
Improvement skills were developed through reorganization and improvement of presentation
materials based on reflections after the interim presentation and external evaluation.
Worksheet creation and teaching skills
Through worksheet creation and taking charge of roles in the educational process, teaching and
worksheet creation skills were improved.
Initiative in creating materials and the educational process
The students took initiative in creating materials, lesson plans, and mock lessons, and grew
through the process.
Collaboration and cooperation
Through cooperation and exchange of opinions with team members, revision of materials and
compilation of opinions with group members, the students acquired the ability to cooperate and
collaborate.
Problem-solving and application skills
Problem-solving and application skills were developed through responses to problems and
improvements in presentations, reflections, and Q&A sessions.

These skills seemed to grow individually and through the actual presentation and educational
process, leading to learning for the team as a whole.

REFERENCES

[1] Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology ed. (2019). Explanation of
the Courses of Study for Senior High Schools, Comprehensive Time for Inquiry, p12-13.
[2] Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) (2021) "Toward
the Construction of a Japanese-Style School Education in 2021: Realization of Individual
Optimal Learning and Collaborative Learning that Draws Out the Potential of All Children"
(Report)
[3] The Case for STEM Education: Challenges and Opportunities,38
353 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The Power of Science Outreach-Conscious Teachers

Veronica McCauley1, Kevin Davison2

School of Education, University of Galway, Ireland1,2

Abstract

Science outreach programs at universities have a commitment to increase student participation,

in alignment with overarching goals addressing workforce shortages and broadening
representation in science. However, as science departments in higher education are negotiating
access to classrooms, an obvious partner is being overlooked: teachers. Social marketing’s Client
Principle regarding impactful behavioural change emphasises the importance of gaining a deep
understanding of the specific group you aim to impact. In this respect, teachers are exceptionally
well positioned to achieve this understanding, compared to some outreach practices, that
parachute science engagement sporadically into the classroom. Teachers possess proximity,
permanence, and a strong grasp of pedagogical theory, and as such are a powerful presence to
influence change. In our work as teacher educators of science teachers over the years, we have
found great value in educating student teachers about pedagogical theories that promote science
engagement, such as the multiple dimensions of science capital theory. This article explores two
particular dimensions. Firstly, the establishment of professional development pathways through
teachers’ active engagement with both industry and university settings, to promote career
pathways in science-related fields. Secondly, the article delves into the integration of hook
pedagogy and cognitive load theory, focusing on how these methods can effectively merge new
knowledge with students’ existing cognitive frameworks.

Keywords: Science Outreach, Science Teachers, Science Capital Teaching Approach; Behavioural
Change, Hook Theory, Cognitive Load Theory.

1. Introduction

Science outreach programs at universities commit to increasing student participation, addressing

workforce shortages, and increasing representation in science, particularly among
underrepresented groups [1]. Science departments in higher education regularly negotiating
access to classrooms to provide additional outreach opportunities, the science teacher rarely
takes a lead role in outreach work., We believe this is a significant oversight. Teachers are one
of the lead influencers of student behaviour [2][3]. Science teachers are instrumental in shaping
the next generation of responsible and scientifically literate citizens. Students can benefit greatly
from the communication, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills of STEM education delivered
by their teacher [3].

2. Marketing Science

When influencing behaviour, social marketing’s Client Principle [4] states that the first step is to
gain a deep understanding of the target audience. This entails delving into the reasons behind
behaviours, exploring individual values and motivations, then leveraging this insight to craft
appealing information that brings about positive personal and/or societal outcomes. Take, for
instance, the case of a post-primary school student who may understand the value of science,
yet due to their societal and cultural influences, perceive science as something unrelated to their
lives. In this context, teachers can play a pivotal role in situating science in their students’ context.
In contrast to some outreach practices that inject instances of science engagement into the
classroom, it may be more impactful to collaborate with, or empower teacher stakeholders who
are already in a strong position to promote positive change. Teachers possess proximity,
permanence, and pedagogical theory, and as such, are a powerful presence to influence change
(see Figure 1).
354 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Proximit
y

Perman
ence

Pedago
gy

The Power of
Science
Outreach
Conscious
Teachers

Figure 1. The Power of Science Outreach-Conscious Teachers (Proximity, Permanence and Pedagogy)

In our work as science teacher educators, we have found significant value in educating student
teachers about pedagogical theories that positively influence science engagement, and
pedagogical approaches such as those discussed below.

3. Broadening the Reach of Science

Science experiences at school can have a substantial impact on a student’s science capital [5].
Although the position one holds in a field may be influenced by their accumulated capital, their
disposition or attitude toward that field is shaped by their habitus [6]. Family serves as the
foundational context in which habitus is formed, yet habitus is also shaped by larger cultural
communities including educational institutions [6]. The Science Teaching Capital Approach
(SCTA) aims to broaden the reach of science [7]. These approaches offer teachers explicit
evidence-informed strategies to strengthen the science capital of those on the margins of science,
for example biology pathways for boys from disadvantaged communities [5].
The three SCTA pillars are: a) personalizing & localising the science content, b) eliciting ideas
from students, valuing what they know and care about and linking this to science, and c) building
upon Science Capital dimensions (Figure 2). SCTA approach has demonstrated: 1) an increase
in student intent to study science, 2) a significant increase in the science capital scores of those
considerably below the national average, 3) improved students’ perception of the relevance of
science to their lives, and 4) the delivery of a more inclusive and participatory classroom
experience [7]. Therefore, conversations around this method with student teachers, as an
outreach technique to engage their students, is a critically important step towards teachers being
more proactive in promoting science.

Figure 2. Building Science Capital [adapted from [5]]

355 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Of the eight Science Capital Dimensions influencing student science uptake, we elaborate on two,
below, as examples of how teacher educators can build their students science capital and
embrace their science outreach role.

3.1 Share Knowledge of Science-Related Career Pathways

Workforce shortages in STEM fields have been a concern for many years. Although research has
found that children enjoy studying science in school, this interest rarely develops into science-
related aspirations or career choices [1][8]. Outreach-conscious teachers may help address these
shortages by nurturing the next generation of STEM talent through their own direct engagement
with industry. One of the most influential moments for teachers is during their initial teacher
education is being immersed in processes and practices of active situated learning [9]. However,
if we want teachers to design authentic learning experiences which integrate science experiences
within real-world contexts, first-hand experiences are essential [9]. As such, at the University of
Galway, we offer pre-service, and newly qualified teachers two science career related
opportunities:

Teacher Internships in Industry

In 2022, the University of Galway joined 6 other universities in Ireland as part of a STEM Teacher
Internship (STInt) Program1 that has the capacity to enhance teacher experience and instruction
through immersive professional experiences in real-world STEM contexts. Preservice teachers
apply for paid industry placement during the summers of their teacher education programme. The
idea of a triadic partnership between schools, industry, and higher education to shape STEM
learning experiences for students is a powerful one. Such collaborations can lead to valuable
professional learning for teachers so that they are in a better position to impart knowledge about
science careers to their students [10].

Teachers’ Residence in University

School-University partnerships [11] have been established for decades providing clear benefits
for both parties [12]. This symbiotic relationship is a core element of the Teacher in Residence
program that we offer to newly qualified teachers through the CÚRAM medical devices institute
at the University of Galway. Teachers learn about science on the cusp of research innovation,
and with further guidance on scientific inquiry and engagement pedagogies, work with scientists
to create lesson plans for their students. Immersing in future science career pathways, further
enhances the classroom experience that teachers can bring to science education.

3.2 Value Science in Daily Life

Science Capital is an evidence-informed pedagogy that encourages teachers to get to know their
students, value their contribution to the class, and contextualise science learning around student
interests and their everyday lives. Hook pedagogy [13][14] builds on students’ prior knowledge
and attempts to capture student curiosity to entice them into deeper science engagement
(McCauley et al., 2015). Grounding science in daily life enhances its relevance for students [15].
Therefore, hooks, as an instructional approach that aims to generate situational interest by
creating learning environments, not only captures and maintains student interest, but also
integrates it into their cognitive framework by leveraging existing knowledge and establishing
connections with pertinent real-life illustrations. This is a pedagogy that builds on the core
dimensions of students’ science capital. Cognitive Load theory [16] research notes that germane
load is the mental capacity that directs the integration of new information with new knowledge in
students’ existing cognitive frameworks. This is what educators should aim to encourage. It’s the
‘a-ha’ moments when you learn something new. Hook pedagogy can play a pivotal role in bridging
this connection.
By incorporating carefully crafted emotional triggers at the beginning of class, teachers have the
capacity to design lessons that resonate with their students’ everyday experiences. This approach
is intended to trigger science interest again and again, with the intention of transitioning from a
situational and temporary interest to a sustained and persistent enthusiasm for science over time.

4. Conclusion

Teacher educators are uniquely positioned to impact STEM outreach by instilling a conscious
understanding in teachers that a part of their job is to do outreach work – to highlight the value of

1
STEM Teacher Internship (STInt) Program, a Summer Industry Placement experience for pre-service teachers, established in
Dublin City University in 2016.
356 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

science and science skills in future life, and to draw students towards science careers. We
propose that the SCTA perspectives on science outreach and education, combined with
opportunities for preservice teachers to engage directly with industry emphasises the crucial role
of teachers in STEM advancement.

REFERENCES

[1] Padwick, A., Dele-Ajayi, O., Davenport, C., & Strachan, R. (2023). Evaluating a complex
and sustained STEM engagement programme through the lens of science capital:
insights from Northeast England. International Journal of STEM Education, 10(1), 33.
[2] Inda-Caro, M., Maulana, R., Fernández-García, C. M., Peña-Calvo, J. V., Rodríguez-
Menéndez, M. D. C., & Helms-Lorenz, M. (2019). Validating a model of effective teaching
behaviour and student engagement: perspectives from Spanish students. Learning
Environments Research, 22, 229-251. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-018-9275-z
[3] Smith, T., & Twaddle, J. (2023). STEM Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Preservice
Teachers. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Perspectives in Higher
Education, 8(1), 168-182. https://doi.org/10.32674/jimphe.v8i1.4820
[4] Domegan, C., Devaney, M., McHugh, P., Hastings, G. and Piwowarczyk, J. (2015)
Ocean Literacy Sea Change Guiding Principles Manual. EU Sea Change Project.
[5] McCauley, V., Kealy, C., Hill O’Driscoll, E. and Flynn, P. (2023). “Yes, Biology is for me!”:
Raising the Science Capital of Boys. Conference proceedings. New Perspectives in
Science Education 2023. 12th edition: Florence, Italy: Filodiritto Editore. 16-17 March
2023. https://conference.pixel-online.net/library_scheda.php?id_abs=5911
[6] Turnbull, S. M., Meissel, K., Locke, K., & O'Neale, D. R. (2020, April). The impact of
science capital on self-concept in science: A study of university students in New Zealand.
In Frontiers in Education (Vol. 5, p. 27). Frontiers Media SA.
[7] UCL Faculty of Education and Society (2023). Science capital teaching approach- text
version. Available from https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ioe/departments-and-
centres/departments/education-practice-and-society/stem-participation-social-justice-
research/science-capital-teaching-approach/science-capital-teaching-approach-text-
version [Accessed 17 January 2023].
[8] Archer, L., DeWitt, J., Osborne, J., Dillon, J., Willis, B., & Wong, B. (2012). Science
Aspirations, Capital and Family Habitus: How families shape children’s engagement and
identification with science. American Educational Research Journal, 49(5), 881–908.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831211 433290
[9] Hurley, M., Butler., D., McLoughlin E., (2021). Immersive STEM Learning Experiences
to Shape Shared Futures. Dublin: Dublin City University. DOI:10.5281/zenodo.5589759
[10] Hurley, M., Butler, D., & McLoughlin, E. (2023). STEM Teacher Professional Learning
Through Immersive STEM Learning Placements in Industry: a Systematic Literature
Review. Journal for STEM Education Research, 1-31.
[11] Higgins, A, Heinz, M, McCauley, V, & Fleming M. (2013). Creating the future of teacher
education together: the role of emotionality in university-school partnership. Procedia-
Social and Behavioral Journal. 93, 1110-1115.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.09.340
[12] Herro, D., Hirsch, S. E., & Quigley, C. (2022). A faculty-in-residence programme:
Enacting practice-based professional development in a STEAM-focused middle
school. Professional Development in Education, 48(4), 559-575.
[13] McHugh, M., & McCauley, V. (2016). Designing physics video hooks for science
students. Physics Education, 51, 1–5. http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0031-
9120/51/1/015015/meta
[14] McCauley, V., & McHugh M. (2021). An Observational Narrative of Student Reaction to
Video Hooks. Education Sciences, 11(6), 1-
20. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11060286
[15] McCauley, V., Davison, K. and Byrne, C. (2015). Collaborative lesson hook design in
science teacher education: Advancing professional practice. Irish Educational Studies,
34(4), 307-323. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2015.1114457
[16] Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation, CESE. (2017). Cognitive load theory:
Research that teachers really need to understand.
https://education.nsw.gov.au/content/dam/main-education/about-us/educational-
data/cese/2017-cognitive-load-theory.pdf
357 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Using Folding Back as a Pedagogical Design Tool Under

the Lens of the Van Hiele Model with Preservice Teachers

Alberto Arnal-Bailera1, Víctor Manero2

University of Zaragoza, Facultad de Educación, Zaragoza, Spain1

University of Zaragoza, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas y de la Educación, Huesca,
Spain2

Abstract

The well-known Van Hiele model of geometric reasoning establishes five levels of development,
from level 1 (visual) to level 5 (rigor). On the other hand, the Pirie/Kieren model describes the
importance of folding back processes in the learning of mathematics. This paper presents an
activity implemented with mathematics teachers in training, which promotes folding back
processes through the use of Van Hiele's level 5 and 4 tasks. Our results show how working with
Van Hiele level 5 tasks favors reflection on similar level 4 tasks, leading to a greater depth in the
reasoning of the latter. We consider that this type of activities can be especially useful in the case
of students at a certain level showing some weaknesses typical of previous levels.

Keywords: Van Hiele model, Geometric Reasoning, folding back, Preservice Mathematics Teachers

1. Introduction and Objectives

The Van Hiele model has been proved to be very useful in relation to the teaching and learning
of Geometry [1, 2]. This theoretical framework describes in some detail the competences
displayed by students through their progress in the Geometrical thinking. When it comes to a
particular concept, [3] formulated a model showing the non-linear way of its learning process, with
different progress and setbacks, in particular folding back processes are of great interest in
teacher training since it requires that the preservice teacher re-visits previous ideas of a
mathematical concept in order to prepare its teaching activity.
In this study, we are working with a group of mathematics preservice teachers. All of them hold a
Mathematics or Physics degree and are enrolled in a Master’s degree program to become
Secondary school Mathematics teachers. In this regard, our prospective secondary school
teachers would show a high level of mathematical training which contrasts with the absence of
education courses in their undergraduate studies. However, previous studies have shown some
weaknesses in the development of their Geometrical thinking [4].
We have observed that, sometimes, our prospective mathematics teachers think that secondary
school activities are too easy and they do not even need to solve them to make an in-depth
analysis. Thus, they are more receptive to solving more difficult activities, probably due to their
mathematical over-qualification. Thus, we have considered proposing to our students an activity
consisting in the resolution of high-level activities (in Van Hiele's terms) in order to promote
improvement at medium-high levels via the emergence folding back processes. In subsequent
activities (out of the purpose of this work), they will be asked to design similar upper-middle level
activities to promote improvement at lower levels.
Our aim is to analyse how an activity classified as level 5 (in Van Hiele's terms) favours the
acquisition (or the improvement) of level 4 strategies or competences. In particular, this activity
would possibly make students review their primitive knowing [3] of the proof of the sum of the
internal angles of a triangle in the Euclidean metric (VH4) and rethink how to give arguments
about it. The element in this reflection that invokes previous knowledge would be the work with a
similar activity but using a different metric (Taxicab) and its relation to the Euclidean metric [5, 6].
358 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1. Folding Back

The Pirie-Kieren theory [3] describes eight possible levels of a person's understanding of a
concept (see Figure 1). These levels are represented as nested circles, this nesting that the
evolution of understanding is not necessarily linear nor unidirectional. Each level or layer contains
the inner ones, i.e., it presupposes the understanding described in those levels. The eight levels
range from the most localised on the inside to the most general on the outside. The model makes
it possible to follow the evolution of a student's understanding of a mathematical concept, as
shown in Figure 1 for a hypothetical path of the evolution of the understanding of a mathematical
concept for a particular student over a given period of time.

Fig.1. Layers of understanding and an instance of folding back in a hypothetical path of growth of
understanding [3]

The eight levels are summarised below:

Primitive knowing: all the learner's prior knowledge except that relating to the particular topic
being worked on. It is the starting point for the growth of understanding in Mathematics.
Image making: at this level, prior knowledge is used in new ways to generate particular
representations (not necessarily visual) of the mathematical idea are constructed in order to
approach the idea of the concept.
Image having: at this level, mental plans are made to solve activities without the need for
concrete examples.
Property noticing: students examine their own images of the concept to articulate properties
and connections.
Formalising: at this level the learner is able to generalise properties and work with the concept
as a formal object.
Observing: the learner reflects on his/her own observations, is aware of the internal relationships
that exist and organises them as a theory.
Structuring: the learner is aware of the relation between a collection of theorems and asks for
formal justifications of the statements.
Inventising: The learner is able to go beyond initial ideas about a concept and create new
questions that could lead to an entirely new concept.

The layers or levels described are the learning part of the model. With respect to the teaching
part, [7] define "provocative", "invocative" or "validating" activities. A provocative intervention is
one that takes the learner to a more general level of understanding. An invocative intervention is
one that brings the learner back to an internal, more concrete level of understanding. A validating
intervention maintains the current level of understanding. Note that what determines the type of
activity is not the teacher's purpose but the learner's response. Thus, the same activity could
possibly be of two different types depending, at least, on the learner's primitive knowing.
The act of returning to an inner layer, possibly to re-work previous ideas of a mathematical
concept, is termed ‘folding back’ within the Pirie–Kieren Theory, and it is on this phenomenon that
this research focuses. Folding back has been defined as
A person functioning at an outer level of understanding when challenged may invoke or fold back
to inner, perhaps more specific local or intuitive understandings. This returned to inner level
359 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

activity is not the same as the original activity at that level. It is now stimulated and guided by
outer level knowing. The metaphor of folding back is intended to carry with it notions of
superimposing one current understanding on an earlier understanding, and the idea that
understanding is somehow ‘thicker’ when inner levels are revisited. This folding back allows for
the reconstruction and elaboration of inner level understanding to support and lead to new outer
level understanding. [8] (p. 172)
[3] develop this definition explain that, after the folding back, the student is expected to broaden
or deepen his or her current understanding by reorganising his or her previous ideas about the
concept, even creating new images if necessary. This reorganisation of ideas causes the internal
levels to change as the mathematical activity progresses, becoming more robust or more
complete. This improvement at the innermost levels will serve to support and extend
understanding at the outer levels on which further work is to be done. This inner level action is
part of a recursive reconstruction of knowledge, necessary to further build outer level knowing.
Different students will move in different ways and at different speeds through the levels, folding
back again and again to enable them to build broader, but also more sophisticated or deeper
understanding.
[9] developed a framework for folding back as an analytical observation tool. The framework
identifies some categories and sub-categories that describe key aspects of folding back:
The source, which answers the question about who is prompting the shift from a layer to an inner
one: an intervention by the teacher, by another learner, the curriculum material or the learner
him/herself (self-invocation).
The intention, which answers the question of the source’s willingness to cause the folding back:
intentional or un-intentional.
The form, answers the question of what kind of actions the learner takes in reaction to the source
intervention: working at an inner layer using existing understanding, folding back to collect at an
inner layer, moving out of the topic or causing a discontinuity.
The outcome, answers the question of what the outcome of the act of folding back is and whether
folding back has proved effective in promoting the growth of understanding: effective folding back
(with or without external prompt) or ineffective folding back.
With a close but different point of view, [10] show that teachers use folding back as a pedagogical
design tool since the teacher's actions always had in mind the creation of opportunities for
emergence of folding back processes.

2.2. Van Hiele Model

In the 50’s of the XXth Century Pierre and Dina Van Hiele established the basis of one of the most
relevant theoretical frameworks concerning teaching and learning Geometry, the Van Hiele model
[11]. This theoretical framework states the existence of five different levels of geometric reasoning
where the different geometric concepts are used and understood differently [12, 1, 13, 2].
The main characteristics of these levels consist of its sequential and hierarchical nature, meaning
that they are acquired in a specific order throughout the learning process. The essential features
of every level can be summarized as follows: students at level 1 (visualization) recognize
geometric figures by their appearance and as a whole. Descriptions of figures are made using
physical characteristics or by comparison with everyday objects by means of a nonmathematical
language. Level 2 (analysis) is characterized by the ability to distinguish elements and properties
of figures, which allows them to deal with mathematical descriptions of geometric concepts. The
reasoning at level 3 (informal deduction) uses logical deductions in the first place, which enable
students to interrelate properties of geometric figures. Thus, these students can understand
logical classifications of families of figures, construct definitions as sets of necessary and sufficient
conditions and provide some general arguments to justify the validity of a mathematical statement.
Students at level 4 (formal deduction) can produce formal proofs and deal with equivalent
definitions of a concept. Finally, people at level 5 (rigor) can compare systems based on different
axioms.
It should be noticed that almost all the related literature has been focused on the development
and study of the first four levels. This lack of studies on the fifth Van Hiele level can be explained
by the fact that it is not related to the contents or abilities taught in the school geometry since the
reasoning on different axiomatic systems appears only at University Geometry courses. Our
interest in this work is related to the interest of the study of the characteristics of the Van Hiele
level 5 to design activities that promote, via folding back processes, the acquisition of lower levels.

3. Method

Both authors teach a course on activities design in a Master’s degree which is compulsory to work
as a secondary school teacher. This course includes contents about van Hiele theory and the
360 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

relevance of the concept of folding back in this context. The activity we present in this section has
been carried out by 17 students working in groups of three. The students worked for three hours
to solve a longer sequence that included this activity.
The tasks that form this activity are designed to provoke a folding back process in the students:
they have to revisit a concept or process (in this case a proof) and reinforce it. Thus, we are
working with an invocative activity [7]. Invocative activities are really useful when working with
students who show some errors or who are not precise enough in a basic activity but are
nevertheless capable to cope with a more difficult one [4]. In terms of the Van Hiele model, tasks
A and B1 are to be answered by students working at Van Hiele level 4 since these tasks ask for
two formal proofs. On the other hand, task B2 is to be answered by students working at Van Hiele
level 5 since solving this task requires comparing two different metrics [5].
Table 1. Activity statements
TASK A. Consider the Euclidean metric. Prove that
the sum of the three angles of a triangle adds up to
the straight angle.
Property. Remember that, in the case of working with
the Euclidean metric, if two parallel lines intersect
with a secant, the alternate interior angles are equal.

TASK B1. Consider now the Taxicab metric. Prove that the sum of the three angles of a triangle adds up
to the straight angle.
TASK B2. Can we make use of the property in the case of working with the Taxicab metric, why?
Note: If you wish, you may modify your answer to Task A in the copy you have received.

Students follow a process to complete the activities: they first have to answer Task A and hand it
in to the teacher. At this point, they receive Tasks B1 and B2 together with a copy of Task A in
case they want to modify their response to it. In this way, the researchers have two copies of Task
A: the original and one with some comments or corrections.
After collecting the answers, the researchers analysed them looking for signs to identify the four
categories explained in [9]: source, intention, form and outcome. The units of analyse are the
different sentences, comments and drawings written by the students in each of the tasks.

4. Data and Transcripts

We present and comment now a transcription from the work of group 3. This group was formed
by three students, all of them holding a degree in Mathematics.
In Table 2, we can read the answers to task A (black): they prove that the sum of the three angles
of a triangle adds up to the straight angle using the given property assuming it is true without any
comment.
Table 2. Group 3 answers to Task A

Drawing any secant line (u) to s and passing through the intersection point of t and r.
t intersects s and r forming internal angles (α), the same is done with u forming angles β. We define now
angle γ, observing that forms a triangle (lines t, u, s) and α, β and γ form a flat angle in line r.
The property of the congruence of internal angles is satisfied due to the fact that rotations are a rigid
movement in Euclidean Geometry.
361 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

In a second moment (see Table 3), they prove the same statement working with the Taxicab
metric. They introduce mathematical language using “rotation” and “translation” and state which
movements preserve the angles with Taxicab metric.
Finally, (see Table 2), they add the comments in blue to precise the reason of the congruence of
internal angles. They transfer their work in Tasks B1 and B2 stating that in Euclidean Geometry
every rotation preserves the angles.
Table 3. Group 3 answers to Tasks B1 and B2

Rotating 180º, we observe that vertical angles are congruent. After, by translation is equivalent in both
lines. Rotations that preserve angles are 90, 180 and 270.

It is clear that students in Group 3 have increased the mathematical rigor of their answer to Task
A thanks to their work in Tasks B1 and B2. In particular, after solving B1 and B2 they added a
sentence about why the given property is satisfied with Euclidean metric, showing a deeper
understanding and a reorganisation of their previous ideas. Thus, the added sentence is the result
of a folding back process.
A complete answer to the activity demands to structure a set of two Theorems (the sum of the
internal angles of a triangle is 180º in Euclidean or in Taxicab metric).
When students were asked to compare the answer in Taxicab metric and Euclidean metric, they
had to find their mutual relationships by constructing a structure consisting of these two metrics
connected by the fact that they both preserve angles by 180º rotations [14]. The last task (B2)
and the Note prompted the necessity of including more reasons to prove it leading to a better
formalising of the proof of the Theorem in Euclidean metric by justifying a rule (The property of
the congruence of internal angles).
The source of the shift from a layer (structuring) to an inner one (formalization) has been, mainly,
the curricular material. However, multiple interventions of the students fostered this process. The
curricular material has been intentionally designed to cause the folding back to make students
work at an inner layer. We can assure that the folding back has been effective in this group with
an external prompt in the form of a sentence completing a proof process.

5. Conclusion

After the analysis of the answers to the activity, we have confirmed that the Van Hiele level 5
activity (studying how the two metrics are related) may favour a more detailed analysis of some
of the particular demonstrations in one of them, which would be a level 4 activity.
[9] showed that activities related to the introduction of different metrics were interesting for
provoking folding back processes among preservice mathematics teachers. In particular, he
found that unintentional peer intervention led to working at an inner layer using existing
understanding.
In our case, the first source of the folding back has been the curriculum material. However, since
our students were working in small groups, their comments promoted a faster folding back. The
design of the intervention has been intentional, we are explicitly looking for a specific form of
folding back to an inner layer to thicken the understanding of, in this case, a proof. In our case,
as a result of the structuring activity, the formalization of the proof in Euclidean metric has
improved by adding a justification that increases its internal logic.
It remains open to study the rest of the activities proposed to prospective teachers with the
purpose of provoking other types of folding back like one of the tasks already proposed in [15]
concerning the equivalence of the definitions of midset and midpoint in Euclidean and Taxicab
metric. In addition, we intend to study how working with these activities can help them to design
activities based on folding back processes as well.
362 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

6. Acknowledgment

The first author is partially supported by Spanish MICINN [grant number PID2019-104964GB-
I00], the second author is partially supported by Spanish AEI [grant number PID2020-115652GB-
I00]. Both authors belong to the research group S60_20R “Investigación en Educación
Matemática” (Gobierno de Aragón, Spain) and are supported by the PIIDUZ 4706 “Coordinación
de asignaturas del Máster de Profesorado de Matemáticas para la mejora de la enseñanza de la
geometría escolar”

REFERENCES

[1] Burger, W. F., & Shaughnessy, J. M. 1986. Characterizing the Van Hiele levels of
development on geometry. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 17(1), 31–
48. https://doi.org/10.2307/749317
[2] Jaime, A., & Gutiérrez, A. 1990. Una propuesta de fundamentación para la enseñanza de
la geometría: El modelo de van Hiele [A proposal for the foundation for the teaching of
geometry: The van Hiele model]. In S. Llinares & V. M. Sánchez (Eds.), Teoría y práctica
en educación matemática (pp. 295– 384). Alfar
[3] Pirie, S., & Kieren, T. 1994. Growth in mathematical understanding: How can we
characterise it and how can we represent it? Educational Studies in
Mathematics, 26(2/3), 165–190. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01273662
[4] Manero, V., & Arnal-Bailera, A. 2021. Understanding Proof Practices of pre-Service
Mathematics Teachers in Geometry. MTRJ 13(3), 99-130.
[5] Arnal-Bailera & Manero, 2023. A Characterisation of Van Hiele’s level 5 of geometric
reasoning using the Delphi methodology. International Journal of Science and
Mathematics Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-023-10380-z
[6] Blair, S. 2004. Describing undergraduates’ reasoning within and across Euclidean, taxicab
and spherical geometries [PhD thesis, Portland State University].
[7] Pirie, S., & Kieren, T. 1992. The answer determines the question—interventions and the
growth of mathematical understanding. InW. Geeslin & K. Graham (Eds.),
Proceedings of the sixteenth annual meeting of the International Group for the
Psychology of Mathematics Education, Vol. 2 (pp. 1–8).
[8] Pirie, S., & Kieren, T. 1991. Folding back: Dynamics in the growth of mathematical
understanding. In F. Furinghetti (Ed.), Proceedings of the fifteenth annual meeting of the
International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Vol. 3 (pp. 169–176).
[9] Martin, L. C. 2008. Folding back and the dynamical growth of mathematical understanding:
Elaborating the Pirie-Kieren theory. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 27(1), 64–85.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmathb.2008.04.001
[10] Martin, L. C., & Towers, J. 2016. Folding back, thickening and mathematical met-befores.
The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 43, 89–97.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmathb.2016.07.002
[11] Van Hiele, P. M. 1957. De problematiek van het inzicht [The problem of insight] [PhD
thesis, University of Utrecht].
[12] Hoffer, A. 1983. Van Hiele based research. In R. Lesh & M. Landau (Eds.), Acquisition of
mathematical concepts and processes (pp. 205–227). Academic Press.
[13] Van Hiele, P. M. 1986. Structure and insight. A theory of mathematics education.
Academic Press.
[14] Nakamura, G., & Koyama, M. 2018. A cross-tools Pirie-Kieren model for visualizing the
process of mathematical understanding. Proceedings of EARCOME-8, 2, 154-165.
[15] Kemp, A., & Vidakovic, D. 2021. Ways secondary mathematics teachers apply definitions
in Taxicab geometry for a real-life situation: Midset. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior,
62, 100848 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmathb.2021.100848
363 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Sorting Materials Using Programmable Lego© Robot: An

Educational Activity to Promote Sustainability among
Youngsters

Andrea Ienco1, Bruno Tiribilli2, Chiara D’Errico3, Armida Torreggiani4, Valentina

Biasini5, Sabrina Gualtieri6, Pietro Galizia7

Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Chimica dei Composti Organo Metallici
(CNR-ICCOM), Italy1
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto dei Sistemi Complessi (CNR-ISC), Italy2
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di BioEconomia (CNR-IBE), Italy3
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto per la Sintesi Organica e la Fotoreattività
(CNR-ISOF), Italy4
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Scienza, Tecnologia e Sostenibilità per lo
Sviluppo dei Materiali Ceramici (CNR-ISSMC), Italy 5,6,7

Abstract

Educational robotics is a powerful, flexible, teaching and learning tool. At the same time, it can be
used for presenting scientific concepts and it can help to develop scientific thinking, inquiry
practice, information literacy competences, and attitudes and accountability as well as the
environmental awareness. In the framework of the European Green Deal and the national project
“Change the Game: Playing to Prepare for the Challenges of a Sustainable Society”, we engaged
groups of students in two learning paths focused on building and programing robots able to face
the material recognition and recycling. The pathways were developed in two weeks’
extracurricular stage in institutes of the Italian National Council of Research (CNR) and were
based on colour sensing, deal with the sorting of different materials: (i) plastic caps and (ii) mosaic
tiles. Lego© Spike Essential kit were used as hardware and software tools. The learning paths
began with an introduction to the scientific topic. During the two weeks, meetings were organized
with other researchers and experts and the pathway continue with the mechanical construction
and programming of the robot. Finally, the students presented their creations to the public. In the
case of the robot sorting caps, colour selection allows the efficient recycling of plastic (HDPE) for
the production of new objects with well-defined colour characteristics. As regards mosaic tiles,
they are often obtained from production residues that are marketed in the bags of multicolour
fragments. The need therefore arose to automatically separate the glass tiles based on their
colour to relieve the artist from this tedious task. Different convincing solutions both in the
mechanical assembly and in the software development, have been obtained thanks to the creative
work of the groups. At the end of their extracurricular stages the students have been asked to run
a workshop in which they presented their robot projects to small groups of other students and
helped them build and program the robots, thus reinforcing their skills and transferring them to
their peers, in a virtuous learning circle.

Keywords: STEM, LEGO, Recycling, Sorting, School, Educational Robotics

1. Introduction

Educational robotics offers countless opportunities for group work and self-evaluation [1,2].
Robotics can be used as a tool that offers opportunities for students to engage and develop
computational thinking skills [3] and is usually seen as an interdisciplinary activity drawing mostly
in Science, Mathematics, Informatics and Technology (STEM) and offering major new benefits to
education in general at all levels [4]. Educational robotics can help not only to develop scientific
thinking, inquiry practice, information literacy competences but also it can be used for presenting
scientific concepts and raising i.e., environmental awareness in the classroom. The latter aspect
is particularly important for contributing to the transition towards a more sustainable society
promoted by Europe. In fact, the Agenda 2030 [5] and the European Green Deal [6], are
challenges and opportunities also for triggering the interest and the social awareness to the
youngers in a sustainable society and to show the importance of research in facing innovation.
364 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Challenges in promoting together educational robotics at school and learning for the green
transition and sustainable development, include insufficient appropriate learning materials, a lack
of expansive learning activities and tasks and limited opportunities to engage students in the
process of design thinking and developing metacognitive abilities.
In the past years, several STEM learning paths for students aged 10–18 years have been
developed in the framework of an Italian national network (“Il linguaggio della Ricerca”) of
researchers from the National Research Council of Italy (CNR), collaborating with schools,
scientists, and experts in science communication and dissemination [7], as well as in the
European network of Raw Matters Ambassadors at Schools (RM@Schools), developed thanks
to a European project funded by the European Institute for Innovation and Technology (EIT) [8-
9]. More recently, new learning pathways aimed in raising the interest towards sustainability and
implementing serious games has been designed and tested thanks to the Italian national project
entitled “Change the Game: Playing to Prepare for the Challenges of a Sustainable Society” [10].
With the aim of integrating new tools in the CNR formative offer for schools, we set up a play-
based learning path focused on building and programming robots able to face the material
recognition and recycling. We chose to use this methodological approach since it is known that
learning through play is an important strategy to promote student engagement, inclusion, and
holistic skills development.
Here, we present two new robotic pathways set up in 2022-2023 and implemented in two weeks’
extracurricular stages by high school students in CNR institutes. These pathways use colour
sensing to sort different materials, specifically plastic caps and mosaic tiles.
Sorting is the first step of the recycling process, an important component in developing a
sustainable society. In fact, waste is a massive problem and for businesses, sorting the trade
waste they produce is a critical component of an effective reuse and recycling system. For
businesses, the benefits of proper waste segregation include lower waste costs and lower landfill
impact, since mixing waste streams can be costly and can cause environmental issues, increased
recycling rate and potential revenue streams because segregation enables to identify valuable
materials and sell them to achieve the highest available rebate value. Thus, it is important to raise
the interest by high schools’ students not only towards the recycling topic but on sorting waste
which makes easier to understand how to reduce general waste output, identify items that can be
reused and set aside items that should be recycled.

2. Pathway Structure

The robotic learning pathway for high school students is built using a modular structure with four
phases as shown in Figure 1. The first step is the definition of the project with the help of frontal
lesson and open discussion followed by introduction of the task to be solved. In the second phase,
the students visit research laboratory and meet experts in the field. The core of the activity is the
software and mechanical building of the robot including its test and improving. In the last phase,
the students are involved in the final testing, the writing of the report including the building
instructions and the results presentation in public dissemination event.

Fig. 1. Modular structure of the robotic learning path

The Lego Spike Essential Kit provides a complete hardware set that includes sensors and
actuators together as well as a software development environment. It is appropriate for students
aged 8 to 16, and no prior programming experience is necessary. This kind of educational kit is
365 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

typically available in primary and secondary schools. The two robotic learning paths tested in
2023 were based on colour sensing, deal with the sorting of different materials: (1) plastic caps
and (2) mosaic tiles.

2.1 Plastic Cap Selector

High density Poly-Ethylene (HDPE) is a thermoplastic polymer commonly used as cap of plastic
bottle. It can be easily reused simply by melting. Mixed colour caps diminish the value of the
recycled material due to the poor control of the colour in the final product. For an efficient recycling
of plastic cup, colour selection allows a more valuable recycling of the used material, allowing
production of new objects with well-defined colour characteristics [11].
In this pathway, an example of a "Cap Selector" is made with an inclined chute that feeds the
caps under the color sensor one at a time (Figure 2a) [12]. A mechanical arm directs the cap to
the right or left depending on the color recognized by the color sensor. As the cap comes out, the
next cap moves (slides) under the sensor and the cycle repeats 8 times. The programmable brick
has only two ports connected to the color-sensor and motor. The software is shown in Figure 2b
using word block. During each cycle, the robot reads the color-sensor's value. If the detected
color matches the predetermined one (red in the program shown), the motor moves clockwise;
otherwise, it moves counterclockwise, eventually returning to the central reference position.

a b

Fig. 2. a) Cap selector in action and b) the code of cap selector.

2.2 Mosaic Tile Selector

Mosaic tile art has recently experienced a significant revival in artistic and decorative use. The
mosaic tile selector promotes the re-use of glass tiles production waste of, which are marketed in
bags of multi-colored fragments, as an alternative to purchasing new tiles.
The robot was designed by taking inspiration from the Plastic cap selector. A first solution (Figure
3a) is a system employing wheels and elastic bands to transmit the rotary motion to a bush and
a conveyor belt (comprising two parallel elastic bands). The bush selectively picks one tile at a
time, even with variations in the tile shapes, and it moves the selected tile to the conveyor belt for
color detection. The primary challenge was coordinating the bush with the conveyor belt, leading
to occasional jams and the limitation of sorting tiles into two different positions, allowing for the
selection of only one color at a time.
A second solution (Figure 3b) uses an inclined ramp set at a 22° angle to slide the tiles under the
color sensor. Mechanical arm then directs the tiles in one of the four different directions based on
information of the color sensor.
366 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

a b

Fig. 3. Mosaic tile selector: a) the first solution [13] and b) the second solution and its code [14].

This configuration has the advantage of separating tiles of four different colors simultaneously
and monitoring the quantity of tiles in each category using dedicated counters. A possible
improvement would be the integration of a more powerful motor capable of handling larger and
heavier tiles.
For optimal performance, the system requires a large number of tiles that push against each
other, promoting sliding without external intervention.

3. Implementation

In total, we have conducted two training stages (80 hours) dedicated to the robotic pathways
organised and supervised by the researchers, authors of this work. A group of two students was
hosted in Florence (CNR-ICCOM, CNR-ISC, CNR-IBE) both working together on the plastic cap
recycling. Four students divided in two groups in Faenza (CNR-ISSMC, CNR-ISOF) worked on
mosaic tile selector. The students in Florence visited chemical laboratories for the synthesis of
new catalyst used in the production of renewable plastics and they attended at the analysis of
plastic materials using X-ray diffractometer and electron microscopy. In Faenza, the students
visited the cultural heritage laboratory, where they had the opportunity to use the 'martellina’, a
special hammer to chop the mosaic tile, and the electrical characterisation laboratory where they
experimented the use of piezoelectric ceramics both as actuators and as sensors. Although the
different groups of students were physically distant, they benefitted from a moment of online group
discussion where they had the opportunity to share successes and difficulties in developing their
projects, as well as their experiences at the research institutes. Each group prepared the building
instruction of their robot including the code used (see Figure 4) [12-14] and made a presentation
of their work and results in front of the institute's researchers and teachers.

Fig. 4. An example of the building instructions.

Once the internship period was over, the students were involved in a dissemination event
organized by “Il linguaggio della ricerca” at the CNR in Bologna. During this event they tutored
367 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

two robotic LEGO workshop for high schools’ students so they were engaged in peer-to-peer
training activity (Figure 5).

Fig. 5. LEGO robotic workshops tutored by High schools’ students at CNR Area in Bologna (IT)

4. Conclusions

A learning pathway focused on building and programming robots capable of sorting materials by
colour was designed and implemented in two research institutes of CNR. The pathway was
successfully adapted to the specific research areas of each institute, so linked to the running
research.
Educational robotics was used to engage high school students, develop their computational
thinking skills, introduce them to scientific concepts, and raise their awareness of the environment.
The building instructions produced by the students will be used to design other learning pathway
dedicated to sustainable development for students of elementary and junior schools.
The study offers innovative educational materials and activities aimed at promoting educational
robotics and learning for sustainable development and the green transition, which contribute to
Europe's transition towards a more sustainable society.

Acknowledgements

This activity was developed in the project Change the Game: playing to be trained for the
challenges of a sustainable society” funded by progettidiricerca@CNR [10].

REFERENCES

[1] Danahy, E., Wang, E., Brockman, J., Carberry, A., Shapiro B., Rogers, C.B. “LEGO-
based Robotics in Higher Education: 15 Years of Student Creativity”, Int. J. Adv. Robot.
Syst. 11:2 (2014) 27–41. https://doi.org/10.5772/58249
[2] Tiribilli, B., Basso M., Quercioli F., Vassalli M., “Optical refraction with a toy Robot”,
Physics Education 54:6 (2019) 065013. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6552/ab3e25
[3] Lee I., Martin F., Denner J., Coulter B., Allan W., Erickson J., et al. Computational thinking
for youth in practice ACM Inroads, 2 (2011), pp. 32-37,
https://doi.org/10.1145/1929887.1929902]
[4] Alimisis, D. “Teacher education on robotics-enhanced constructivist pedagogical
methods”, 2009 School of Pedagogical and Technological Education-ASPETE,
http://www.terecop.eu/en/Products1.html
[5] United Nations, General Assembly, “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development”, A/RES/70/1 (25 September 2015), available from
undocs.org/en/A/RES/70/1.
[6] European Commission, The European Green Deal, COM (2019) 640 final, available from
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM%3A2019%3A640%3AFIN
[7] https://ldr-network.bo.cnr.it/
[8] https://rmschools.eu/
[9] Torreggiani, A., Zanelli, A., Canino, M., Sotgiu, G., Benvenuti, E., Forini, L., Aluigi, A.,
Polo, E., Lapinska-Viola, R., Degli Esposti A. RM@Schools: Fostering Students’ Interest
in Raw Materials and a Sustainable Society 10th International Conference of The Future
of Education 18-19 June 2020, Florence (IT) p.446 –452,
https://doi.org/10.26352/E618_2384-9509
[10] http://www.changegame.cnr.it/
[11] Cucuzza, P. , Serranti , S., Capobianco, G., Bonifazi, G. “Multi-level color classification
of post-consumer plastic packaging flakes by hyperspectral imaging for optimizing the
368 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

recycling process”, Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular

Spectroscopy,302, 2023, 123157
[12] Tiribilli, B., Ienco, A., D'Errico, C. “ScegliTappi: Istruzioni di montaggio - building
instructions” Zenodo, 2023. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7729132
[13] Galizia P, Loukilli A, Ricci M, Biasini V. “SmistaTessere: Istruzioni di montaggio - building
instructions” Zenodo, 2023. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8150471.
[14] Galizia, P., Pollini, A., Altavilla, G., Biasini, V. “Separazione Cromatica Orientata Tessere
(SCOT): Istruzioni di montaggio - building instructions” Zenodo, 2023.
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8150431
369 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Exploring the Digital Landscape of STEAM Learning

Discourse: Insights from GPT-4 based Twitter Data Analysis
Sherif Abdelhamid1, Elijah Bass2

Virginia Military Institute, United States of America1,2

Abstract

Twitter, now known as X, is a leading social networking and microblogging platform that serves
as a prolific data repository, capturing conversations on various topics through its extensive
collection of user tweets. This diverse dataset provides new perspectives and valuable
information about science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics (STEAM) education
across various educational levels. However, the high complexity, unstructured format, and large
volume of this data often pose significant challenges for researchers seeking to extract
meaningful insights using qualitative or quantitative approaches.
To address these challenges, we leverage the Generative Pre-trained Transformer 4 (GPT-4), an
advanced multimodal large language model (LLM), to analyze tweet data. GPT-4's advanced
natural language processing capabilities allow it to understand and interpret the nuances of
human language, including slang, abbreviations, and context-specific language often found in
tweets. GPT-4's ability to infer meaning from limited text makes it ideal for analyzing such concise
and sometimes cryptic messages. Additionally, GPT-4 can perform semantic analysis, identifying
themes, topics, and sentiments within tweets. Finally, GPT-4 has been trained on a diverse large
text corpus, which includes content from various cultures, enabling it to understand and analyze
tweets from a wide range of global users, which is critical given Twitter's international user base.
Overall, this research provides two contributions: (i) a view of the new perspectives and topics
related to STEAM education and (ii) a novel approach to education-related tweet data analysis
using GPT-4. The data analysis findings provide pedagogical guidance to STEAM education
researchers, faculty members, administrators, and policymakers on the latest trends and main
topics related to STEAM education. The generated tweet dataset can also support linguists and
computer scientists working in the areas of artificial intelligence and large language models.

Keywords: Chatbot, GPT-4, Twitter Analysis, STEAM Education, Social Media Network

1. Introduction

1.1 Motivation and Background

Globally, each day witnesses the dispatch of millions of tweets, encapsulating vast quantities of
information across diverse subjects. Among this digital chatter, a significant portion pertains to
the domain of (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) STEAM education.
Originating from various sources such as students, academic institutions, governmental bodies,
and policymakers, these tweets encompass a broad spectrum of content. This includes updates
on daily occurrences, pivotal announcements, educational materials, discussions on pertinent
topics, geographical data, and more. Furthermore, these tweets facilitate user interaction through
retweets, comments, and likes, weaving a tapestry of communicative exchanges that can unearth
patterns or themes worthy of exploration. Recognizing the potential of this rich repository,
preserved by X, previously known as Twitter, as a treasure trove for scholarly inquiry in STEAM
education, we embarked on our analysis to mine tweets related to this field using GPT-4. Our
endeavor not only involved a thorough analysis of the collected data but also extended to making
the datasets accessible to the academic community, thereby enabling further scholarly
investigation.

1.2 Contributions

This study offers two key advancements: first, it reveals insights and themes within STEAM
education, enriching the academic discourse with novel perspectives. Secondly, it introduces an
innovative methodology for analyzing educational tweets, leveraging the capabilities of GPT-4,
thereby setting a new precedent in data examination within the educational sector. The outcomes
of this analysis serve as a valuable resource for a broad spectrum of stakeholders in STEAM
370 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

education, including researchers, educators, administrative personnel, and policymakers, offering

them strategic guidance on prevailing trends and core subjects within this field. Additionally, the
curated dataset of tweets emerges as a significant asset for linguistics and computer science
professionals, particularly those specializing in artificial intelligence and advanced language
models, facilitating further exploration and development in these cutting-edge areas.

2. Related Work

Scholars across various disciplines have tapped into Twitter as a valuable resource to shed light
on their respective fields, ranging from marketing [1] and healthcare [2][3] to activism [4],
education [5], cybersecurity [6], sports [7], and responses to natural disasters [8]. This approach
has been adopted in the engineering education sector as well. For instance, one study [9]
leveraged Twitter to monitor engagement and discussions surrounding a campaign to foster
interest in STEM education among the general populace. Another research [10] utilized the
platform to enhance students' design thinking capabilities, enabling them to articulate their ideas
with increased clarity and emotional depth.
The complexity, unstructured format, and large volume of tweets often pose significant challenges
for researchers seeking to extract meaningful insights [11]. Social media content's short and text-
heavy nature makes collecting and analyzing data difficult [12]. Additionally, the ambiguity and
complexity of natural language content further complicate the processing and retrieval of useful
information [13]. However, recent advancements in topic modeling techniques, such as latent
Dirichlet allocation (LDA), non-negative matrix factorization (NMF), Top2Vec, and BERTopic,
have shown promise in analyzing Twitter data [14]. These approaches, along with transformer-
based sequence modeling, have demonstrated improved performance in understanding and
classifying topics in tweets. Overall, these studies highlight the need for robust and efficient
methods to overcome the challenges posed by the complexity, unstructured format, and large
volume of tweets to extract meaningful insights.
In this paper, we utilize GPT-4 to analyze collected tweets. Related works have shown that GPT-
4 can perform semantic analysis and identify themes, topics, and sentiments within tweets. It has
been found that GPT-4 performs well in detecting psychological constructs such as sentiment,
discrete emotions, and offensiveness in various languages, achieving high accuracy across many
languages without the need for training data [15][16]. Additionally, GPT-4 has been shown to
perform on par with well-trained law student annotators in analyzing court opinions to interpret
legal concepts, making it a valuable tool for tasks requiring specialized domain expertise [17][18].
Additional findings show that GPT-4 achieves higher accuracy, reliability, and equal or lower bias
than human classifiers in annotating political tweets, suggesting its potential impact in enabling
interpretive research at scale in the social sciences [19]. Furthermore, related works show that
Chatbots utilizing GPT-4 can improve cybersecurity awareness in the workplace by providing
information security training and enhancing security awareness among employees [20].

3. Methodology

The study employed a thematic analysis approach, utilizing the advanced capabilities of GPT-4
to analyze the collection of tweets related to various subjects. The initial step involved gathering
tweets through the Twitter API, ensuring a rich and diverse dataset pertinent to our areas of
interest. After the collection, the research team reviewed the tweets to ascertain their relevance
to the designated subjects, resulting in a curated dataset specific to each subject under
investigation. Each dataset is stored in a separate CSV file containing each tweet’s content,
timestamp, number of likes, replies, retweets, and user information.
Upon establishing the relevant datasets, we engaged GPT-4 as a linguistic and computational
tool to facilitate the thematic analysis. This process, described in Fig. 1, was initiated by providing
GPT-4 with a structured prompt, instructing it to function as a qualitative researcher tasked with
analyzing the content within the uploaded CSV files. We specifically indicated that the tweet
content was housed under these files' "text" column, guiding GPT-4's focus toward the primary
data of interest.
GPT-4's analysis commenced with generating initial codes derived from the tweet content. This
coding phase was crucial for breaking down the data into manageable segments that reflected
key concepts and ideas present within the tweets. Following the coding process, we reviewed the
generated initial codes for relativeness and correctness, and we directed GPT-4 to sift through
the coded data to identify overarching themes and delve into each theme to uncover sub-themes,
thereby providing a layered understanding of the data.
Finally, for each identified theme and sub-theme, GPT-4 was tasked with conducting a detailed
analysis to elucidate the nuances and complexities within the data. This involved presenting
sample tweets that exemplified the assigned codes, offering tangible insights into how the
371 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

thematic framework was applied to the tweet content. Through this iterative process, GPT-4
facilitated a comprehensive thematic exploration of the tweet datasets, enabling the research
team to uncover and interpret the prevailing patterns, themes, and sub-themes that emerged from
the data.

Fig. 1. The main steps of the research methodology.

The methodology implements the human-in-the-loop (HITL) approach during the inspection stage
of the collected tweets and the reviews and corrections of the GPT-4 results. In HITL-based
systems, human judgment is integrated into the workflow to enhance and supervise the
automated processes. The HITL approach leverages the strengths of both GPT-4 data analysis
for efficiency and scale and human cognitive abilities for nuanced judgment and quality control,
leading to more reliable and relevant results.

4. Results and Findings

4.1 Search by Subject

The search for tweets featured specific hashtags listed in Table 1. The data gathering yielded
datasets of 22,337 tweets. The primary objective of this search was to find tweets pertinent to a
wide range of STEAM topics. However, this process may inadvertently capture tweets that do not
align with the search criteria, known as false positives. To maintain the integrity of the study, these
tweets are meticulously reviewed and filtered out to ensure the dataset's relevance and accuracy.

Table 1. The Collected Tweets’ Distribution by subject/hashtag.

Subject Number of Tweets Hashtag
Arts Education 1002 #ArtsEd
Computer Science 1225 #CompSci
Engineering 563 #EngChat
Language 4070 #LangChat
Literacy 2414 #Literacy
Physical Education 5765 #PhysEd
Science 1558 #SciChat
Social Science 5740 #SSchat

Using GPT-4, the thematic analysis of the Language dataset, comprising tweets containing the
hashtag #LangChat, revealed rich discussions centered around integrating technology in
language learning, professional development, and community engagement within the educational
sector. Key themes included the diverse use of digital platforms like Anki, Quizlet, and Kahoot for
interactive learning activities, highlighting the significant role of technology in enhancing language
education. Professional networking emerged as a central theme, with tweets emphasizing the
value of conferences and professional learning networks in fostering knowledge exchange and
372 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

continuing education. Advocacy and leadership within language education were underscored,
reflecting a commitment to advancing the field and supporting educational programs.
The analysis of the Computer Science-related tweets revealed a strong emphasis on
Technological Advancements, highlighting discussions on AI, machine learning, and new tech
developments. STEM Education Importance was the second most prevalent theme, underscoring
the significance of computer science in educational contexts, teaching methodologies, and
learning experiences. Educational Achievements was the third discussed topic, showcasing
individual projects and the application of specific technologies like NumPy and Python. While
Resources and Events had 140 mentions, pointing to sharing educational platforms, conferences,
and resources, the Personal Experiences and Humor theme appeared in some tweets. This
computer science data analysis highlights the diverse yet focused interests of the computer
science Twitter community, ranging from technological innovations to educational practices and
personal growth within the field.
For the Literacy-related tweets, GPT-4 revealed a strong emphasis on "Reading Practices and
Engagement," which is the most prominent theme with occurrences in most tweets. The
"Educational Contexts of Literacy" theme, evident in 511 tweets, underscored discussions around
integrating technology, digital literacy, and educator strategies within literacy education.
Comparatively less prevalent but still significant, the "Literacy Promotion and Advocacy" theme
appeared in 239 tweets, reflecting efforts in advocacy, support for literacy initiatives, and the
importance of charitable contributions to literacy.
The Twitter dataset on arts education revealed a multifaceted discourse centered around several
key themes: Art Appreciation and Education, Educational Resources and Activities, and
Research, Policy, and Advocacy. Art Appreciation and Education emerged as a prominent theme,
with tweets highlighting individual artists, artworks, and their historical and cultural significance to
foster a deeper understanding and appreciation of the arts. Educational Resources and Activities
were also highly represented, focusing on practical resources, teaching strategies, and creative
projects to enhance arts education. Research, Policy, and Advocacy themes highlighted the
importance of supporting arts education through research findings, policy discussions, and
funding opportunities.
Analyzing tweets on physical education revealed that the most dominant theme was "Educational
Activities," with 1655 tweets emphasizing the diversity of physical activities, sports, and
educational games. Following this, "Engagement and Innovation" and "Health and Well-being"
themes were prominent, indicating a strong emphasis on engaging students with innovative
teaching methods and promoting health and active lifestyles. "Professional Development"
emerged in 441 tweets, highlighting the value placed on educators' growth and knowledge
sharing. In comparison, "Resources and Tools" were discussed in 220 tweets, pointing to the use
of various educational resources and tools. The "Inclusivity and Accessibility" theme, though less
prevalent, underscored the importance of making physical education accessible and inclusive for
all students, reflecting a commitment to inclusivity within the field.
The thematic analysis of the science tweet dataset revealed encompasses themes such as
"Technology and Innovation," "Education and Outreach," "Historical Notes," "Astronomy and
Space," "Environmental Insights," "Scientific Research," and "Wildlife." Sub-themes identified
within these broader categories highlighted specific areas of interest, including advancements in
portable technologies, the use of educational tech, celebrating notable figures and scientific
milestones, and exploring space missions. Furthermore, the analysis underscored a strong focus
on environmental concerns, conservation efforts, and the implications of climate change. The
dataset also reflected a keen interest in wildlife conservation, genetic research, and ecological
studies, showcasing science-related conversations' wide-ranging and multi-faceted nature.

4.2 Search by Education Level

In this part of the study, we used GPT-4, a thematic analysis of tweets related to higher education,
high school, and middle school. The analysis revealed distinct priorities, concerns, and
discussions pertinent to each education level. In higher education, the emphasis shifts
significantly toward Career and Professional Development, highlighting the importance of job
readiness, interviews, and career planning. The theme of Educational Trends and Insights
suggests a broader discussion about the state and future of higher education, capturing dialogues
on student experiences, pedagogical approaches, and institutional challenges. The role of
Technology and Privacy in Education points to the increasing integration of digital tools in learning
and the accompanying concerns regarding data privacy.
High school discussions revolve around more immediate and personal aspects of the educational
experience. Themes like Educational Opportunities and Achievements focus on recognizing
academic and extracurricular accomplishments, which are essential for college admissions and
personal development. Athletic and Extracurricular Activities underscore the importance of sports
373 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

and hobbies for holistic development and community engagement. Career and College
Readiness theme reflects a preparatory stage for future educational and career paths,
emphasizing the significance of planning and resources like FAFSA.
For middle school, the themes tend toward foundational aspects of education and early
adolescent experiences. The General Education and School Life theme captures the day-to-day
realities of middle school, focusing on the roles of students and teachers in the educational
process. Libraries and Librarians and Teacher Identity and Merchandise suggest focusing on the
resources and identities within the school community, including the impact of social media and
teacher-specific merchandise. Specific School Programs highlight discussions about unique
educational initiatives and experiences at this level, often centered around exploration and
discovery.
Table 2 provides a concise overview of the focal points or themes within discussions about higher
education, high school, and middle school on Twitter, reflecting the unique aspects and concerns
at each education level.

Table 2. The Collected Tweets’ Distribution by Education Level.

Number of
Education Level Main Themes Tweets Hashtag
Career and Professional
Development, Educational
Trends and Insights,
Higher Education Technology and Privacy in 710 #HigherEd
Education, Academic Research
and Policy, Security and
Financial Aid
Educational Opportunities and
Achievements, Athletic and
Extracurricular Activities, Career
and College Readiness,
High School Personal Milestones and 602 #HighSchool
Celebrations, Support and
Community, Technology and
Online Engagement, Social and
Political Issues
General Education and School
Life, Libraries and Librarians,
Middle School Teacher Identity and 4106 #MiddleSchool
Merchandise, Specific School
Programs, College and Sports

5. Conclusion and Future Work

In this study, we utilized GPT-4 to analyze Twitter discussions related to STEAM education in
various subjects and at different education levels, revealing key themes such as technology
integration in language learning, the significance of technological advancements in computer
science, the importance of reading practices in literacy, and the role of art appreciation and
physical activities in education. The human-in-the-loop approach integrated the analytical
strengths of GPT-4 with human cognitive abilities for more reliable and relevant results. These
insights underscore the evolving nature of STEAM education, heavily influenced by digital
innovation and online communities. We will explore other social networking platforms like
LinkedIn or Reddit for future work. Additionally, we will use the growing capabilities of GPT-4 with
the multimodal nature of Twitter to incorporate an analysis of visual content such as infographics,
videos, and images.

Acknowledgment

This work was supported in part by the Commonwealth Cyber Initiative, an investment in the
advancement of cyberR&D, innovation, and workforce development. For more information about
CCI, visit cyberinitiative.org.
374 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

REFERENCES

[1] Culnan, M. J., McHugh, P. J., & Zubillaga, J. I. (2010). How large US companies can use
Twitter and other social media to gain business value. MIS Quarterly Executive, 9(4).
[2] Jamison-Powell, S., Linehan, C., Daley, L., Garbett, A., & Lawson, S. (2012, May). "I can't
get no sleep" discussing# insomnia on Twitter. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference
on human factors in computing systems (pp. 1501-1510).
[3] Abdelhamid, S. E. M., Kuhlman, C. J., Korkmaz, G., Marathe, M. V., & Ravi, S. S. (2015,
September). Edison: a web application for computational health informatics at scale. In
Proceedings of the 6th ACM Conference on Bioinformatics, Computational Biology and
Health Informatics (pp. 413-422).
[4] Li, M., Turki, N., Izaguirre, C. R., DeMahy, C., Thibodeaux, B. L., & Gage, T. (2021).
Twitter as a tool for social movement: An analysis of feminist activism on social media
communities. Journal of Community Psychology, 49(3), 854-868.
[5] Abdelhamid, S., Aly, M., & Katz, A. (2020, July). Harvesting tweets for a better
understanding of Engineering Students' First-Year Experiences. In 2020 First-Year
Engineering Experience.
[6] Le, H., Johri, A., & Malik, A. (2019, January). Curating tweets: A framework for using
Twitter for workplace learning. In ASEE Annual Conference proceedings.
[7] Hambrick, M. E., Simmons, J. M., Greenhalgh, G. P., & Greenwell, T. C. (2010).
Understanding professional athletes’ use of Twitter: A content analysis of athlete tweets.
International Journal of Sport Communication, 3(4), 454-471.
[8] Ogasahara, M., Kawashima, H., & Fujishiro, H. (2019). How Did Rumors on Twitter Diffuse
and Change in Expression? An Investigation of the Process of Spreading Rumors on
Twitter during the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake. Advances in Human-Computer
Interaction, 2019, 1-8.
[9] Johri, A., Karbasian, H., Malik, A., Handa, R., & Purohit, H. (2018). How diverse users and
activities trigger connective action via social media: Lessons from the Twitter hashtag
campaign# ilooklikeanengineer. arXiv preprint arXiv:1804.09226.
[10] Markey, M. K., Monteiro, J. C., & Stewart, J. (2019). Using Twitter to Support Students'
Design Thinking. In ASEE Gulf-Southwest Section Annual Meeting 2018 Papers.
American Society for Engineering Education.
[11] Roman, Egger., Joanne, Yu. (2022). A Topic Modeling Comparison Between LDA, NMF,
Top2Vec, and BERTopic to Demystify Twitter Posts. Frontiers in Sociology, DOI:
10.3389/fsoc.2022.886498.
[12] Ravindra, Kumar, Singh. (2023). Effective Information Retrieval Framework for Twitter
Data Analytics. International journal of information retrieval research, DOI:
10.4018/ijirr.325798.
[13] Buddhika, Kasthuriarachchy., Madhu, Chetty., Adrian, Shatte, Darren, Walls. (2021).
From General Language Understanding to Noisy Text Comprehension. Applied Sciences,
DOI: 10.3390/APP11177814
[14] K., Chen., S., Yang., Z., Duan. (2021). Twitter as research data: Tools, costs, skillsets,
and lessons learned. Politics and the Life Sciences, DOI: 10.1017/PLS.2021.19.
[15] Harsha, Nori., Scott, Mayer, McKinney., Dean, Carignan., Eric, Horvitz. (2023).
Capabilities of GPT-4 on Medical Challenge Problems. arXiv.org, DOI:
10.48550/arXiv.2303.13375
[16] Abdelhamid, S., Chanco, E., Rice, P., Li, C., & Aly, M. (2023, November). Using Chatbots
for Language Learning: A Bibliometric Analysis. In Conference Proceedings. Innovation in
Language Learning 2023.
[17] Rathje, S., Mirea, D. M., Sucholutsky, I., Marjieh, R., Robertson, C., & Van Bavel, J. J.
(2023). GPT is an effective tool for multilingual psychological text analysis.
[18] Savelka, J., Ashley, K. D., Gray, M. A., Westermann, H., & Xu, H. (2023). Can GPT-4
Support Analysis of Textual Data in Tasks Requiring Highly Specialized Domain
Expertise? arXiv preprint arXiv:2306.13906.
[19] Törnberg, P. (2023). Chatgpt-4 outperforms experts and crowd workers in annotating
political Twitter messages with zero-shot learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:2304.06588.
[20] Abdelhamid, S., Mallari, T., & Aly, M. (2023, June). Cybersecurity Awareness, Education,
and Workplace Training Using Socially Enabled Intelligent Chatbots. In The Learning
Ideas Conference (pp. 3-16). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.
375 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Laboratory Teaching Proposal on the Characteristics of an

RC Circuit

Ninfa Radicella

Liceo scientifico Filippo Silvestri, Portici (NA), Italy

Abstract

This abstract outlines a teaching proposal devised for a fifth-grade scientific high school class in
Italy (13th grade) focusing on the behaviour of an RC circuit. By using a constructive approach, it
enables students to explore and analyse the properties of an RC circuit, focusing on the behaviour
of capacitors and resistors in series, and to understand the transient response of the circuit.
Through exploratory teaching methodologies involving both practical experimentation and
theoretical discourse, students delve into the process of charging and discharging of a capacitor,
the concept of time constant (τ) and its significance in RC circuits, and - through data analysis
techniques - to visualise and interpret voltage-time graphs. The tools facilitating this
interdisciplinary proposal, spanning physics and mathematics with potential extensions into other
scientific domains, include virtual simulators, low-cost circuit construction materials, free data
analysis software, and digital sensors. All activities are highly adaptable, allowing for selective
experiment execution and material utilisation. Evaluation of the pathway employs a process-
oriented approach, combining observational and summative assessments within the final report.

Keywords: RC circuit, physics lab, exponential fit, active learning strategies

1. Introduction and Motivations

This educational proposal arises from the need to create interdisciplinary and meaningful
pathways. This entails addressing one or more topics pertaining to different disciplines but within
a unified framework that naturally integrates multidisciplinary abilities and knowledge, aiding in
the development of significant skills.
The key topic was the study of an RC circuit in physics. This was introduced exploratively after
studying the characteristics of DC circuits with resistors and, separately, capacitors with their
respective properties.
After experiencing the properties of such a simple circuit, students were asked to quantify their
hypotheses and verify them through the implementation of an exponential fit to visualise the
transient that characterises the voltage or current of an RC circuit. Finally, mathematics comes
into the game; through the formal study of the circuit, with the application of Kirchhoff's voltage
law and by verifying the solution of the associated differential equation, it is possible to think about
the role of initial conditions or system parameters, that in this case refers to physical properties
of the circuit that can be adjusted according to the final use.
This activity was carried out in the final year of a scientific high school (13th grade), although
some topics are related to the second two-year period of study [1], due to specific scheduling
within the class where it was implemented. However, this made it possible to implement an
educational proposal that has been effective, both for physics and mathematics.

2. Preparation and Implementation of the Activity

The activity is introduced with a worksheet (Table 1) to guide an explorative phase of the
properties of an RC circuit through a virtual simulator, that is free and available thanks to the
PhET Interactive Simulations project at the University of Colorado Boulder [2]. Phet Colorado
offers a rather intuitive simulator, in which it is possible to add the necessary components and
appropriate sensors. It is not possible to view the data graph but it is very intuitive.
Another option is Tinkercad [3]. It is a platform designed for electronics and robotics but has a
circuit section in which you can simulate with Arduino or even with a simple base (in order to
reproduce exactly the circuit to be built in the laboratory) and practice.
The platform also includes digital teaching activities, so there is the possibility of creating virtual
classes and projects to share with students.
376 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The students work in heterogeneous groups consisting of no more than three members, and they
have a finite amount of time (for example, 30 minutes) to explore the phenomenon. A conclusive
phase follows, to share the answers and formulate a final proposal.
.
Table 1. Student worksheet for exploratory work on the properties of an RC circuit.

1 Create a circuit with a battery, a resistor, and a capacitor connected in series using the
simulation [2]. Take a screenshot and paste it below.
2 What happens in the simulation? Display the direction of the electrons at the
beginning.
3 What happens after some time?
4 Now, try to describe in more detail what you obtained with the simulation. How did the
presence of the capacitor change the circuit's behavior? Why does this happen?
5 Now, put voltage and current sensors into the circuit. Take a screenshot and paste it
below to show how you inserted them, and annotate the reason for each operation.
6 What do the measurement tools indicate?
7 Record the nominal values of the battery, resistance, and capacitance.
8 Now, manipulate the circuit variables (not all at once!) and try to understand how each
one affects what happens once the circuit is closed. Record your reflections below.

As homework, with the support of digital resources, students are required to organise what has
been discovered and shared during the lesson.
A second phase of synchronous work is dedicated in the physics laboratory to build an RC circuit
with resistor and capacitor according to what was found with the virtual simulator in order to have
a time constant of approximately twenty seconds (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Students build their own RC circuit using a breadboard available in the laboratory, and select R
and C in such a way that the characteristic time is easily observable. In the prototype experiment depicted
in the images, a 9V battery (charged to 6V), R~30 kΩ e C~ 10 µF were used.

Once the circuit is constructed, the activity can go on with the phase of data visualisation and
analysis, which was here carried out using the Go Direct Vernier sensors [4] and the Graphical
Analysis software in the free version [5]. The multimeter is then activated in voltage measuring
mode, selecting the appropriate range (here 20 V). This operation can be done either at the
beginning when the sensor is connected to the app or later by clicking on the probe symbol at the
bottom right of the Graphical Analysis window. Additionally, the data collection mode is chosen
as a function of time, and the sampling time is selected (here 50 samples per second), at the
bottom left of the Graphical Analysis window (see figure 2). In the same window, the manual start
and end of the data collection phase are selected. The data collection phase is carried out; the
capacitor will be quickly charged to the battery voltage, then the battery is short-circuited, and the
discharge of the capacitor is observed. When the voltage tends to zero, the battery is
reconnected, and so on, to display one or more cycles. Figure 2 is a screenshot of the window
ofthe software.
377 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 2. Graph of the voltage across the capacitor. It is possible to view the charging and discharging
cycle, obtained by short-circuiting the voltage generator.

At this point we proceed with the analysis of the system which integrates the mathematical aspect
with the indications that physics offers, such as the dimensional analysis of the parameters. Table
2 shows an example of a worksheet for the student's independent work, which can be done both
at home and in class, which then prepares for data analysis with an exponential fit.

Table 2. Example of a worksheet for the student's independent work, which then prepares for data
analysis. The notations explicitly refer to the ones used in the class (see Figure 3).
1. Which quantities are shown on the graph of the data taken from the voltage sensor?

2. Carrying out the exponential fit which is the dependent variable y and which is the
independent variable x?

3. What physical dimensions should the parameters a, b and c have? Justify your answer.

4. Let's focus on the exponent. Considering the previous answer, and remembering that
the physical variables at play in the system are the capacitance of the capacitor C, the
resistance of the resistor R and the battery voltage V, determine how the
parameter c must depend on a combination of R, C and V (not necessarily all e
three) in order to obtain the required physical dimensions.
378 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 3. In order to perform a best fit with Graphical Analysis, first of all select the set of data involved;
this can be done by highlighting the area directly on the graph.

Then, by clicking at the bottom left, on the icon representing a data trend, you choose the “Perform
a curvilinear fit” option (“Effettua un fit curvilineo”, in italian). Among the possible options, choose
the exponential function with the natural base and apply the operation.
Then, students can be asked to perform a best fit analysis to estimate the time constant of the
circuit, and compare the result with the nominal value. In the references there is an interesting
blog article on what a data fit is [6], an educational piece that can be submitted to students from
the early years of high school.
The interesting parameter here is c (see figures 3 and 4), which represents the characteristic
time of the circuit, which the students initially chose by selecting the most suitable resistors and
capacitors.
We can then proceed with the comparison between the results obtained, determining their
compatibility or otherwise by calculating the discrepancy.

Figure 4. The outcome of the fit is shown on the graph. The best estimate of the parameters appears in
the window as well as an indicator of the goodness of the fit, indicated as the mean square error (“errore
quadratico medio”, in italian).
379 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

3. Conclusions and Potential Implementations

The evaluation of student learning at the end of this teaching activity involves both a formative
and a summative assessment. The first one takes into account the various phases of the learning
process and refers to the group work of the initial, explorative phases, some parts of the laboratory
work, and the analysis of the worksheet, either in groups or individually. Then a summative
evaluation is possible at the end; specifically, in what is realised here, it refers to a lab report.
For both the activity in groups or in lab and the lab reports, an assessment rubric is shared with
the students before starting the activities; in fact, it was shared at the beginning of the year.
A final phase of this activity is considered: research and study the applications of an RC circuit.
It is easy to find many examples of the wide-ranging applications of RC circuits, highlighting their
versatility and importance in modern electronics and electrical engineering, such as timing
circuits, battery charging and discharging, filters, audio tone control. But the students were very
impressed with the applications of RC circuits in advancing medical and biological research,
enhancing diagnostic capabilities, and improving patient care outcomes. They highlight the
versatility of RC circuits in interfacing with biological systems and enabling innovative healthcare
technologies. Among others, we recall here those that the students chose to explore in depth:
1. Electrocardiography (ECG) and Electroencephalography (EEG): RC circuits are integral
components of biomedical sensors used in ECG and EEG devices. They help in signal
conditioning, filtering out noise, and amplifying weak bioelectric signals from the heart (ECG) and
brain (EEG). RC circuits ensure accurate detection and recording of physiological electrical
activity, aiding in the diagnosis of cardiac and neurological conditions.
2. Implantable Medical Devices: RC circuits are used in implantable medical devices, such as
pacemakers, defibrillators, and neural stimulators. They help in energy storage and delivery, as
well as in regulating the timing of therapeutic interventions. RC circuits enable these devices to
deliver precise electrical pulses or stimuli to targeted tissues or organs, thereby managing cardiac
rhythm disorders, neurological conditions, and other medical issues.
3. Biopotential Recording and Stimulation: RC circuits are employed in biopotential recording
systems, including electromyography (EMG) and electroencephalography (EEG), to capture and
analyse electrical signals generated by muscle or brain activity. Additionally, RC circuits are used
in neuromuscular stimulation devices, such as functional electrical stimulation (FES) systems, for
restoring motor function in individuals with paralysis or neuromuscular disorders.
4. Biosensing and Bioimpedance Measurements: RC circuits are utilized in biosensing
applications, including bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS) and impedance-based biosensors.
They enable the measurement of electrical impedance changes in biological tissues or fluids,
facilitating non-invasive assessment of physiological parameters like tissue composition,
hydration status, and cell viability. RC circuits are also used in impedance-based biosensors for
detecting biomolecules, pathogens, and analytes in clinical samples.
5. Tissue and Cell Culture Systems: RC circuits are incorporated into tissue and cell culture
systems for monitoring and controlling environmental conditions, such as temperature, pH, and
nutrient levels. They help in maintaining stable culture conditions, ensuring cell viability and
reproducibility in experimental studies and bioproduction processes.
6. Electrical Stimulation Therapy: RC circuits are employed in electrical stimulation therapy
devices, such as transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) units and deep brain
stimulation (DBS) systems. They deliver controlled electrical stimuli to targeted tissues or nerves,
modulating neural activity and providing pain relief or therapeutic effects in conditions like chronic
pain, Parkinson's disease, and depression.
This final phase was not part of the evaluation because it has spontaneously arisen at the end of
the activities, and in this sense, it is part of a new implementation of the educational path, which
will involve other subjects and teachers.

REFERENCES

[1] Indicazioni Nazionali per i licei, d.m. n. 211 del 2010.

[2] https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/circuit-construction-kit-ac-virtual-lab/latest/circuit-
construction-kit-ac-virtual-lab_en.html
[3] https://www.tinkercad.com/
[4] https://www.vernier.com/product/go-direct-voltage-probe/
[5] https://www.vernier.com/downloads/graphical-analysis/
[6] https://www.mathisintheair.org/wp/2015/01/fit-dei-dati-lunisci-i-puntini-degli-scienziati/
380 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

PBL Application to STEAM Education Incorporating

Sustainability and Gender Equality Axes: STEAM-ACTIVE
Project Implementation in University and High School

Kristina Zuza1, Ane Portillo-Blanco1, Edurne Iturbe-Zabalo2, José Gutierrez-

Berraondo2, Spiros Sirmakessis3, Lorenzo Trombetti4, Simona Zoncheddu5, Linda
Barelli4

University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain1

Fundación para la Formación Técnica en Máquina Herramienta, Spain2
University of Peloponnese, Greece3
University of Perugia, Italy4
Liceo Statale Assunta Pieralli Perugia, Italy5

Abstract

Nowadays, students in the scientific-technological field are required to achieve an inter-disciplines

competence with attention also to environmental, economic and social awareness issues
enabling future technicians to the required challenge-driven approach. Therefore, also a nexus
between sciences and humanities is strongly encouraged since the integration of different
disciplines produces a holistic approach that enables to better understand real-world problems.
In consideration of what above the STEAM-ACTIVE project (KA2-Erasmus+) proposes an
innovative problem-based learning (PBL) methodology, for Teaching Learning Sequences (TLS)
design, which implements an active learning approach and incorporates two main transversal
axes to be considered throughout the entire process: sustainability and gender equality.
The developed methodology has been deeply formalized in a Protocol, developed for Teachers
in the scientific-technological Higher Education. Also an e-learning-based training course for
teachers has been realized to support their training. The Protocol, which includes a preliminary
theoretical description of STEAM approaches and active methodologies’ implementation, guides
the teachers in the TLS design process passing through relevant steps as i) definition of the
problem to be solved; ii) identification of learning objectives that students should achieve; iii)
assessment of learning demands; iv) guiding questions; v) design of activities; vi) assessment of
the achievement of each learning objective. In addition, the Protocol gives guidelines on
techniques to adapt the TLS to different education contexts.
The e-learning course has been reviewed by external university teachers. Moreover, a collection
of 24 STEAM-based TLS has been designed by applying the Protocol and internally reviewed.
Part of the designed TLS have been already tested being the project entered the piloting phase.
Globally, the STEAM-Active project enhances students’ ability to integrate different disciplines in
solving a technical problem taking into account though all the solving process also the social
impacts their decisions have. Moreover, it contrasts gender gap in the STEM field increasing
women's participation. For this also its application to the high school is preliminary assessed.

Keywords: STEAM, STEM education, PBL, active learning, gender equality, circular economy

1. Introduction

The current historical period is characterized by a deep transition in several ambits with a
transformative impact in terms of implemented technologies. This is the case of the Clean Energy
Transition and the Digital Transition targeted, at the European level, by the Next Generation EU
program [1]. As example, the green deal calls for a reorientation of energy systems architecture,
a greater attention for rapidly growing and evaluating applications, considering sustainability,
environmental and social aspects. The new direction requires responding to existing and future
demands, creating and empowering a new generation of citizens with holistic competencies
(embracing technical, but also environmental, economic, and social aspects of energy and digital
technologies/systems), and promoting knowledge-sharing within a quadruple/quintuple-helix
innovation framework. This implies university-industry-government-public-environment
interactions within a knowledge economy; therefore, the creation of a nexus between sciences
and humanities is required.
381 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

With reference to this framework, the CETP – SRIA [2] states that a challenge-driven
interdisciplinary and multi-level approach is needed to guarantee the required increase in rate
advancement of technological development. Moreover, socio-economic and environmental
perspectives have to be integrated in the technological development process, i.e., choices among
multiple options have to be guided also in consideration of their impact in terms of social
acceptability of the new technology, as well as its cost and environmental impact.
For what above it is clear as students, in the scientific-technologic field, being the future
technicians and researchers, need to be trained to address breakthrough research and innovation
in support of the targets of the current policies through an interdisciplinary approach achieving
multiple competences, including not technical ones.
This aspect has to be considered together with the fact that the STEM sector constitutes one of
the main shortcomings on the European territory in relation to the professional skills necessary to
face the market of the future as described above [3].
A further issue to be addressed in the STEM field is represented by gender gap. To this regard,
even if dedicated actions to be implemented in Higher Education are crucial, such issue needs to
be addressed earlier. With reference to the High School, data published by OCSE PISA in 2018
[4] highlights as males achieve in math scores 5 points higher than females. In 2022 such gap
increases up to further 4 points [5], with a maximum gap of 9 points in the technical schools.
This difference is higher in Italy for example: 16 and 20 points in 2018 and 2022, respectively with
a higher gap in the medium-high score range
The need to develop and strengthen STEM disciplines is evident on several fronts. With reference
to the Italian case, it should be noted that:
- Alma Laurea data [6] show that STEM faculties have a greater impact on employment;
- The Ministerial Guidelines for STEM disciplines 2023 [7] target the introduction of activity
aimed at the development of mathematical-scientific and technological skills in all
curricula of all types and levels;
- The Ministry has provided substantial funding, linked in particular to the PNRR which is
included within the Next Generation EU Programme, to be used in the field of training,
methodology and for the creation of new environments more advantageous for learning.
The STEAM-Active project [4] (KA2-Erasmus+) contributes to mitigate the lack of STEM skills
and it is perfectly aligned with the programmatic choice for an educational model promoting
holistic competencies. It aims to provide teachers a methodology to design Teaching-Learning
Sequences (TLS) based on STEAM in the context of learning paths in Higher Education, but with
a relevant potential impact also on High School. The method follows a Problem/Project Based
Learning (PBL) approach and it is based on active learning, thus implying the direct students’
involvement through appropriate activities. Moreover, the method integrates gender equality and
circular economy as transversal axes in the planning and programming of activities. These
completely reflect the targets of the current policies aiming to increase women engagement in
technological and scientific fields and to the sustainability of the future European society.
The Protocol, supported by a training course provided in e-learning mode (see Section 2),
therefore provides an innovative teaching model which acquires considerable importance in
today's training of future technicians and scientists.
The e-learning course is available for teachers interested in applying the STEAM-Active
methodology.
The effectiveness of the e-learning course was assessed by means of an external peer revision
process. The outcomes of this process are summarised in Section 3.
Subsequently, 24 TLSs were designed by the project partners by applying the Protocol (see
Section 4) and then reviewed by means of an internal revision process (outcomes are detailed in
Section 5). Finally, the project entered in the piloting phase by implementing the designed TLSs
in University engineering courses. Some preliminary outcomes of this ongoing activity are
presented in Section 6 together with the description of possible implementation pathways of the
STEAM-Active methodology in the High School.

2. e-Learning Course

2.1 The STEAM-Active Protocol

The STEAM-Active Protocol constitutes a complete guideline for teachers to design TLSs in the
scientific-technological field to train students taking into account circularity, sustainability, and
inclusion topics (gender issue). Protocol development was based on a wide literature analysis
whom outcomes are available on the project website (https://steam-active.pixel-
online.org/methodologies.php) as well as the Protocol itself [8]. For what concerns the theoretical
background of the Protocol, all details can be found in a previous work of the authors [9].
382 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Aiming to the Protocol development STEAM education is considered as a teaching method

integrating content, skills, and beliefs from at least two disciplines that form the acronym and that
focuses on real-world contexts. Concerning the level of integration of these disciplines,
projects/problems are framed as Interdisciplinary, Transdisciplinary, or Metadisciplinary, all of
them developed according to a project-oriented curriculum structure, i.e., PBL methodology [10].
The Protocol, which includes a preliminary theoretical description of STEAM approaches and
active methodologies’ implementation, guides the teachers in the TLS design process passing
through relevant steps as i) definition of the problem to be solved; ii) identification of learning
objectives that students should achieve (technical but also related to circular economy and gender
issues); iii) assessment of learning demands in reference to the gap between students’ initial
knowledge and knowledge related to the achievement of the learning objectives; iv) guiding
problems (i.e. learning pathway, each segment focused on achieving at least one learning
objective implying a specific learning demand); v) design of activities (inquiry and experiment
activities, design and making activities), at least one for each learning objective, identifying the
recommended didactic technique for their development and the evaluation modality; vi)
assessment of the achievement of each learning objective at the beginning, during the TLS and/or
at the end.
The sustainability and gender equality axes are taken into account through specific strategies to
be selected to include in the TLS, for each axis among a series of options indicated in the Protocol.
Specifically, at least two of the strategies proposed in each part have to be chosen by teachers,
to have a sufficient implementation of the transversal axes for students training to circular
economy principles and for gender gap reduction in scientific-technological contexts.
Additionally, the Protocol gives guidelines on techniques to adapt the TLS to different education
contexts.

2.2 The e-Learning Course

To support teachers in the Protocol implementation, an e-learning course was developed. Each
of the three modules is composed of three sections. Each of the sections in the three modules
has a similar structure containing a general definition for the section, on-line resources, YouTube
videos and Tasks and Activities. At the end of each of the sections, it is possible to add comments
and/or ratings about the course. The description of the modules is as follows:

1) Module 1 - Basis of STEAM addressing i) the evolution of the STEAM acronym making
teachers awareness of features that identify a STEAM as used in the STEAM-Active
project; ii) features differentiating STEAM projects from the ones which cannot be called
STEAM projects (teachers are awareness as a STEAM project must be characterized by
integrated content of several disciplines, real-world context, and an active learning
approach); iii) different levels of STEAM integration (after studying this section, you will
be able to choose the appropriate level of STEAM integration in the implemented teaching
scheme).
2) Module 2 - STEAM Active approach. It first indicates main ingredients to be taken into
account when defining projects based on the STEAM (e.g., creativity, creative-thinking,
synthetic-thinking, critical thinking, imagination, cultural sensitivity). Then it provides an
overview on learning techniques to be considered (e.g., Project Based Learning, Think-
Pair-Share/Write-Pair-Share, Brainstorming, Role play, etc). Finally, characteristics (e.g.,
to be motivators, knowledge managers, guides, methodical, mediator, etc.) that are
considered necessary for teachers in order to design, develop and implement a project
based on the STEAM concept are presented and discussed.
3) Module 3 - Basis for designing a STEAM Active project
This module includes three sections. The first one details the steps to be followed to
design a TLS according to the STEAM-Active methodology. Therefore, the different parts
of the TLS design protocol are explained step by step, with a particular focus on those
not already discussed in Module 1 and Module 2 (e.g., learning difficulties, guiding
questions, etc). Examples of each step are given achieving, at the end of the section, to
the finalisation of the design of a STEAM training learning sequence.
The second section is aimed at those teachers interested in using a TLS already
designed, supporting them to understand how to manage it, in order to identify the needed
modifications e.g., in relation to used subjects, implemented level of integration,
background knowledge of students, students and teachers experience in PBL and
STEAM projects.
The final section deals with the adaptability of a TLS, as a crucial factor to allow TLS
application in different contexts. Specifically, the e-learning course presents different
techniques that can be applied according to different needs of TLS adaptation as the time
383 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

available, the level of independence of the students when developing projects, the
students’ knowledge and the specific context of implementation.

3. Review of the e-Learning Course

The evaluation of the e-learning course was carried out in the 5 countries participating in the
STEAM-Active project. It was carried out in two different dimensions. On the one hand, the course
was available on the project website [8] and was offered to anyone who might be interested once
registered in the project web site. On the other hand, an internal evaluation was performed by 5
professionals (different from the e-learning course developers) from the institutions involved in
the project (a total of 30 participants), answering six specific questions about the e-learning
course.
A total of 149 people interested in STEAM education participated in the external evaluation.
Although most of these professionals belonged to the institutions partner of the consortium, also
staff from other institutions was involved. Participants were asked to register on the website (name
and e-mail); once registered they had the opportunity to leave comments on each of the three
modules of the e-learning course described in section 2.
The course has received a total of 326 comments about the three modules. Almost half of the
comments were focused on the first module entitled "Basis of STEAM", around 30% were about
the module "Steam Approach" and the rest, around 20%, were about the module "Bases for
designing a STEAM-Active project". The comments in general have a positive character and the
most repeated word in the comments is "interesting"; other recurrent words are "useful" and
"helpful". Let's look at some examples.

• Great article in order to know basically what STEAM is. Really interesting and useful!
(Spanish learner)
• Very useful and informative (Lithuanian learner)
• Very successful online course, which transfers a scientific approach into the everyday
world. It also explains very well why stem is relevant. (German learner)
• I like how the teachers advocate for the use of practice because it stimulates the students
to get involve and to puzzle over and come up with solutions or ideas (Greek learner)
• The document is well structured and is a good guideline for planning PBL-projects (Greek
learner)
• Video reflects how the learning paradigm has changed. I liked it (Lithuanian learner)
• Key chapter to understand STEAM integration levels (Spanish learner)
• Experienced experts talk about their techniques with hints on how to use them. That’s
really helpful when you think of using them in own lessons (German learner)
• The protocol for STEAM educational projects is really well-made, providing a systematic
and user-friendly approach for teachers. (Italian learner)
• The potential modifications, such as deleting or adding objectives, changing questions,
is crucial for successful implementation in varied classroom contexts. (Italian learner)
• The inclusion of studies demonstrating the positive effects of STEAM on students'
creative-thinking is invaluable. (Italian learner)

In addition to this piloting of the online course, 5 professionals from each of the project partners
(a total of 30) answered a specific questionnaire for the evaluation of the e-learning course. This
questionnaire consists of 6 questions, 2 per module, aiming to obtain assessments relative to key
points of the e-learning course. The first two questions aim to explore to what extent the definition
of STEAM methodology is understood and what is the difference between STEAM and STEM.
The next two questions target to explore the connection between the intended disciplines and
their relevance to engineering education. In addition, the questionnaire asks about the guidance
offered by the course to incorporate multidisciplinary approaches. The questions related to
module 3 focus on the strategies offered by the course to adapt the TLSs both in general and in
relation to each of the points proposed.
With regard to this section, answers provided by the external evaluators were, in general, more
elaborated. As in the previous evaluation, the tenor of the responses was positive.
384 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4. TLS Design

During the project 24 TLSs (4 TLSs per partner) were developed by the Universities partners of
the project by applying the STEAM approach. As indicated in the next Section 5, designed TLSs
were subjected to an internal review process. Subsequently, TLSs have to be revised by the
designers according to reviewers’ comments and suggestions. At now, the review process was
almost completed, but 3 TLSs need to be assessed, while other 2 TLSs (already revised) need
to be update on the project portal. Therefore, in the following data are provided relative to the 19
TLSs currently available in the STEAM-Active project web site.
First of all, about 60% of the TLSs were developed to be implemented in Bachelor degree study
programmes (Fig. 1a), even if the developed teacher’s guidelines indicate how to adapt the TLSs
to different contexts. It is remarked as it is relevant since the Bachelor degree programme is
intermediate with respect to High Schools and Master degree programmes. Moreover, the graph
of Fig. 1b provides the number of TLSs per number of ECTS (considering that each ECTS
corresponds to 8 hours).

a) b)

Fig. 1. a) Number of TLSs per study programme; b) Number of TLSs per number of ECTS

arts
15 14 user design
communication
12 MANAGEMENT (resources, quality)
software ENG
mech ENG
10 9
electrical ENG
8
energy ENG
ENGINEERING
6
Informatics (data science included)
5 4 chemistry
3 3 medicine
2 2 biology
1 1 1 1 1 physics

0 Math
1
Fig. 2. Number of TLSs involving each subject

Furthermore, for what concerns the number of involved disciplines and the level of integration,
developed TLSs are characterized to prove they answer the requirements of the STEAM
approach.
The number of subjects involved in each TLS varies from 2 (the minimum required value) up to 5
with a mean value of 3. Fig. 2 depicts the number of TLSs in which a subject is involved. For
engineering subject, once a specific engineering field is involved (e.g., electrical engineering,
mechanical engineering, etc) also the general engineering field is considered. Finally, Fig. 3
385 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

shows the implemented level of disciplines integration, reporting the number of TLSs for each
integration type among Interdisciplinary, Transdisciplinary, and Metadisciplinary
problems/projects.

Fig. 3. Number of TLSs per disciplines integration type

5. TLS Internal Review

The 24 designed TLSs were internally evaluated (21 out of 24) by at least for one (or two) of the
project partners. The evaluation was carried out in relation to the Protocol and following Protocol’s
steps, but in addition some other interesting aspects to be taken into account were incorporated.
The evaluation was done following a template. In the evaluation template, data related to the
fulfilment of each of the Protocol’s requirements were collected. For those cases in which the
requirement was not met, the evaluator had to indicate his or her suggested revisions and
recommendations for making these changes. Once the authors had received the evaluation, they
redesigned the aspects to be improved. In this way, the quality and coherence of the design was
ensured.
According to the structure of the evaluation table, as the preliminary review step, general
information about the TLS was collected, such as the title of the TLS and the name of the
university that designed the proposal following the Protocol. Next, the reviewer was asked about
the fulfilment of each of the Protocol’s blocks. In the first section general data of the TLS such as
the level (Bachelor, Degree or Master) for which it was designed, the name of the program, the
course(s), and the subjects that were integrated in the proposal had to be indicated, as well as
whether or not it mentions the level of STEAM integration (Interdisciplinary, Multidisciplinary or
Transdisciplinary) proposed for the implementation of the proposal.
The second section asked reviewers to assess the data included in relation to the context for
which the TLS is designed. The proposal should include the estimated number of students that
will participate in the implementation, the general topic addressed by the TLS, the number of
ECTSs that will be used in its development, the resources that will be needed, as well as the
previous knowledge that will be required from the students. Finally, the proposal should also
include the Project Based Learning (PBL) expertise of both teachers and students.
In the third block, each TLS was assessed with respect to the transversal axes inclusion as
required by the Protocol, that is at least two activities related to gender issues and two activities
related to circular economy included in the design.
According to the fourth section, reviewers assessed whether the TLS design included the guiding
questions, the learning objectives, the learning demands related to learning difficulties and the
learning pathway.
In the fifth block of the evaluation template, reviewers checked whether the design was coherent.
To this end, it was checked whether the Learning Pathway was correctly related to the guiding
questions, the learning objectives, the learning demands, the methodological needs and the
activities described in the sixth block. In the seventh block, it was verified whether the assessment
proposed in the TLS is appropriate, while in the eighth block it was evaluated whether the
transversal axes (gender issues and circular economy) were included in an appropriate way.
Evaluations were generally positive and TLSs didn’t need a deep reassessment. The redesign
needs consisted on minor revisions focusing on adding aspects that the authors overlooked and
were required by the evaluators for a better understanding of the design of the TLS.
386 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

6. TLS Piloting Phase

The overall process for TLSs designs up to their piloting implementation is shown in Fig. 4. TLSs
highlighted in yellow have to be assessed, while the orange ones are already revised and need
to be uploaded in the project web site. The other 19 are already assessed, revised and uploaded
in the project web site. In the last column of Fig. 4 the implementation scheme of the first phase
of the piloting is shown. The piloting consists in the TLSs test in engineering courses by project
partners, specifically University of the Basque Country (Spain), Baden-Wuerttemberg
Cooperative State University (Germany), University of Peloponnese (Greece), University of
Perugia (Italy), Kaunas University of Technology (Lithuania), and Machine Tool Institute (Spain).
Currently 10 TLSs were already tested.

Fig. 4. TLSs piloting matching

At the end of the project each partner has to test the four TLSs internally designed plus a fifth one
designed by another partner. Professors implementing the TLSs have to report a course diary
and to answer a questionnaire. Preliminary feedbacks of the piloting are positive.
Also the implementation of the STEAM-Active methodology in High School teaching has a
potential relevant impact. In order to support activities in the STEM area, recently the Liceo Statale
A. Pieralli, a High School in Perugia (Italy), activated a Human Science course with STEM
enhancement for the first two years (28 hours per week instead of 27): at least one hour at week
is carried out in the laboratory aiming to enhance mathematical and digital skills by applying them
to scientific, humanistic, social, and economic real problems.
The aim is to enhance digital and mathematical competences, together with computational,
communication and collaborative skills and creativity. Specifically, the High School offers
educational and design activities with innovative approaches. This is to encourage the
development of a STEM thinking, not only in the educational and cognitive field, but as a tool for
approaching, understanding and solving a complex reality increasingly oriented to digital
innovation.
All activities have a laboratory character and put the student at the centre of the learning process.
Very interesting are the feedbacks collected at the end of the courses activated in the 2022-2023
year.
Most students say that STEM activities allow them to:
- prefer laboratory activities over classroom activities;
- understand how mathematics contents are applied to the real world;
- know how to read and process real data, graphs, etc. to solve complex situations;
- improve their digital skills (96% of students’ answers), specifically in using new software
and electronic documents/tools;
- improve the study method for participation in university competitions or tests;
- discover and approach the scientific world to orient themselves towards STEM studies or
work environments.
387 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

6. Conclusion

The STEAM-Active project was started with the aim of achieving 3 results. The first one related
to the Protocol was already concluded and this paper discussed the second and third objectives
of the project. The second is related to the e-learning course. As discussed in sections 2 and 3,
three modules were designed and evaluated both externally and internally. It was explained how
the evaluation was developed and evidence of this positive evaluation was shown. In relation to
the third objective of the STEAM-Active project related to the design of the TLSs, section 4
provides details concerning the 24 TLSs produced by applying the Protocol.
In addition, section 5 describes how the process of TLSs internal evaluation was developed in
detail. In this way, the coherence and understanding of the proposals made were ensured.
Although the TLSs implementation and evaluation are not concluded, evaluation outcomes
relative to both the e-learning course and the TLSs design are positive and indicate that the
STEAM-Active project is successfully meeting its objectives.

REFERENCES

[1] https://next-generation-eu.europa.eu/index_en
[2] Integrated SET Plan CETP - Clean Energy Transition Partnership - Strategic Research
and Innovation Agenda (v1.0 Endorsed by European Countries and the European
Commission) - November 2020
[3] “Relevant and high-quality higher education | European Education Area.”
https://education.ec.europa.eu/education-levels/higher-education/relevant-and-high-
quality-higher-education (accessed May 10, 2023)
[4] https://www.invalsiopen.it/risultati-ocse-pisa-2018/
[5] https://invalsiopen.it/risultati-ocse-pisa-2022/
[6] https://www.almalaurea.it/news/profilo-ed-esiti-distanza-dei-diplomati
[7] https://www.miur.gov.it/web/guest/-/nota-prot-4588-del-24-ottobre-2023
[8] The STEAM-Active (Project Number: 2021-1-ES01-KA220-HED-000032107) -
https://steam-active.pixel-online.org/
[9] Portillo-Blanco, A. et al. "Innovative teaching methods in engineering education: the
STEAM-Active project," 2023 32nd Annual Conference of the European Association for
Education in Electrical and Information Engineering (EAEEIE), Eindhoven, Netherlands,
2023, pp. 1-5, DOI: 10.23919/EAEEIE55804.2023.10181478.
[10] Fan, S.C., Yu, K.C., and Lin, K.Y. “A Framework for Implementing an Engineering-
Focused STEM Curriculum,” vol. 19, pp. 1523–1541, 2021, DOI: 10.1007/s10763-020-
10129-y.
388 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Experiences and Struggles of Female STEM Students:

Insights from a Women-Only STEM Program

Sandra Klatt1, Martha King2, Ulrike Busolt3

Furtwangen University, Germany1

Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada2
Furtwangen University, Germany3

Abstract

In many STEM fields, especially computer science and engineering, women are vastly
outnumbered in undergraduate education. This becomes even more noticeable in further
education and the workforce. The gender difference is the most pronounced in high-level
positions, a phenomenon often referred to as the ‘leaky pipeline’ [1; 2]. While the
underrepresentation of women in STEM is often investigated starting at a very young age on
topics such as spatial knowledge, learning methods, and stereotypes [3], university education is
a critical time when female students will become familiar with many of the struggles faced by
women in STEM, and ultimately decide to drop out of their studies or not.
In this paper, questionnaire results are analyzed from an annual German women-only STEM
summer school (informatica feminale Baden-Wurttemberg) targeted at computer science
students and professionals, and an annual winter school (meccanica feminale) targeted at female
mechanical and electrical engineering students and professionals. These results provide
important insights regarding female STEM students including motivation, discrimination, dropout
and retention, and the importance of a mono-educational environment. By providing insight into
the struggles’ female STEM students face, their reasoning for potentially dropping out or leaving
the field becomes much clearer, as do potential solutions to help with these issues.

Keywords: Mono-Education; Women in STEM-studies; Dropout of female STEM-students

1. Introduction

In Germany, female students make up just 21.8% of first-year computer science students, and
26.3% of first-year students in technical subjects including mechanical engineering, process
engineering, electrical engineering, and information technology as of 2018 [4].
The process leading to the underrepresentation of women in STEM has been coined as the ‘leaky
pipeline’. This phenomenon starts before higher education when many young or high school-age
girls decide to not pursue STEM. The decision against STEM may result from a multitude of
reasons, such as gender-specialized parenting [5], lack of confidence in STEM subjects [3], and
general stereotypes & implicit bias [1]. The pipeline continues throughout higher education where
many women will drop out of their STEM studies. Finally, the ‘leaky pipeline’ persists after higher
education, as many female STEM graduates leave their job or pursue different career paths.
Another issue that exists for women in STEM is discrimination. It is difficult to quantify the
discrimination faced by women in STEM as it cannot be studied in a controlled environment and
is often quite discreet, but it has been considered one of the factors causing the under-
representation of women in STEM by researchers [2]. Some forms of discrimination faced by
women in STEM include isolation, lower recognition of accomplishments, reduced chances of
receiving a job or promotion, social microaggressions, and more [1]. A form of discrimination that
female university students are very susceptible to is sexual discrimination [6].
Heublein et al. [7] state in their paper about the development of dropout rates in Germany that,
while the dropout rate between male and female STEM students is not extremely different, the
dropout rate for female engineering students and female mathematics / natural science students
is higher than the general female bachelor’s degree student dropout rate. This demonstrates that
women in STEM are still more likely to drop out than the standard female university student [7].
Even if the dropout rates of male and female students in STEM may not be so different, the
dropout rates of women in STEM are more critical: women in STEM are already vastly
underrepresented in specific fields. Also, there is already such an effort to attract young girls to
study STEM in the first place, that the loss of one of these students due to dropout is especially
389 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

hard to recuperate from [3]. And if one wants to increase the proportion of women in the long
term, not only must the dropout be replaced, but another, additional woman must be attracted to
study the STEM topic.
As groups with higher performance anxiety are “predicted to be at the greatest risk of attrition
from STEM majors” [8] it is worth considering the impact that stereotypes, discrimination, and
other factors may have on the female STEM student experience and dropout rates. This is a
critical part of the ‘leaky pipeline’, so the understanding of why women in STEM are dropping out
of their studies and how to retain them is of great importance.

2. Methodology

Netzwerk F.I.T. (Netzwerk Frauen.Innovation.Technik / Network Women.Innovation.Technology)

Baden-Wurttemberg is an initiative of Furtwangen University. It is funded by the State Baden-
Wurttemberg Ministry of Science, Research and the Arts to increase the proportion, reduce the
dropout rate and provide support for female students in STEM. The Netzwerk F.I.T hosts two
educational events per year, each a week-long, these being a winter school meccanica feminale
(mf) targeting female students and engineers in the subjects of mechanical and electrical
engineering, and a summer school informatica feminale BW (if) targeting female students and
professionals in the subjects of IT and computer science. These events are offered exclusively to
women, providing a mono-educational environment where all lecturers and participants are
female. The focus of these events is on technical skills development courses, professional
development courses, and networking opportunities. These events offer a protected space to talk
about gender-specific experiences in male-dominated study programs. One goal is to encourage
participants in their choice of study and provide them with support.
At the end of each event, participants are asked to complete an event questionnaire. This includes
several questions regarding their experiences as female STEM students. These questionnaires
provide important insights regarding the student’s motivation to pursue a STEM field, their
experiences with discrimination, whether or not they have considered dropping out of their
studies, and their feelings towards the mono-educational environment.
It should be noted that though the event’s target audience are female STEM university students,
some of the participants, and subsequently questionnaire respondents, have already completed
their studies or are students who have started their career. Also, as some participants may attend
the events several times, there may be individuals whose responses are considered more than
once. Furthermore, it must be considered that the questionnaire was not originally designed for a
social science study, but as an accompanying evaluation of the events for monitoring purposes.

3. Results of the Questionnaire

The following section includes relevant questions and responses from participants of the events
informatica feminale BW (if) and meccanica feminale (mf). The presented questionnaire data is
from 2018 to 2022. Participants belong to one of the following three groups: Students,
professionals, or women who do both at the same time (study/work). This information on status
can be omitted by the respondent in the questionnaire.

3.1 “Why Did You Decide to Study a STEM Subject?”

Participants were asked about the importance of various motivations for their decision to study a
STEM subject. Responses are on a Likert scale of 1 (= strongly disagree) to 5 (= strongly agree).
The average mean score for each response was determined (if & mf participants 2018-2022).
The most important motivation for studying a STEM subject is the item ‘Interested in study content’
with a mean value of 4.72, that is 95.54% of the responding participants agreed (value 4) or
strongly agreed (value 5) to this (Fig. 1).
Furthermore, it is very surprising that ‘Role models’ are so rarely selected as a motivation for
taking up a subject in the STEM field. At first glance, this contradicts the assumption that role
models are so important for young girls when choosing a career and therefore must be highlighted
and given prominence. The results rather suggest that the young women study a STEM subject
despite the lack of role models or that the female students themselves are not aware of the lack
of motivating role models.
390 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig 1. Mean and Standard Deviation of various motivations in decision to study a STEM subject. Events
2018 to 2022

3.2 “Have You Experienced Discrimination and / or Negative Experiences in Your Studies
or Profession?”

Participants were asked if they have experienced discrimination or similar negative experiences
in their studies or profession. The average percentage of participants of the events if & mf 2018
to 2022, who report specific forms of discrimination, can be found depicted graphically in figure
2.

Fig. 2. Participants and Discrimination. All events 2018 to 2022, in % by status of participant, n=623

It can be noted that a high proportion of the respondents have experienced negative experiences
or forms of discrimination. This applies in particular to competence being questioned (overall
65.49%), condescending remarks (61.96%) and lack of support (60.19%). Also, lewd remarks
and sexual remarks were also selected at an alarmingly high level. It should be noted that there
are considerable differences in the proportions depending on the status of the respondents. The
391 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

student participants always have the lowest number of responses. For example, while 56.94% of
the students have experienced ‘competence questioned’, the professional participants responded
with 71.63%, and the group of participants who are ‘studying/working at the same time’, have
experienced this kind of discrimination at a percentage as high as 74.80%. In the case of the item
‘Sexual Remarks’, 26.04% of the students have experienced this, while 35.10% of the
professionals and 43.31% of the participants who are ‘studying/working at the same time’ have
experienced this. There are two possible explanations for these figures and discrepancies
between the groups. On the one hand, it may be that the female students have had less
experience overall (professional life is still ahead of them). Professional life might be even more
competitive than a student's life at university; discrimination might be a toxic outgrowth of
competition. On the other hand, it is also possible that certain forms of discrimination are not
recognized (yet) by the participants who are students. The answers are based on a self-
assessment of experiences by the participants.

3.3 “Have You Ever Seriously Considered Dropping Out of Your Studies?”

Participants were asked if they had ever seriously considered dropping out of their studies.
Participants who are not currently studying or have not studied at all, did not answer this question.

Fig. 3. “Have You Ever Seriously Considered Dropping out of Your Studies?” Responses ‘Yes’ by status of
participants, events 2018 to 2022, n=568

From 2018 to 2022, an average of 32% of participants have considered dropping out of their
studies at some point (participants 2018-2022, valid n=568). Once again, we see some
differences in the proportions when considering the status of the participant in more detail (Fig.
3). The highest percentage overall shows the group ’Studying/working at the same time’ (44.07%
‘Yes’), whereas the ‘Professionals’ group has the lowest figure (25.29%). At first glance, it may
seem surprising that professionals have the lowest numbers. However, this may be due to the
fact that the years as a student are over, and some time may have passed, so that the difficulties
encountered from that time may be suppressed in retrospect, a so-called memory recall error.
Additionally, in general the professionals have already finished their studies successfully. The
portion of former students who dropped out of their studies would not be attending these events
as a professional, and therefore the results from the ‘Professionals’ group is biased. In contrast,
the female students and the group of those studying and working at the same time experience
everyday student life at the time of the survey and give a different perspective. It should be noted
here that the participants who study and work at the same time think the most about dropping out.
This can probably be explained, among other things, by the added pressure of both studying and
working.
392 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

3.4 “If Yes, How Important Were the Following Reasons?”

Participants who had responded ‘yes’ to having considered dropping out, were then asked about
their level of agreement to various reasons for dropping out. Responses are on a Likert scale of
1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The average mean score for each response was
determined and is as follows (events 2018 to 2022, descending order):

Fig. 4. “If yes, how important were the following reasons?” Events 2018 to 2022, Mean and Standard
Deviation, Likert scale 5=strongly agree to 1=strongly disagree

The problem areas that were most frequently selected by the participants are ‘Problematic study
conditions’ (59.89% selected agree and strongly agree, mean=3.42, SD=1.47), ‘Performance
problems’ (54.40% selected agree and strongly agree, mean=3.32, SD=1.35) and ‘Other
expectations regarding the study program’ (46.67% selected agree and strongly agree,
mean=3.13, SD=1.28). These problems reflect a wide area of expectations, performance, and
motivation which are typical reasons for drop out of studies. Interestingly, financial problems do
not play a major role, while other studies show that financial problems are very often cited as a
reason [9]. Also, ‘Role problems (as a woman in a male dominated field)’ is not selected as a
main factor when thinking seriously about dropping out of one’s studies. This seems to be in sharp
contrast to the results in figure 2, where e.g., 56.94% of the students answered that their
competence was questioned. Possible reasons might be that young females might misinterpret
some forms of discrimination as due to their own behavior instead of being aware of a role
problem. For example, the item ‘competence questioned’ might be associated by the student
herself as being due to not feeling competent, therefore not behaving competently and finding the
problem in her own personality. Part of mentoring literature advises women to behave in a way
that they seem to be more competent, suggesting that they can solve the problem themselves
through self-regulation [10].

3.5 “What Made You Decide to Continue After All?”

Participants who had responded ‘yes’ to having considered dropping out, were then asked about
what made them decide against dropping out. Responses are on a Likert scale of 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) to a suggested reason. The average mean score for each response
was determined and is summarized in the following table (events 2018 to 2022, descending
order):
393 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 1. Reasons to continue with their studies

n Mean SD
Interested in study content 178 4.31 0.84
Good career prospects 178 3.75 1.17
Good earning potential 174 3.55 1.30
People in your life (family, friends, etc.) 175 3.27 1.44
Good STEM grades 174 3.01 1.26
Lack of alternatives 174 2.68 1.46
Participation in if / mf events 163 2.36 1.58
Role models 77 1.79 1.36
Response Likert scale: Strongly agree = 5 to strongly disagree = 1

The reason for continuing studies that the most participants strongly agreed to is the interest in
study content. That was also the motivation to study STEM in the first place. Interestingly, the
item ‘Role models’ is the least mentioned (n=77) and with a mean of 1.79 this suggests a minor
importance of role models as a reason to continue. It is possible that this reflects the fact that role
models are missing (therefore they cannot have major influence).
Of particular interest to the organizers of the events were the answers as to whether the events
themselves explicitly contributed to participants refraining from dropping out of their studies.
Therefore, the response behavior to the corresponding item is summarized in the following table
in more detail.

Table 2. Importance of Events mf and if (2018 to 2022)

n %
Strongly disagree 83 50.92
Disagree 13 7.98
Undecided 17 10.43
Agree 25 15.34
Strongly agree 25 15.34
Response Likert scale: Strongly agree = 5 to strongly disagree = 1
n=163 · Mean=2.36 · SD=1.58

Of the participants who considered dropping out, an average of 30.68% (strongly) agree that their
participation in Netzwerk F.I.T’ s events, if or mf, is one of the reasons that influenced their
decision to continue with their studies (2018-2022). However, for more than 50% of the
participants who seriously considered to drop out, these events did not play a role at all.

3.6 “In Your Opinion, Are There Differences in Terms of Learning Culture Between Mono-
Educational and Co-Educational Courses?”

Participants were asked about their opinion on the differences in learning culture between co-
educational courses, a study scenario with a mix of genders, or mono-educational courses, a
study scenario with one gender which is - in this case - female.

Table 3. “In your opinion, are there differences in terms of learning culture between mono-educational and
co-educational courses?” events 2018 to 2022, by Status of Participant, n=617
Overall By status of participant

Student Professional Study/ work

n % n % n % n %

Yes 416 67.42 171 60.00 146 71.22 99 77.95

No 201 32.58 114 40.00 59 28.78 28 22.05

An average of 67.42% of participants responded that ‘yes’, there are differences between the
learning culture of mono-educational and co-educational courses (2018-2022, valid n=617).
However, students selected ‘yes’ only by 60.00%, compared to 77.95% for students with a job.
Participants had the possibility to give free-text answers about differences in learning cultures.
The answers revealed insecure self-perceptions in male-dominated groups. The women see
themselves under critical scrutiny, expect criticism or putting themselves in vulnerable positions;
they have to define their role in the group. These quotes reflect a high level of unease and at the
same time, the quotes hint on the systemic dimension of discrimination.
394 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

4. Discussion & Conclusion

Overall, this data proves valuable for understanding female STEM students’ struggles,
motivations, and general experiences.
Approximately a third (32%) of participants report considering dropping out of their studies. The
most common reasons for considering dropping out are problematic study conditions and
performance problems.
In regard to discrimination, two thirds of the participants have at least experienced some form of
discrimination on average. The most common forms of discrimination are a questioning of
competence and general condescending remarks, however even the most unreported form of
discrimination in this questionnaire, sexual remarks, has been reportedly experienced by an
average of about 33% of the participants. It should also be noted that the category ‘sexual
remarks’ may include sexual discrimination ranging from verbal harassment to sexual assault.
Participant’s decision to ultimately continue with STEM studies are most highly associated with
their overall interest in the study content, the good career prospects, the good earning potential,
and the people in their life such as family members or friends. These answers are very similar to
the responses from students reporting their motivation for initially choosing to study a STEM
subject.
When asking about co-educational courses versus mono-educational courses, an average of
67% of participants believe that there is a difference between the two education styles.
Participants were prompted to describe these differences, and the custom responses generally
describe more feelings of confidence, being taken seriously, and more open conversations
amongst women.
The preceding data effectively demonstrates experiences and struggles of female STEM students
that are often difficult to quantify. For example, while literature cites ‘performance problems’ or
‘performance reasons’ as the most common reason for dropping out [9; 11], the questionnaire
results show that ‘problematic study conditions’ are just as, or even more important than
performance problems. The exact meaning of ‘Problematic study conditions’ could include a
multitude of factors, but it is reasonable to consider that the struggles that come with being a
female STEM student contribute to such problematic study conditions. Having one's competence
questioned, being subjected to condescending remarks, or just generally feeling outcast in the
STEM community due to being a minority can reinforce negative stereotypes and lead to a lack
of confidence and generally unpleasant study conditions. By recalling the previously discussed
impacts of stereotype threat [8; 12] and sexual assault [6], and considering that over two thirds of
participants have experienced discrimination, and nearly half of the participants have experienced
discrimination of a sexual manner, it is possible to consider that such discrimination contributes
to the problematic study conditions and therefore to the dropout rates of female STEM students.
The results of this study and research also provide solutions to combat the negatives that come
with being a woman in STEM, especially for students. A ‘general interest in STEM subjects’ is the
highest motivator for female students to pursue STEM, as well as the most important factor for
them to continue their studies after considering dropping out. Additionally, two third of participants
believe that there is a difference between mono-educational and co-educational study programs.
Based on these findings, it’s obvious that it is of great importance to provide experiences for
female STEM students that renew and cultivate their interest in their field of choice. Also, it seems
to be beneficial to provide spaces where women in STEM can be amongst other women to
cultivate their confidence and allow themselves to be vulnerable. Therefore, mono-educational
events such as if & mf that provide educational opportunities amongst other women are critical to
retaining women in STEM.

5. Acknowledgement

Netzwerk F.I.T. and thus the events are funded by the Baden-Wurttemberg Ministry of Science,
Research and the Arts as a measure to increase the proportion of women in STEM subjects. The
evaluation of each event is an integral part of the funding. The authors thank the Ministry of
Science, Research and the Arts Baden-Wurttemberg for the funding.

REFERENCES

[1] Corbett, C., & Hill, C. (2015). Solving the Equation: The Variables for Women's Success in
Engineering and Computing. American Association of University Women. Retrieved
February 15, 2023, from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED580805.pdf
[2] European Commission, Directorate-General for Research and Innovation (2021). She
figures 2021: gender in research and innovation: statistics and indicators, Publications
Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2777/06090
395 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[3] Hill, C., Corbett, C., & St Rose, A. (2010). Why so few? Women in science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics. American Association of University Women. Retrieved
February 15, 2023, from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED509653.pdf
[4] Jeanrenaud, Y. (2020). MINT. Warum nicht? Zur Unterrepräsentation von Frauen in MINT,
speziell IKT, deren Ursachen, Wirksamkeit bestehender Maßnahmen und
Handlungsempfehlungen.
[5] Isphording, I., & Qendrai, P. (2019). Gender differences in student dropout in STEM. IZA
Research Reports, 87. Retrieved February 15, 2023, from
https://www.iza.org/pub/EAV4TClz
[6] Blanco, V., López, L., Otero, P., Torres, Á.J., Ferraces, M.J., & Vázquez, F.L. (2022). Sexual
Victimization and Mental Health in Female University Students. Journal of interpersonal
violence, 37(15-16), NP14215–NP14238. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211005148
[7] Heublein, U., Richter, J., Schmelzer, R. (2020). Die Entwicklung der Studienabbruchquoten
in Deutschland. Anhang zum DZHW Brief 03 2020.
https://doi.org/10.34878/2020.03.dzhw_brief
[8] Beasley, M. A., & Fischer, M. J. (2012). Why they leave: The impact of stereotype threat on
the attrition of women and minorities from science, math and engineering majors. Social
Psychology of Education, 15, 427-448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-012-9185-3
[9] Heublein, U., & Barthelmes, T. (2010). Woran Studierende scheitern-Die
Studienstrukturreform führt zu einer Verschiebung bei den Ursachen für einen
Studienabbruch. HIS Magazin, 2, 5-7. Retrieved February 15, 2023, from
https://www.dzhw.eu/pdf/pub_mag/mag-201002.pdf
[10] Gill, R., & Orgad, S. (2015). The confidence cult(ure). Australian Feminist Studies, 30(86),
324-344. https://doi.org/10.1080/08164649.2016.1148001
[11] Lehmann, W., & Jüling, I. (2017). MINT oder Nicht-MINT–das ist hier die Frage. ABB-
Information, 54.
[12] Froehlich, L., Tsukamoto, S., Morinaga, Y., Sakata, K., Uchida, Y., Keller, M.M., Stürmer, S.,
Martiny, S.E., & Trommsdorff, G. (2022). Gender stereotypes and expected backlash for
female STEM students in Germany and Japan. Frontiers in Education, 6, 539.
https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.793486
396 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Student Assessment
397 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Senac University Center Leveling Program – An Experience

that Integrates Knowledge and Creativity

Luciana Mara Ribeiro

Senac University Center, Brazil

Abstract

In Brazil, all levels of education present a historical deficiency and this situation was worsened
during the pandemic that occurred in 2020, with one of the impacts on Higher Education
Institutions being the learning gap presented by incoming students, who had part of the content
of the High school committed to the absence of basic subject classes. According to Barreto
(2013), the deficiencies brought by the student, especially with regard to reading and interpreting
texts and writing, are perceived in the most varied areas of university knowledge and involve the
entire academic career. This fact contributes, therefore, to high rates of poor university training,
a negative factor that leads us to reflect on ways to improve the quality of education and,
consequently, reduce social inequality, seeking possible solutions to these difficulties faced by
students entering education. higher. Faced with this situation, the Centro Universitário Senac,
located in São Paulo, with 38 undergraduate courses from different areas of knowledge and
around 8,000 students, improved its leveling activities, seeking to develop more attractive and
differentiated activities, in addition to preparing the teaching staff. to work through these
difficulties. The Leveling Program aims to enhance the knowledge of incoming students in the
areas of mathematics, chemistry, physics, Portuguese language, communication and expression
and the production of academic work, reducing learning difficulties in higher education courses
and contributing to their academic journey. The schedule of activities is announced to incoming
students at the beginning of the semester, in a Virtual Welcome Space and face-to-face
workshops, cultural Literature events and installations with tips and content are held in campus
environments, such as a literary staircase with poems on the steps, panel on mathematics on the
Demoiselle plane exposed with campus and a giant periodic table in a student commons area. In
this way, this work aims to share the actions and results obtained by our Leveling Program, in
reducing students' difficulties in the learning process, and consequently, in reducing evasion, and
also in encouraging reading, something that contributes to professional training of students in all
areas of knowledge.

Keywords: Higher Education; leveling; knowledge; creativity

Introduction

The learning difficulties of students entering higher education are something that has drawn the
attention of institutions across the country. This situation can be influenced by several factors and
this study considered them to understand the causes for the subsequent development of
strategies that would minimize their impacts on the learning process of students on the Institution's
undergraduate courses.
One of the prominent factors is undoubtedly the learning gap in secondary education present in
the Brazilian context, especially in this post-pandemic period. According to Nunes (2015), it is
common to note that basic education, especially secondary education in Brazil, regarding the
appropriation of knowledge by students is not effective enough to prepare students for university
life successfully, even considering the cases in which that these students have been approved in
university selection processes. These limitations, understood here in terms of the appropriation
of some basic education content, result in gaps in learning, causing problems such as failures
and even dropouts from graduation [1]. This situation worsened after the pandemic, as according
to Gatti (2020) it forced children, adolescents and young people to change their relational and
movement habits, to study remotely, some with good conditions, with access to the internet, with
the necessary support (computer, tablet or cell phones), but many do not have these facilities, or
have them with restrictions (for example, no internet or computer network or other support,
possession of prepaid cell phones with little access to networks; a single cell phone in the family,
etc.), including those without any conditions to use the technological supports chosen to support
398 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

face-to-face mode. Added to these conditions is the large number of students who were unable
to count on more effective support from their parents due to their educational level, or because
they worked in priority sectors during isolation, or for other reasons. Furthermore, there was a
situation of students depending on educational networks that themselves were unable to offer
their curricula remotely. Also, curricular issues were suspended, such as practical activities,
laboratory activities, field activities and internships in professional secondary education.[2]
In addition to the difficulty in accessing education, social isolation generated an emotional impact
on students, impacting the relationships and interactivity necessary in university activities.
There is a consensus in educational studies about the impact of this delay in secondary education
and the pandemic on the learning process of students entering higher education and these
difficulties affect the development of basic skills, such as reading, writing, mathematics and critical
thinking.
In addition to the gap in teaching, other factors that impact learning in Higher Education are: the
transition, which can be challenging in terms of autonomy, time management, and adaptation to
more independent teaching methods and; Students may come from different socioeconomic and
educational backgrounds, which can result in gaps in knowledge and skills.

Goal

The present work aimed to analyze the main factors that generate difficulties in the learning
process of students entering undergraduate courses at Centro Universitario Senac, São Paulo,
Brazil and to develop educational resources and strategies that help students in this process.

Methodology

Considering the main and new factors in the learning difficulties of students entering higher
education at the Institution, it was necessary to improve the Institutional Leveling Program, which
was already in operation by holding workshops to reinforce knowledge of basic sciences such as
mathematics, physics and chemistry, in addition to the Portuguese language and communication
and expression. In this action, the following activities were implemented:

1. Diversity in areas of activity: by covering subjects such as mathematics, chemistry, physics,

Portuguese language, communication and expression, in addition to the production of
academic work, the program addresses various dimensions of knowledge, meeting the
diverse needs of students.
2. Differentiated and Attractive Activities: the strategy of developing more attractive and
differentiated activities, such as in-person workshops, cultural literature events and themed
installations, is innovative. This not only contributes to learning, but also creates a stimulating
and motivating academic environment.
3. Reading Encouragement: Encouraging reading is an important component, not only to
improve students' reading and interpretation skills, but also to promote a culture of
continuous learning and personal development.
4. Virtual and In-Person Integration: the combination of in-person and virtual activities reflects
a contemporary approach, taking into account changes in teaching and learning modalities.
5. Themed Environments on Campus: Creating themed environments, such as the literary
ladder and the giant periodic table, not only provides a visual and interactive experience, but
also makes learning more tangible and accessible.

In addition to including these actions in the Program, a group of teachers was organized to plan
and develop the actions.

Results

The organization of a group of teachers responsible for the Leveling Program actions was
fundamental and improved the pedagogical quality of the activities.
Differentiated actions in the Program generated an increase in the number of participants in
activities and greater student engagement. Material to publicize the program was created in the
Students' Virtual Environment (figure 1), artistic and literary interventions were printed on the walls
(figure 2) and on the stairs of the Campus (figure 3) and practical and creative workshops were
carried out using the structure and artistic works of the Campus (figure 4).
399 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Figure 1. Poster of the Leveling Program in the students’ virtual environment

Figure 2. posters about reading in the Campus corridors

Figure 3. poem on the Campus stairs

Figure 4. practical mathematics workshops with the Demoiselle plane installed on the Campus
400 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

All of these actions are evaluated every six months and we organize an annual e-book to share
the Program's activities and results (figure 5).

Figure 5. Leveling Program e-book

Considerations

Sharing the Program's actions also aims to increase teacher engagement, as, during our self-
evaluation process, we understand that the actions are fundamental and have contributed greatly
to institutional support for students, but the preparation of teachers to deal with these difficulties
in classroom will be much more effective.
The emphasis on preparing teaching staff to deal with students' difficulties is crucial and that is
why the Program will implement actions aimed at teachers in its next cycle.
In this way, we consider that the success of a Leveling Program comes from the effective
participation of the Institution, teachers and students. This makes it possible to resolve initial
difficulties and provide quality higher education.

REFERENCES

[1] NUNES, Francivaldo Alves. "Learning and Permanence in Higher Education: Leveling
Courses for students at the Cametá Campus/UFPA–Brazil." Atlante: notebooks of
Education and Development. 2nd Season (2015).
[2] GATTI, Bernardete A. "Possible reconfiguration of post-pandemic educational models."
Advanced Studies 34 (2020): 29-41.
[3] CARVALHO, Renata Innecco Bittencourt; FREITAS FILHO, Roberto. Leveling in higher
education: in search of possible paths. Revista Fundamentos, V.2, n.2, 2015. Magazine
of the Department of Fundamentals of Education at the Federal University of Piauí. ISSN
2317-2754
[4] BARRETO, Laís Karla da Silva et al. Language, communication and inclusion: the
importance of the Portuguese language leveling course for higher technology courses at
Universidade Potiguar – UnP. Connexio: Scientific Journal of the School of Management
and Business. Year 1, No. 2, February-July 2012, p. 99-112. Available at: <
https://repositorio.unp.br/index.php/connexio/article/view/95/120 >. Accessed on: 10
Nov. 2023.
401 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Students after the Pandemic: What Are the Differences in

their Achievement Motivation and Metacognitive Skills?
Patricia Morales Bueno1, Rosario Santos Rodas2

Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú PUCP, Perú1

Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Perú2

Abstract

The return to in-person work, in educational institutions and in particular in universities has
highlighted the impact of the pandemic on many aspects of the students' profile. The changes
observed are very diverse and involve aspects related to behavior, social skills, learning skills,
the use of technology, among others. This has motivated the development of research that seeks
to identify and quantify the impact of the pandemic on students. However, the results are very
variable, since they depend on the geographical, social, and educational contexts where the
research has been carried out. The review of pedagogical strategies to work with students who
begin their training at the university implies knowing their main characteristics and, in that sense,
two variables that are fundamental in the academic performance of students are academic
motivation and metacognitive skills. In this sense, the purpose of this work was to compare the
profile of two groups of students in terms of these two variables. For this, the Modified
Achievement Motivation Scale (EAML-M) and the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) were
applied. Both groups included students who were beginning their studies in Science and
Engineering careers at a Peruvian university. One of the groups included students from a
semester prior to the pandemic, and the second group included students who began their studies
in the return semester after the pandemic. The results showed significant differences in favor of
pre-pandemic students in metacognitive skills that are related to the regulation of cognition, that
is, with the activities that help control the learning process. These results constitute a contribution
to the planning of pedagogical strategies with students who are beginning their university studies.

Keywords: Achievement motivation, metacognitive skills, pandemic, higher education

1. Introduction

2020 was a year that marked a period of drastic transformations in the lives of people globally,
due to the health emergency caused by the COVID pandemic. It can be said that in this context,
education has been one of the areas that had to adapt very quickly to the new situation to continue
with the training processes at all levels. Furthermore, the educational context became one of the
most pertinent scenarios to evaluate the impact of the pandemic situation and its implications on
young students, mainly in the emotional aspect since this undoubtedly has a direct effect on their
academic performance [1]. The problems of depression, difficulty in social interaction, loneliness,
and resilience have been identified in different studies carried out with university students during
the pandemic and must be considered when planning post-pandemic education [2].
The transformation of educational processes to remote modality was assumed in a variety of ways
depending on factors such as: accessibility to technology, teacher training, management of digital
resources, internet connectivity, among others. Based on these factors, teachers had to design
the remote learning context for their students. It is assumed that the scope for meeting goals and
learning achievements has been very heterogeneous and this would imply that students who join
their university education precisely when the post-pandemic stage begins also show differences
in terms of their academic profiles.
The impact of remote education in times of pandemic on students is being investigated from
various perspectives and the results are showing that the findings are dependent on the
geographical, social, and educational context in which the research is developed [3], [4]. However,
a very relevant framework is being built for the rethinking of post-pandemic pedagogical models.
Complementarily, metacognition influences the way in which the student adapts his cognitive
activity according to the learning context, the demand of the task, his background and personal
characteristics and the application of strategies that will allow him to face the problem [5]. Along
these lines, the purpose of this study was aimed at comparing the characteristics of the
metacognitive profile and the motivational profile, from an attributional perspective, of students
who began their university education before the pandemic with those of a group of students who
402 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

began their studies in the semester of return to face-to-face mode post-pandemic. Both groups
included first-year students studying Science and Engineering at a Peruvian university.

2. Methodology

2.1 Participants

The participants in this study were two cohorts of first year students of Science and Engineering
from a Peruvian university. They were enrolled in a General Chemistry course.
• Pre-pandemic group: 34 students who began their university studies in a semester prior
to the pandemic. They were aged 17 – 22 years, 70,6% was male and 29,4% was female.
• Post-pandemic group: 34 students who began their university studies in the return
semester after the pandemic. They were aged 17 – 20 years, 67,6% was male and 32,4%
was female.

2.2 Instruments

• Attributional Achievement Motivation Modified Scale (EAML-M) [6]: consists of 30

semantic differential items, which are valued on a gradient of 1 to 6 points, the items are
presented in counterbalanced scores, increasing, and decreasing sense, to avoid bias.
The items are configured in six dimensions: Interest and effort, interaction with faculty,
task / ability, influence of peers on learning skills, exams, and collaborative interaction
with peers. Maximum score per subject is 180 and minimum 30. Cronbach’s alpha value
is 0,9026.
• The Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) consists of 52 items distributed in two
categories, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition, which, in turn, are divided
into other more specific categories. The components of the category knowledge of
cognition are declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and conditional knowledge.
The components of the category regulation of cognition are planning, organization,
monitoring, debugging and evaluation. The test is characterized by being self-report and
its response options are on a Likert scale with the following statements: 1. Completely
disagree, 2. Disagree, 3. Neither disagree nor agree, 4. Agree and 5. Completely agree.
In this study, the validated version of the instrument in Spanish was used [7], the
Cronbach's alpha in this case was 0.94. The Cronbach's alpha values for the categories
ranged from 0.61 to 0.77.

2.3 Procedure

Students in both groups were informed of the purpose of the study and then invited to respond
voluntarily and anonymously to the two instruments during the first two weeks of the semester.

2.4 Analysis of Data

The data were analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 29 software ®.
Level alpha was established a priori in 0,05. A descriptive analysis of the instruments scores,
expressed as percentage, was performed. The t test was used to verify differences between the
participant groups, considering as dependent variables the corresponding instruments scores.

3. Results

Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics for the six dimensions and total score of EAML-M (all
expressed as percentage) for the two participants groups.
In both groups the dimensions with the highest scores were Interest and effort, Interaction with
faculty and Task/ability, while the dimensions related to Collaborative interaction with peers and
the Influence of peers on learning skills had the lowest scores. Both profiles orient their attributions
of academic success towards the deployment of the own effort and interest in academic work with
a strong expectation of the teacher's role as part of the process and the challenge of the task as
a stimulus for learning.
The comparison of the total and dimensions scores obtained by the two groups in EAML-M,
applying the t-test for independent samples, showed significant differences only in the dimension
“Exams” (t (66) = -5,934), p < 0,001). The post-pandemic group placed a high weight on test
scores as an important factor in their academic expectations. No significant differences were
403 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

found for the total test score between the groups. These results indicate that a similar level of
motivation was achieved with both groups.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for EAML-M scores

Dimension M SD
Pre-pandemic Post-pandemic Pre-pandemic Post-pandemic
group group group group
(N = 34) (N = 34) (N = 34) (N = 34)
Interest and 82,68 81,71 9,289 11,353
effort
Interaction 77,94 81,12 10,012 13,862
with faculty
Task/ability 74,26 76,68 8,945 9,831
Influence of 55,44 56,29 16,808 19,402
peers on
learning skills
Exams 54,29 73,79 11,232 15,523
Collaborative 64,24 66,06 13,714 18,289
interaction
with peers
EAML-M 71,19 74,84 6,480 9,351

Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics for the eight categories and total score of MAI (all
expressed as percentage) for the two participants groups.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for MAI scores.

Category M SD
Pre-pandemic Post-pandemic Pre-pandemic Post-pandemic
group group group group
(N = 32) (N = 32) (N = 32) (N = 32)
Declarative
knowledge 77,188 76,250 9,520 8,707
Procedural
knowledge 77,500 73,906 9,333 13,544
Conditional
knowledge 79,000 76,375 9,531 12,664

Planning
74,107 68,392 10,054 12,694
Information
Management 76,188 71,000 9,163 10,374
strategies
Comprehension
monitoring 76,785 68,571 8,072 11,880

Debugging
strategies 77,875 77,000 10,703 10,848

Evaluation
75,832 68,229 9,617 12,062
MAI
76,634 72,128 7,796 9,124

The Knowledge of Cognition category involves the student's declarative knowledge about himself
as a person who learns and the factors that can influence his learning, as well as the strategies
and resources used to achieve it. It also includes procedural knowledge that is related to the
correct execution of strategies and resources in the learning process. Conditional knowledge is
the third component of this dimension and is related to the conscious application of a cognitive
404 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

action. No significant differences were found in the comparison of these categories between the
participating groups.
The regulation of cognition category is related to metacognitive activities that allow learning to be
controlled. These include planning activities that involve establishing goals, times, selecting
strategies and resources for learning. During the execution of the process, monitoring activities
are applied that are linked to supervision during its development and, eventually, the identification
of weaknesses that can be adjusted to achieve the learning goals. Finally, the evaluation
component is related to the analysis of the effectiveness of all the strategies applied. In this
category, significant differences were found between the participating groups, with the pre-
pandemic group having the best results in the following components: Planning (t (62) = 1,997, p
< 0,05), Information Management Strategies (t (62) = 2,12, p < 0.05), Comprehension Monitoring
(t (62) = 3,235, p < 0,05), Evaluation (t (62) = 2,788, p < 0.05).

3. Conclusions

The return to face-to-face activities post-pandemic gave rise to strong expectations and
uncertainty regarding what should be the best pedagogical strategies to promote the learning of
students entering higher education. It was clear that a return to usual practices was unlikely since
both teachers and students already had previous experience that had strongly incorporated the
use of technology in pedagogical models. However, unpleasant experiences are frequently
reported in this process and therefore, it was necessary to identify the different variables that
could be influencing, either positively or negatively, the development of the learning processes of
the new university students.
The results obtained in this study mainly show that, in this case, the students' previous experience
did not promote the use and development of metacognitive skills related to the regulation of the
cognitive process, although it was assumed that one of the benefits of remote teaching during the
pandemic had been the development of skills for autonomous learning. As noted previously, the
way in which each teacher and each educational institution faced remote teaching during the
pandemic has been very heterogeneous and this has undoubtedly had an impact on the academic
profile of new university students.
It is important to take these research reports into account because, although they come from
different experiences, they are forming a relevant frame of reference for the review and rethinking
of the pedagogical models and practices of this post-pandemic time.

REFERENCES

[1] Camacho-Zuñiga, C., Pego, L., Escamilla, J., Hosseini, S. “The impact of the COVID-
19 pandemic on students’ feelings at high school, undergraduate, and postgraduate
levels”, Heliyon, 2021, 7(3), e06465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06465.
[2] Kiltz, L., Fokkens-Bruinsma, M., Jansen, E. P. W. A. “Investigating how students’ learning
environment, social and physical well-being influence their resilience and feelings of
depression and loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands”, Higher
Education Research & Development, 2023, 42(8), 1970-1985.
[3] Nizzolino, S. “Pandemic and Post-Pandemic Effects on University Students’ Behavioral
Traits: How Community of Inquiry Can Support Instructional Design During Times of
Changing Cognitive Habits”, International Journal of e-Collaboration, 2023, (19) 1, 1-19.
[4] Zheng, Y., Zheng, S. “Exploring educational impacts among pre, during and post
COVID-19 lockdowns from students with different personality traits”, International Journal
of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 2023, (20) 1, 1-20.
[5] Ugartetxea, J. “Motivación y metacognición, más que una relación”, RELIEVE – Revista
Electrónica de Investigación y Evaluación Educativa, 2014, 7(2).
https://doi.org/10.7203/relieve.7.2.4442.
[6] Morales Bueno, P., Gómez, V. “Adaptación de la Escala Atribucional de Motivación de
Logro de Manassero y Vázquez: incorporación de dimensiones relacionadas al
aprendizaje colaborativo”. Educación y Educadores, 2009, (12) 3, 33-52.
[7] Huertas Bustos, A. P., Vesga Bravo, G. J., Galindo León, M. “Validación del instrumento
inventario de habilidades metacognitivas (MAI) con estudiantes colombianos”, 2014,
Praxis & Saber, (5) 10, 55-74.
405 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Exploring the Development of Questioning Inquiry Skill in

Secondary School Students via Physics Inquiry-Based
Learning Experiments

Vasileios Gkagkas1, Euripides Hatzikraniotis2

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece1,2

Abstract

Science process skills encompass cognitive abilities for evidence-based inquiry, integral to
inquiry-based learning, promoting holistic development and academic success. The current study
aims to assess Grade 10 & 11 school students in the “Identify Testable Questions” inquiry process
skills based on the Science Inquiry Skills Framework after participating in inquiry-based learning
activities. Three inquiry-based learning series (confirmatory, structured, and guided) were
developed, focusing on "Newtonian Mechanics," with small groups of 3-4 students on a total
N=22. Students’ responses were categorized into four levels based on their epistemological
accuracy. The study’s findings indicate that students' performance steadily improves in each
inquiry type, which is evident in rising the average values. Significant variations were uncovered
through paired samples t-tests, with Structured inquiry yielding higher mean scores than
Confirmative inquiry and Guided inquiry outperforming Structured inquiry. Hake Gain indices
demonstrated a medium gain (g=.39) between initial and final assessments for Guided inquiry.
The assessment results underscored the diverse effectiveness of each inquiry type, emphasizing
the time and engagement required for notable skill improvement. Open-ended question analysis
revealed five distinct response patterns, showcasing a positive transformation in students'
explanations aligned with established scientific knowledge. The study highlights the pedagogical
value of guiding students through progressively advanced inquiry types, contributing valuable
insights to the discourse on effective inquiry-based learning practices and their impact on scientific
skill development.

Keywords: Science Process Skills, Inquiry-Based Learning, Student Performance

1. Introduction

Exploring the natural world, forming evidence-based explanations, and engaging students in
activities that enhance their understanding of scientific concepts and methodologies are all part
of the inquiry process, as defined by the National Science Education Standards [1]. Inquiry-based
learning is how students acquire science process skills, essential cognitive and procedural
abilities utilized for scientific inquiry and problem-solving in science education [2]. According to
Turiman et al. [3], science process skills can be classified into two categories: Basic and
Integrated skills. Basic skills are fundamental and serve as a foundation for Integrated skills.
These skills involve observing, classifying, measuring, numerical analysis, making inferences and
predictions, effective communication, and understanding spatial and temporal relationships.
Integrated skills, on the other hand, include Making Inquiry Questions, Formulating Hypotheses,
Controlling Variables, Making Operational Definitions, and Interpreting Data. Research has
shown that Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) consistently improves students' inquiry skills. Studies
such as Adnyana & Citrawathi [4] and Dewi, Mayasari & Handhika [5] support this. Moreover, the
effectiveness of IBL in the development of skills depends on the level of inquiry. Guided inquiry,
in particular, has yielded better outcomes, as noted by Brata & Suriani [6].
When conducting scientific inquiry, an initial investigable question about the physical world is
typically asked, and a formally stated hypothesis is sometimes stated [7]. Investigable questions
are open-ended questions that serve as guiding prompts in research processes. They help
students build knowledge, develop critical thinking skills, and engage in active learning. By
investigable questions, we mean questions students can answer with the materials provided. To
answer such questions, students must understand the difference between dependent,
independent, and control variables. They should also understand the possible cause-and-effect
relationship between the dependent and independent variables [8].
406 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

When students create a research question, they should identify the variables that may affect the
phenomenon they want to study. They need to consider which variables might influence the
dependent variable. While it is difficult to specify all independent variables for every phenomenon,
it is easier for students to identify independent variables related to the materials' properties.
However, when independent variables involve environmental conditions, it can be challenging for
students to recognize them [8]. Therefore, providing illustrations of available materials in the form
of sketches for each investigation can be helpful to facilitate students' understanding. As students
engage in the investigation process, they must ensure that the questions they ask are
investigable. Such questions must be answered through active experimentation and not just by
responding to causal-type questions like "Why does something happen." For instance, questions
like "Why does an object undergo accelerated motion in free fall?" can be answered simply
through a literature search or Newton's Second Law study. To ensure that the investigation is
meaningful, students should choose propositions that require research through active
experimentation for answers. Moreover, the questions (or hypotheses) should guide students
toward classifications, such as "how does it depend on..." or "what is the relationship between..."
[8].
As mentioned above, students can also develop researchable hypotheses and investigable
questions. These hypotheses should guide them toward classifications. The difference between
investigable questions and hypotheses lies in how they are formulated and their role in designing
research. Scientific hypotheses can be categorized into three types: generalized statements
about a phenomenon that can lead to a Law, explanatory hypotheses about how a phenomenon
functions that may lead to a scientific Theory, and prediction hypotheses that make predictions
[9]. For example, a Law hypothesis could be: "The time of free fall of an object is proportional to
its release height." If this hypothesis is correct, it leads us to a descriptive Law where time is
proportional to height. However, these hypotheses are not directly associated with leading
students to active experimentation and subsequently to classification. A Theory hypothesis could
be: "The free fall time of an object is affected by its mass." To confirm or reject this hypothesis,
letting two objects with different masses undergo free fall is sufficient. If differences in their fall
times are detected, the hypothesis is correct, leading to a Theory. A prediction hypothesis could
be: "The mass of an object affects its free fall time." Again, to confirm or reject this hypothesis,
letting two objects with different masses undergo free falls is sufficient. Based on the above
arguments, it may be concluded that investigable questions like "how does A depends on B..." or
"what is the relationship between A and B..." direct students more intently towards active
experimentation and classification. Therefore, a "template" formulation of an investigable question
regarding the dependence of the dependent variable on the independent one may take the form:
"In what way does the (independent) variable affect the (dependent) variable?" or "What is the
relationship between the (independent) variable and the (dependent) variable?".
When teachers connect the theoretical foundation with the practical application of inquiry-based
learning, it becomes apparent that carefully formulating investigable questions is crucial for
students actively experimenting and classifying. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the
development of students' questioning skills in secondary school by implementing Physics Inquiry-
Based Learning Experiments. This led to the formulation of the following research questions:

a. How does students' understanding regarding the “Identify testable questions” inquiry’ skill
develop when working in inquiry-based learning?
b. What patterns of student understanding emerge based on their responses?
c. How do gender and grade affect the development of the “Identify testable questions” inquiry
skill?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Sample

The sample for this study is N=22 students, 17 of which were studying in Grade-10, while the rest
in Grade-11. All students were between 15 and 16 years of age, 17 were boys and 5 girls. All
students attended public schools in the Larissa region (Greece) while, at the same time, they
were enrolled in a private secondary education Tutorial Center, in the same area. Their
performance levels in Physics varied with grades spanning from 10 to 20 out of 20, with an
average performance score of 15/20. The sample was considered non-probabilistic due to the
researcher's convenient access as an educator at the specific tutorial center during the study
period. The students' socio-economic background was categorized as medium to high.
407 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2.2 Student’s Activities

The sample of N=22 students was randomly divided into four groups, of 5-6 students each. The
Inquiry Framework proposed by Pedaste et.al. [10] has been adopted for this work. In this
framework, a structured approach to inquiry-based learning in science education, is proposed,
comprising four distinct phases. The “Orientation” phase introduces the topic, capturing students'
interest, while the “Conceptualization” phase involves developing a foundational understanding
and formulating questions. The “Investigation” phase is central to the process, as students actively
engage in experiments and data collection. Finally, the “Conclusion” phase focuses on drawing
conclusions, reflecting on the learning experience, and communicating findings. Emphasizing the
iterative nature of inquiry, the framework guides students and teachers through a comprehensive
exploration of scientific concepts, fostering a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Three
Inquiry-based learning series (confirmatory, structured, and guided) were developed, focusing on
"Newtonian Mechanics". The provided scaffolding was consistent with the principles of inquiry-
based learning [11]. In the confirmatory inquiry, increased support was provided during the
“Questioning” and “Experimentation” phases, while less assistance was given in the “Conclusion”
phase. During the “Questioning” phase, the teacher guided students through methodological
issues, such as stating the aim of the research, identifying dependent and independent variables,
while students were practicing the scheme "How does variable x affect variable x?". In the
subsequent investigations, based on structured or guided inquiry, students followed the same
steps with less and less scaffolding through guiding questions and verbal assistance. At the end
of each investigation, students wrote an experimental report, sharing results with other groups,
prompting reflection on their processes.

2.3 Materials

The total Inquiry-based teaching-learning sequence lasted about 4 months, from February to May
2023. It consists of 18 sessions, of a duration of 40-45 minutes each. During their investigations,
students used hands-on laboratory equipment and simulations. The topics for the Inquiry-based
series were “Acceleration”, “Fall”, “Projectile motion” and “Collisions”. In exploring acceleration,
students measured variables impacting a cart's acceleration using wireless Pasco smart carts,
adjustable inclined planes, mass sets, pulleys, a fan, and various surfaces. “Fall” experiments
involved determining the impact of variables on the time it takes for a spherical object to descend,
utilizing an electromagnet release system, a timer, and distance-measuring tools. For “Projectile
motion” investigations, students utilized a Phet simulation (https://phet.colorado.edu) to explore
how variables like gravity, mass, initial velocity, launch height, and angle affect a projectile’s
range. “Collisions” were studied by examining the percentage change in kinetic energy in elastic
collisions using wireless Pasco Carts, magnets, and masses. Controlled experiments were
conducted for each investigation, ensuring systematic exploration of specific questions while
maintaining constant variables.

2.4 Development of the Assessment

The development and validation of the assessment employed in this research required an
extensive examination of literature concerning inquiry-based learning and evaluating inquiry skills
within secondary school education. An extensive literature survey was conducted on Google
Scholar (https://scholar.google.gr) and focused on studies which concentrate on secondary
school education, and particularly those addressing the teaching of Physical Sciences through
inquiry or discovery-based methods. The survey spanned from 1980 to 2022, and findings were
limited to English or Greek. This comprehensive approach led to the examination of various
science inquiry assessment records [12, 13, 14], where the content and question style of the tests
were scrutinized. Additionally, the study explored several curricula, such as the NRC K-12 science
and engineering curriculum, which outlines the eight fundamental inquiry skills known as practices
[1]. It is worth stating that in the literature, no skill regarding developing testable questions exists
[15]. After the literature review, the PTI Science Inquiry Skills Framework by Lou et al. [16] was
adopted, whereas the operational definition for “Identify testable questions” is as follows; “Given
a description of research interest and investigation set up, identify the testable question.”
Four assessments were developed to evaluate the several Inquiry Process Skills. Initially, the
content of each assessment was curated to feature questions situated within the realm of Physics,
specifically Newtonian mechanics, aligning with literature recommendations for facilitating
comparative analysis of students' learning gains [17]. A standardized structure for each
assessment was chosen, employing multiple-choice responses. Additionally, each questionnaire
item was accompanied by an open-ended prompt for a brief justification, to enhance the reliability
of the scoring. Each question consisted of four options, one of which was the correct answer.
408 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

After each question, the students were asked to justify their choice by answering an open-ended
question. The first question in each assessment aimed at assessing the students' understanding
of the “Identify Test Questions” inquiry skill, developed when working in Inquiry-based learning.
Each assessment started with a brief scenario: “You want to investigate the factors which affect
how far a toy car can travel on a horizontal surface. To do this, you have at your disposal the
following materials (tape measure, a toy car, glass marbles a stopwatch, a digital scale, a ramp
that you can lean on three boxes and, various flat surfaces on which to place the ramp). According
to the materials you have, which of the following questions is appropriate for you to perform an
experimental inquiry?” After that, each student could select one of four choices, as presented in
Table 1.

Table 1. The structure of each question regarding the “Identify testable questions” inquiry skill.
Choice Description
Α An option that expressed a causative-type question (e.g., why does an object
undergo uniform accelerated motion when a constant force is applied to it?), which
could be answered by collecting information through a literature search or studying
Newton's Second Law Theory.
B An option that expresses a question that does not require investigation and can be
answered with a single measurement (e.g., how long does it take for the ball to reach
the ground if we drop it from a height of 2 m?).
C An option that referred to a general question that was not directly investigable but
could be the purpose of an investigation.
D The correct option: Α question that was investigable and could be answered through
active experimentation using the provided materials.
Note: The possible choices were shuffled randomly by software.

2.5 Scoring of the Responses

The participants' responses to the open-ended prompts, were categorized into four levels based
on their scientific accuracy, as shown in Table 2. Each level was scored with 0, 1, 2, or 3. At the
lowest level (Level E0), students’ responses were classified as either non-existent or incorrect. At
the highest level (Level E3), students’ responses were those in which the correct option was
selected and fully justified.

Table 2. Rubric for the assessment of the selected inquiry process skills.
Ranking of Description Score
the answer
Level 0 Student does not answer anything or answers incorrectly 0
Level 1 Student chooses the correct option but does not justify it or 1
justifies it incorrectly
Level 2 Student chooses the correct option but justifies it inadequately 2
Level 3 Student chooses the correct option and justifies it fully 3

2.6 Data Analysis

In this study a paired-samples t-test was used to explore potential associations among students'
skills, aiming to assess whether there are statistically significant differences in mean skill scores
within each inquiry type. The significance level (p-value) for all analyses was set at p=.05. IBM
SPSS 26.0 software was employed for data analysis. Additionally, the study employed the
normalized Hake Gain index, following Marx & Cummings's [18] recommendation, to gauge the
change in students' inquiry skills before and after interventions based on the initial and final
granted IPST. The Hake Gain indexes, as defined by Hake [19], categorize gains as marginal (0
< Gave ≤ 0.3), proficient (0.3 < Gave < 0.5), and exemplary (Gave ≥ 0.5).

3. Results

3.1 Average Performance Scores of Students on Each Question of Each IPST

Table 3 and Figure 1 present the progression of mean values for the “Identify Testable Questions”
skill (from now on referred to as Questioning, QU) after administering each Inquiry Process Skills
Test (IPST). Baseline, refers to the initial administration of the ISPT, prior to the Inquiry-based
series. The data indicates a consistent upward trend in student performance, with the average
values showing a continual increase from one test to the subsequent one.
409 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 3. The mean values for Questioning after implementing each type of Inquiry
Independent Variable Mean (SD)
Baseline (IPST1) .55 (.51)
Confirmative (IPST2) .55 (.74)
Structured (IPST3) 1.14 (.94)
Guided (IPST4) 1.77 (.97)

Figure 1. The progression of mean values for Questioning

3

2,5

1,5

0,5

0
Baseline Confirmative Structured Guided
(pre) (post) (post) (post)

Implementing paired samples t-test, statistical differences were observed regarding the mean
values between different types of inquiries. Specifically, students after attending the Structured
inquiry had greater mean scores (M=1.14, SD=.94) in “Questioning” than students attending the
Confirmative inquiry (M=.55, SD=.74), t(2.890,21), p=.009 with a 95% confidence interval from
.17 to 1.02. Also students attending the Guided inquiry had greater mean score (M=1.77, SD=.97)
in “Questioning” than students attending the Structured inquiry (M=1.14, SD=.94) t(3.309,21),
p=.003 with a 95% confidence interval from .24 to 1.04.
Calculating the Hake Gain indices between the initial (Baseline-pre) and final IPST (Guided-post),
a proficient (medium) gain with value Gave=.39 was found. Finally, implementing paired samples
t-test for the two skills between the baseline (pre) measurement and after the Guided (post) type
of inquiry, students’ mean scores were greater at the end of the whole intervention with mean
scores (M=.55, SD=.51) in the Baseline (pre) measurement, versus (M=1.77, SD=.97) for the
Guided (post) measurement, t(6.827,21), p<.001 with a 95% confidence interval from .70 to 1.76.
The assessment results suggest varying effectiveness of each inquiry type, with "Identifying
testable questions" requiring considerable time and student engagement for significant
enhancement.
Five different patterns emerged by studying students’ responses to the open-ended questions
(Table 4) and their frequency appearance was noted (Table 5). Through the analysis of various
patterns in student responses, it was discovered that as students become engaged in more
advanced types of inquiry (Confirmative, Structured, Guided), their responses become more
scientifically accurate and shift from mere attempts to explain a phenomenon's behavior to
justifications that closely align with scientific knowledge. This shift is due to their choice of
investigations that involve taking multiple measurements or the use of appropriate question
formats that consist of a dependent and an independent variable.

Table 4. Patterns on students’ answers regarding “Identify Testable Questions”

Pattern Student Answer
#1 Student does not answer, or raises the question without giving an answer.
#2 Student assumes that there is some general purpose of inquiry, or tries to explain
why a specific phenomenon happens.
#3 Student states the materials he will use, or states how he will do the investigation, or
states that he/she will change a variable and measure something else.
#4 States that the selected question can provide him/her measurements or leads to
research.
#5 States that the question is testable because it has a dependent and independent
variable relationship.
410 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 5. Students’ counts on each pattern on their answers regarding “Identify Testable Questions”
Pattern Baseline (pre) Confirmative (post) Structured (post) Guided (post)
Counts (%) Counts (%) Counts (%) Counts (%)
#1 7 (31,8) 5 (22,7) 7 (31,8) 2 (9,1)
#2 12 (54,5) 8 (36,4) 1 (4,5) 1 (4,5)
#3 3 (13,6) 8 (36,4) 9 (40,9) 4 (18,2)
#4 0 (0) 0 (0) 2 (9,1) 10 (45,5)
#5 0 (0) 1 (4,5) 3 (13,6) 5 (22,7)

Regarding gender, no statistical differences were observed. In contrast, statistical differences

were found regarding students’ grade in the structured inquiry, where 11th-grade students
(M=2.20, SD=.84) had a higher mean score than 10th-graders (M=0.82, SD=0.73), t(3.604,20),
p=.002 with a 95% confidence interval from .58 to 2.17.

4. Conclusion

The study presented a thorough exploration into students' understanding and skill development
in the "Identify testable questions" inquiry skill within inquiry-based learning, focusing on three
distinct inquiry types: confirmative, structured, and guided, all centered around Newtonian
Mechanics. Meticulous assessment, aided by tailored scaffolding and hands-on exploration, shed
light on the complex factors influencing students' learning experiences. The adoption of a
standardized multiple-choice structure and a scoring rubric contributed to the reliability and depth
of the assessment of the targeted skill.
The research unfolded with a methodical analysis of students' responses and performance,
revealing patterns and insights that underscored the profound impact of inquiry-based learning
on nurturing the selected scientific inquiry skill. Applying paired samples t-tests brought forth
significant statistical variances in mean values among the different inquiry types. Notably,
students in the Structured inquiry exhibited higher mean scores than those in the Confirmative
inquiry, and those in the Guided inquiry demonstrated a higher mean score than those in the
Structured inquiry.
The evaluation extended to Hake Gain indices, unveiling a proficient (medium) gain with a value
of Gave=.39 between the initial (Baseline-pre) and final IPST (Guided-post). In summary, the
assessment results highlighted varying effectiveness across each inquiry type, emphasizing the
substantial time and student engagement required for significant improvement in the skill of
"Identifying testable questions."
Furthermore, analyzing students' responses to open-ended questions revealed five distinct
patterns, providing valuable insights. The identified trend showcased a positive transformation in
students' explanations from basic attempts to elucidate a phenomenon's behavior to justifications
closely aligned with established scientific knowledge as they progressed through different inquiry
types.
The authors attribute these positive changes in response quality to the students’ engagement in
investigations involving multiple measurements or question formats with a clear distinction
between dependent and independent variables. This highlights the pedagogical value of guiding
students through progressively advanced inquiry types, fostering a more sophisticated and
scientifically grounded approach to problem-solving and explanation. The study contributes
valuable insights to the ongoing debate on effective inquiry-based learning practices and their
impact on the development in scientific inquiry skills.

5. Ethical Considerations

All students in the research were participated willingly. They participated anonymously, and their
privacy was safeguarded through individual six-digit codes, known only to them. Taking account
students’ age, their parents were informed on the scope of the research and the way it will be
carried out. Their parents have signed a relevant consent form. This whole process has been
approved by the Ethics Committee of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTH) (No
98642/2023).
411 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

REFERENCES

[1] National Research Council, NRC. A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices,
Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press,
2012.
[2] Shahali, E. H., Halim, L., Treagust, D. F., Won, M., & Chandrasegaran, A. L. Primary school
teachers’ understanding of science process skills in relation to their teaching qualifications
and teaching experience, Research in Science Education, 47(2), 2017, 257-281.
[3] Turiman, P., Omar, J., Daud, A. M., & Osman, K. Fostering the 21st century skills through
scientific literacy and science process skills, Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 59,
2012, 110-116.
[4] Adnyana, P. B., & Citrawathi, D. M. The effectiveness of question-based inquiry module in
learning biological knowledge and science process skills, International Journal of
Environmental & Science Education, 12(8), 2017, 1871-1878.
[5] Dewi, H. R., Mayasari, T., & Handhika, J. Increasing creative thinking skills and
understanding of physics concepts through application of stem-based inquiry, Jurnal
Penelitian Pendidikan IPA, 4(1), 2019, 25-30.
[6] Brata, W. & Suriani, C. Students’ science process skills under structured and guided inquiry
learning condition, Jurnal Bioedukatika, 8(1), 2020, 15-21.
[7] Lederman, J.S., Lederman, N. G., Bartos, S. A., Bartels, S. L., Meyer, A. A., & Schwartz,
R. S. Meaningful assessment of learners' understandings about scientific inquiry - The
views about scientific inquiry (VASI) questionnaire, Journal of research in science
teaching, 51(1), 2014, 65-83.
[8] Koumaras, P. Teaching Physics Tomorrow, Athens, Gutenberg, 2017.
[9] McComas, W. F. Proposals for core Nature of Science content in popular books on the
history and philosophy of science: Lessons for science education, Science education at the
nexus of theory and practice, Brill, 2008, 259-270.
[10] Pedaste, M., Mäeots, M., Siiman, L. A., De Jong, T., Van Riesen, S. A., Kamp, E. T., ... &
Tsourlidaki, E. Phases of inquiry-based learning: Definitions and the inquiry cycle,
Educational’ research review, 14, 2015, 47-61.
[11] Banchi, H., & Bell, R.L. The many levels of inquiry. Science and Children, 46(2), 2008, 26-
29.
[12] Burns, J.C., Okey, J.R., and Wise, K.C. Development of an integrated process skill test:
TIPS II, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 22(2), 1985, 169-177.
[13] Dillashaw, F. G., & Okey, J. R. A Test of the Integrated Science Process Skills for
Secondary Science Students, 1980.
[14] Enger, S.K., & Yager, R.E. Iowa Assesment Handbook, Science Education Center,
University of Iowa, 1998.
[15] Yang, W., & Liu, E. Development and validation of an instrument for evaluating inquiry-
based tasks in science textbooks, International Journal of Science Education, 38(18), 2016,
2688-2711.
[16] Lou, Y., Blanchard, P., & Kennedy, E. Development and validation of a science inquiry
skills assessment, Journal of Geoscience Education, 63(1), 2015, 73-85.
[17] Schwichow, M., Christoph, S., Boone, W. J., & Härtig, H. The impact of sub-skills and item
content on students’ skills with regard to the control-of-variables strategy, International
Journal of Science Education, 38(2), 2016, 216-237.
[18] Marx, J. D., & Cummings, K. Normalized change, American Journal of Physics, 75(1),
2007, 87-91.
[19] Hake, R. R. Interactive-engagement versus traditional methods: A six-thousand-student
survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics courses, American Journal of
Physics, 66(1), 1998, 64-74.
412 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Student Conceptions
413 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Reflecting on School through the Voice of Children

Dárida Fernandes1, Catarina Ribeiro2, Paula Quadros-Flores3, Ana Luísa Pinto4

School of Education of the Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Portugal1,2

Escola Superior de Educação - Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Portugal3
Unidade Local de Saúde do Nordeste, Portugal4

Abstract

School is a place for learning and, at the same time, for individual and social growth. But what do
children think of this space for socialising and learning? In order to understand this first-person
experience, an investigation was carried out as part of the Teaching and Learning Practices for
the Master's Degree in Teaching the 1st Cycle of Basic Education (CEB) and Maths and Natural
Sciences in the 2nd CEB at the Polytechnic School of Education in Porto, with a group of 50
students aged between 8 and 12, belonging to one class in the 1st CEB and two in the 2nd CEB.
Given the pandemic period, in which the school existed in E@D mode, the aim was to give the
child a voice, understanding "what do children think of the school?". The focus of the study was
on the concept of school, encompassing three dimensions: i) the building; ii) the school institution;
iii) the classroom, in a close relationship between pupils and teachers. This is a case study that
includes qualitative and quantitative approaches, using various information gathering resources
to enable data triangulation: direct and participant observation; supported narrative diaries;
(in)formal dialogues with the children; questionnaire surveys; individual and collective interviews
and duly planned and implemented classroom moments. The discussion of results reveals that
the concept of school, from the children's point of view, is quite comprehensive, identifying the
building as a place to play, socialise and grow interpersonally and intellectually. The children see
it as their mission to search for places within the school to study and learn what the teachers are
teaching.

Keywords: Education; Listen to children; Learn; School; Relations

1. Introduction

The role of teacher is often associated only with their ability to teach, leaving the learning process
exclusively to the student. However, for [1] the centre of the educational process lies in the
learning of the child and the teacher, as both learn and teach. This author adds that teachers
need to be able to reflect individually and collectively on the stories, the experiences that exist
and the things that mobilize them in order to improve the process of teaching and learning to learn
and to humanize the school more [2] [3]. This reflection should lead to shared writing, from which
new dynamics and lessons can be learnt, and this is the way forward for the future of education
[1]. In this context, it is necessary to realise that there is symbiotic learning between children and
teachers, and the better teachers know their context, the more they can adjust and improve their
practices. In this sense, there is an urgent need to make education research a structural axis of
initial teacher training and a continuous learning process, creating the need to problematize
teaching practice, enabling an understanding of the complexity of the educational reality in order
to improve that same practice [4]. According to [5] "teachers are human professionals, interveners
who are more or less aware of and critical of their social role, whose actions take place in
interaction with other people, especially children (...) and only make sense if they are strongly
imbued with a social commitment to the people in the contexts they inhabit on a daily basis" (p.
72). The right of every child to be heard, as explained in the resource guide - General Comment
No. 12 (2011) of the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child published by UNICEF
and Save the Children [6], as well as the recent guidelines of the Council of Europe [7], through
the CP4Europe project: "Listen - Act - Change - A handbook on children's participation" call for
the participation of children in educational activity, with responsibility and co-operation.
414 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

UNESCO, through the Declaration of Human Rights [8], the World Declaration on Education for
All and in an inclusive way [9] and [10] also reminds us of the need to listen to and communicate
with children, as they are developing beings with their own needs and motivations. In addition to
the learning process intrinsic to educational action, [1] mentions that in António Damásio latest
book on "Feeling & Knowing" you can't know without feeling and that in the practice of feeling
there is also knowledge. For [1] the cognitive, empathetic, healing, caring and treating dimensions
are essential for the future of the school. To do this, we need to get to know the context in which
we operate and carry out our educational activities better, listening to all the players in order to
rethink their experiences and values and share principles to create a new educational reality [2]
[3]. In this study, we listened to the children in their own moments and spaces in order to get to
know them better in this educational interaction.

2. Problematic Situation and Objectives

Since children are active agents in the school process, their opinion is rarely taken into account:
we think about them and for them, but we rarely think with them. However, the advantages of
involving children in the educational process and making them active agents in the classroom,
builders of their own knowledge, are recognized. The following question arose: what do children
think and what do they have to say about the educational process? Giving freedom is synonymous
with giving responsibility and the school's mission is to train and develop active, reflective, critical,
responsible, autonomous and supportive citizens [6][7][8][9][10]. With this in mind, and with the
global COVID-19 pandemic forcing the teaching-learning process to take place in the E@D mode
(for the year 2021, it ended on 15 March), it made even more sense to listen to the children.
Based on the problematic situation identified, this study centred on the children's voices, on what
they think about education, focusing on three dimensions: the school (as a building - physical
space - and as an entity); the teacher and the lessons. Questions were therefore posed, which
will be explained in the section on "Analysing and Discussing Results", and the following
objectives were set: i) to find out what children think about compulsory attendance and
permanence at school; ii) to get to know the concept of school from their perspective; iii) to
understand the importance of the teacher-student connection in their relationship with school; iv)
to get to know the meaning of lessons from the children's point of view.

3. Literature Review

In the context of initial teacher training, the teacher's stance in investigative trials should be
autonomous, but always aimed at studying and improving processes in order to realize more in-
depth understandings of contexts. It is therefore necessary to "interpret what you see being done,
to imitate without copying, to recreate, to transform. You can only do this if you reflect on what
you do and what you see done." [11] (p.20). It is therefore clear that a research process is based
on the ability to analyze, "read" and think about the situations experienced. School plays an
extremely important role in society and is the biggest part of a child's life, accompanying them
until they reach adulthood. Many children have already been to kindergarten or even nursery
school before entering the first year of school.
In this way, and given the number of hours a day that children spend at school, it is safe to say
that children spend most of their childhood in a school context, where school plays an extremely
important role in the development of intellectual, cognitive, social and emotional skills. School
thus becomes the stage for the construction of each person's identity, their being and belonging
in the world. Along with the family, school is the social institution with the greatest repercussions
for children, as it is there that they develop their emotional relationships, take part in social
situations, acquire communication skills and develop their social behavior [12]. At the same time,
most of the development and acquisition of these skills comes from the relationships and
interactions they establish with their peers, where children are and feel like children and not
merely pupils. It is by being children that they see themselves as "beings of now" and not just
"beings of the future" [13]. Children have an active way of being in the world, participating in the
creation of social relationships, learning processes and the production of knowledge. Based on
this observation and in this line of thought, [14] argues that integrating the student into the
educational dynamic "revolutionises pedagogy and, consequently, the very concept of the
student. They are now conceived as subjects who (...) think critically about the school and what
they are required to do in it - which is incompatible with the idea of the student as a mere 'recipient'
of information" [14] (p. 119).
415 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Furthermore, it has been noted that students who participate in school decisions see it in a
completely different light, since if they feel listened to and their opinions valued, they are more
motivated and have more positive attitudes towards learning [15]. The interest in listening to
pupils' voices is not something new [16], as back in the late 1960s and 1970s some educational
researchers set out to learn about the classroom and the school through pupils' experiences.
However, [15] states that "few studies have yet examined this construct in either empirical or
theoretical terms" (p. 651). Thus, [14] alludes to the need to develop more studies on student
voice, because "student opinion continues to be the great ignored in the reforms of the education
system!" (p. 118).

4. Research Methodology

This research was carried out in two classes, with a group of 50 students aged between 8 and
12. Given the characteristics of the problem and the objectives formulated, the data collection
techniques and the methods used to analyse the data, we followed a case study methodology,
with a social paradigm, of an interpretative and qualitative nature. A case study is "an empirical
enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when
the boundaries between the phenomenon and the context are not clearly defined" [17].
Furthermore, case study research differs from other research processes in that it has intrinsic
characteristics, such as the nature of the research, its holistic nature, the context and its
relationship with the study of a constant interpretative nature. In this respect, the case study is
only possible when the researcher knows the context in which they will be working and developing
their research, and is considered a strategy for building knowledge and innovating in the field of
education [18]. In this study, various data collection instruments were designed and drawn up,
including the children's productions, field notes, questionnaire surveys, naturalistic participant and
active observation, which allowed us to observe the children at school, inside and outside the
classroom, and to make important readings for this research. Considering the aim of the research,
the interview was also used, since it is a form of interaction between two or more people that
allows objective and subjective data to be collected, since for [19] "interviewing is one of the most
common and powerful ways of trying to understand other human beings" (p. 361).
When all the students and guardians became aware of the research being carried out, they signed
an informed consent form in accordance with the ethical rules in force at the Ethics Committee of
the ESEPP Centre for Research and Innovation in Education (inED). These aspects of the
research are crucial as advocated by [23].

5. Analysis and Discussion of Results

The reflections shared in this article are the result of reading and interpreting the information and
data collected by a research team, based on the different data collection techniques and
instruments identified above and situations observed/experienced with the children, recorded by
photos or videos, with the appropriate informed consent.
Regarding the School dimension, the questionnaire survey had different questions and the results
are shown in Table 1.
With regard to question 1, it can be inferred that school plays a decisive role in children's social
lives, serving as a stage for the interactions they establish with others, followed by the importance
of learning, but as something very important for their future and for their relationship with their
teacher. From the justifications given, it can be concluded that the teacher plays an important role
in a child's school life (in and out of school), because learning doesn't just happen through
curriculum content, but above all in the relationship that is established between the teacher and
the child, taking into account the affective dimension in the pedagogical relationship, the cognitive,
emotional and social aspects [1]. Analyzing the responses, it was possible to see that the word
fun is also associated with school, which, from the research team's perspective, is very gratifying.
School is a place where children spend a large part of their lives, more time than at home and
with their families, and so the fact that it's fun to go to school makes children establish positive
relationships and emotions with the educational process [2] [3].
416 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 1. School Dimension

Questions Results Comments

Team I - School 93% - “Yes” “Yes”, because:

7% - “No”, 2 answers, “has 56% to be with friends
1. Do you like coming to a brother in School”; “has 52% to learn for the future
school? a lot of classes and little 19% to be with teacher
break ti” 17% is fun

2. What you would change 44% changed the The children wanted to increase breaks
about the school number/duration of breaks time for its social and playful components.
23% change the time of
classes
3. The perfect school for me 47% increased breaks The answers are consistent with the
was/is... times previous question:
37%, would like a
swimming pool, more fun - the length of breaks between subjects
activities - the playground with a swimming pool,
70% wanted to have more different activities and more games
fun lessons, with more - classes being more playful, with more
games, technology and technology and robotics
robotics
4.1. If you had the choice 23% chose not to go to They don't find it funny. They feel tired
between going to school or school and even insecure.
not, what would you
choose?

4.2. Justify your answer. 53% choose to go to They chose the social factor (50 %)
What would you do if you school The importance of school for learning
didn't go to school? 43% do not justify (50%)
82% if they didn't go to school, they would
play and do fun and enjoyable activities.
5.1. Do you think school is 100% - “YES” In this question, all the children were
important? aware of the intrinsic value of school:
social and learning.
5.2. Why? 90% say that school is No child indicated that it was important to
important for learning go to school to make friends, or to be with
50% choose learning and other children, or for any other social
to be important for their factor.
future life

Combining the answers to the first two questions reveals the social importance that children
attribute to school, because it is during break times that they can interact with their peers, and
they want these to be longer than 10 minutes, reinforcing school as the predominant (and often
only) social stage for children. In fact, children need time and space to be themselves, to play
with each other, to fully enjoy this stage of life and not be seen merely as pupils.
With regard to question 3, the answers are coherent and consistent, because the children would
like to change the school so that they can be more like children to play, in open spaces, with
playful activities in the playground and with more creative lessons, using gamification, technology
and robotics.
With regard to question 4, almost a quarter of the children chose not to go to school. Comparing
the answers to this question with those to question 1, where only two pupils said they didn't like
going to school, we can see that there are pupils who, even though they liked going to school,
chose not to. Looking at the children's justifications, we can see the negative feelings they
associate with school: how tiredness, lack of rest and insecurity are impediments to learning and
development. Children don't learn if they don't feel well, safe and have their basic needs met.
These circumstances are reflected in the health promotion of intellectual, social and emotional
competences. Thus, these kinds of negative emotions associated with school can contribute to a
feeling of obligation when it comes to their willingness to attend.
With regard to the last two questions, table 1 shows that it is indisputable that school plays a
fundamental and very important role, as it enables children to acquire the skills and competences
that are fundamental to the development and training of citizens. However, as it is seen as a
condition for a successful life, children can feel an obligation to attend school, focusing on the
future part of the adult version, forgetting the present part, that they are children. This vision of
school as pupils in the classroom working towards a distant future in their adult version doesn't
seem to be in balance with the essence of "being a child" in class breaks, where the social factor
prevails and where they can play and socialize with friends and teachers. If they didn't go to
417 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

school, that's what they would like to do: "play and do fun and enjoyable activities", as one child
put it. This playful activity is natural, because "It is in playing, and only in playing, that the
individual, child or adult, can be creative and use his or her integral personality; and it is only by
being creative that the individual discovers his or her Self". [20] (p. 80) and "play is the
fundamental condition for being serious" (Archimedes, 282-212 BC).
A tabela 2 seguinte sintetiza as questões colocadas sobre a dimensão professor e a dimensão
aulas e as respetivas respostas das crianças.

Table 2. Teacher Dimension and Classes Dimension

Questions Results Comments

Team II – Teacher 97% use terms such as They also used other terms related to
"teaching" and personal characteristics, associated with the
1. For you, what is a "lecturing" to define a personality, way of being and character of
teacher? teacher "being a teacher".

2. What characteristics do 97% defined a teacher They mention 11 characteristics inherent to

you think a teacher should as "someone who the profession and 64 characteristics to the
have? teaches", they focus on personality of "being a teacher".
personal characteristics Being intelligent (47%), fun (43%), friendly
(33%) and patient (3%)
100% say that teachers have to be patient,
have "lots and lots" of patience
Team III –Classes The most chosen verbs: The children were shown the words they
"Learn" (97%); "Study" could select. The least chosen verbs:
1. Select the words that you (93%); "Work" (90%) "Play" (40%), "Play" (37%), "Laugh"(33%),
think relate to the lessons and "Think" (76%) "Build" (33%) and "Debate"(3%).

2. In your opinion, what are 87% for learn They understand the purpose of the lessons,
classes and what are they but it is not clear to understand the influence
for? in the compulsory school.

3. Would you prefer online 13% would prefer Reasons for preferring classes (a.o.):
or face-to-face classes? online classes (a.o.) tiredness, needing more rest and sleep and
Justify your answer 87% would prefer to the weight of rucksacks.
have face-to-face Reason for preferring p.a.:
lessons (a.p.) - socialising with friends and teachers (81%);
the quality of learning (37%) is "more, better
and they learn more easily"
4. For you, is school a right 46% reported a right, 15% - 4 children do not understand the
or an obligation? 19% an obligation question.
35% both a right and an
obligation

In the group of teacher-related questions, the children associated "being a teacher" with teaching
and pointed out certain human characteristics to be a "good teacher": intelligent, funny, friendly
and patient. In fact, the children recognize that a teacher has to know, but also have patience,
empathy and teach with joy. In this way, in the holistic development of the child and their
intellectual and emotional abilities and competences, the child calls for a sense of well-being in
the teacher-student relationship. This openness on the part of the child to express themselves to
the teacher allows them to develop critical and reflective thinking, positively influencing the
learning and teaching process.
In the question 6 the team investigation suggested drawing a picture: "Draw a picture about the
school and what it means to you." The children were given the opportunity to represent the school
through a drawing because it's a good way of collecting data without resorting to writing, and
sometimes it's easier to convey an idea through a drawing than with words, since drawing
recognises an intimate connection between the self and reality. In fact, the information obtained
reveals data that is consistent with the previous responses, where the social factor is what
children like most about school. In this vein, 44 per cent depict friends and various children, some
in the playground (9) and others just people together (one child even drew two figures holding
hands) without alluding to a specific space. Furthermore, 35% of the children depicted the school
building, its façade, which could mean that they see the school as a place, a location, a physical
space. A curious fact is that five of the children drew a building very similar to a house, while the
other four clearly drew a structure closer to the structure and façade of their school.
418 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Given that these children are on average 11 years old, could it be that they see the school as a
second home? Also 35% of the children drew the playground, the playing field and the outdoor
space, showing that this is what the school represents, or what they like most about it, revealing,
once again, consistency with what has been seen so far: children like (and need!) to play and
socialize with each other, and the playground is a space created specifically for these situations.
The next piece of data to analyse is the children who represented the school by drawing the
classroom (30%). These children see school as the place they go to have lessons, as the main
process that takes place there. In addition, 8 children represented the teacher, both in the
classroom and in the playground, identifying him or her as the main and basic entity in the
teaching process and as a figure with whom they establish a relationship. We will now analyze
the children who made abstract representations of the school. There are two children who draw
large, abstract pictures, using geometric shapes and free drawing, with lots of cheerful colors.
According to child psychology, children who draw large, colorful pictures show that they feel safe
and, as such, see school as a safe place.

6. Conclusions

In this case study, we tried to listen to the children in order to get to know them better and
understand their thoughts and what they have to say about education and educational processes,
based on three axes: the school (as a building - physical space - and as an entity); the teacher
and the classroom. By analyzing and interpreting the data collected, it was possible to make a
reading of each dimension studied. Starting with school, the study reveals that the social factor is
what most motivates them to go to school, followed by their love of learning, which they see as
an important stage in their future lives. School is the place where most children make friends and
have the opportunity to socialize and interact with their peers. However, despite this, the biggest
criticism that the children point to is the short break time, as this is when the children can play,
which is consistent with what the children like best about school. On the other hand, school is a
space for cognitive and intellectual learning that they acquire and develop as useful for their
professional future. This possibility of knowledge being important for the present is not felt by the
children, as [21] argues: "Education is a social process, it is development. It is not preparation for
life, it is life itself". In this way, there is a feeling of obligation on the part of children towards their
adult version, because their future, their work, their jobs depend on what they do today, and this
can contribute to them seeing school as compulsory. In fact, what children (adults and society in
general) say, school can no longer provide as many guarantees of a stable future as it once did,
because the future has become increasingly uncertain and unstable. Therefore, rather than
teaching and learning, school should teach learning how to learn [2]. The children like and want
to go to school because of its social factor, but they don't consider it important for their lives. None
of the children said that school was important because of the social factor, to play, to make friends
and socialize with them. They only mentioned that school was important for learning and for the
future, from a perspective mostly based on knowing rather than being.
In his latest research, [22] also concluded that children considered school to be important,
essential for a promising future and a place to socialize. However, he adds that children and
young people experience it as an institution that provides unsatisfactory learning, meaningless
lessons, too much content, creating demotivation to learn. When we include children and give
them the opportunity to participate and intervene in the process of constructing knowledge, we
can expand thinking and knowledge, both theirs and ours. In fact, the teaching-learning process
is a symbiotic process, without watertight roles, which does not define the teacher as the only one
to teach, nor the child as the only one to learn and harmoniously develop the mental health of
children and teachers. There is also a need for more case studies and research in the field of
education, especially in terms of listening to students and teachers in order to find more
interpersonal and cultural proposals for the school. The existence of studies that give a voice to
those who give life and make life in the school is considered pertinent. Recognizing the limitations
of this study, both in terms of time and the number of participants, it was possible to obtain relevant
information and interpret the reality of the school from a different perspective: that of the child. It
is considered a good starting point for research on a larger scale, working co-operatively with
various professionals from different areas (Psychology, Pedagogy, Sociology, etc.) who can
contribute to a deeper and more complete reading, which can translate into more significant
readings, reflections and transformations. As Maxine Greene argues [1], we have to be able to
imagine a coherent purpose for education, something common that takes place in a public space
par excellence, which is the school: a more humane public place [2] [3] where we can produce
knowledge and emotions, today, yesterday and tomorrow.
419 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Acknowledgments

This work is funded by national funds through the FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology,
I.P., and UIDB/05198/2020 (Center for Research and Innovation in Education, inED -
https://doi.org/10.54499/UIDB/05198/2020).

REFERENCES

[1] Nóvoa, A. (2021). “Aprendizagem precisa de considerar o sentir”. In Revista Educação,

conduzida por Luciana Alvarez. Entrevista realizada em 25 de Junho de 2021.
https://revistaeducacao.com.br/2021/06/25/antonio-novoa-aprendizagem-sentir/
[2] Fernandes, D. Cravo, C. e Guedes, T. (2020). Observar, manipular e comunicar
sequências e regularidades da Ribeira do Porto. In Online Indagatio Didactica. Vol. 12, N.
5, (p. 369-392), dezembro 2020 https://proa.ua.pt/index.php/id/issue/view/738. Observar,
manipular e comunicar sequências e regularidades da Ribeira do Porto.
[3] Fernandes, D., André, T. (2020). Projeto UKIDS – valorizar o desafio Trash Value em
contexto interdisciplinar. In Online Indagatio Didactica. Vol. 12, N. 3, julho de 2020 (p. 437-
470) ( https://proa.ua.pt/index.php/id/issue/view/648). Projeto UKIDS – Valorizar o desafio
Trash Value em contexto interdisciplinar
[4] Roldão, M. d., & Almeida, S. d. (2018). “Gestão Curricular: Para a autonomia das escolas
e professores”. Lisboa: Direção-Geral da Educação
[5] Costa, C. L. & Sarmento, T. (2018). ESCUTAR AS CRIANÇAS E (RE) CONFIGURAR
IDENTIDADES – INTERAÇÕES COM VOZ. EDUC. ANÁL., LONDRINA, V.3, N. 2, P.72-
94, JUL/ DEZ. 2018. DOI: 10.5433/1984-7939.2018v3n2p72
[6] UNICEF e Save the Children (2011). “O direito de cada criança a ser ouvida: um guia de
recursos” sobre o Comentário Geral n. 12. Comité dos Direitos da Criança das Nações
Unidas.
[7] Conselho da Europa. (2023). Projeto CP4Europe: “Ouvir - Agir – Mudar” - Manual sobre a
participação das crianças”. Comissão Nacional de Promoção dos Direitos e Proteção das
Crianças e Jovens (cnpdpcj.gov.pt)
[8] UNESCO (1948). Declaração Universal dos Direitos Humanos.
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000139423_por
[9] UNESCO (1990). Declaração Mundial sobre Educação para Todos: satisfação das
necessidades básicas de aprendizagem. In Conferência Mundial sobre Educação para
Todos. Jomtien.
[10] UNESCO (2020). Global Education Monitoring Report 2020 – Inclusion and education: All
means all. UNESCO.
[11] Alarcão, I. (1996). Formação Reflexiva de Professores: Estratégias de Supervisão. Porto:
Porto Editora.
[12] Palacios, J. (1995). O que é a adolescência. Desenvolvimento psicológico e educação:
psicologia evolutiva, 1, 263-272.
[13] Canário, R. (2005). A escola e as dificuldades de aprendizagem. Psicologia da Educação,
(21)
[14] Amado, J. (2007). A voz do aluno: um desafio e um potencial transformador. Arquipélago:
Ciências da Educação, Açores, n. 8, p. 117-142
[15] Fielding, M., & McGregor, J. (2005). Deconstructing student voice: new spaces for dialogue
or new opportunities for surveillance. American Educational Research Association (AERA),
Montreal, Canada.
[16] Mitra, D. (2004). The significance of students: can increasing “student voice” in schools
lead to gains in youth development? Teachers College Record, New York, v. 106, n. 4, p.
651-688.
[17] Yin, R. (2005). Estudo de Caso. Planejamento e Métodos. Porto Alegre: Bookman.
[18] Meirinhos, M., & Osório, A. (2016). O estudo de caso como estratégia de investigação em
educação. EduSer-Revista de educação, 2(2).
[19] Fontana, A. & Frey, J. H. (1994). Interviewing: the art of science. In N. Denzin Y. Lincoln,
Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 361-376). Newsbury Park: Sage.
[20] Winnicott, D. W. (1975). O brincar e a realidade. Rio de Janeiro: Imago.
[21] Dewey, J. (2010). The need for a philosophy of education (1934). Schools, 7(2), 244-245
[22] Fujino, I. M. (2023). O que pensam as crianças sobre a Escola. Proceedings of
International Conference of New Perspetives in Science Education.
420 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[23] file:///C:/Users/Utilizador/Documents/Ano%20Letivo%202023_2024/Curriculo%20e%20C
ongressos/Florenca_PIXEL/O%20que%20pensam%20as%20crian%C3%A7as%20sobre
%20a%20escola_artigo_Ilka.pdf.
[24] Petousi, V., & Sifaki, E. (2020). Ethical issues. International Journal of Sustainable
Development, 23(3/4), 149-174
https://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/IJSD.2020.115206
421 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Teacher Professional Development

422 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Comparison of Mathematical Activities with Preservice

Teachers: Manipulatives vs. Paper and Pencil

Alberto Arnal-Bailera1, Mónica Arnal-Palacián2

University of Zaragoza, Spain1,2

Abstract

In the Spanish Primary Education curriculum, basic arithmetic properties are first introduced in
the 3rd and 4th grades. Working with arithmetic expressions gives rise to relational thinking, which
connects the algebra with the generalization of patterns and relationships. Hence, it is of vital
importance to also consider arithmetic properties in the training of preservice teachers
encompassing both scientific and pedagogical dimensions (MKT, Mathematical Knowledge for
Teaching). This communication aims to compare aspects of mathematical knowledge (in
particular, Specialized Content Knowledge and Knowledge of Content and Teaching) when
explaining an arithmetic property using pencil and paper versus the use of manipulative materials.
The sample consists of the answers of 35 preservice teachers to the following task: "Create a
written explanation that demonstrates that the arithmetic property a:(b:c) = (a:b)×c is true (a, b,
and c are natural numbers)". The variables used for this new analysis of written productions were:
contextualization, variety of representations, choice of numerical values, meaning of intermediate
operations, and property verification. Among the results found in both analyses, some similarities
can be observed, such as the significance of numbers and the choice of numerical values.
However, there are also certain differences, such as the contextualization present in explanations
and the meaning attributed to intermediate operations. It is clear that conducting the activity with
manipulative materials requires more time on the part of the university professor. Nevertheless,
it fosters more engaging experiences for PSTs and, most importantly, closely aligns with their
forthcoming teaching practice.

Keywords: Preservice teachers, arithmetic properties, paper and pencil, manipulatives.

1. Introduction

The arithmetic properties for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of natural numbers
are part of the current Spanish primary education curriculum, particularly introduced for the first
time in 3rd-4th grade [1]. Working with arithmetic expressions gives rise to relational thinking,
connecting the algebraic part with the generalization of patterns and relationships. This enables
the examination of expressions globally and utilizing them to solve a problem, make a decision,
or continue learning about a concept [2]. Furthermore, considering relational thinking involves
examining arithmetic expressions and equations as a whole, i.e., using the properties of
operations to relate expressions [3]. Therefore, it is crucial to also consider arithmetic properties
in the training of future teachers.
The training in mathematical education that these future teachers receive should encompass both
scientific and pedagogical aspects. Both aspects are outlined in the MKT (Mathematical
Knowledge for Teaching) theoretical framework [4] based in the seminal work of [5]. This model
includes two domains: SMK (subject matter knowledge) and PCK (pedagogical content
knowledge). In turn, each of these two domains is divided into three subdomains. SMK includes
subdomains such as common content knowledge (CCK), specialized content knowledge (SCK),
and horizon content knowledge (HCK), while PCK is divided into knowledge of content and
students (KCS), knowledge of content and teaching (KCT), and knowledge of content and
curriculum (KCC). See Fig 1.
423 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig 1. MKT model [4]

In a previous study [6], some aspects of the content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge of
future teachers were described when explaining arithmetic properties using manipulative
materials. Continuing precisely with this work, this study aims to compare both aspects of
specialized content knowledge (SCK) and knowledge of content and teaching (KCT) when
explaining an arithmetic property using pencil and paper compared to the use of manipulative
materials.
The objective of this contribution is to compare the results obtained in this previous study with
manipulative materials and those obtained when the task is presented for solving on paper.

2. Method

The sample consisted of 34 pre-service teachers, all of whom were in their second year of the
Primary Education Degree program at a Spanish public university. Specifically, they were enrolled
in the course Mathematics and its Didactics I. This course represented the first in their university
education where mathematical properties of natural numbers were addressed. Prior to delving
into the teaching and learning of natural numbers, the course covered three previous units: 1)
legislative framework and curricular design in the Mathematic field, 2) planning and design in the
teaching-learning process of Mathematics, and 3) assessment in the teaching-learning process
of Mathematics. Each pre-service teacher was individually assigned the following task (Fig 2):

Verify the following property: 𝑎: (𝑏: 𝑐) = (𝑎: 𝑏)𝑥𝑐

Fig. 2. Task proposed to pre-service teachers.

Through a qualitative approach, the analysis of the following categories is conducted (Table 1).
To facilitate comparison with the previous study [6], values are presented from both the analysis
of the current study and the previous study.
424 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 1. Variables and categories used in the analysis

Categories vídeo recorded task
Variable (subdomain) Categories written task
[6]
Contextualization (KCT) Includes explicit context/does not include [7]
Choice of numerical No indication/some value is 1/all values are powers/quotient
values (SCK) equal to third/different and not powers [8]

Meaning of intermediate Division: Partitive/quotative [9]

operations (SCK) Multiplication: Repeated addition/meaningless
No representation (only NA
Variety of
numerical expressions) / with
representations (KCC)
graphical representation
Variety of materials Single material/different
NA
(KCC) materials
Meaning given to
Representation
indeterminate in relation NA
only/variable/stable
to material (SCK)
Not tested/only with
Comprobación de la
NA material/only numerically/with
propiedad (SCK)
material and numerically

3. Results

Out of the 34 PSTs, 32 of them completed the assigned task (all except #29 and #34). We present
below the most relevant results regarding the variables of contextualization, choice of numerical
values, and meaning of intermediate operations. We chose these two variables as they are
observable in both the written task and the videos analyzed in [6]).

3.1 Choice of Numerical Values

Regarding how the 32 PSTs choose the numerical values for a, b, and c at the beginning of their
work, it is noteworthy that 30 of them approached the task with a single example, while the other
2 used two sets of different values, resulting in 34 different elaborations exemplifying the studied
property. Referring to these examples, 4 of them present 1 as the third numerical value, in 10
sets, all values are powers of the smallest number, 6 sets show numerical values where the
division of the first two results in the third value, and 14 sets exhibit numerical values that do not
have any of the aforementioned characteristics.

Table 2. Variables and categories used in the analysis

N (written % written % video
task) task recorded task
c is equal to 1 4 11,76% 14,8%
Two of the numbers are powers of the
10 29,41% 40,80%
smallest
Quotient equal to the third number 6 17,65% 25,90%
Different choices 14 41,18% 14,80%

To compare these data with those obtained in the previous study where students created a video,
we present in Table 2 a summary with the percentages of each category in both studies. The
most striking aspect is that the three categories in which the data are somewhat simplistically
taken, meaning that the numbers have a strong relationship among them, have much higher
percentages in the video study. This accounts for a total of 81.5% of the productions as opposed
to 58.9% in the written responses. Another notable element in this comparison is that when
intermediate quotients of the proposed numbers are calculated, in the case of written responses,
there are 7 that yield non-integer results; whereas, in the video responses, no intermediate
quotient is non-integer.
425 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig 3. PST #2 who selects quotient equal to the third number

The above image (Fig 3) is presented as an example of a student who, although chooses a set
(a=24, b=12, c=2) that appears to have intermediate structuring (c is not the unit, and the numbers
are not powers of the third), states in their initial comment that the numbers must satisfy "a is
greater than b and c, b > c, and divisible by c," which highlights a lack of understanding of the
arithmetic rule as something that holds true for all natural numbers.

3.2 Meaning of Intermediate Operations

Most of the PSTs do not attribute any kind of meaning to the chosen numerical values or the
operations they perform among them. Only 9 PSTs assign some meaning to the operations
carried out, with distribution occurring in 8 out of the 9 cases. We differentiate those who do not
attribute any meaning and also do not make any representation beyond numeric notation, which
includes 16 PSTs, from those who graphically represent the cardinality of the selected numbers,
amounting to 15 PSTs. See Table 3.

Table 3. Meaning of intermediate operations

Intermediate written task video recorded task

operation Distribution Grouping Total Distribution Grouping Total
𝑏: 𝑐 4 (12,5%) 1 (3,1%) 15,6 % 51.9% 25.9% 77,8 %
𝑎: ( ) 7 (21,9%) 0 21,9 % 55.6% 18.5% 74,1 %
𝑎: 𝑏 5 (15,6%) 0 15,6 % 55.6% 18.5% 75 %
Repeated addition Repeated addition
( )𝑥𝑐 2 (6.3%) 6,3 % 59,3 % 59,3 %

With respect to the meanings presented, it is noteworthy that in the video works, a certain balance
was found between those who represented divisions as distribution (17 out of 77, 22.1%) and
those who did it as grouping (44 out of 77, 57.1%). In written works, out of the 17 divisions
performed with some meaning attached to it, only one had the meaning of grouping, as opposed
to 16 with the meaning of distribution.
426 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig 4. PST # 27 who combines the meanings of grouping and distribution

We present in Figure 4 the answer of PST #27 who combines the meanings of grouping (by
pairing with the 8 children in the operation 8:2) and distribution by distributing the portions
represented by a pink triangle, giving 4 portions to each pair. It is noteworthy that this student is
the only one who has combined both meanings in the task.
427 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

3.3 Contextualization

None of the PSTs carried out any written contextualized task in the sense of presenting a word
problem to solve, however student #27 used implicitly a context without presenting a word
problem. In the task recorded on video, 18.5% of the students proposed a problem to solve in
order to explain the task, with the distribution of candies among children being the most common
context (Fig 5).

Fig 5. PST who proposed a context in the previous study (Arnal-Bailera & Arnal-Palacián, 2023)

4. Conclusions

Three out of the seven analysis categories that appeared in the previous study with manipulative
materials [6] were deemed suitable for analysis when the task is presented in written form. These
were contextualization, contributing to understanding in the KCT subdomain of the MKT; the
choice of numerical values (SCK); and the meaning of intermediate operations (SCK).
Regarding contextualization, it has been observed that merely asking for the verification of a
property is not sufficient to prompt students to create a context in which that property becomes
visible. In the case of the choice of numerical values, students made a richer selection in the
written task, generating examples with more internal relationships among the data compared to
the task performed in video. Finally, concerning the meaning of intermediate operations, the
percentages of operations to which some meaning beyond merely formal was attributed were
much higher when manipulative materials were used.
In summary, in order to contribute to the development of the KCT subdomain with regard to the
understanding of the property in concrete terms, the video along with the use of manipulative
materials proved to be a suitable tool. However, if the aim is to attend to the development of SCK,
the richness of the chosen sets was greater in the written examples, prompting us to consider
that both ways of presenting the task have positive aspects.
As a future perspective that gives continuity to the present study, it is considered appropriate to
repeat this same didactic proposal, incorporating as an additional task a reflection on the context,
the choice of numerical values and the meaning of the operations involved, as we consider that
these three aspects are the ones that favour a richness in the proposal made by preservice
teachers.

Acknowledgments

Both authors belong to the S60_23R "Investigación en Educación Matemática" Research Group
in Aragón-Spain. First author was partially supported under Spanish MICINN Grant PID2019-
104964 GB-I00.

REFERENCES

[1] Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional (2022). Real Decreto 157/2022, de 1 de

marzo, por el que se establecen la ordenación y las enseñanzas mínimas de la Educación
Primaria. MEFP. https:// bit.ly/3MWojuA
[2] Molina, M., Castro, E., & Ambrose, R. (2006). Trabajo con igualdades numéricas para
promover pensamiento relacional. PNA, 1(1), 33-46. https://doi.org/10.30827/pna.v1i1.6218
[3] Carpenter, T. P., Franke, M. L., & Levi, L. (2003). Thinking mathematically: Integrating
arithmetic and algebra in elementary school. Heinemann.
[4] Ball, D. L., Thames, M. H., & Phelps, G. (2008). Content knowledge for teaching: What makes
it special? Journal of Teacher Education, 59(5), 389-407.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487108324554
428 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

[5] Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational
Researcher, 15(2), 4-14. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X015002004
[6] Arnal-Bailera, A., & Arnal-Palacián, M. (2023). Pre-service teachers develop their
mathematical knowledge for teaching using manipulative materials in mathematics. Eurasia
Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 19(9), em2318.
https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/13470
[7] Borasi, R. (1986). On the nature of problems. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 17(2),
125-141. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00311517
[8] Rowland, T. (2008). The purpose, design and use of examples in the teaching of elementary
mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 69(2), 149-163.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-008-9148-y
[9] Fischbein, E., Deri, M., Nello, M. S., & Marino, M. S. (1985). The role of implicit models in
solving verbal problems in multiplication and division. Journal for Research in Mathematics
Education, 16(1), 3-17. https://doi.org/10.2307/748969
429 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Integrated STEM Professional Development: Utilizing Best

Practices in an Online Format

Sarah Haines1, Sumreen Asim2, Jeanna Wieselmann3, Deepika Menon4

Towson University, United States1

Indiana University Southeast, United States 2
Southern Methodist University, United States 3
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, United States 4

Abstract

Online professional development (PD) can reach teachers from widespread areas. Here, we
describe PD activities that are part of a project focused on integrated science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (iSTEM) teaching self-efficacy and effectiveness among early-
career elementary teachers. Toward our objective of building a community of elementary teachers
focused on improving their iSTEM teaching, we are conducting online PD institutes over four
summers. These PD institutes are designed using Desimone’s five critical features of effective
PD: content focus, active learning, coherence, duration, and collective participation. Our institutes
engage teachers in an initial synchronous online session, which is followed by independent work
time to put their learning into practice. It concludes with a final synchronous online session where
teachers share their asynchronous work, receive feedback, and identify the next steps in enacting
their learning in the classroom. Below we describe the first year’s PD activities.

Keywords: professional development, science education, elementary, STEM

Project Background and Literature Base

Elementary teachers are often uncomfortable teaching science, mathematics, and engineering
as independent subjects [1], and integrated science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
(iSTEM) poses new challenges. To address these challenges, we are conducting a five-year
research project focused on elementary teachers’ self-efficacy and effectiveness teaching iSTEM.
One aim is to create a community of practice – a group of teachers who are connected by what
they are doing and learning. To that end, we are inviting participants from our larger project to
virtual PD, held over four summers of a five-year project. Because our participants are from
geographically diverse regions of the United States, we chose an online PD format.
Researchers have found that online PD can have a widespread reach versus face-to face PD [2].
Fostering a rich, interactive, community of learners is a critical factor related to successful PD [3],
and this type of community is possible through online PD [4]. Sometimes referred to as
professional learning communities (PLCs) these are groups of teachers working collaboratively
to improve student outcomes. The members of these PLCs are connected through their common
activities and experiences [5], and participation in PLCs can increase science teaching self-
efficacy among elementary teachers [6]. Additionally, the active responsiveness of the instructor
can also serve to enhance the collective learning pursuits of the online PLC [7].
Our PD institutes are designed using Desimone’s [8] five critical features of effective PD: content
focus, active learning, coherence, duration, and collective participation. When included in PD
planning and activities, these features contribute to an increase in perceived teacher
preparedness [9]. Desimone [8] argued that content focus may be the most influential element in
PD experiences. Indeed, there is ample evidence that increased teacher knowledge is connected
to increased student achievement [10]. Our PD content focus is fostered by inviting content
experts to deliver key PD sessions, which are described in more detail below.
According to Wong et. al. [11], effective online PD should be designed around Bandura’s [12]
proposed sources of self-efficacy. Connecting with Desimone’s [8] model, we built active learning
based on the proposed sources of self-efficacy: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences,
verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal. For example, mastery experiences may include
teaching rehearsals, whereas vicarious experiences may include video analysis. The foci of PD
institutes vary each year but maintain coherence through their connection to participant classroom
observation data using a STEM observation protocol [STEM-OP; 13] and the daily demands of
elementary teachers. We frame our PD activities around the protocol items that need the most
support based on a needs assessment during the PD registration process.
430 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Duration includes the number of PD hours and the time span of the program. Desimone asserts
that PD that is spread over time and includes 20 hours or more of contact time is optimal [8]. Our
PD institutes engage teachers in an initial synchronous online PD session, which is followed by
independent or small group work time over the next week to put their learning into practice. It
concludes with a final synchronous online PD session where teachers share their asynchronous
work, receive feedback, and identify the next steps in enacting their learning in the classroom. In
addition, the PD institutes are held annually, providing long-term engagement. This strategy
concurs with the findings of Bragg et. al. [14], who found that participant engagement is a key
factor in PD experiences.
Collective participation is fostered through the strategic use of online breakout rooms,
collaborative activities, peer feedback, and a shared Canvas page that provides space for
participants to share iSTEM teaching resources and provide ongoing support. These structures
allow for authentic discourse, learning, and encouragement among teachers. Below, we describe
our 2023 PD institute that was offered to elementary teachers.

Description of Online PD

Two of the three PD days were synchronous and included hands-on, inquiry-based activities that
integrated science and engineering, with the goal of developing both content and pedagogical
knowledge. Between the two synchronous sessions, one day of asynchronous activities was
included. Inquiry-based strategies were modeled using the learning cycle format. Participants
were presented with an engaging, participatory, and interactive learning environment throughout
the experience [15, 16].

Day One

Following introductions, the PD opening provided context for aligning to the National Science
Teaching Association elementary school science position statement [17]. STEM pedagogical
knowledge was applied through open-ended problems embedded in the activities. For example,
participants were engaged in a structure-building activity organized according to the 5E inquiry
instructional model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Evaluate, and Elaborate) modified from the lesson
Build-Up from the Picture-Perfect STEM K-2 curriculum guide [18]. To engage and pique learner
interests, we used the picture book Dreaming Up by Christy Hale. We also discussed global
workforce needs, STEM careers, and the accomplishments of women scientists. We asked
participants to list as many STEM careers as they could think of in one minute, then discussed
STEM careers and representation in STEM fields, sharing the story of the renowned Iraqi
architect, Zaha Hadid. We emphasized that this female STEM role model exhibited both creativity
and perseverance throughout her career. To provide hands-on experiences to explore,
participants sketched a building that they would build with everyday materials they had collected.
They built the structures and measured the height of their designs. To explain, participants shared
their buildings with each other. We introduced related science and engineering concepts through
discourse and discussed iconic buildings throughout the world. To evaluate, participants
considered modifications to their designs. Finally, to elaborate, participants reflected on their
learning, the 5E components of the activity, and how the activity might be adapted for classroom
use.
At the conclusion of the first session, we shared information regarding what iSTEM teaching and
learning should look like in an elementary classroom. The ten identifying features are actions that
can be easily identified using the STEM-OP [13], a classroom observation protocol meant for use
by administrators, researchers, coaches and PD providers. Each of the ten features on the STEM-
OP were reviewed and discussed with participants prior to having them use the instrument while
viewing classroom videos.

Day Two

During the asynchronous work time, participants familiarized themselves with the STEM-OP and
created an iSTEM lesson to share.

Day Three

We discussed engineering careers and used inquiry-based activities in a 5E form. To engage

participants, the engineering design process was introduced and discussed, and we read the
book Fly Girl, Fly! Shaesta Waiz Soars Around the World by Nancy Roe Pimm to model literacy
integration. Participants performed a hands-on activity to explore and create paper airplanes.
431 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Next, they explained key academic terms, such as force, gravity, thrust, drag, and lift. They tested
how long their planes would fly to evaluate their performance. We elaborated on the lesson by
discussing mathematics integration ideas. Other pedagogical discussions arose related to what
type of paper was used to construct the planes, and what impact that might have on the results.
Lastly, we discussed the importance of academic vocabulary and instructional techniques to
support language development. Participants shared their own iSTEM lesson plans in small groups
in online breakout rooms that were purposefully arranged by grade levels. This session was
extremely productive since it allowed participants to take ownership of their learning and apply it
to their own instructional practice.

Conclusion

This nine-hour PD aimed to support high-quality elementary iSTEM teaching by creating a safe
and interactive learning environment. We demonstrate here that online PD can be meaningful
and engaging for participants. When planned carefully and drawn on educational theories and
relevant research, online PD can create robust PLCs that enrich teachers’ content knowledge and
pedagogical skills.

Funding Acknowledgment

This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant
Nos. 2151056, 2151045, 2151057, and 2151012. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or
recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

REFERENCES

[1] Banilower, E. R., Smith, P. S., Malzahn, K. A., Plumley, C. L., Gordon, E. M., & Hayes,
M. L. (2018). Report of the 2018 NSSME+. Horizon Research, Inc.
[2] Tondeur, J., Forkosh-Baruch, A., Prestridge, S., Albion, P., & Edirisinghe, S. (2016).
Responding to challenges in teacher professional development for ICT integration in
education. Educational Technology and Society, 19(3), 110-120.
[3] Powell, C.G., & Bodur, Y. (2016). Professional development for quality teaching and
learning: A focus on student learning outcomes. In Handbook of research on professional
development for quality teaching and learning (pp. 652-677). IGI Global.
[4] Holmes, B. (2013). School teachers’ continuous professional development in an online
learning community: Lessons from a case study of an eTwinning Learning
Event. European Journal of Education, 48(1), 97-112.
[5] Vrasidas, C., & Zembylas, M. (2004). Online professional development: Lessons from the
field. Education + Training, 46(6/7), 326-334.
[6] Mintzes, J.J., Marcum, B., Messerschmidt-Yates, C., & Mark, A. (2013). Enhancing self-
efficacy in elementary science teaching with professional learning communities. Journal
of Science Teacher Education, 24(7), 1201-1218.
[7] Watkins, J., Jaber, L.Z., & Dini, V. (2020). Facilitating scientific engagement online:
Responsive teaching in a science professional development program. Journal of Science
Teacher Education, 31(5), 515-536.
[8] Desimone, L.M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development:
Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher, 38(3), 181-
199.
[9] Johnson, C.C., Sondergeld, T., & Walton, J.B. (2017). A statewide implementation of the
critical features of professional development: Impact on teacher outcomes. School
Science and Mathematics, 117(7-8), 341-349.
[10] Banilower, E.R., Heck, D.J., & Weiss, I.R. (2007). Can professional development make
the vision of the standards a reality? The impact of the national science foundation’s local
systemic change through teacher enhancement initiative. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 44(3), 375-395.
[11] Wong, J.T., Bui, N.N., Fields, D.T., & Hughes, B.S. (2023). A learning experience design
approach to online professional development for teaching science through the arts:
Evaluation of teacher content knowledge, self-efficacy and STEAM perceptions. Journal
of Science Teacher Education, 34(6), 593-623.
[12] Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Freeman.
[13] Dare, E.A., Hiwatig, B.M.R., Karatithamkul, K., Ellis, J.A., Roehrig, G.H., Ring-Whalen,
E.A., Rouleau, M.D., Faruqi, F., Rice, C., Titu, P., Li, F., Wieselmann, J.R, & Crotty, E.A.
432 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

2021. Improving integrated STEM education: The design and development of a K-12
STEM observation protocol (STEM-OP). ASEE Annual Conferenc Proceedings.
[14] Bragg, L.A., Walsh, C., & Heyeres, M. (2021). Successful design and delivery of online
professional development for teachers: A systematic review of the literature. Computers
& Education, 166, 104158.
[15] Asim, S., Hoffman, L., Ramachandran, S., Zollman, A., Book, K., Stewart, B., & Wrock,
T. (2023). PD in PJs: Building a sustainable, collaborative professional development
approach to address teachers’ affective and technological needs. Southeastern Regional
Association of Teacher Educators Journal, (32)1, 1-10.
[16] Little, J.W. (1993). Teachers’ professional development in a climate of educational
reform. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 15(2), 129-151.
[17] Yager, R.E. (1981). Science activities are central to science education in the elementary
school: An NSTA position statement. Science and Children, 19(2), 42-43.
[18] Ansberry, K.R., & Morgan, E.R. (2010). Picture-perfect science lessons: Using children's
books to guide inquiry. NSTA Press.
433 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Embracing Multidisciplinarity: Exploring Challenges and

Identities of Teachers in the Subject Integrated Sciences
Jasper Cirkel1, Stefan Halverscheid2, Susanne Schneider3

University of Göttingen, Germany1,2,3

Abstract

The multidisciplinary subject “integrated sciences” has become a prevalent approach to teaching
science in German comprehensive schools as a combination of the traditional science subjects:
biology, chemistry and physics in the lower secondary level (grades 5-10). However, the existing
teacher education system in Germany (during university and preparatory service phase) is
structured around two individually chosen subjects. If at least one of their subjects is a science
discipline, the teachers in comprehensive schools are expected to teach integrated science
courses. As a result, it is common for teachers to find themselves teaching (partly) out-of-field of
their expertise.
This study is based on semi-structured interviews involving n=15 teachers. The transcripts of the
interviews are analyzed through qualitative content analysis. Using the framework of identity-
research [1–4] the question as to whether teachers show a science-teacher identity versus e.g.,
specialist biology-teacher identity is discussed.

Keywords: out-of-field-teaching, science teaching, teacher identity

1. The Multidisciplinary Subject “Integrated Natural Sciences” in Germany

A broad definition for the integrated teaching approach could be: “A knowledge view and
curriculum approach that consciously applies methodology and language from more than one
discipline to examine a central theme, issue, problem, topic, or experience” [5]. An example of an
integrated approach in natural science teaching could e.g., be the context of bats and wind energy
plants leading to the content of biology of bats, physics of their echolocation and finally the conflict
of interest between clean energy and conservation of nature [6].
There has been a long and varied history and in Germany about the idea of an integrated natural
science subject [7] and the integrated approach to natural sciences in general with multiple
arguments for and against [8], however, the debate is not yet sufficiently based on empirical
evidence [9].
Reasons for an integrated approach include; integrated instruction in a constructivist sense leads
to more meaningful connections of newly accumulated knowledge. It might provide learners with
richer opportunities to establish connections between new insights and already existing
knowledge. Regarding, for example global challenges it is argued that multidisciplinary
approaches are necessary to describe the full scope of problems and to foster problem solving
skills. Placing the instruction’s topic within a (life-related, ethically challenging) context is believed
to improve student interest [10] and studies show that enhanced context strategies yield big effect
sizes for learning outcomes [11]. Furthermore, integrated instruction is hoped to foster a broader
set of skills useful for the professional world like acquiring a tolerance for ambiguity.
Opponents rightfully reason that these benefits can be equally employed in the traditional
approach. Nonetheless an argument can be made that such strategies might come more naturally
in the integrated approach [12].
In Germany, science education for the lower secondary level in the traditional school type
(“Gymnasium”) is mostly separated into the three separated subjects of Biology, Chemistry and
Physics and starts at grade 5. This distinction follows an integrated approach to natural and social
sciences in one subject in elementary schools. Consequently, not all three disciplines might be
taught at the same time and, more importantly, by the same teachers.
434 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

The early separation of disciplines can lead to separate academic self-concepts [13]. In recent
years, some federal states, school forms or even individual schools have chosen to teach science
in an integrated manner, often with differing organisational structures [14,15].
The rising comprehensive school form (“Integrierte Gesamtschule”), which also leads to the
general higher education entrance qualification, usually organizes science instruction using the
integrated approach in one multidisciplinary subject “integrated natural sciences” (German
“Naturwissenschaften”). For a detailed description of the German school system see e.g. [16] and
for science education in Germany [17].
However, the existing teacher education system in Germany (during university studies and
preparatory service phase) is structured around individual subjects, requiring teachers to
specialize in two subjects. With at least one being a science discipline they can become teachers
for the integrated natural science subject in schools that offer this subject.

2. Out-of-Field-Teaching

The phenomenon of out-of-field teaching refers to a misalignment between a teachers’

educational and disciplinary background (e.g., disciplines he or she studied in university) and his
or hers teaching assignments in school (e.g., which subjects he or she teaches) [18]. The most
commonly cited reason for out-of-field-teaching (OoFT) is a shortage of adequately qualified
teachers across all or some subset of subjects or depending on the socioeconomic background
of the school [19].
Out-of-field-teaching is not uncommon worldwide. However, the reporting of such data is not
uniformly available. A 2012 survey for Germany suggests that around 30% of teachers in the
three science subjects in grade 9 are being classified as (partly) out-of-field [20]. The data also
suggest that the likelihood of OoFT seemed to decrease both with higher grades and more
rigorous and traditional school types. In the survey no distinction between science as one
integrated subject or individual subjects was made. In other subjects such as languages the
values were reported as being considerably lower around 15%.
In contrast to e.g., the subjects like mathematics taught by a teacher who did not study
mathematics and therefor clearly being out-of-field, the consideration is not quite as binary in the
case of a multidisciplinary subject like integrated natural science in Germany. Teaching (partly)
out-of-field within the sciences might refer to the overwhelming number of teachers who were not
not educated for all three subjects of the natural sciences [21].
As a result, it is common for these teachers to find themselves teaching (partly) out-of-field of
their expertise because they are not qualified for at least one of the disciplines and usually have
no formation or experience in regards to the integrated approach. As a consequence, it can be
said that integrated teaching leads to (partly) out-of-field teaching which in turn features multiple
challenges for teachers. Challenges can be classified as deficits in the CK, PCK framework (CK;
content knowledge, PCK; pedagogical content knowledge) [22] or problems with practical e.g.,
experimental manners [23] and various “tricks of the trade” [24]. A lack of CK is cited as the
primary challenge, yet if they reach a certain level of CK they feel that lacking PCK inhibits them
[4].
More broadly, teachers cite higher workloads as a result of more time needed to prepare [18,25].
More specifically, OoFT might hinder teachers’ abilities to utilize students’ errors to their learning
benefit [24]. Mid- and long-term planning of lessons and the development and connection of ideas
in the sense of constructivism is hampered, although in contrast and somewhat counterintuitively,
some teachers feel that limited CK makes short term planning and teaching easier, perhaps
because topics seem less broad, more enclosed and thus easier to grasp an teach when their
own perspective differs only slightly from that of their students [24]. Cooperation with others is
more important to teachers in OoFT situations [26].
The impact of OoFT on student achievement is certainly among the primary issues to be looked
at regarding the phenomena of OoFT. Perhaps surprisingly, the evidence of expected negative
impacts of OoFT on student achievement seems not as clear as one might expect [27]. However,
this might be partly attributed to methodical differences of studies, different definitions, e.g., the
multitude of ways teachers can be classified in or out of field by researches in different
administrative educational systems. Overall, there still seems to be a consensus that the OoFT
as a single factor negatively impacts students learning outcomes [28] and evidence would support
this hypothesis when studies are carried out in a manner that accounts for various other factors
such on the teacher, student and school level [27].
435 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Teacher identity can be described as the answer to the question ‘who am I as a teacher’ and can
be seen in light of different theoretical frameworks [2,29,30]. Research has shown that the
professionalism of teachers should not be reduced to their knowledge and ability (i.e., focussing
on CK and PCK), however, it should include what they think they are as their identity strongly
influences how they teach and how they perceive their situation [31].
In the case of OoFT the distinction between seeing oneself as in versus out-of-field is important.
Regarding the subject integrated natural sciences being or remaining a one discipline specialist
teacher (e.g., a biology teacher) can be contrasted to a science teacher in the sense that he or
she embraces the integrated subject even if it poses challenges.

3. Methods: Data Collection and Analysis

A total of 15 semi-structured, open guided-interviews with teachers in the German state of Lower
Saxony were conducted per Video-conference. The duration was roughly half an hour (Mdn:
32:42 min; M: 33:20 min; SD: 8:49 min). Some biographical data concerning teachers’ education
and professional experience was also collected via an online survey. Most (12) cases did
complete a full teacher education consisting of university studies in education and teacher training.
The remaining did for example not study education but rather a single science discipline and
joined a preparatory service phase afterwards to become teachers. Surface features like subjects,
gender, working experience seem reasonably balanced. Working experience ranges from newly
hired teachers to department heads. Roughly half of the teachers taught at at least one other
school type in the past before working at a comprehensive school. Natural sciences subjects also
seem reasonably balanced with 8, 3, and 7 certified for teaching biology, chemistry and physics
respectively. The subject combinations are dominated by mathematics (6) and include various
languages (4) and other subjects like history, informatics and physical education. Four (4)
teachers combine two natural science subjects.
The interviews were completely voluntary with no direct advantage for interviewee. An Interview-
guide was used but the specific wording of questions varied according to the situation as
interviewees answered freely. Seven main questions structured the interview as follows:

1 How did you become a teacher for the subject science?

2 Please describe what makes teaching science special for you? What do you
spontaneously associate with teaching science?
3 I am particularly interested in your teaching practice in science; please describe how you
plan and deliver a sequence on a topic with a content focus in an out-of-field subject?
4 Is there a typical way you approach the planning?
5 You could perhaps be said to be partly out-of-field to the subject of science; please
describe if and how this is relevant to you.
6 How would you describe your self-image? Do you see yourself as a “science teacher"?
7 How would you evaluate the subject science overall or in general?

Main questions were accompanied by more detailed follow-up questions that guide the
interviewee to specific aspects but giving them the opportunity to raise those certain aspects
themselves first or in the order they feel is important.
An automated, local transcription using whisper [32] results in word-by-word transcriptions of
the audio recordings followed by some manual cleaning (simplified transcription system based
on [33] and anonymization of any revealing proper names. Qualitative content analysis is used
to establish an inductive-deductive category system [34].

4. Results: Self-image of Teachers

One central way to classify teachers in the integrated natural science subject is the extent to
which they embrace the idea of an integrated approach and see themselves as science teachers
in the context of that subject. That is not to say that they cannot and should not also embrace
their respective specialty subjects when teaching them. Table 1 gives an overview of the
distinction and tries to illustrate every case with one concise quote drawn from their interview that
best represents their standing toward the integrated subject and its teaching.
436 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Table 1. Concise quote representing teachers’ position towards teaching integrated science

Concise quote (translated) of case

science teacher "I'm a science teacher."
"But if I go to a school where science is taught, I'm just the science teacher,
not the physics teacher, and I would sell it that way accordingly."
"If I were to introduce myself for grades 5-10, I would say I'm a science
teacher."
"At least as far as grade 10 things go, I would say, yeah, I do [see myself as a
science teacher]. Seven years ago, eight years ago, I wasn't."
"I'm a science teacher in grades five, six, and after that still just a biology
teacher."
"Science-teacher-in-training, despite having a degree, is how I would describe
myself."
"So, in my role right now, absolutely."
specialist "I already see myself more as a specialist teacher in any case"
teacher "I still think of myself more as a biology teacher."
"So, I would say right now I would still consider myself a subject teacher for
chemistry, but there's definitely an openness there for the transitions."
"So, I don't sort of identify as a NW teacher."
"I'm still a physicist first and foremost."
"I think of myself more as a biology teacher."
"Actually, at the moment I always say I studied computer science and physics
but I'm at an integrated school and there's only science there so that's always
what I have to say at the moment."
generalist "I see myself as a teacher first."

Many teachers see a well-versed multidisciplinary professional for the integrated subject as a
development goal for themselves and show a potential to undertake steps to become such a
person in the future, i.e., develop their identity in that direction. This is true both for some cases
that can be classified in the science teacher category already as well as some that are presently
seen as specialist. Some actively acknowledge that they undertook steps to become a science
teacher. One case sees more general educational goals as a teacher overshadowing
Another category is whether the being a science teacher versus a specialist is static or situational.
Some teachers actively change their own perceived role depending on the situation and the
perceived expectations of e.g., students and parents.
In regards to challenges to prepare and perform OoFT with them some cases seem to approve
that where CK is missing it is cited as the foremost challenge and once a certain level of CK is
attained e.g., via self-study then limitations in PCK become apparent. Some cases also indicate
that teachers might feel somewhat closer to their students’ needs and understanding during some
shorter OoFT situations, however, acknowledge that they struggle to connect ideas and concepts
over a longer time frame as opposed to their specialty discipline.
Dealing with these challenges most cases cite schoolbooks and their faculty as go-to mechanism.
Cases where the faculty is open to such exchange or actively organizes events for communication
e.g., specialist for chemistry showing experiments to non-specialist seem to be most content and
confident with their personal situation. Few cases, however, show that they feel themselves to be
in a certain dilemma coping with the challenges in their OoFT.
Most cases stress that the structure of the teacher education they received did not adequately
prepare them for situation in their classrooms and wish for attention to the integrated science
subject during all phases of the teacher education, be it in university studies or as professional
development (PD) programs later. This would be necessary to reach the full potential of the
integrated approach.

5. Discussion & Outlook

Regardless of whether they are seen more as specialist or science teachers they acknowledge
the need to intensify the discussion around OoFT in science. Results concerning challenges and
strategies to cope with OoFT seem to align with past research [4,23,24,26].
As a first practical approach the University of Göttingen has established an opt-in additional
certificate program of 16 ETCS (11 ETCS in case of 2 natural science disciplines regularly studied)
addressing both CK and PCK of the science disciplines not studied regularly as well as a module
aiming at the integrated teaching approach to science for its students studying at least one
science subject and raising awareness for their potential role in OoFT [35]. Roughly 20% of
437 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

students enrolled and successfully completed this non-mandatory program which seems like a
success in light of the many requirements of studying and the multitude of other additional
programs offered.
More broadly, strengthening faculty cooperation in schools and offering teachers PD-
opportunities aimed at the specific demand of OoFT seems like useful measures that can be
undertaken on the institutional level when changes on the policy level seem more challenging to
attain [18].

REFERENCES

1] Beijaard D, Meijer PC, Verloop N. Reconsidering research on teachers’ professional

identity. Teaching and Teacher Education 2004; 20:107–28.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2003.07.001.
[2] Côté J. Identity Studies: How Close Are We to Developing a Social Science of Identity?
An Appraisal of the Field. Identity 2006; 6:3–25.
https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532706xid0601_2.
[3] Feser MS, Haak I. Key features of teacher identity: a systematic meta-review study with
special focus on teachers of science or science-related subjects. Studies in Science
Education 2023; 59:287–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057267.2022.2108644.
[4] Hobbs L. Teaching ‘out-of-field’ as a Boundary-crossing Event: Factors Shaping
Teacher Identity. Int J of Sci and Math Educ 2013; 11:271–97.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-012-9333-4.
[5] Jacobs HH. Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and Implementation. Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development; 1989.
[6] Cirkel J, Eggert S, Lewing J, Schneider S, Bögeholz S. Fledermausschutz und
Windenergie - Fächerverbindender Anfangsunterricht zwischen Physik und Biologie.
UP 2017; 28:22–7.
[7] Gebhard U, Höttecke D, Rehm M. Pädagogik der Naturwissenschaften: Ein
Studienbuch. Wiesbaden: Springer VS; 2017.
[8] Handtke K, Bögeholz S. Self-Efficacy Beliefs as well as Perceived Advantages and
Challenges of Interdisciplinary Science Teaching from a Longitudinal Perspective.
Education Sciences 2023; 13:212. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13020212.
[9] Labudde P. Fächerübergreifender naturwissenschaftlicher Unterricht – Mythen,
Definitionen, Fakten. ZfDN 2014; 20:11–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40573-014-0001-9.
[10] Sjøberg S, Schreiner C. The ROSE project, An overview and key findings.
University of Oslo; 2010.
[11] Schroeder CM, Scott TP, Tolson H, Huang T-Y, Lee Y-H. A meta-analysis of national
research: Effects of teaching strategies on student achievement in science in the United
States. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 2007; 44:1436–60.
https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20212.
[12] Rehm M, Bünder W, Hass T, Buck P, Labudde P, Brovelli D, et al. Legitimationen und
Fundamente eines integrierten Unterrichtsfachs Science. Zeitschrift Für Didaktik Der
Naturwissenschaften 2008; 14:99–123.
[13] Jansen M, Schroeders U, Lüdtke O, Pant HA. Interdisziplinäre Beschulung und die
Struktur des akademischen Selbstkonzepts in den naturwissenschaftlichen Fächern.
Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie 2014; 28:43–9. https://doi.org/10.1024/1010-
0652/a000120.
[14] Graube G, Mammes I, Tuncsoy M. Natur und Technik in der gymnasialen
Orientierungsstufe. Zur Notwendigkeit eines interdisziplinären Ansatzes. MNU 2013;
66:176–9.
[15] Busch M, Woest V. Potenzial und Grenzen von fächerübergreifendem NaWi-Unterricht
- aus Perspektive der Lehrenden. In: Bernholt S, editor. Gesellschaft für Didaktik der
Chemie und Physik Jahrestagung in München 2013 Naturwissenschaftliche Bildung
zwischen Science- und Fachunterricht, Münster: Lit; 2014, p. 445–7.
[16] Lohmar B, Eckhardt T, editors. The Education System in the Federal Republic of
Germany 2013/2014. A description of the responsibilities, structures and developments
in education policy for the exchange of information in Europe. Bonn: Secretariat of the
Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in
the Federal Republic of Germany; 2015.
[17] Schecker H, Parchmann I. Standars and competence models: the German situation. In:
Waddington DJ, Nentwig P, Schanze S, editors. Making it comparable - Standards in
science education, Münster: Waxmann; 2007, p. 147–64.
[18] Hobbs L, Porsch R. Researching the Phenomenon of ‘Teaching Out-of-Field’: Synthesis
and Future Directions. In: Hobbs L, Porsch R, editors. Out-of-Field Teaching Across
438 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Teaching Disciplines and Contexts, Singapore: Springer; 2022, p. 367–81.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9328-1_18.
[19] Hobbs L, Törner G, editors. Examining the phenomenon of teaching out-of-field:
international perspectives on teaching as a non-specialist. Singapur: Springer; 2019.
[20] Richter D, Kuhl P, Haag H, Pant HA. Aspekte der Aus- und Fortbildung von Mathematik-
und Naturwissenschaftslehrkräften im Ländervergleich. In: Pant HA, Stanat P,
Schroeders U, Roppelt A, Siegle T, Pöhlmann C, editors. IQB-Ländervergleich 2012
Mathematische und naturwissenschaftliche Kompetenzen am Ende der Sekundarstufe
I, Münster: Waxmann; 2013, p. 367–90.
[21] Perl-Nussbaum D, Schwarz BB, Yerushalmi E. Interdisciplinary dialogic argumentation
among out-of-field and in-field physics teachers. Science Education 2023; n/a.
https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21811.
[22] Shulman LS. Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching. Educational
Researcher 1986; 15:4–14. https://doi.org/10.2307/1175860.
[23] Fruböse C, Illgen J, Kohm L, Wollscheid R. Unterricht im integrierten Fach
Naturwissenschaften. Erfahrungen aus gymnasialer Sicht. MNU 2011; 64:433–9.
[24] Childs A, McNicholl J. Science teachers teaching outside of subject specialism:
challenges, strategies adopted and implications for initial teacher education. Teacher
Development 2007; 11:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13664530701194538.
[25] Dörges A. Erfahrungen mit dem integrierten naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht. MNU
2001; 54:230–2.
[26] Porsch R, Wendt H. Welche Rolle spielt der Studienschwerpunkt von
Sachunterrichtslehrkräften für ihre Selbstwirksamkeit und die Leistungen ihrer
Schülerinnen und Schüler? In: Wendt H, Stubbe TC, Knut S, Bos W, editors. IGLU &
TIMSS. 10 Jahre international vergleichende Schulleistungsforschung in der
Grundschule. Vertiefende Analysen zu IGLU und TIMSS 2001 bis 2011, Münster:
Waxmann; 2015, p. 161–83.
[27] Porsch R, Whannell R. Out-of-Field Teaching Affecting Students and Learning: What Is
Known and Unknown. In: Hobbs L, Törner G, editors. Examining the Phenomenon of
“Teaching Out-of-field,” Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2019, p. 179–91.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3366-8_7.
[28] Van Overschelde JP. Value-Lost: The Hidden Cost of Teacher Misassignment. In:
Hobbs L, Porsch R, editors. Out-of-Field Teaching Across Teaching Disciplines and
Contexts, Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore; 2022, p. 49–70.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9328-1_3.
[29] Gee JP. Identity as an Analytic Lens for Research in Education. Review of Research in
Education 2000; 25:99–125. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X025001099.
[30] Schildberg C. Theorien der Identität: Personale, soziale und kollektive Identitäten.
Politische Identität und Soziales Europa, Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für
Sozialwissenschaften; 2010, p. 47–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-531-92241-6_3.
[31] Demirkasımoğlu N. Defining “Teacher Professionalism” from different perspectives.
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 2010; 9:2047–51.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.444.
[32] Radford A, Kim JW, Xu T, Brockman G, McLeavey C, Sutskever I. Robust Speech
Recognition via Large-Scale Weak Supervision. arXivOrg 2022.
[33] Dresing T, Pehl T. Praxisbuch Interview, Transkription & Analyse: Anleitungen und
Regelsysteme für qualitativ Forschende. 7. Auflage. Marburg: Eigenverlag; 2017.
[34] Mayring P. Qualitative Content Analysis: theoretical foundation, basic procedures and
software solution. Weinheim: Beltz; 2014.
[35] Cirkel J, Eggert S, Bögeholz S, Schneider S, Waitz T, Halverscheid S. A Teacher
Education Approach for Integrated Science Instruction. Conference Proceedings New
Perspectives in Science Education, Padua: Webster; 2017, p. 357–61.
439 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Experiences with the Teacher Training Avatar Program and

the Usefulness of the Program as Seen in the Discussion

Hijiri Okinaka1, Kenichi Goto2

Toyo University, Japan1,2

Abstract

In the recent world situation, our way of life has been drastically changing due to the remarkable
development of technology, evolution of AI, and pandemics caused by a new type of coronavirus.
In order for our students to survive in this changing environment, we need to change the way
education is provided, so that students can acquire the newly required skills and adapt to the
coming age. To this end, teachers are required to improve their classes so that the learning
process becomes more fulfilling. This is also stated in the new Courses of Study announced for
2017. In Japan [1], from the viewpoint of "what is to be learned," classes have traditionally been
taught mainly in a teaching-intensive manner. However, as mentioned above, education needs
to be transformed in accordance with the changing times. This transformation of education is a
departure from the traditional teaching-intensive classes, and classes that are conscious of
proactive, interactive, and authentic learning (active learning). Therefore, it is an important issue
for teachers to be able to acquire the ability to conduct such classes [2]. The research team led
by Dr. Tosa conducts research on active learning [3] and is developing an avatar class program
suited to the Japanese educational format, based on the "Teaching Avatar Program" that is being
tried in Florida, USA. In this avatar space, lessons are given to students, and teachers can
practice their lessons. This is an advanced attempt in this day and age of communication
technology in the avatar space. As a test subject, I experienced the Law of Conservation of Mass
lesson program. I discussed with other participants the insights and transformations I gained from
this experience, and clarified the outcomes and challenges. This presentation will report on the
outcomes and challenges, as well as the usefulness and future potential of the program. In
addition, as a member of the team, I plan to develop a classroom program in the field of biology
in the future.

Keywords: Avatar, Teacher training, Proactive, interactive, and authentic learning (active learning)

In 2017, the new Courses of Study were announced in Japan [1]. The new guidelines call for
children to acquire the "ability to live" through learning activities that focus on the process of
inquiry from the proactive, interactive, and authentic learning (active learning), using the
viewpoints and ways of thinking of science. Currently, however, children are facing issues related
to inquiry-based activities, such as their difficulty in examining the data obtained. This is the result
of the National Survey of School Achievement and Learning conducted by the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) in Japan in 2022[4]. Teachers'
support is indispensable to resolve this issue. As a way of support, teachers are required to
conduct classes that are aware of the process of inquiry from the proactive, interactive, and
authentic learning (active learning). However, the results of a survey of teachers indicate that the
practice of teaching with an awareness of the process of inquiry has not fully penetrated the field
[5]. One of the reasons for this is that teachers lack experience in teaching classes that are aware
of the process of inquiry, and this lack of experience leads to a lack of confidence on the part of
teachers, which makes it difficult for them to put it into practice. Therefore, I focused on a project
to develop a training and development program for teachers that would provide them with
opportunities to gain teaching experience and to practice teaching with an awareness of the
process of inquiry from the perspective of active learning.
The Tosa-Style Avatar-based Teacher Training and Development Program allows participants
who play the role of teachers to conduct online classes for students in a virtual space [6]. In this
program, Professor Tosa of Niigata University converted the "Teach to Avatar" program that is
being tried in Florida, U.S.A., into a Japanese version, developed avatars and teaching programs,
and is conducting a series of trials and verifications. Current science teachers and students who
wish to become science teachers in the teacher training stage are participating in the program.
440 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Fig. 1. Actual Avatar classes

Currently, the program includes a lesson program on the "action-reaction law" in high school
physics and a lesson program on the "law of conservation of mass" in junior high school chemistry.
All participants, including current science teachers, have found the program useful. Students are
provided with the objectives of the unit in advance, and they are expected to work to achieve
these objectives. The class period is 10 minutes. Afterwards, feedback from the class evaluation
is given, and the student may repeat the lesson based on the feedback. Based on the findings of
the RTOP study [7] at Arizona State University in the U.S., the evaluation of the class is based
on objective perspectives such as the amount of time students spend interacting with each other
and whether the class is designed with the teacher as the listener. The actual evaluation criteria
used in this program is an evaluation rubric developed by Professor Tosa based on RTOP.

Fig. 2. Tosa-developed rubric for evaluation criteria

441 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Next, as a concrete example, we describe the "action-reaction law" lesson program in high school
physics. The objective of this "Action-Reaction Law" lesson program is for the teacher to acquire
the ability to ask questions that will make students aware of the subject in class. The unit of this
lesson is the action-reaction law, and the students have previously watched an experimental video
in which the magnitude of the force received by both sides when two carts collide is measured.

Fig. 3. Video of an experiment measuring the magnitude of the force received by both sides when two
carts collide.

The students have a superficial understanding of the action-reaction law, and this session begins
with the scene shown in the figure above, where the students have finished watching the videos
of the collision experiments of a cart of the same mass and a cart of a different mass. There are
three students, each with a different personality, individuality, and level of learning achievement,
and they are set to speak accordingly; as of 2023, they are not synthesized speech by the AI, but
are performed behind the scenes by voice actors. While some students were satisfied with the
results of the experimental video, others questioned the fact that the force received by each cart
was equal in a collision between carts of different masses. In such a setting, the participant as
the teacher asks questions that encourage students to understand the essential nature of the law
of action-reaction, and supports the students in taking the initiative in acquiring the concepts of
what they have learned. In addition, students who play the role of teachers are informed in
advance of the scenario's scene setting and students' perspectives on the following.

Situation: You are a teacher of three students. You are a teacher of three students, and you want to teach
them to understand the law of action-reaction. In the video, two carts of different masses are bumped
against each other, and the forces on each cart are shown in a graph. At the beginning of the class, three
students have finished watching the video. The class proceeds with a conversation with the three students
based on the assumption that the results of the experiment shown in the video will be the same no matter
how many times the experiment is conducted, and that the results are not wrong.

Student observation: The three students have already learned the following

1. "When there are two objects, object A and object B, and object A exerts a force on object B, object B
exerts a force on object A that is identical to the force, opposite in direction, and equal in magnitude,"
which is called the law of action-reaction, a fundamental law of mechanics that they learned in their third-
year junior high school science class. This law is called the law of action-reaction. In other words, all three
of us are familiar with the statement of the law of action-reaction. (However, they only know the superficial
meaning, but they have not examined whether it can be applied to all situations, and have not been
convinced on that basis. There is no "deep understanding.")

2. I saw an experiment where there were two mechanics bogies A (red) and B (blue) of exactly the same
mass (250g) and exactly the same shape placed on a straight rail, and bogie A, which was in motion, hit
bogie B, which was stationary, causing bogie B to bounce off and move and bogie A to stop. (Note that
the friction between the rails of both bogies is negligible.) In this case, each of the two bogies has a force
sensor fixed to it facing the other bogie, and the magnitude of the force that each bogie received from the
other during the collision can be measured.

The measurement results are displayed on a computer screen. The results confirm that the force received
by bogie A from bogie B and the force received by bogie B from bogie A are exactly the same magnitude
and opposite directions at all times. (This phenomenon is relatively "convincing" in the law of action-
reaction in cases involving motion. The "action" of the same magnitude that stops one cart causes the
other cart to begin moving at the same speed.)

Objective: To help students examine the elementary concepts on their own and reach a scientific
understanding by watching the video material on action-reaction (when two carts of different masses are
hit, the force received by each cart is of the same magnitude).
442 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Next, as a concrete example, we describe the "law" lesson program in junior high school
chemistry.
This lesson scenario is designed to help the teacher develop questioning skills in the classroom
so that students can set up problems and conceptualize experimental methods to overcome them.
The class period is 10 minutes. The unit of study is the law of conservation of mass, and students
have previously watched three experimental videos: (1) combustion of iron, (2) reaction of
hydrochloric acid and sodium bicarbonate, and (3) precipitation reaction of sodium carbonate and
calcium chloride.

Fig. 4. Experimental videos of three chemical reactions

Students have a superficial understanding of the law of conservation of mass, and this session
begins with the scene shown in the figure above, where students have finished watching the
videos of the three chemical reactions. Although there are three students, each student has a
different level of achievement. While some students are satisfied with the results of the
experimental videos, others have doubts about the manipulation and results of the experiments.
In this situation, the participant as the teacher asks questions that encourage the students to
understand the essential law of conservation of mass, to notice the contradiction between the
results of the experimental assimilation and the law of conservation of mass, and to conceive an
experimental method that resolves the contradiction, in order to support the students in taking the
initiative to acquire the concepts of what they have learned. This is to support students to take
the initiative in acquiring the concepts of what they are learning. In addition, the participants, as
teachers, are informed in advance about the setting of the scenario and the students' perspectives
on it as follows.

Situation: You are a second-grade teacher at a junior high school with three students. In order to help
these three students to understand the law of conservation of mass, you will conduct a lesson based
on the experiments conducted during the previous period and their results. At the beginning of the class,
the students are asked to perform three experiments: 1) an iron combustion experiment (iron became
heavier by combining with oxygen), 2) an experiment with hydrochloric acid and sodium bicarbonate (a
mixture of hydrochloric acid and sodium bicarbonate became lighter as carbon dioxide escaped), 3) a
precipitation reaction experiment between aqueous sodium carbonate and calcium chloride solutions
(sodium carbonate aqueous solution and calcium chloride solution were mixed and precipitation was
formed, but the mass did not change)) you have finished watching the review video material. You will
now proceed with the class with three students. You will proceed with the conversation with the three
students on the assumption that the results of the experiment shown in the video material will be the
same no matter how many times you do the experiment, and that you are not mistaken.

What you have already learned: All three students have learned the law of conservation of mass in the
Inprevious
this study,
lesson.participants
(However, they actually experienced
only know this meaning
the superficial Tosa-style avatar
of the law, bututilization
they have teacher
not
training/training program, reflected on their lessons and discussed student-centered
examined whether or not it can be applied to all cases, and have not been convinced on that basis. lessons with
other participants. The first
There is no "deep understanding.")lesson was a "Law of Conservation of Mass" lesson program in junior
high school science chemistry. The content of the class was to help students construct the
concept
In this of
rolethe lawbegin
play, of conservation
with a review of of
mass
howwhile allowing them
the experiment turnedto out.
designOnetheir ownalso
student experiments
sees a
related to the law of conservation of mass. Some participants used a whiteboard
contradiction between the law of conservation of mass and the results of the experiment. to help students
think of experimental methods. After the first class, the three students who participated in the
program reviewed
Objective: and discussed
To help students plan for the class. Two
the precise main themes
experimental methodemerged
in (2) with from the discussion:
reference to (3), based 1)
the allocation of time for learning activities to be conducted in the 10 minutes
on the basic premise that the law of conservation of mass holds true and that "the mass before of class time,theand
2)reaction
the positioning of concept building in the learning
and the mass after the reaction do not change". activities. We divided the learning activities
into three major categories: (1) review, (2) concept building, and (3) planning of experimental
methods, and exchanged opinions on the allocation of time for each learning activity. Throughout
the discussion, all three participants agreed that they should not spend too much time reviewing
the results of the experiments themselves. On the other hand, they also agreed that time should
be spent on the main topics of the class, such as the construction of concepts and the conception
of the experimental method. In the discussion, each of the participants expressed the idea of
443 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

conceptualizing the experimental method and building concepts in the flow of learning activities
based on their own ideas as follows.

Review the experiment and the law of conservation of mass (review) + concept
Student1 building (3-4 minutes)
Conceptualization of experimental method + concept building (6-7 minutes)
concept building (5-6 minutes)
Student2
Conceptualization of experimental method (4-5 minutes)
Review the experiment and the law of conservation of mass (review) (1 minute)
Student3 Student awareness + concept building (5-6 minutes)
Conceptualization of experimental method + concept building (3-4 minutes)
Fig. 5. Three students' ideas for allocating class time

After reviewing and discussing the class, the three participants went to the second class, each
having made improvements to the class based on their previous experiences. As shown in the
table of class evaluations based on the aforementioned rubric, the scores of all three students
were higher in the second class than in the first class. This result suggests that the class was
improved to have more elements that allow students to engage in learning activities
independently. The table shows that the scores of all three groups increased in Item 3, which is
an item of concept construction. The main theme of the discussion after the first class was how
to handle concept building in the class, and the fact that all three students increased their scores
on this item can be considered an outcome of this program.

Student1 Student2 Student3

item First Secon First Secon First Secon
time d time time d time time d time
Questioning that
1 respects the learner's 1.75 1.75 1.75 2.25 1.75 2.25
previous learning
Directing learners to be
2 part of a learning 1.75 2.25 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75
community
Lessons strongly
promote coherent
3 conceptual construction 1.25 1.75 1.25 1.75 1.25 1.75
by the learners
themselves
Emphasis is placed on
4 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25
connections to daily life
Active learner
participation is
5 1.25 1.50 1.25 1.50 1.50 1.75
encouraged and
emphasized
Score 7.25 8.50 7.25 8.50 7.50 8.75
Fig. 6. Class evaluations of three students

Although there had been examples of lesson scenarios for physics (law of action-reaction) and
chemistry (law of conservation of mass) as part of this program, there had been none for a unit
on biology. Therefore, as part of this research, I was involved in the drafting and development of
a lesson scenario in the biology field (balance of ecosystems). In developing the Avatar lesson
scenarios, it was necessary to clarify the purpose of the lesson scenarios while keeping in mind
that this is a teacher training program. The new scenario developed for this study was designed
to help students acquire the skill of "facilitating students' acquisition of concepts without deviating
from the essence of the learning process. The following is a portion of the Avatar class scenario
developed.
444 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

What will
happen to the
natural world of
this forest after
this?

Let's think.

What will
happen to the
ecological
pyramid?

☆ This session will develop a fourth panel to make you think

Avatar's situation
Student 1: He understands the basics, but only speaks up a few times during class.
When the teacher asks a question about the increase or decrease of the pyramid, he/she responds with
something like "the number of bobcats will decrease. If the teacher or other students ask further questions
about what he/she has answered, he/she answers only what was asked in short sentences. At first, the
students do not think that the decrease in rabbits will increase the number of plants and trees, but when
the teacher asks a question such as, "What is the impact on plants and trees?" the student answers, "The
number of plants and trees will increase.
Student 2: The playful type. He speaks up as soon as he thinks of something. Basically, agrees with what
other students say. If the teacher asks a question like "What do you think will happen? he will say
something unrelated to the increase or decrease of the pyramid, such as "the bobcat is the strongest.
When the teacher reiterates the question without denying what he or she said, the student says, "Well,
will the number of bobcats decrease?" and return to the topic of pyramid increase/decrease.
Student 3: After the teacher asks his/her opinion or after other students have spoken, he/she makes a
statement about an irregular situation. For example, "Will they continue to decrease and become extinct?"
Talk about the If the teacher denies it or ignores it, ask, "Will there be an overall decrease due to wildfires
or something?" or other more irregular statements. If the teacher affirms the statement and then asks
questions such as, "What if there was no such possibility in this case? When the teacher affirms the
statement and asks questions like, "What if there were no such possibility this time?
Perspectives of the Avatar Session
Is the learning method designed to help students notice the increase or decrease of each creature?
Is the learning process designed to encourage students to understand the relationship between the
pyramid and the natural world, and to encourage them to move back and forth between concretization
and abstraction?
Is the study developed in a way that encourages students to focus on the increase or decrease of biomass
(population) and to describe the increase or decrease with evidence?
Is the development of the course designed to encourage the convergence of arguments so that students
can visualize the final form of the ecosystem?

Fig. 7. Draft program of lessons in the field of biology

Based on my hands-on experience with teacher training and classroom development, I saw the
potential for this Tosa-style Avatar Utilization Teacher Training and Development Program. It is a
cutting-edge experiment in the use of avatars, and allows teachers to gain more practical
experience in classes that are aware of the process of inquiry from the perspective of active
learning. With further development, it will be possible to develop a variety of class programs, such
as conducting science experiments with avatars.

REFERENCES

[1] MEXT, “Courses of Study”, GAKKOTOSYO Co., Ltd, Japan, 2017

[2] Central Council for Education, “Improvement of Courses of Study and Other Necessary
Measures for Kindergartens, Elementary Schools, Junior High Schools, Senior High
Schools, and Special Needs Schools (Report) (Chuukyo-kyo Council No. 197)”, Japan,
2016
[3] Sachiko Tosa, “Lesson Study Effective in Improving University Physics Lectures in Japan
and the U.S.: Based on its Implication as a Form of Teacher Training in the U.S.”, Physics
445 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Education (Journal of the Japan Society for Physics Education), Japan, 66(2), 2018, 144-
147
[4] National Institute for Educational Policy Research, “2022 National Assessment of
Academic Progress Report”, Japan, 2022
[5] National Institute for Educational Policy Research, “OECD Teaching and Learning
International Survey (TALIS) 2018 Report”, Japan, 2022
[6] Sachiko Tosa, Kyoko Ishii, Junpei Ryu, Kenichi Goto. “How Does Avatar Role Play Make
an Impact on Pre-Service Teachers in Science Education?”, Spring Meeting of the
Physical Society of Japan, Japan, 2023
[7] Michael Piburn, Daiyo Sawada, “Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol (RTOP)
Reference Manual.”, Arizona State University in the U.S., Technical Report No. IN00-
3.,2000
446 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

A Reflective Perspective on the Initial Training in Science

for Primary School Teachers at CRMEFs in Morocco

Fatima Zahra El Ouahabi1, Rachid Drissi El Bouzaidi2, Abdellah Chaiba3

Regional Center for Education and Training Professions Rabat-Sale-Kenitra,

Morocco1
Regional Center for Education and Training Professions Souss Massa, Taroudant,
Morocco2
Regional Center for Education and Training Professions Draa Tafilalet, Ouarzazate,
Morocco3

Abstract

In Morocco, the Regional Centers for Education and Training Professions (CRMEFs) have
undergone an update of the training program for teaching staff in connection with Project No.
9 of Framework Law 51.17 [1]. The Professional Training Kit for bilingual primary education
leaders has been renewed as part of the development engineering preparation, led by the
Higher Education Partnership Program - Morocco (HEP-M). The Kit includes a module of
"Support for Basic Science Training", the main focus of this research. It aims to strengthen
scientific knowledge related to the scientific awakening program among future teachers. The
present study corresponds to a concrete reflective vision concerning the implementation of the
module in question to enhance the standard of science education in primary schools Its
objectives include: inventorying the management modalities, determining the constraints of
adopting the syllabus in the current situation, and suggesting alternatives and/or effective
solutions to better manage its activities. The results are gathered from nine regions using an
online questionnaire consisting of 23 questions, addressed to life and earth science as well as
physical science teacher-trainers involved in teaching the module at various CRMEFs across
Morocco kingdom. The obtained results support the partial adoption of the syllabus in question.
These findings argue in favor of the implementation of the "Support for Basic Science Training"
module, which relies on a wide range of concrete and digital resources. However, the surveyed
teacher-trainers have shown limited emphasis on the flipped classroom approach. Similarly,
limited attention has been given to practical work and supporting self-training due to several
constraints. In this study, we present the following preliminary recommendations for effective
activity management: Introduce MOOCs in sciences to streamline the incorporation of the
flipped classroom approach and guarantee assistance for self-directed learning; Guide the
self-training of aspiring teachers; Supply well-equipped laboratories to ensure the practical
work's feasibility; Review the entry requirements for CRMEFs; Reduce class sizes, and
Establish a platform for collaboration and communication among science educators on a
national scale.

Keywords: Morocco, Management Modalities, Sciences, CRMEFs, Professional Training Kit, Syllabus

1. Introduction

Recently, Morocco has started a review of its education and training approaches following
establishing the strategic vision 2015-2030, followed by framework law 51.17 [1]. However,
the teacher training programs underwent radical overhauls at the dawn of the 21st century [2].
Consolidation of training centers led to the creation of Regional Centers for Education and
Training Professions (CRMEFs), following a prolonged period of institutional and training
program dispersion [3]. the implementation of the creation of CRMEF made by the National
Charter of 2000 [3-4], with the missions include, among others, qualifying trainee teaching
staff, organizing continuing education, and promoting pedagogical research [5-6]. The
CRMEFs have undergone an update of the training program for teaching staff in connection
with Project No. 9 of Framework Law 51.17 [1]. This project focuses on the renewal of
education and training professions and the upgrading of career path management. The
Professional Training Kit for bilingual primary education leaders has been renewed as part of
the development engineering preparation, led by the Higher Education Partnership Program -
Morocco (HEP-M) [7]. The Kit includes eighteen modules and workshops, one of which is
447 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

"Support for Basic Science Training", which serves as the focal point of this research. It aims
to strengthen scientific knowledge related to the scientific awakening program (Life and Earth
Sciences and Physical Sciences) among future teachers. Within the framework of the
development of interventional scientific research, the encouragement of innovation, renewal,
and creativity, the present study corresponds to a concrete reflective vision concerning the
implementation of the module in question to improve the standard of science education in
primary schools. Its objectives are: inventorying the management modalities; determining the
constraints of adopting the syllabus in the current situation, and suggesting alternatives and/or
effective solutions to better manage its activities.

2. Methodology

Regarding methodology, our research is based on a survey providing a quantitative

description, as extensively described by Creswell in 2014 [8]. Indeed, this study employed a
quantitative approach utilizing a questionnaire to collect feedback from teacher trainers
specializing in life and earth sciences, as well as physical sciences, who are involved in training
bilingual primary education managers at the CRMEFs. To achieve the aforementioned
objectives, a questionnaire on the management modalities of the 'Support for Basic Science
training' module, consisting of 23 questions, was launched online in June 2023. It includes
both closed and open-ended questions. In addition to personal inquiries, the questionnaire
delves into various aspects such as the strategies for implementing the module based on the
new syllabus, obstacles encountered in managing the module, suggestions from respondents
for successful management, guidance provided to trainees for their independent learning, and
opinions concerning the creation of MOOCs. Simple data processing through Excel allowed
us to extract the results presented in the following paragraph.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Results

The results are collected from nine regions of the Moroccan kingdom (Figure 1) and reflect the
significant experience of teacher-trainers who participated in this study [9]. the majority of
whom specialize in Life and Earth Sciences (65%) compared to Physical Sciences (35%).
They have embraced the syllabus well during the two years of experimentation, with 55% of
them being part of research and development groups that produced the syllabi for primary
teacher qualification modules.

Figure 1. The distribution of teachers surveyed according to the regions of Morocco

The results obtained support the partial adoption of the module in question. Especially the first,
second, and third axes in Life Sciences corresponding respectively to Concepts related to vital
functions (68.5%), Ecosystem preservation (50%), and Synthesis of concepts related to
reproduction (54.5%). For Physical Sciences, the axes adopted by the majority are, in order:
organization of matter; electricity and magnetism; optics and vision; and mechanics. However,
only 27% of respondents had tackled geology. The choice of these axes is based on the results
of the diagnostic evaluation for 50% of the sample, while for 30% it is based on the order of
the axes in the syllabus. These findings argue in favor of the implementation of the "Support
for Basic Science Training" module, which relies on a wide range of concrete and digital
resources. These include video sequences, simulations related to vital functions, flash
animation, platforms (such as Ed puzzle, and E-takouine), websites like 'Eduscol,' the
'Crocodile Physics simulator, hands-on documents, and video conferences. Figure 2 illustrates
448 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

the percentages of resource utilization in the management of the module studied by the
interviewed trainers. They report that the workshops yield more or less satisfactory to very
satisfactory results. However, less attention has been given to the flipped classroom approach
(adopted by only 35%), to practical work (45% without recourse to practical work during the
two years of experimentation and 50% occasionally). Similarly, the percentage of support for
the self-study of trainee teachers remains modest (40%) due to several constraints, despite
the variety of suggested tools such as Classroom, WhatsApp, the Edpuzzle platform,
integrated personal projects, and report correction.

Physical R.

Digital R.

Yes No

Figure 2. The percentage of resource utilization in module management

The adopted questionnaire allowed us to identify the various constraints of implementing the
syllabus of the studied module, which represent challenges for teaching sciences at the
CRMEFs. These include insufficient time allocated to the module, absence of equipped
laboratories, heterogeneity of trainees, and classroom overload, the diversity of topics- The
absence of a second intervener- Valuation Problem. The frequencies of these constraints are
well represented in Figure 3 in descending order.

Figure 3. The frequencies of the inventoried constraints

Faced with the challenges of science teaching identified in this work, we have collected
suggestions for the successful management of the module activities in question, namely:
- Increase the number of hours allocated to this module;
- Guiding the self-study of trainee teachers as needed;
- Reconsider the entry profile to CRMEFs aimed at the quality of trainee professors;
- Minimize class sizes to ensure the quality of science education;
- Provide laboratories equipped to ensure the feasibility of practical work;
- Need to set up MOOCs in science, to easily adopt the flipped classroom approach by
trainers and to ensure the support of self-training;
- Make handouts available to facilitate support and create a space for sharing and
communication among science educators nationwide.
449 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

3.2. Discussion

Improving the quality of science education in primary schools and the acquisition of scientific
knowledge by students in these institutions is closely linked to the quality of science education
provided to future teachers during their qualifying training at CRMEFs.
As solutions, we propose some alternatives to improve the management of the module in the
skills training of primary school teachers. In the hope of improving science education.
1 - The first alternative is the production of a MOOC (Massive Open Online Course) concerning
the Geology axis of the studied module; the least adopted by the interviewed trainers; for the
initial training of primary school teachers. To address the challenges related to its
management, the MOOC represents a platform that facilitates an innovative approach to
distance education, fostering a revitalization of online pedagogical methods through
encouraging authentic learner engagement [10-11]. The techno-pedagogical approach
enhances educational practices and stimulates training initiatives [11-12]. We opt to use this
MOOC to provide promotion of self-study at a distance, the production of digital teaching
materials, the implementation of active teaching techniques (the flipped classroom), and basic
content. The first session of the proposed MOOC is programmed for March 2024, titled
"Elements of External Geodynamics". This session, spanning three weeks, comprises an
introductory video, three video capsules, interactive activities, PDF documents, quizzes, and
tests (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Planning of first session of the proposed MOOC

2 - The second alternative is the Creation of a Platform for Sharing and Communication among
Science teacher-trainers across the Moroccan kingdom (Moroccan Platform for Sharing and
Communication between Science Educators). This is a Virtual professional community:
Asynchronous discussion forum, Facebook group, WhatsApp group...whose exchange type
is: question-answer, training materials (pdf, word, audio, video...), activities, assessments,
successful practices, challenges...the members of this research team will be the facilitators of
this platform. The target audience: Teacher-trainers in life, earth and physique sciences at the
various CRMEFs in the kingdom. The platform is in the study phase.
3 - The third alternative corresponds to Peer Mentoring face to the heterogeneity of the
trainees' profiles (physics, biology, literature, economics and legal sciences, etc.). In fact, you
have to train groups of trainee teachers with Mentor (Trainee who has a good command of the
concepts to be taught) and Mentees (Trainees who are less advanced or have learning
difficulties). In way that the mentor is responsible for helping mentees acquire the scientific
concepts being taught.

4. Conclusion

This study advocates for the partial adoption of the syllabus of the module “Support for Basic
Science Training” in CRMEFs in Morocco. The majority of teacher-trainers use diverse
tangible and digital resources for the management of the module and workshops. The study
points out several constraints as challenges for the teaching of science at CRMEFs in the
current situation.
In this study, we present the following preliminary recommendations for effective activity
management: Introduce MOOCs in sciences to streamline the incorporation of the flipped
classroom approach and guarantee assistance for self-directed learning; Guide the self-
training of aspiring teachers; Supply well-equipped laboratories to ensure the practical work's
feasibility; Review the entry requirements for CRMEFs; Reduce class sizes, and Establish a
450 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

platform for collaboration and communication among science educators on a national scale.
Tree alternatives we hope to develop in this training year. Namly, production of a MOOC titled
"Elements of External Geodynamics"; establishment of Moroccan Platform for Sharing and
Communication between Science Educators; and adoption of Peer Mentoring.

5. Perspectives

Looking ahead, we aim to develop the model "Optimization of the implementation of the
studied module." We have decided to adopt a linear quantitative evaluation approach, drawing
inspiration from a training evaluation model developed by Donald Kirkpatrick, which has been
tailored to suit various educational and industrial settings [13]. This model encompasses four
levels:
I. Participants’ Reactions specifically those of trainee teachers in our study,
II. Achievements of participants,
III. The application of their achievements,
IV. Results: The training's impact.

REFERENCES

[1] Official Bulletin “51.17 Law related to education, training, and scientific research”,
n°6805, 19 August 2019, 5623-5637. (https://cg.gov.ma/en/node/7482)
[2] Bouabdallah I. “Practical training for 21st century teachers in Morocco” The Journal of
Quality in Education (JoQiE) Vol.11, N°18, November 2021, pp. 194-218.
(https://doi.org/10.37870/joqie.v11i18.275)
[3] MENESFCRS “Décret n° 2.11.672 du 23 décembre 2011 relatif à la création et
l'organisation des centres régionaux des métiers de l’éducation et de la formation''
Bulletin Officiel, n° 6018, 2012, pp. 496-500. Rabat: Maroc.
[4] Lahchimi M. “La réforme de la formation des enseignants au Maroc” Revue
internationale d’éducation de Sèvres n° 69, 2015, pp.21-26
(https://doi.org/10.4000/ries.4402)
[5] Instance Nationale d’Évaluation auprès du Conseil Supérieur de l’Éducation, de la
Formation et de la Recherche Scientifique “Le métier de l'enseignant au Maroc. A
l'aune de la comparaison internationale" Rapport thématique, Décembre 2021, p. 136.
ISBN: 978-9920-785-38-9
[6] Ministère de l’Éducation Nationale, du Préscolaire et des Sports “GUIDE PRATIQUE
du formateur d’enseignants du Maroc, Ingénierie, analyse de pratiques,
accompagnement, recherche-action“ 2023, p.200. (Https://apprendre.auf.org/wp-
content/uploads/2023/09/Guide-formateur-du-Maroc.pdf)
[7] USAID “Higher Education Partnership - Morocco | Morocco | Fact Sheet” U.S. Agency
for International Development, 2023. (https://www.usaid.gov/morocco/fact-
sheets/higher-education-partnership-morocco).
[8] Creswell, J. W. “Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches” Sage Publications, 2014, p. 270.
(https://www.ucg.ac.me/skladiste/blog_609332/objava_105202/fajlovi/Creswell.pdf)
[9] Ministère de l’Aménagement du Territoire National, de l’Urbanisme, de l’Habitat et de
la Politique de la Ville “Carte Régionale”, 2023. https://www.mhpv.gov.ma/fr/carte-
regionale
[10] Weissmann, J. “The single most important experiment in higher education” The
Atlantic,18, 2012.
[11] Acquatella, F. “Analyse stratégique du marché de la formation en ligne: les Moocs
comme nouvelle variable des écosystèmes de plateformes digitales. Gestion et
management” Télécom Paris Tech, 2018, p. 258 Français. NNT : 2018ENST0057.
Tel. 02899705f (https://pastel.hal.science/tel-02899705)
[12] Armel Attenoukon, S. “L’usage de capsules post MOOC et des podcasts à l’Université
d’Abomey-Calavi” Distances et médiations des savoirs (17) 2017.
(https://doi.org/10.4000/dms.1752)
[13] Academy Administration Practice “Professional Development Program Evaluation:
Frameworks and Tools Prepared for Arlington Public Schools” Hanover Research,
Washington, 2014, p.33. (https://www.hanoverresearch.com)
451 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Authors

Abdellah Chaiba 446

Alberto Arnal-Bailera 422, 357
Alexandra Hanu 258
Alexandre Hagan 337
Ana A. Cruz 166
Ana Luísa Pinto 413
Ana R. Quesada 24
Ane Portillo-Blanco 380
Andrea Ienco 363
Andrejs Zaicenko 124
Ángel Luis García-Ponce 24
Anna Bekeeva 193
Annick Brun-Jacob 307
Antonia Fruntke 78
António Flores 251
Antonio Joaquín Franco-Mariscal 31, 145, 151
Armida Torreggiani 292, 363
Aurelio Moya-García 24

Barbara Kardos 185

Boglárka Szijártó 185
Bruno Tiribilli 363

Carla Bena 341

Catarina Ribeiro 413
Chiara D’Errico 363
Christian Bildhauer-Buggle 208
Christian Helgert 202
Christoph Weidmann 57, 317
Cinzia Battistella 157
Clara Henkel 202
Claudia Dinu 258
Cristina Maia 251

Dagmar Vašutová 228

Dárida Fernandes 251, 413
David Ditter 119
David Weiser 119
David Zandvliet 268
Deepika Menon 429
Denise Galante 292
Diane Boothe 273
Dionysios Koulougliotis 38
Dominik Giel 198
Doris Elster 284
452 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Edurne Iturbe-Zabalo 380

Edward Thake 107
Edwin Bogdan 71
Elena Notina 193
Elena Popova 298
Elijah Bass 369
Elisabeth Dietel 83
Enrico Cozzani 277
Erhard Irmer 64
Euripides Hatzikraniotis 405

Fabio Nonino 157

Fatima Zahra El Ouahabi 446
Fernanda Suárez 13
Florian Heisig 100
Francisco José Alonso-Carrión 13
Francesco Marucci 277
Francesco Suriano 277

Gabriela Carrara 277

Giovanna Attanasio 157

Hierrezuelo-Osorio 31
Hijiri Okinaka 439
Hilko Aljets 100
Hiroshi Iida 350
Huanqi Sun 18
Hugo Castanheira 166

Igor Dobrača 263

Irena Vrbová 228
Irina Bykova 193
Irina Gheorghiu 258
Isabel Rubner 119

James Borg 44
Jan Fleischer 71
Jasper Cirkel 433
Jeanna Wieselmann 429
Jiamin He 328
Jitka Kopecká 220
João Paulo Silvestre 18
Johannes Kretzschmar 202
Jonas Durand 307
José Antonio Torres Vargas 24
José Gutierrez-Berraondo 380
José Manuel 31
José Manuel Hierrezuelo-Osorio 145, 151
Juan Sabin 175
Julia Holzer 284
Juliette Anglade 307
453 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Katerina Paschalidou 49
Katerina Salta 38, 49
Katrin Herget 18
Katsuko Sanai 350
Katsuji Ito 350
Kenichi Goto 328, 350, 439
Kevin Davison 353
Kristina Zuza 380
Kristin Stanec 171

Larissa Hahn 317

Lina Schulze-Buxloh 215
Linda Barelli 380
Loredana Danaila 258
Lorenzo Trombetti 380
Luca Fraccascia 157
Luciana Mara Ribeiro 397

Malte Petersen 115

Marc Schrader 91
Mariaconcetta Canino 277
María del Mar López-Fernández 31, 145, 151
María José Cano-Iglesias 31, 145, 151
Maria Mavridi 38
Mariko Haraguchi 236
Marina BA Minoli 346
Marina Constantinou 312
Martha King 388
Martin Bilek 124
Martin Jáč 141
Martin Musumeci 107
Masayuki Takahashi 236
Maxime Jonker 322
Melissa Caspary 273
Melissa García Caballero 24
Michaela Horniaková 302
Michael R. Taber 171
Michel Bélanger 337
Michela Tassistro 292
Miguel Ángel Medina 13
Mihails Gorskis 124
Mika Tsuyukubo 236, 350
Milan Kubiatko 244
Mona Christin Maaß 91
Mónica Arnal-Palacián 422
Monika Betyna-Białek 138

Naoko Yamada 236

Nicolai ter Horst 78
Nikolaos Fotou 312
Ninfa Radicella 375
454 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Oksana Lozovenko 198

Ovidiu Ursa 258

Pascale Frey-Klett 307

Pascal Klein 317
Patrice Potvin 337
Patricia Morales Bueno 401
Patrícia Morgado 166
Paula Quadros-Flores 251, 413
Péter Tasi 185
Petr Kovarik 244
Philipp Lanfermann 57, 91
Pierre-Luc Marchal 307
Pietro Galizia 363
Poh Tan 268

Rachid Drissi El Bouzaidi 446

Raquel Pereira 166
Ricardo Machado 166
Rolf Groß 215
Romana Adamkova 244
Rosario Santos Rodas 401

Sabrina Fontanella 157

Sabrina Grigolo 341
Sabrina Gualtieri 363
Samuel Kübler 208
Sandra Klatt 388
Sarah Haines 429
Sarah Lukas 119
Sebastian Grobler 131
Simona Zoncheddu 380
Sherif Abdelhamid 369
Sonya Spasova 181
Spiros Sirmakessis 380
Stefan Colibaba 258
Stefan Halverscheid 433
Stefania Marzocchi 277
Stefano Zampolli 277
Süleyman Turşucu 322
Sumreen Asim 429
Susanne Schneider 433
Svetoslava Dimitrova 181

Takuya Mochida 236

Tania Todorova 298
Timm Wilke 78, 53, 115
Thomas Pertsch 202
Thomas Schiepp 208
Thomas Waitz 57, 64, 71, 91, 100, 317
Tobias Schmohl 131
Tomoko Yoshida 350
455 ©Filodiritto Editore – 13th International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education

Ulrike Busolt 388

Valentina Biasini 363

Vasileios Gkagkas 405
Veronica McCauley 353
Víctor Manero 357
Vivian Keune 64

Yorikazu Nouchi 350

Yoriko Ikuta 350

Zsófia Frányó 185

The Scientific Commitee of the International Conference
“New Perspectives in Science Education - 13th Edition”

Börge Kummert - Campus02 - Fachhochschule der Wirtschaft (Austria)

Tereza Trencheva - State University of Library Studies and Information Technologies (SULSIT) (Bulgaria)
Tania Todorova - State University of Library Studies and Information Technologies (SULSIT) (Bulgaria)
Milena Koleva - Technical University of Gabrovo (Bulgaria)
Thomas Waitz - Georg-August-University Göttingen (Germany)
Timm Wilke - Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg (Germany)
Tobias Schmohl - OWL Technical University of Applied Sciences and Arts (Germany)
Dionysios Koulougliotis - Ionian University (Greece)
Michail Kalogiannakis - University of Thessaly (Greece)
Marie Walsh - Technological University of the Shannon (Ireland)
Aharon Gero - Technion, Israel Institute of Technology (Israel)
Sabrina Grigolo - University of Turin and Patient Expert EUPATI - Accademia del Paziente Esperto EUPATI (Italy)
Luisa Panichi - University of Pisa (Italy)
Elisabetta Delle Donne - Pixel (Italy)
Marina Minoli - Royal Society of Biology (United Kingdom); Biologists Order Federation, STEM DidaInnovaBiolab (Italy)
Martin Musumeci - University of Malta (Malta)
Filomena Barreiro - Instituto Politécnico de Bragança (Portugal)
Anca Colibaba - GR. T. Popa University / EuroED Foundation (Romania)
Stefan Colibaba - Al. I. Cuza University (Romania)
Fuad Aleskerov - HSE University (Russian Federation)
Murat Demirbas - Kirikkale University (Turkey)
Siobhán O' Sullivan - College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Khalifa University (United Arab Emirates)
Nikolaos Fotou - University of Lincoln (United Kingdom)
Nasser Mansour - Exeter University (United Kingdom)
Péter Tasi - Aston University (United Kingdom)
Michael Taber - Colorado College (United States)
Diane Boothe - Boise State University (United States)
Melissa Caspary - Georgia Gwinnett College (United States)

ISSN: 2384-9509
ISBN: 979-12-80225-58-0
EURO: 20,00

EDITED BY
PIXEL
Via Luigi Lanzi, 12 - 50134 Florence (Italy)
Tel. +39 055 489700 - E-mail: [email protected]
Conference website: https://conference.pixel-online.net/NPSE/